AUSTRALIAN 142 WATCHER

AUSTRALIAN BIRD WATCHER 1997, 17, 142-155

Status, Habitat and Social Organisation of the cucullata in the New England Region of

by LULU L. FITRP and HUGH A. FORD

Department of Zoology, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351

1(Present address: Laboratoire de Psychophysiologie et d'Ethologie, Universite'Paris X, 200, Avenue de la Re'publique, 92001 Nanterre Cedex, France)

Summary Hooded Robins Me/anodryas cucul/ata inhabit woodland across most of , including eucalypt woodland in New England. Although Hooded Robins are still found in this habitat, they are apparently declining in southern Australia and disappearing from a number of sites. In New England, they are sparsely distributed west of the and occur locally east of it. On the eastern fringe of their distribution, populations consist of one or a few pairs or groups, and at least four of these have disappeared in recent years. We found 19 groups (12 pairs, six trios and a single male) at 12 sites in spring 1991, typically in eucalypt woodland alongside cleared farmland. Home ranges through the year were from 8. 3 to 25.5 ha (mean 18 ha) and breeding territories were from 4.5 to 9.5 ha (mean 6 ha). The Robins extended their foraging ranges in autumn and winter, often into cleared land. Robins could not be found in 1996 at one site where they occurred in 1990 and 1991, indicating that the ' decline and contraction of range is continuing. The reasons for the species' apparent decline are unclear, but HAF intends to continue monitoring populations. Although such a widespread species cannot currently be regarded as threatened, the Hooded Robin is representative of many ground­ feeding insectivorous that are declining in eucalypt woodland. It is important that scientific studies of these species be carried out now to understand why they are declining and to suggest management that can arrest any further decline.

Introduction Although Australian species of birds have survived better than mammals in the two centuries since European settlement (Morton 1990), there are indications that many species are in decline. This has led to dire predictions of a major loss of bird species from the more intensive agricultural and pastoral regions (Recher & Lim 1990, Robinson & Trailll996). Such declines and extinctions have already been described or predicted for the Western Australian Wheatbelt (Saunders 1989, Saunders & Hobbs 1989, Saunders & Curry 1990), the Mount Lofty Ranges in (Ford & Howe 1980, Paton et al. 1994), rural parts of (Robinson 1991) and the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales (Ford & Bell 1981, Barrett et al. 1994). Several observers have noted that woodland birds that feed and/or nest on the ground seem to be particularly at risk (Recher & Lim 1990, Robinson 1991, Garnett 1992, Paton et al. 1994). The reasons for this are unclear but may include: increased predation on adults, young, or nests by native and introduced predators; reduced food abundance due to habitat degradation by grazing livestock; and poor dispersal due to habitat fragmentation (Saunders 1989; Cale 1990, 1994; Recher & Lim 1990). Most attention has, understandably, been given to species that are currently threatened (e.g. Brouwer & Garnett 1990, Garnett 1992). However, conservationists are increasingly expressing concern for a second group of species that could become threatened next century. Recher & Lim (1990) and Robinson (1991, 1993), for instance, gave lists of species that have become locally rare in New South Wales and Victoria. Prudent research and management at this stage could arrest or even reverse VOL. 17 (3) SEPTEMBER 1997 Ecology of Hooded Robin in New England 143 the decline of these species, and would prove more successful and economical than waiting until the species are really in trouble in future decades (Ford et al. 1995, 1996a). The Hooded Robin Melanodryas cucullata, although widely distributed and apparently quite generalised in its habitat, is a good example of a species that is declining in woodlands and agricultural areas (Lord 1956; Brooker et al. 1978; Graham 1990; Recher & Lim 1990; Robinson 1991, 1993; Robinson & Traill 1996). It is a ground feeder (Gilmore 1985) and open nester (Beruldsen 1980, Boles 1988), making it vulnerable to predation on adults, young and eggs. The species has become extinct in the Kellerberrin district of the Wheatbelt in Western Australia (Saunders & Curry 1990) and is regarded as potentially threatened in Victoria (Bennett 1993). It has also been reported to have declined near Orange (Heron 1973) and Inverell (Baldwin 1975) in New South Wales, and in the Australian Capital Territory (Graham 1990, 1995). Indeed the Canberra Ornithologists Group has proposed that the Hooded Robin be declared a vulnerable species in the A.C. T. (B. Lindenmayer pers. comm.). In contrast, it is one of the most abundant and characteristic birds of Lancewood Acacia shirleyi woodlands in the Northern Territory (Woinarski & Fisher 1995a), a habitat largely unaffected by agriculture. Despite concerns about its declining status in southern Australia, the Hooded Robin has so far received only casual studies. Rogan (1964) found that two females may brood eggs in the same nest, and Bell (1984) demonstrated co-operative breeding, with non-breeding helpers. Graham (1990) described the habitat occupied by Hooded Robins and Sullivan (1993) the breeding behaviour, both in the A.C.T. The social organisation of several other Australian robins has been described in the non-breeding (Huddy 1979, Fleming 1980, Boles 1988, Robinson 1992) and breeding seasons (Marchant 1985, 1987; Robinson 1990, 1992). In this paper we describe the status, habitat and social organisation of Hooded Robins at a number of sites within 50 km of Armidale, in New England. In subsequent papers we shall describe the aggressive interactions among Hooded Robins and with other bird species, and the species' vocalisations, foraging behaviour and breeding biology.

