The CCP, the State and the Cadres in

Suizhou Li, Guandong Institute of Public Administration

Abstract: This paper, on the basis of documentary analysis, examines the CCP’s monopoly of cadre management. The basic question to be answered is what the relationships among the Party, the state and the cadres are through an analysis of how the Party manages the cadres. Constitutionally, both the legislature (the people’s congress in Chinese lexicon) and the government have extensive authority in cadre management. In reality, there is no state autonomy in personnel, and the state exercises its cadre management functions and duties through the party branches dispatched by the CCP committees. This study shows that the cadre management system is still highly centralized, a heritage with which all the reformists have to deal. This is the background to understand the evolution of the system reforms both at present and in the future. This paper is descriptive, but creatively descriptive in that it depicts a picture of how the Party manages its cadres.

his paper examines the Party’s monopoly of The Party’s Management of Cadres by Grade (Rank) cadre management. The basic question to be and by Department T answered is what the relationships among the The Party directly manages all important cadres. The Party, the state and the cadres are. Constitutionally, both party committee makes all important personnel decisions. the legislature (the people’s congress in Chinese lexicon) “The appointment, removal, transfer, and sanction of and the government have extensive authority in cadre cadres are major issues of a party organization…” management. In reality, there is no state autonomy in (Manion, 1984, p. 42). The Party’s control of cadres personnel, and the state can only exercises functions and means “basically that party committees should oversee the duties in a very limited scope granted by the Chinese execution of cadre line and cadre policies, and based on Communist Party (‘the CCP’). The Party manages all the the principle of and relevant cadres directly or indirectly. “Directly” is used here in the regulations of the Party, manage, assign, and properly sense that the party has the supreme authority to screen, employ cadres” (Manion, 1984, p. 38). Organizational investigate, approve, appoint, and remove important control shows that the CCP manipulates not merely the strategic cadres, and “indirectly” in that the Party, though cadre policies or cadre line, but directly manages an exercising the genuine authorities upon cadre selection individual position of the regime. (Manion, 1984,p. 38) and removal, tends to cover up its real power over the A management system means the division of legislature through “proper” legal procedures. The Party cadre management authority among the party committees manages the cadres through three major means: and the party core groups at various levels. Generally, the ideological indoctrination, establishment, and organization. system is unified management by the party committee. “In Ideological indoctrination through Marxist orthodox principle, all cadres should be under the control of the education plays a basic role in managing cadres as far as Central Committee or party organizations in the various capturing their minds. Establishment control refers to how regions, departments, and units. On this premise, work the Party, through its establishment institutions, related to cadre management can be centralized in the determines the establishment of the party-state organization department alone or handled by other bureaucracies, the mass organizations, and the size, scale, departments of the party committee” (Manion, 1984, p. and level of the staff of these units. Organizational control 38). The division of labor in cadre management is means that the Party, usually through its organization conceptualized as “management by grade (rank, level) and departments, controls individual positions and cadres. management by department.” This paper mainly looks at the organization channel in Management by rank means that party cadre management, which can clearly demonstrate the committees at each level manage cadres one or two levels supreme authority of the Party in cadre management. The down the administrative hierarchy. This is in fact a other two factors will be examined in other papers. Three division of labor, or management jurisdiction of cadres means of control have resulted in a highly centralized among the party committees at different levels. The CCP cadre management system, a heritage with which all the hierarchy has several layers from the CCCCP down to the reformists have to deal. This centralized management township committees.1 Each party committee has its own system constitutes the institutional context within which jurisdiction of cadre management. According to the the cadre-personnel reforms take place. It is the principle set in 1984, the party committee at a higher level background needed to understand the evolution of the manages cadres at a lower level. The CCCCP manages system reforms both at present and in the future. cadres at and above the provincial level while the local party committees respectively manage cadres one level