Study sites Hooded Robins were studied at three main study sites during 1991 and 1992 (Figure 1). Two were along the Armidale-Grafton Road: (i) Gara Crown Reserve, located in the middle catchment of the Gara River and including part of the 'Silverton' property, 15 km east of Armidale (30°32 'S , 151°47 'E); (ii) the properties 'Strathaven' and 'Brookside', spanning the Armidale-Grafton Road, with an adjoining travelling stock route (TSR), 10 km east of Armidale (30°33'S, 151 °46 'E) , and the third was in Torryburn Crown Reserve, a travelling stock route alongside the Yarrowyck to Kingstown road, 45 km west of Armidale (30°27'S, 151 °!6'E). An additional eight sites, within 50 km of Armidale (see Figure 1), were visited less frequently.

Methods From April 1991 to April 1992, LLF noted the composition of groups during the breeding and non-breeding seasons. Groups of Hooded Robins were defined as those birds that were usually seen together over a period of time within one home range. The size of the group and the number of birds of each sex and age were recorded. Adult Hooded Robins are strongly sexually dimorphic, the male being black and white, the female greyish brown and white. Juvenile males are similar to females , though more mottled beneath. They progressively become dark grey and then gain the black plumage of the adult male. Even though most birds were not colour-banded, individual Hooded Robins could be followed on foot quite easily once found. Their locations were first noted by marking trees with surveyors' tape and then plotted onto a topographic map ( 1:25 000, published by the Central Mapping Authority of New South Wales). Home ranges were all areas that they used through the year, excluding occasional AUSTRALIAN 144 FITRI & FORD BIRD WATCHER

Bundarra

Kingstown Wollomombi "--..-..2.----+-;e- ·---+ Grafton + 2

4

L___..j Bendemeer 10 km Dividing Range

Figure 1. Map of sites near Armidale where Hooded Robins were found in 1991-92. Lines are main roads. 1 Gara Crown Reserve; 2 'Strathaven'; 3 Millgrove Creek State Forest; 4 'Baguna'; 5 'Oakview' and 'Hillcrest'; 6 Booroolong Creek; 7 Church Gully and 'Tarraminda'; 8 Torryburn Crown Reserve; 9 Gwydir Park Crown Reserve; 10 Two Mile Creek; 11 Abington. + indicates sites where Hooded Robins formerly occurred but have apparently become extinct. Dotted line is Great Dividing Range. roaming far beyond their usual boundaries. When the breeding season started, pairs or groups of Hooded Robins defended their breeding territories, which were much smaller than their home ranges. Territories included all areas where aggressive interactions were recorded and the areas where breeding activity occurred. Home-range and breeding-territory sizes were calculated as the areas included within lines linking the outermost points (i .e. minimum polygon). Owing to the greater activity and especially aggression during breeding, the territories of most males were estimated more accurately than were home ranges.