Li / The CCP, the State and the Cadres in China 47

down the administrative hierarchy. The provincial party functional departments, ministries, commissions, and committee manages cadres at the prefectural level; the offices of the party-state organs, and state-monopolized prefectural party committee manages cadres at the county enterprises and public utilities, such as post, gas, rail, and level, and the county party committee manages town and civil aviation. Management by department also includes township level cadres. Finally, the town and township the judicial system, involving courts and procuratorates. level party committee manages grass-roots level cadres The functional departments of the Party mainly include (Manion, 1984; Burns, 1987, 1987-1988, 1989, 1994; departments of propaganda and -line work. Chan, 2004). The department of propaganda is roughly in charge of The Party manages cadres also by department. ideological work, propaganda and education, theoretical This department refers to the functional departments of a research in the social sciences, mass communication party committee—organization, propaganda, united media and publications, internet news communications, frontier line, and others. Among them, the organization spiritual civilization construction, and the federation for department (OD) is the most important one. It is “most social sciences. All the institutions related to the above- important” in that, for example, “even the most mentioned areas are put under the jurisdiction of the rudimentary party branch committee with only three department of propaganda.4 Under the propaganda members always assigns one member to organizational department are units and institutions related to education, work” (Manion, 1985). Melanie Manion remarks, “Much culture, news and publications, television and broadcast, cadre management work is done by the organization theaters, bookstores, internet administration, libraries, department, one of the Party’s most important schools and colleges, hospitals, and many others. The departments, and the only one particularly assigned to department of united front-line work is in charge of affairs personnel matters” (Manion, 1985, p. 209) In the center, related to democratic parties, religious figures, non-party one of the Politburo members of the CCCCP concurrently figures, entrepreneurs, overseas Chinese, patriotic takes the post of director of the Central OD; at the personages in and Macao, and non-party localities, the OD director is, as a rule, one of the standing membership intellectuals.5 Concretely, the Department of committee members of the party committee. The functions United Frontline Work is in charge of news releases and of the Central OD involve formulating and implementing theoretical research regarding united frontline work, cadre line and policies, directly managing young and cooperation between multiple democratic parties, national middle-aged cadres, adjusting, deploying, and building minorities, religious circulars, overseas Chinese, people leading bodies, and taking charge of cadre statistics.2 At from non-state-owned economies, and intellectuals the localities, the OD formulates and implements central outside the CCP. cadre policies, and takes charge of cadre appointment, Management by departments also refers to removal, transfer, rotation, deployment, remuneration, intra-governmental personnel management in systems like training, and culivation within its own jurisdiction.3 business administration, taxation, customs, and grain Melanie Manion (1985) observes that reserves. This is called vertical (line) management in some systems (xitong). So-called vertical management The entire hierarchy of organization departments— means that the party core groups of some intra- from the Central OD down to the organization governmental institutions, mass organizations, and other departments of the various local and primary party systems of the public sector are in charge of the committees—is linked in a professional relationship. institutions, size of staff establishment, cadre Thus there is no direct line of command, bypassing management, salaries, and expenses of their respective the party committees, from the center to the lower systems, relatively independent of local party committees, levels of the organizational system. It is difficult to or with local party committees assuming supplementary interpret what this implies for cadre management responsibilities. Under vertical management, authorities practices (p. 210). over cadres are concentrated in the central functional and professional institutions. In the administrative systems, a In fact, the CCP’s organizational principle requires party vertical management unit receives orders, orientations, committees at lower levels to abide by the leadership of and directives mainly from its vertically superior unit party committees at a higher level. A party committee within the management and operational systems, exercises its functions in compliance with the directives, regardless of local interventions, so as to ensure their orders, and policies of the party committee at a higher independent enforcement of laws and regulations. level. Besides, the cadre management jurisdiction among Leadership cadres in vertically managed party committee has been divided up already. So it is systems are managed by their superior party core group unnecessary to install vertical or line management in the (party committee). At the same time, they accept hierarchy of organization departments from the center leadership by the local party committee. This is called down to the localities. dual leadership of cadres. The superior party core group The Party also manages cadres by departments (party committee) assumes principal responsibilities while in another sense. Management by departments means that the local party committee plays a supplementary role. The the party committees and party core groups manage cadres former party unit is called the principal-responsible party in vertical systems. These vertical departments cover the (PRP) while the latter is called the assisting party (AP).

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The two parties have a division of labor in cadre extent, it is mysterious. Barnett (1967) remarks that “cadre management. Usually, the PRP assumes more important appointments, promotions, transfers and removals were responsibilities with regard to cadre management. These deliberated and conducted in an atmosphere of secrecy.” responsibilities involve There is no evidence to show that the CCP has ever publicly admitted the existence of its nomenklatura. When deployment and adjustment of leadership cadres; describing the principle of “the Party manages cadres,” examining and approving candidates for new party the official discourse tends to be vague and ambiguous, committee members, and results of election when simply stating, “The party directly manages some elections are held; ideological and style construction important cadres according to management jurisdictions.” of leading bodies; screening, appraisal, appointment A typical description of “the Party manages cadres” reads and removal, transfer, check and approval for going as follows: abroad, remuneration, rewards and punishment, dossiers; political investigation; training and That the Party manages cadres, mainly refers to that education regarding politics and professional the party committees at various levels adhere to and knowledge; retirement and veteran cadre implement the cadre line and policies, select and management; cultivation of reserve cadres; employ cadres strictly in accordance with the management of cadre contingent (The Central OD 15 principles of the Party, and effectively manage and Nov. 1991: Circular on Some Issues of Dual supervise cadres at various levels and of various Management Work of Leadership Cadres. Zutongzi categories. Concretely, it (the system of ‘the CCP [1991] No.35 Document 中共中央组织部关 于干部 manages cadres’) consists of four parts: First, it is that 双重管理工作若干问题的通知组 通字[1991]35 号 the Party strengthens the leadership of the Party on 1991 年 11 月 15 日). cadre work, and makes cadre policies; second, it is recommending and managing some important cadres; The AP assumes assistant responsibilities related to the third, instructing cadre-personnel system reform; and above-mentioned responsibilities assumed by the PRP fourth, conducting macro-management of cadres and (The Central OD, November 15, 1991). The AP just plays supervision (retrieved January 1, 2004 from a role in raising some suggestions, doing some http://www.dqpi.net/zzb01/ homepage/ganbu/6.htm). supplementary work required by the PRP. This study observes that a leading cadre is Though the CCP instituted its nomenklatura strictly controlled by the CCP, either by a party committee system in 1950s, no students could confirm that there had at a certain administrative level or by a party core group existed such a name list before 1983, until the publication (party committee) of a functional system. The strict of a pamphlet called “Questions and Answers on Party control is achieved through a nomenklatura system. Organization Work.” “Official reticence about personnel was broken …” (Manion, 1984, p. 3). Literally and The Party’s Nomenklatura System structurally, a nomenklatura is made up of job titles flatly What is a nomenklatura system? Harasymiw, when and vertically covering the party-state organs, enterprises, defining Soviet ’s cadre system, describes the institutes, and social organizations. The 1984 term as “a list of positions, arranged in order of seniority, nomenklatura consists of seven sections: (1) Party including a description of the duties of each office. Its Central; (2) NPC, Chinese People’s Political Consultative political importance comes from the fact that the party’s Conference (CPPCC), judiciary, procuratorate; (3) the nomenklatura—and it alone—contains the most important State Council, banks, corporations police and diplomats, leading positions in all organized activities of social life.” institutions of higher learning; (4) mass organizations; (5) (Harasymiw 1989) The CCP has instituted its own local organizations; (6) institutions of higher learning; (7) nomenklatura system by following the former Soviet enterprises and service units. The 1990 nomenklatura has Union’s model. When analyzing the CCP’s nomenklatura seven sections as well, but its structure differs slightly system, John Burns (1987) considers it “the critical from that of the 1984 nomenklatura. However, the 1998 feature of the cadre management system,” and defines the nomenklatura contains ten sections, three sections more term nomenklatura system as “the instrument of the than the 1984 nomenklatura (Burns 1987, 1994; Hon Communist Party control of contemporary China’s Chan 2004). political, economic, social, and cultural institutions” (p. Substantially, the CCP organization has 36). The system consists of lists of leading positions, over absolute authority over the positions appearing on the which party units exercise the power to make nomenklatura in its jurisdiction, including nomination, appointments and dismissals; lists of reserves or investigation, appointment, transfer, removal, punishment, candidates for these positions; and institutions and and rewards. The hardcore implication of the processes for making the appropriate personnel changes nomenklatura system is that the CCP has exclusively (Burns, 1987, 1988). monopolized authority over cadre management. The The nomenklatura is a confidential and inside government and the legislature have no autonomy in cadre document, which is not open to the public. To some management, especially the posts deemed important by the CCP. Any appointment or removal from these