Attempts were made to capture and colour-band Robins at the three main sites, where more than one group occurred. It was difficult to mist-net Hooded Robins because of their small populations, large home ranges, and open habitat occupied. During the 1991 breeding season, four fledglings were colour-banded: two in Gwydir Park Crown Reserve and two in Church Gully. Three females, one adult male, and one subadult male were colour-banded at Gara in autumn 1992, and a single female bird was banded at Torryburn in spring 1992. Despite our attempts, no Hooded Robins were caught at 'Strathaven' . Each bird was banded with a numbered aluminium band supplied by the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme and with two colour-bands.

Tree and shrub density and ground cover were measured at ten points in each home range in each habitat (forest, woodland, open) at the three main sites. The number of trees 10+ m tall was counted in a 20 m square at each point, and shrubs and small trees (1-9 m tall) were counted in 10m squares at each point. An estimate of ground cover to the nearest 10% was made in a I m square at each point. VOL. 17 (3) SEPTEMBER 1997 Ecology of Hooded Robin in New England 145

Results

Status of the Hooded Robin in New England The Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union Atlas of Australian Birds shows that the Hooded Robin had an almost continuous distribution throughout New South Wales in 1977 to 1981, though the recording rate was low along the coast and in the extreme north-west of the state (Blakers et al. 1984). However, this distribution, at the scale of one-degree squares, is deceptive. Ford & McFarland (1991) used the data collected for the RAOU Atlas to plot distributions at the scale of ten-minute squares in the New England region. Hooded Robins were widespread west of the Great Dividing Range in woodland and drier forest, but more patchy in the eastern half of the area, which consists of either cleared land or wetter forest. Hooded Robins have apparently disappeared from several sites east of the Great Dividing Range in New England since the RAOU Atlas. Hooded Robins occurred on the campus of the University of New England in 1979 (Ford & Bell 1981), but have been recorded only twice since the early 1980s (J. Humphreys pers. comm.). Bell (1984) described the behaviour of a group of Hooded Robins at Wollomombi (40 km east of Armidale) between 1978 and 1982, but they no longer occur at this site. Hooded Robins also occurred at Eastwood State Forest (10 km south-east of Armidale) in the early 1980s, but have not been recorded there since then (HAF pers. obs.). In addition, Hooded Robins have not been seen on the Armidale Walking Track during several visits in 1995 and 1996, despite being found there in 1990. No Hooded Robins were found at 'Baguna' in 1996, but they were still present at Hillgrove Creek State Forest in 1996, Gara in 1996 and 1997, and 'Strathaven' in March 1997 (HAF pers. obs., B. Chaffey pers. comm.; see Figure 1 for locations of these sites). These observations are consistent with the sequential disappearance of local populations (perhaps of only a single pair or group), which can result in the extinction of a species from a district as has occurred in the Kellerberrin district in Western Australia (Saunders & Curry 1990). An alternative explanation is that the Hooded Robin periodically expands and contracts its range at the periphery. However, the literature does not hold accounts of the species colonising new areas, something which bird-watchers might be expected to record more readily than the local disappearance of a familiar species. Two recent surveys give an idea of the relative abundance of Hooded Robins in New England. Single surveys of 390 woodland and open forest sites within a 50 km radius of Armidale in spring 1990 found Hooded Robins in only five sites (Ford et al. 1995). This compares with 40 sites with Eastern Yellow Robins australis and 73 sites with Scarlet Robins multicolor. Seventeen sites (over 25 days) in autumn 1995 and 87 sites (over 171 field-days) in spring 1995 were surveyed for birds in a transect from Armidale to the Queensland border south-east of Bonshaw (i.e. western part of New England, Ford et al. 1996b). No Hooded Robins were detected in autumn, whereas Yellow Robins were found at eight sites and Scarlet Robins at 11. In spring there were six sites with Hooded Robins, 48 with Yellow Robins and nine with Scarlet Robins. In addition, Hooded Robins were found at four sites (one out of 29 sites in autumn, three out of 49 sites in spring) just north of the border in Queensland. Clearly, even in the half of New England in which Hooded Robins are more common, they are still a scarce and sparsely distributed species.