Li / The CCP, the State and the Cadres in China 49

positions must be conducted on the basis of prior approval At the local levels, the people’s congresses of the CCCCP (usually through its OD). Harry Harding also have power over the election and removal of the (1981) remarks: principal leadership cadres of the governments and other state organs, adopting a similar management framework In authoritarian systems without active legislatures, as the center (Article 62 and 63, Constitution of the PRC). the principal form of control over the bureaucracy has The state constitution also empowers the government to been the mass party, particularly its Leninist variant. manage its own cadres. The “division of labor” in The Leninist party exercises control over the personnel of the government is clear. According to the bureaucracy by managing appointments and Constitution of the PRC, the State Council has the promotions, monopolizing leading posts, supervising functions and power “to examine and decide on the size of the indoctrination of state officials, disciplining party administrative organs and, in accordance with the law, to members who hold government positions, and setting appoint, remove and train administrative officers, appraise the bureaucracy’s principal policy guidelines. (p. 16) their work and reward or punish them” (Item 17, Article 89). According to the Organic Law for Local People’s This is exactly the case of China. The nomenklatura Congresses and Local Governments at Various Levels, the system is in fact an elite control system. The CCCCP governments above the county level have the functions controls only 4,000 to 5,000 top echelon cadres, which and powers to “appoint and remove, train, appraise, account for only one-millionth of the whole population. reward and punish the administrators of the administrative These ruling elite in turn control a huge cadre contingent organs” (Item 4, Article 59). However, these regulations in the middle echelon bureaucrats, and finally down to the seem to be vague in that the governments exercise their operational level. A total of 6,932,000 cadres of the party- functions and power “in accordance with the laws.” What state organs are managed thus by a top-down-bottom are the laws stipulating the role of the governments in pattern. cadre management? There are no authoritative laws which define the role of the State Council, only administrative The State’s Lack of Autonomy in Cadre Management regulations. In 1995, the Ministry of Personnel issued Constitutionally, both the people’s congresses and other regulations defining the role of the governments at various state organs have their respective authorities in personnel, levels in appointing and removing state civil servants.6 which can be identified in the state constitution and other According to these regulations, the jurisdictions of constitutional documents. The NPC is the highest organ of appointment and removal by the governments are very state power, exercising the following functions and clear. Actually, all power over cadres is exercised by the powers to elect and remove positions of the state organs: Party organizations installed in the governments. the president and the vice-president of the People’s It is obvious that both the people’s congresses Republic of China (PRC), premier, vice premiers and state and the governments have legalized procedures to appoint councilors of the State Council, ministers and the auditor- and remove cadres in their related jurisdictions. One can general and the secretary-general of the State Council; be sure these procedures have been enforced in reality. As chairman of the Central Military Commission; president early as 1983, the Central OD emphasized that of the Supreme People's Court; Procurator-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate. Appointment and removal of the leading cadres of the The permanent body of NPC is its Standing state organs must be conducted in accordance with Committee (SCNPC), which also has constitutional power procedures provided by Constitution of PRC and over personnel of the state organs. When the NPC is not in laws. Any propaganda unit cannot publicize the session, the SCNPC exercises its personnel power appointment and removal of the leading cadres of the concerning appointment and removal of: the Vice- state organs until the legal formalities have been Presidents and judges of the Supreme People's Court, completed. (Central OD, September 8, 1983) members of its Judicial Committee and the President of the Military Court at the suggestion of the President of the Here importance is attached to “legal formalities.” But Supreme People's Court; the Deputy Procurators-General “legal formalities” are just “formalities,” monolithic and and procurators of the Supreme People's Procuratorate, powerful in form, but not in practice. The party committee members of its Procuratorial Committee and the Chief controls the people’s congress and the government Procurator of the Military Procuratorate at the request of through its party core groups dispatched to these organs. the Procurator-General of the Supreme People's A party core group is under the leadership of the party Procuratorate. Additionally, when the NPC is not in committee dispatching it. The elections are manipulated session, the SCNPC exercises approval of: the by the presidium when the people’s congress is in session. appointment and removal of the chief procurators of the The presidium establishes an ad hoc party unit, which people's procuratorates of provinces, autonomous regions receives orders and directives from its upper unit—the and municipalities directly under the Central Government; party committee that approves its establishment. In deciding on the choice of plenipotentiary representatives addition, it is the party committee that screens, abroad (Article 67, Constitution of the PRC). investigates, and nominates the candidates for the positions of the state organs. Other organs including the

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people’s congress are not allowed to screen, appraise, and speech only three days after it had been delivered, when it investigate cadres. was still controversial within the party (it is said). Then the chairman of the NPC, Li Peng, delivered a long speech The Party Core Groups in the State Organs praising Jiang’s speech as a “classical Marxist document After the 11th Party Congress, the CCCCP reaffirmed that for the new and great project of constructing socialism the party core groups should be installed in the party-state with Chinese characteristics and advancing party- organs and the mass organizations (CCCCP, 1978). The building.”9 This shows that the party committee leads the role of the party core group is very authoritative and work of the party core group of the NPC, and the party powerful. “The party core groups in the central organs and core group of the NPC leads work of the NPC. All the mass organizations may lead the party units of the important affairs, like those related to the legislature and subordinate institutions and may manage the cadres, and personnel, are determined according to this logic. The examine and sanction the appointment and removal of the State Council organized learning activities four days after cadres of the subordinate organs” (CCCCP, 1978). Jiang’s “1 July 2001 Speech.” Zhu Rongji (then premier According to the 2002 CCP Constitution, and party core group secretary of the State Council), Li Lanqing (vice premier and deputy secretary), and other The party core group may be installed in the central eight party core group members attended the learning and local state organs, the mass organizations, session. Zhu Rongji, like Li Peng, highly praised Jiang’s economic and cultural units, and other non-party speech. He pointed out that “Jiang’s important speech is leadership organizations. The party core group plays abundant in substance, and of great significance. We must the role of leadership core. The tasks of the party core deeply study it, roundly understand it, and earnestly group are mainly taking the responsibilities of implement it.”10 implementing the Party line and policies; discussing and determining the principal issues of these organs; Candidate Nomination and Choice doing a good job of cadre management; uniting with Two questions are left now: Who nominates the the non-party cadres and the masses, and fulfilling candidates and how are these candidates “elected” or the tasks assigned by the Party and the state; appointed? A comparison of the nomenklatura of the party instructing work of the party units of the organs the committee and the jurisdiction of personnel authority of subordinate units. (Article 46, chap. 9) the people’s congress and the government indicates that a position may overlap, appearing on both the nomenklatura Additionally, “[t]he party core group must obey the and the series of positions to be elected or appointed by leadership of the party organization that sanctions its the government. The premier and vice premiers are cadres installation” (Article 47, chap. 9). managed by the CCCCP, and are positions elected by the According to the 2002 CCP Constitution, the NPC as well. The NPC decides on the choice of the CCCCP installed the party core groups in the NPC, the Premier of the State Council upon nomination by the State Council, and other state organs like the judiciary. President of the People's Republic of China, and on the The relationship between the CCCCP and the party core choice of the vice premiers, state councilors, ministers in groups of the central state organs are that of the superior charge of ministries or commissions, the Auditor General and the subordinate. The subordinate must accept the and the Secretary General of the State Council upon orders and instructions of the leadership organ. That is, nomination by the Premier (PRC Constitution 1982). The the party core groups of the state organs must obey the questions here are: Why does the State Council nominate orders and decisions of the CCCCP, which sanctions its A rather than B? According to what procedures and establishment. Then how is the party core group of the criteria does the premier nominate A rather than B? What state organs made up of? Usually the top party member has the premier done before nominating A or B as a leadership cadres of an organ form a party core. The candidate for a vacancy? chairman and party member vice chairmen of the NPC In fact, all the candidates, for standing might form its party core group. Among the 15 vice committee members of people’s congresses, heads of chairmen of the Standing Committee of the 10th NPC, constituent functional departments of the governments, five are democratic party heads and one is a non-party presidents of the courts, and procurators-general for the personage. So the party core group of the Standing procuratorates, are “recommended” by the party Committee of the 10th NPC might be composed of a committee (CCCCP, January 12, 1990). The scope of chairman and other nine CCP member vice chairmen.7 cadres recommended by the party committee can be This is the “leadership core” of the NPC, which might identified in terms of the nomenklatura. All the cadres exclude the other non-party CCP member vice-chairmen appearing on the list are recommended by the party. The in determining the work of “doing a good job of cadre CCP claims “that the party committee recommends management.” A piece of news, entitled “The Party Core leadership cadres to the state organs is an important Group of the Standing Committee of NPC Learning Jiang organizational guarantee to realize the party leadership Zemin’s ‘1 July 2001 Speech,’” is a vivid addendum to upon the state affairs, and to maintain and consolidate the the explanation of the party-state relationship to date.8 The status of the ruling party.”11 party core group of NPC began to learn (xuexi) Jiang’s