Habitat The habitats where Hooded Robins were found during the survey in 1995 are described superficially in Table 1. These are dominated by a variety of tree species, AUSTRALIAN 146 FITRI & FORD BIRD WATCHER

Table 1

Description of habitat where Hooded Robins were found in the Eastlink survey (Ford et al. 1996b). Habitat not recorded at one site in New South Wales Location Dominant tree spp. Canopy height Canopy cover Shrub cover New South Wales Hb1 'Glenfield' EucalyP_tus caliginosa 20m 30-50% 10-30% 10.1 'EI Fara' E. sideroxylon 25m 30- 50% 10- 30% 10.3 'EI Fara' E. sideroxylon 20m 30-50% 30-50% 10.4 'EI Fara' E. sideroxylon 25m 30-50% not recorded N9 'Willows' E. blakelyilsideroxylon (10m (10% (10%

Queensland 13.4 'Benandre' E. melliodoralcrebra 15 m 10-30% 10-30% 14.2 'Lisavale' E. melliodora/sideroxylon 15m 50-70% 50-70% 14.3 'Lisavale' E. melliodora!sideroxylonl Callitris 15 m 50- 70% 70- 90% 14.5 'Lisavale' Callitris!E. sideroxylon 20m 50-70% 50-70% ranging from open woodland (10-30% cover) to quite dense forest (50-70% cover) and from a sparse ( (1 0%) to dense (70- 90%) understorey. The site at N9 was mostly cleared with sparse regrowth of eucalypts. Although Hooded Robins used a range of habitats near Armidale, they were found mostly in eucalypt woodland. Gara Crown Reserve (site 1 in Figure 1) comprised about 160 ha of partly cleared eucalypt woodland, dominated by Blakely's Red Gum blakelyi and Yellow Box E. melliodora, in the northern part ofthe reserve and a more dense New England Stringybark E. caliginosa woodland south of the Grafton Road. Tree density averaged 30.6/ha in woodland in four home ranges (Table 2). Sapling eucalypts and wattles (Fern-leaved Wattle Acacia filicifolia and

Table 2

Measurement of habitat in each Hooded Robin home range at each main site (details in Methods). Torryburn home ranges i and ii had small areas of open country. Site Home range Habitat Treeslha Shrubslha Ground cover Gara (i) Woodland 12.5 470 78 % Gara (ii) Woodland 17.5 290 70% Gara (iii) Woodland 37.5 780 48% Gara (iii) Open (1 (1 89 % Gara (iv) Woodland 55 890 63% Gara (iv) Open (1 (1 91%

'Strathaven' (i) Woodland 57.5 480 68% 'Strathaven' (i) Open 27.5 380 86% 'Strathaven' (ii) Woodland 35 500 70% 'Strathaven' (ii) Open (1 (1 94% 'Strathaven' unused Forest 103 1220 65 %

Torryburn (i) Woodland 50 80 53% Torryburn (ii) Woodland 83 90 60% Torryburn (iii) Woodland 53 40 73% Torryburn (iii) Open 18 50 91% VOL. 17 (3) SEPTEMBER 1997 Ecology of Hooded Robin in New England 147

0 0.5 km _. , --- \ \

,_ _ - ~

.J ,.:______' ' ' ,// [? / iv \, ' ' , .,.

Figure 2. Home ranges ( i-iv -- -) and breeding territories (--) of Hooded Robin groups at Gara. Stippled areas denote eucalypt woodland, unmarked areas are cleared farmland. Thick lines are roads, thin lines are creeks.

Hickory Wattle A. falciformis) were the main tall shrubs, with smaller shrubs of Jacksonia and Bursaria (mean density in four home ranges of 607 /ha, Table 2) . These were patchy with from 0 to 18 shrubs per 100m2 • The 'Silverton' property, south ofthe Reserve, had been cleared, but still contained a few dead trees, clumps of dead branches, logs, and stumps. Ground cover was dense throughout (Table 2, up to 100% of 1m2). Hooded Robins were found through most of this site, though they generally avoided the denser parts of the woodland south of the road. In winter some Robins fed in the almost treeless land south of the woodland (Figure 2). 'Strathaven' and 'Brookside' (site 2, Figure 1) comprised about 125 ha of mostly private land, with a travelling stock route passing through the middle. Most of the site had woodland dominated by New England Stringybark, with some Yellow Box, Blakely's Red Gum, Long-leaved Box E. bridgesiana and Rough-barked Apple Angophora floribunda, though part of it was open forest, with denser trees and shrubs (Figure 3, Table 2) . Most of the private land had been cleared. There was patchy , dense regrowth of eucalypts, with some acacia, Cassinia and fabaceous shrubs, in all habitats (Table 2). Ground cover was mostly dense and grassy, though an open gravel quarry covered part of 'Strathaven' and the neighbouring TSR. Hooded Robins mostly occupied woodland and generally avoided forest (Figure 3). In winter 1991 , they foraged extensively in the open areas both north and south-west of the woodland and in the gravel quarry. Robins occupied an area of about 95 ha of eucalypt woodland in the Torryburn Crown Reserve (site 8, Figure 1), the third major site. The Reserve was surrounded by cleared farmland, though a corridor continued both eastwards and westwards (Figure 4) . A powerline clearing (30-35 m wide) passes through the reserve, close AUSTRALIAN 148 FITRI & FORD BIRD WATCHER