Li / The CCP, the State and the Cadres in China 51

Operationally, the party committee will first party organizations in the people’s congress, or even in solicit the mass opinions through “opinions polls”. The the delegations. result is not open. Then the party committee determines candidates for screening. The OD will investigate in The Presidium of the NPC details the conditions of the candidate. The party The presidium of the people’s congress is the leading committee discusses these candidates on the basis of body of the people’s congress in session, leading and “organizational investigation”, and chooses the candidate presiding over the congress (Organic Law of the NPC, for recommendation, and then submits them to the party December 10, 1982). It is “elected” at a preparatory core group of the state organ.12 Here, head of the session15 one or two days before the formal opening of the government just nominates the candidates chosen by the people’s congress, and exercises its functions in the party committee, and introduces the candidate to the course of the session.16 Usually the presidium of the NPC people’s congress. But judging by common sense, head of is composed of the party and state leaders; the people of the government might know little about the candidates, responsibility within democratic parties and the All-China since it is the party committee that screens, investigates, Business Federation; people of responsibilitywithin the and recommends the candidate. Thus, “head of the central party; state, military organs, and mass government may either introduce, or entrust other related organizations; delegates from the special economic zones, institutions to introduce the candidate to the people’s Hong Kong and Macao, and other social strata; deputies congress.” (Item 6, Article 4) Thus all candidates are of national minorities; and people of responsibility from “recommended” by the party committee and “nominated” each delegation. In a local people’s congress, the by the government. The state organs are excluded in the presidium is usually composed of people of responsibility whole process unless when they are required to offer some within the party and state organs, and deputies of various ideas and opinions. They are not allowed to set up an circles, and has a size of from 50 to 100 persons or so. Ad institution or organization to investigate directly cadres.13 hoc party organizations are installed in the presidium even After the recommended candidates have been submitted to though it is just a temporary institution. According to a the state organs, “the party core group of the people’s Party regulation, congress should, in line with the recommendations of the party committee, ensure the recommendations of the party When the local people’s congresses are in session, committee be implemented.”14 the congress presidium and each delegation should What about the result of the party committee’s set up their ad hoc party organizations, and exercise recommendations then? A report by the Central OD to the their functions and duties under the leadership of the CCCCP gives a vivid and authoritative description of the party committee. The primary tasks of the ad hoc 1993 elections for new term of offices at the provincial party organizations in the course of elections are as level, which reads: ‘propagating the party’s cadre line and policies; introducing the personnel placement plan of the party Thirty provinces, autonomous regions, and centrally committee to the party members of the deputies, and administered municipalities have elected a total of implementing the purposes of the party committee; 900 provincial level cadres. Among them, 272 are and reporting to the party committee the ideas and chairmen and vice chairmen of the people’s suggestions of the deputies. (CCCCP, 12 January 12, congresses, 226 governors and deputy governors of 1990, Article 6) the governments, 342 chairmen and vice chairmen of the political consultative conferences, 60 presidents This means the presidium is under the leadership and chief procurators of the court and procuratorates. of the party branch in this period while the party branch is Among those elected leading group members of the led by the party core group of the people’s congress, and people’s congresses and governments, and the the party core group of the people’s congress is led by the presidents and chief procurators, 98.6 percent of them party committee. Non-party member presidium members were recommended by the party committees. All the are excluded in deciding major issues listed on the agenda elected leading group members of the political of the congress, which include formally nominating consultative conference are recommended by the candidates; dealing with bill submission and discussion; party committee. (Central OD Report 1993) organizing delegations to examine and check the bills; determining the interpellation of cases and cases of recall; This paragraph indicates that almost 100 percent of the and so on.17 This is one of the major interpretations of the total candidates “recommended” by the party committee amazing figure that “the candidates ‘recommended’ by the are “elected”. It is really an amazing figure. How does the party committee are elected by 100 percent.” 18 party committee gain such a splendid accomplishment? “After the candidates have been determined, the second Concluding Remarks step for the party committee is to ensure their ‘being When talking about totalitarian regimes, Walder (1986) elected’.”(CCCCP 12 January 1990) The party committee pointed out that achieves its objective through the presidium of the people’s congress, and the party organization and ad hoc

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There has never been a clearer image of communist Ningbo society than that of totalitarianism. In totalitarian (http://www.dfdj.gov.cn/info_show.asp?newstype_id=30 society, the party recognizes no legal or moral &sysid=33). constraints on its actions: it strives for total power, total submission, and total social transformation as 4 See the websites of the CCP Zhongshan Municipal prescribed by its ideology. Aided by secret police, Committee informers, and a wide variety of institutions designed (http://www.zs.gov.cn/dzjg/shiwei/9.htm) (2004-1-5) and for political communication and control, the the Department of Propaganda of the CCP Foshan totalitarian party pursues its aims by terrorizing Municipal Committee (http://www.fsxcb.gov.cn/) selected elements of the population and keeping the (retrieved January 5, 2004). rest in a state of habitual submission bred by caution and fear. (p. 2) 5 See the websites of the Department of United Frontline Work of the CCCCP However, things have changed a lot, and China is (http://www.zytzb.org.cn/zytzbwz/introduce/zhineng. becoming more open to the outside world. The CCP is no htm) (retrieved January 5, 2004) and the CCP Qingdao longer what it used to be. The main task for future Committee reformists is to abolish some characteristics of a (http://www.qingdao.gov.cn/jg.nsf/quanbu/FD17208AD6 totalitarian regime which Walder defined. In present day BB6D7848256BBC00417CE5) (retrieved January 5, China, however, there is still an absence of the state’s 2004). authority in personnel administration of state organs. The Communist Party absolutely monopolizes personnel 6 The Ministry of Personnel (March 31, 1995). However, power in screening, investigation, nomination, transfer, something strange should be noted here. This appointment and removal. The party committee mainly management framework or jurisdiction of cadre achieves this objective through organizational means. appointment and removal procedures is enacted by the Dong (1992) points out that “The government personnel Ministry of Personnel, a functional ministry of the State departments are no more than the Party’s executive arm in Council. Since it is a constituent department of the State personnel management.” (p. 372). This is the basic feature Council, how can it define the role of the State Council? of the Party’s cadre system, and also the background of The NPC or its SCNPC may have the authority to define the cadre system reforms. There still exists over- the role of the State Council; the State Council itself may concentration of personnel power in the Party, which standardize its role as well. But how can Ministry of criticized over twenty years ago. The Personnel do that? Party substitutes for the state in cadre management. The government and the people’s congress just play the role of 7 See the official Chinese website an aide or a secretary. Thus, there is no state autonomy at http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2002- all. One can expect that instituting a state civil service in 01/24/content_251720.htm (retrieved January 18, 2004). such a totalitarian regime undoubtedly has a long way to go. Interestingly, the cadre reform measures have come 8 The Party Core Group of the Standing Committee of into being one by one in this context. NPC Learning ’s “1 July Speech” http://web1.chinese.com/n/newspage/20010704105844.ht Notes m (retrieved January 18, 2004).

1 However, there are some exceptions. There are some 16 9 In Chinese lexicon, the term xuexi (“learn from” or municipalities located between the province and “study”) is literally used to refer to the authority prefectures, called deputy-provincial-level municipalities relationship between a master and an apprentice. such as Guangzhou, Nanjing and Wuhan. But their Politically, the term implies the relationship between a existence does not affect the classification of the five superior and a subordinate. The subordinate and junior hierarchical layers. organs and cadres are required to xuexi (learn and study) the directives, orders, speeches, experiences and others of 2 See the website of Nanjing Party-building Web the superior and senior organs and cadres, especially those www.njdj.gov.cn/lw/wz2.jsp?article_id=19632. of the political leaders like Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin.