ii

·W5)----~ ii

0 0.5 km Figure 3. Home ranges (i & ii -- -) and breeding territory (--) of Hooded Robin groups at 'Strathaven'. Stippled areas denote eucalypt woodland, cross-hatched area is open forest (not used by Hooded Robins), unmarked areas are farmland with scattered trees, irregular white area is a gravel quarry. Thick line is Grafton Road, thin line is a track.

L!,'------DIII---- :______)______\ ·--...... _) . .. ' '' .' ' -- ..... __ _ .------0 0.5

km

Figure 4. Home ranges ( i-ili -- -) and breeding territories (--) of Hooded Robin groups at Torryburn. Stippled areas denote eucalypt woodland, unmarked areas are farmland with scattered trees. Thick line is Kingstown Road. VOL. 17 (3) SEPTEMBER 1997 Ecology of Hooded Robin in New England 149 to the southern edge of the reserve. Eucalypts such as Blakely's Red Gum, Yellow Box and Grey Box E. moluccana were dominant, with a few Mugga Ironbark E. sideroxylon and Angophora. Shrubs included wattles, Cassinia, Bursaria and Fabaceae, with saplings and regenerating eucalypts, as well as stumps and fallen timber. On average these occurred at much lower density than in the eastern sites. However, there were still dense patches. Ground cover was patchy in the woodland but more continuous in the open area (Table 2). Hooded Robins were found in the centre of the site, with the home range and territory of one group (iii) spreading into .cleared land with scattered trees. Noisy Miners Manorina melanocephala were common in the eastern part of the Reserve, which was unoccupied by Hooded Robins. All other sites were in eucalypt woodland with various combinations of the tree species found at the main study sites. Typically, they contained a mixture of partly or extensively cleared farmland and remnant patches or corridors of reasonably intact vegetation. Sites 3 and 4 had similar vegetation to Gara Reserve, whereas sites 5 to 7 and 9 to 11 resembled the Torryburn site in plant species composition. Composition of groups, home range and territory The composition of Hooded Robin groups observed at all study sites is shown in Table 3. There was a total of 19 groups in spring 1991, consisting of 12 pairs, six trios and a single male. Four trios consisted of a pair and an extra male, one of which had subadult plumage, and two consisted of a pair and an extra female. The sex ratio was close to unity (22 males and 20 females in spring 1991, 30 males and 26 females overall). One of the pairs at Gara had been joined by an extra male for about a month in winter 1991. The trio with the extra male at Gara persisted from at least March 1991 to November 1992. Four additional groups were found at other times: two pairs, at 'Oakview' and Torryburn in spring-summer 1992, a trio with an extra adult male at 'Baguna' in autumn 1991 and an adult pair plus three subadults (2 male and one female) at Gara from autumn to spring 1992. One subadult male in this last group was beginning to assume full plumage and one was still in grey plumage. Two of these subadults (one of each sex) were banded in June 1992, and in October 1992 helped the pair raise two nestlings. This latter large group was possibly the original pair at Gara with its three offspring from 1991. The female disappeared from the pair at Torryburn in winter 1991, leaving a lone male during the breeding season. The trio at Torryburn, which had an extra female in spring 1991, also had an extra adult male during winter 1991, which subsequently disappeared. The sizes of each home range and breeding territory at each of the three main sites are shown in Tables 4 and 5. In addition the percentage of each home range that consists of woodland, open forest and open country is given. The four groups of Hooded Robins at Gara occupied a combined home range of about 75 ha (Figure 2, Table 4). Group i was found in March 1991 and occupied its home range, all woodland, until November 1992. Occasionally, an adult male from this group roamed to the south-west into the area that the Group ii occupied. Three episodes of intraspecific aggression between males of these two groups were seen. Insufficient data were collected on the male in this group to estimate his breeding territory size, but it seemed larger than the other two breeding territories at Gara. Group ii was present from May to October 1991 in a home range in woodland that spanned the road. In August 1991, a male from this group interacted aggressively with a pair south of the road. Group iii was found in October 1991, and was followed until late April 1992. During autumn 1992, the birds foraged mostly in open country, but generally avoided the forest. From autumn to spring 1992, Group iv occupied a home range in the south-western part of Gara. AUSTRALIAN 150 FITRI & FORD BIRD WATCHER

Table 3

Size and composition of Hooded Robins groups, during breeding season 1991, unless otherwise stated. Number after each site is the location on Figure 1. Site Group Number of Comments Males Females Main sites: Gara (1) 2 1 ii 1 2 Second female was subadult iii 1 1 iv 3 2 Autumn-spring 1992. Possibly same adults as group 3 with their offspring 'Strathaven' (2) 1 1 II 1 1 'Torryburn' (8) i I 1 Female disappeared winter 1991 ii 1 2 Extra male present in winter 1991 iii 2 I iv 1 1 Present summer 1992

Minor sites: Hillgrove Creek (3) 1 'Baguna' (4) 2 Present autumn 1991 'Oakview' (5) 1 Present spring 1992 ' Hillcrest' (5) 1 Booroolong (6) I Church Gully (7) 1 ii 2 Subadult male 'Tarraminda' (7) 1 Gwydir Park (9) 1 ii 2 Two Mile Creek (10) 1 Abington (1 1) i 1 ii 1

Total 23 30 26

Table 4

Approximate home ranges (ha) of Hooded Robin groups, throughout the year at the three main sites. Below each home range are the percentages of the area that are woodland:forest:open country.

Site Group i Group ii Group iii Group iv Gara 24.2 22.1 8.3 20.4 (100:0:0) (96:4:0) (47: 17:36) (29:0:7 1) 'Strathaven' 25.5 9.3 (74:0:26) (32:37:32) Torryburn 15.3 20.0 17.3 (95:0:5) (82:0: 18) (64:0:36)

All sites mean + se = 18.04 + 0.68 (n= 9) VOL. 17 (3) SEPTEMBER 1997 Ecology of Hooded Robin in New England 151

Table 5

Approximate breeding territory sizes (ha) of Hooded Robins during the 1991 breeding season at the three main study sites.