3 Central OD October 8, 2000. For more cases, see the 10 The Party Core Group of the State Council Studying websites of some local ODs such as Guangzhou Comrade Jiang Zemin’s “1 July 2001 Speech” and (http://www.gzdj.gov.cn/style01/newsdetail.asp?news_sn Premier Zhu Rongji Saying that Raising Work of the State o=7), Council to a Higher Level. Wenzhou http://www.cass.net.cn/zhuanti/y_party/ye/ye_a/ye_a_s_0 (http://www.wzdj.gov.cn/Other/OrgIntro.aspx), and 001.htm (retrieved January 18, 2004).

11 Ibid.

Li / The CCP, the State and the Cadres in China 5 3

12 Ibid. Barnett, A. Doak. Cadres, bureaucracy, and political power in communist China. New York & London: 13 Ibid. Columbia University Press 1967.

14 Ibid. Burns, P. John. China’s Nomenklatura System. Problems in Communism. Vol. 36, September 1987: 36-51. 15 A preparatory session of the people’s congress, according to the Organic Law of People’s Congresses and Burns, P. John. Contemporary China’s Nomenklatura Governments at Local Levels, is usually held one or two System. and Government. Winter 1987-88/ days before the formal congress. This session is chaired Vol. XX, No. 4. by the standing committee of the people’s congress with all the deputies attending. The main tasks of a preparatory Burns, P. John. The ’s session are to elect the presidium and secretary general of Nomenklatura system. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. New York. 1989 the congress to be held, and to pass the schedules for the congress and other related matters. A preparatory session Burns, P. John. Strengthening Central CCP Control of does not touch affairs beyond the congress. For related Leadership Selection: the 1990 Nomenklatura. China data, see the websites Quarterly, 458-491 June 1994. http://www.jyb.com.cn/gb/2001/03/09/zhxw/zt/zlzx4.htm (retrieved January 13, 2004); Chan, Hon. Continuity and Change in Cadre personnel http://www.cnr.cn/home/column/2003meeting/rdzl/20030 Management in China: from the 1990 to the 1998 2240055.html (retrieved January 13, 2004); and Nomenklatura System: 2004: 101-132. http://info.news.sinobnet.com/HTML/001/002/008/020/00 1/8790.htm (retrieved January 19, 2004). Chan, Hon. “One Country, Two Systems”: Dynamics of Transition in China and Hong Kong. Public 16 How is the Presidium of the People’s Congress elected? Administration Review Vol. 63, No. 4 , July-August 2003: See the website 405-417. http://www.cnr.cn/home/column/2003meeting/rdzl/20030 2240056.html (retrieved January 13, 2004). Deng Xiaoping. On Reforming the Leadership System of the Party and the State 18 August 1980. 17 Seven Tasks of the Presidium of NPC. See the website article Dong Lisheng. A Comparative Study of The Recruitment http://www.cnr.cn/home/column/2003meeting/rdzl/20030 of Civil Servants Ii the People’s Republic of China, 2240054.html (retrieved January 13, 2004). France and the United Kingdom (Volume I and II). Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen (Belgium), 1992. 18 See the Report on Work of Elections for New Term of U.M.I. 300 N. Zeeb Rd Ann Arbor, MI 48106. Office at the Provincial Level and Some Ideas on Further Strengthening Local Leadership Groups General Offices of CCCCP, Central DIC, Central OD Ed. Building / 23 August 1993 / Central OD (Cadre Transfer Selected Intra-Party Rules and Regulations of the CCP Bureau) Eds. (For internal use only)1995: 243-251. 1978-1996 Beijing: Law Press 1996.

Author General Offices of CCCCP, Central DIC, Central OD Ed. Selected Intra-Party Rules and Regulations of the CCP Suizhou Li received his Ph.D. at City University of Hong 1996-2000 Beijing: Law Press 2001. Kong in 2004. He is now associate professor and associate head of the Department of Public Administration, General Office, Central OD Eds. Information of Guangdong Institute of Public Administration. His Organizational Work (2000) (For Internal Use Only). research interests are the cadre (civil service) system, Harasymiw, Bohdan. Nomenklatura: The Soviet administrative reform and political development in China. Communist Party’s Leadership Recruitment System”, His recent publications include A study report on Canadian Journal of Political Science 2, 4 (December government employee system in some local governments 1969): 494. and Studies on the civil service recruitment in China. Email: [email protected] Harding, Harry. Organizing China: the problems of bureaucracy 1949-1976 Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press 1981.