Site Group i Group ii Group iii Gara 6.1 4.5 'Strathaven' 4.5 Torry bum 5.5 9.5

All sites Mean + se = 6.02 + 0.37

In October 1993, HAF saw a male Hooded Robin at Gara near the road in Home Range i and a pair south of the road in Home Range iii. In March 1996, he found no Hooded Robins in the Gara Reserve, but saw a pair in cleared land in Home Range iv. In March 1997 male Hooded Robins were seen in Home Ranges ii and iv, and in June 1997 a male, colour-banded in June 1992, was seen in Home Range i. Two pairs of Hooded Robins occupied a mixture of habitats at 'Strathaven' in a combined home range of approximately 35 ha (Table 4, Figure 3). Group i occupied a very large home range in the western part of the study area. This included a mixture of habitat from partly cleared woodland, with some regrowth and sapling eucalypts, to grassland. The Robins foraged in the open grassland during winter 1991, whereas they bred in the woodland reserve near the road and foraged in the reserve and adjacent private property, including the bare, stony area of the gravel quarry. Group ii occupied a home range on both sides of the road. Although over one-third of the home range was moderately dense open forest, with a dense shrub layer, the Hooded Robins rarely used it. Instead, the forest was occupied by a pair of Eastern Yellow Robins. No breeding attempts by this pair of Hooded Robins were discovered, so no breeding territory was plotted. HAF saw a pair of Hooded Robins in Home Range i at 'Strathaven' in March 1997. Three groups of Hooded Robins occupied a combined area of approximately 53 ha in Torryburn Crown Reserve from April 1991 to April 1992 (Table 4). Group i consisted of a pair, until the female disappeared in May 1991, and occupied a home range in the eastern part of the reserve (Table 3, Figure 4). This group foraged in woodland in the reserve up to the edge of cleared farmland. Group ii occupied a home range to the west of the first pair until October 1991, when they disappeared. The area of their breeding territory was estimated before they disappeared. In February 1992, a pair of Hooded Robins was back in this home range, which expanded to the edge of farmland, across the road from the reserve and they reared two fledglings by the end of October 1992. It is unknown whether these were the original pair or new birds. Group iii occupied the south-western part of the reserve from October 1991 to the end of the 1992 breeding season. This group occasionally flew across open country to the south, where they built a nest among dense Blakely's Red Gums. After the nest failed, they did not return to this area. Overall, their breeding territory was the largest, at approximately 9.5 ha, about half of which was grassland. Hooded Robins had two nests in the same area in the 1992 breeding season (J. Walters pers. comm.). An adult female was colour-banded then and was resighted in the same area, with an unhanded male, in October 1995 (HAF pers. obs.). Discussion Several sources indicate that the Hooded Robin is an uncommon bird in the western part of New England, and rare and patchy east of the Great Dividing Range. It appears AUSTRALIAN 152 FITRI & FORD BIRD WATCHER to be less common than the and , even in the drier woodland in the west of the region. Although no extensive data have been collected previously, our observations around Armidale, and Baldwin's ( 1975) from Inverell, show that Hooded Robins have disappeared locally. It also appears that this decline, with local extinctions, has continued since 1992. This indicates that the species is declining regionally, especially at the fringes of its distribution. Alternatively, it could merely be expanding and contracting in response to short-term environmental changes or through chance. HAF intends to continue monitoring the occurrence of Hooded Robins at the sites where it occurs near Arrnidale, and note any reappearance at sites from which it has gone or colonisation of new sites. Hooded Robins are known to occur in lightly wooded country and utilise a wide range of habitats, in both the non-breeding and breeding seasons (Bell 1984, Schodde & Tidemann 1986, Slater et al. 1989, Sullivan 1993, Graham 1995, Woinarski & Fisher 1995a). We found them in eucalypt woodland, with gums, boxes, stringybarks, angophoras or ironbarks. Although parts of some of the home ranges consisted of open forest (Table 2) and they were sometimes found in this habitat in the powerline survey (Table 1), this habitat is perhaps more typical of Eastern Yell ow Robins. We provide preliminary data on tree and tall shrub density and ground cover within Hooded Robin home ranges. A more detailed analysis of occupied and unoccupied habitat should be made. A characteristic of many home ranges was the presence of eucalypt woodland alongside cleared land with only scattered dead or living trees (e.g. seven out of nine home ranges at the main study areas had some open country). Hooded Robins expanded their home ranges in the non-breeding season, often into open habitat and frequently foraged on bare ground away from trees (Fitri 1993). Robinson (1992), similarly, found that Scarlet Robins expanded their territories into more open areas and spent more time pouncing on prey on the ground. Also, Huddy (1979) found that Scarlet Robins fed more on the ground in winter, as food is less scarce there than on bark or in the air. Although open grassland may be adequate for foraging, trees and perhaps especially saplings are necessary for nest-sites. All home ranges in our study had patches of regrowth eucalypts and shrubs, even though mean densities may be low (Table 2). Sullivan (1993) described suitable habitat near Canberra as untidy woodland, and mentioned the importance of saplings for nest-sites and long grass for fledglings. He also noted that the species was tolerant to disturbance by people on foot and horseback and by vehicles. Woinarski & Fisher (1995b) found that levels of disturbance were not correlated with the occurrence of Hooded Robins in lancewood woodlands in Northern Territory, though grazing by livestock was generally light in all their sites. We found that Hooded Robins may live in groups with extra males, or females, in agreement with Courtney & Marchant (1971), Bell (1984), Schodde & Tidemann (1986), and Boles (1988). Too few birds were colour-banded to determine whether the extra birds were young of the breeding pair. Hooded Robins are thus similar in social organisation to Eastern Yellow Robins (Marchant 1987), Western Yellow Robins E. griseogularis and White-breasted Robins E. georgiana (Brown & Brown 1980), but unlike Scarlet or Flame Petroica phoenicea Robins (Huddy 1979, Robinson 1990). From his long-term study (8 years) of Eastern Yellow Robins, Marchant found that from 54 annual breeding attempts, 11 pairs (c. 20%) had attendants (8 individuals). This is similar to Hooded Robins during this study: from 20 breeding group-years, seven pairs (35%) had attendants (7 individuals). Bell (1984) found that, at Wollomombi, N.S.W., breeding pairs of Hooded Robins were attended by additional males (adult or subadult), which he suggested came from VOL. 17 (3) SEPTEMBER 1997 Ecology of Hooded Robin in New England 153 a previous brood. The group at Gara in spring 1992, with three attendants, two of which had been colour-banded in June and later helped to rear young, could have been a family, whose offspring had stayed with their parents. Marchant (1987) found that some attendant Eastern Yellow Robins dispersed after breeding was over. Subadult Hooded Robins tended to disappear during autumn and winter, possibly because they were excluded from the most suitable feeding area. Data are insufficient to determine whether dispersal differs between the sexes, and whether problems with dispersal mean that many patches of suitable habitat are not colonised by Hooded Robins. Bell (1984), Sullivan (1993) and Graham (1993, 1995) mentioned home ranges of up to 6 ha during the breeding season which expanded to 15 to 50 ha in the non­ breeding season. These are similar to breeding territories of 4.5 to 9.5 ha (mean 6 ha) and home ranges of 8.3 to 25.5 ha (mean 18 ha) at our study sites, near Armidale. These are larger than the non-breeding home ranges and breeding territories of Scarlet Robins (mean: 6.6 ha for the non-breeding season and 3.2 ha for the breeding season, Robinson 1990), and the breeding territories of Eastern Yell ow Robins (0. 8 to 2 ha, Marchant 1987) and Flame Robins (mean 1.8 ha, Robinson 1990). Hooded Robins may require larger patches of woodland than these other robins do, possibly because they are larger or because they occupy more open habitat, where food may be more scarce or patchily distributed than in forest. Hooded Robins are described as sedentary, maintaining territories year-round (Frith 1976, Blakers et al. 1984, Schodde & Tidemann 1986, Boles 1988, Slater et al. 1989). Although few birds were colour-banded, it seemed that some adult Hooded Robins stayed in the same home range over the study period of about 18 months. One female was present in the same area three years after she was colour-banded, and a male five years after he was banded. However, a few home ranges were vacated and new ones set up, suggesting that pairs or groups may move within or between breeding seasons. The groups themselves may be quite fluid, with individuals joining and leaving, though more individuals need to be colour-banded to investigate the dynamics of group composition. This mobility and the large home ranges make it difficult to find Hooded Robins, especially in the non-breeding season. Consequently, disappearances from a site may represent changes in home ranges rather than local extinctions. In conclusion, the reasons why Hooded Robins are so scarce in New England are unclear. More quantitative data are needed to compare the habitat in sites with Hooded Robins and those without, in an attempt to identify critical resources that the species requires. The smallest patch with Hooded Robins (and Eastern Yellow Robins) found by Ford et al. (1995) was 20 ha, a typical home range for the former. However, there are many patches considerably larger than this near Armidale that lack Hooded Robins, but have Yellow Robins (for instance Eastwood State Forest at 240 ha). The descriptions of habitat in this study suggest that Hooded Robins can tolerate some degree of clearing and grazing, especially in the non-breeding season. However, as clearing becomes more extensive, as livestock browse shrubs and regenerating eucalypts and as mature trees suffer dieback, it may be harder for Robins to breed successfully, even though they can still forage adequately. Acknowledgements We thank the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau for providing a scholarship for Lulu Lusianti Fitri, and the Worldwide Fund for Nature, Zoology Department of the University of New England and TransGrid for providing financial assistance for surveys. We are grateful to Pitra Widianwari for encouragement throughout the project, Stephen Debus for advice at various stages, Stuart Cairns for statistical assistance, Louise Percival for preparing the figures and John AUSTRALIAN 154 FITRI & FORD BIRD WATCHER

Humphreys for providing the recent records of Hooded Robins from the University of New England. Bruce Lindenmayer kindly provided information on the Canberra Ornithologists Group's material on the status of Hooded Robins in the A.C.T. We also thank Doug Robinson and Richard Major for their perceptive comments on a draft of the manuscript.

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