References

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Lam Tao-chiu & Hon S. Chan. The Civil Service System: 4) Resolution of the CCCCP on Further Strengthening Policy Formulation and Implementation. China Review Building of Cadre Contingent of Politics and Law 1995: 2.34-43. zhongfa [1999] No. 36 Document. 5) Regulations for Recruitment of Leadership Cadres of Lam Tao-chiu & Hon S. Chan. Reforming China’s Cadre the Party-state Organs (in Chinese) 9 July 2002 Management System: Two Views of a Civil Service. Beijing: China Law Press 2003: 1-14. See also the Asian Survey Vol. XXXVI, No. 8, August 1996: 772-786. website http://www.mii.gov.cn/art/2005/12/13/art_40_4123.ht Li Suizhou. The Politics of Cadre System Reform in ml China 1978-2004. PhD thesis of City University of Hong 6) Constitution of the CCP 2002 (Amended by the 16th Kong. Party Congress) 14 November 2002. 7) Regulations on Intra-Party Supervision of the CCP Li Suizhou. Rationalizing the CCP Bureaucracy toward (Trial) 17 February 2004. Semi-meritocratic Institution: case of Guangdong Province Journal of US-China Public Administration Aug. The CCCCP and other Central Party-state Organs 2005, Vol. 2, No. 8 (Serial No. 9). Circular of Central DIC, Central OD, , and Ministry of Personnel on Strengthening Manion, Melanie. Cadre Recruitment and Management in Work Contacts (4 August 1990). the People’s Republic of China. Chinese Law and Government. Fall 1984/Vol. XVII, No. 3. General Office, the CCCCP 1) Circular on Leadership System of Central Organs Manion, Melanie. The Cadre Management System, Post- Directly under the CCCCP 17 August 1979. Mao: The Appointment, Promotion, Transfer and 2) Circular on Transferring Some Opinions of the Removal of Party and State Leaders. The China Quarterly Central OD and Central Propaganda Department on No.102, 1985. Strengthening and Improving Work of CCP Member Education zhongbanfa [1994] No.4 Document 18 Shirk, Susan L. The political logic of economic reform in April 1994. China. Berkeley: University of California Press 1993. 3) General Office Transferring Outline on Deepening Cadre-personnel System Reforms zhongbanfa [2000] Walder, Andrew G. Communist Neo-traditionalism: Work No. 15 Document/20 August 2000. and Authority in Chinese Industry. Berkeley: University of California Press 1986. Department of Propaganda, the CCCCP (the Central PD), Opinions of Strengthening and Improving Central Group Walder, Andrew G. Career Mobility & the Communist Study of the Party Committee (Core Group) zhongxuanfa Political Order. American Sociological Review. Vol. 60, [2000] No.10 Document. June 1995: 309-328. Department of Organization, the CCCCP (the Central OD) Zhu Rongji. Try Great Efforts to Raise Work of the State 1) Circular on Appointment and Removal of Leadership Council to a Higher Level (5 July 2001) Cadres of the State Organs Must be Conducted in http://www.cass.net.cn/zhuanti/y_party/ye/ye_a/ye_a_s_0 Accordance with Legal Procedures and other 001.htm (retrieved January 18, 2004). Regulations/8 September 1983/Central OD (Cadre Transfer Bureau) Eds. 1995: 15-19. Official Documents issued by: 2) Circular on Several Issues of Dual Leadership Work of Cadres / 15 November 1991 / Central OD (Cadre The CCCCP Transfer Bureau) Eds. 1995: 88-89. 1) Supplementary Circular of the CCCCP on Installing 3) Report on Work of Elections for New Term of Office Party Core Groups and Party 5 April 1978. at the Provincial Level and Some Ideas on Further 2) Circular of CCCCP on Printing and Distributing Strengthening Local Leadership Groups Building / 23 Some Regulations on Local Party Committees August 1993/Central OD (Cadre Transfer Bureau) Recommending Leadership Cadres to Local State Eds. 1995: 243-251. Organs (12 January 1990) Central OD (Cadre 4) Circular on Printing and Distributing Functions and Transfer Bureau) Eds. 1995: 221-224. Internal Institutions of Central Organization 3) Circular of the CCCCP on Transferring Department zutongzi [2000] No. 31 Document. Implementation Opinions of the Central OD on Adopting the Management Framework of the The State Council Provisional Regulations of the State Civil 13 1) Circular on Adjusting the Cadre Management September 1993 Central OD (Cadre Transfer Bureau) Systems of Finance, Taxation Departments of the Eds. 1995: 139-142. Provinces, Centrally administered Municipalities and Part of Leading Cadres of Customs (8 March 1989) /

Li / The CCP, the State and the Cadres in China 55

Central OD (Cadre Transfer Bureau) Eds. 1995: 52- 53. 2) Provisional Regulations on the State Civil Service (PRSCS) (14 August 1993) / No. 125, Order of the State Council, PRC / Central OD (Cadre Transfer Bureau) Eds. 1995: 124-138.

Ministry of Personnel Provisional Regulations on Appointment and Removal of the State Civil Service (31 March 1995) renpeihefa [1995] No. 37 Document.

The People’s Congresses Part A. National People’s Congress (NPC) 1) Organic Law for Local People’s Congresses and Local Governments at Various Levels (11 July 1979; 28 February 1995, The Third Amendment) 2) Standing Committee of NPC (NPCSC): Organic Law of the State Council (10 December 1982) 3) NPCS: Decision on Strengthening Comprehensive Governance of Social Security (2 March 1991)

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