Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30

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Quaternary Science Reviews

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Late occupation of the hyperarid core in the , northern

Claudio Latorre a,b, Calogero M. Santoro c,d,*, Paula C. Ugalde d, Eugenia M. Gayo c,d, Daniela Osorio d, Carolina Salas-Egaña e, Ricardo De Pol-Holz f,g, Delphine Joly c,d, Jason A. Rech h a Departamento de Ecología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Alameda 340, Santiago, Chile b Institute of Ecology & Biodiversity (IEB), Casilla 653, Santiago, Chile c Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Antofagasta 1520, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile d Centro de Investigaciones del Hombre en el Desierto (CIHDE), Av. General Velásquez 1775, Arica, Chile e Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Tarapacá, 18 de Septiembre 2222, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile f Earth System Science Department, University of California at Irvine, B321 Croul Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA g Departamento de Oceanografía, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C, Barrio Universitario s/n, Concepción, Chile h Department of Geology and Environmental Earth Science, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA article info abstract

Article history: Few archeological sites in South America contain uncontroversial evidence for when the first peopling of Received 27 December 2012 the continent occurred. Largely ignored in this debate, extreme environments are assumed either as Received in revised form barriers to this early wave of migration or without potential for past habitability. Here, we report on a 10 June 2013 rare 12e13 ka human occupation from Quebrada Maní (site QM12), a plantless, near rainless landscape Accepted 12 June 2013 (1240 m asl and 85 km from the Pacific Ocean) located in the hyperarid core of the Atacama Desert. This Available online 4 August 2013 location harbored and riparian woodlands that were fed by increased rainfall further east in the central Andes during the latest Pleistocene. Excavations at QM12 yielded a diverse cultural assemblage of Keywords: fi Early Americans lithics, burned and cut bones, marine gastropods, , plant bers, and wooden artifacts alongside fi Atacama a prepared replace. Sixteen radiocarbon dates from site QM12 on charcoal, marine shells, animal dung, plant remains and wood reveal that the occupation took place between 12.8 and 11.7 ka. These results Hyperarid environments demonstrate that the Atacama Desert was not a barrier to early American settlement and dispersal, and provide new clues for understanding the cultural complexity and diversity of the peopling of South America during the Last Glacialeinterglacial transition. Ó 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

1. Introduction 1996; Schmidt, 2004), the coastal Desert (Sandweiss, 2008; Lavallée et al., 2011; Salazar et al., 2011) and the temperate regions A diverse array of late Pleistocene sites (>12 ka) are revealing the of southern South America (Dillehay,1997; Massone, 2004)(Fig.1A). history of human occupation of South America (Borrero, 2001; Just how early this peopling occurred is still under dispute (Lynch, Núñez et al., 2002; Borrero, 2008; Goebel et al., 2008; Meltzer, 1991; Meltzer, 2005; Waters et al., 2011) as few sites have robust 2009; Steele and Politis, 2009; Maldonado et al., 2010) across chronologies (Kelly, 2003). Of these, Monte Verde (site MV II, most of the major biomes, including the tropics (Roosevelt et al., southern Chile) dated to 14.5 ka (Dillehay, 2000) is among the old- est, although new evidence shows an occupation that could be almost as old (14.2 ka) in northern Peru (Dillehay et al., 2012). Questions remain, however, regarding the migration paths taken (coastal and inland routes) (Rothhammer and Dillehay, 2009; Reich et al., 2012; Roewer et al., 2013) and the timing of early American settlement and attendant diversification into distinct regional cul- * Corresponding author. Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, tural processes (Dillehay, 2000; Borrero, 2006; Jackson et al., 2012). Antofagasta 1520, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile. Tel.: þ56 58 2255371; fax: þ56 58 2255371. We present the chronological and paleoenvironmental context E-mail address: [email protected] (C.M. Santoro). for a late Pleistocene archaeological site with extraordinary

0277-3791 Ó 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.008 20 C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30

Fig. 1. Western South America and location of site Quebrada Maní 12. A. Early sites older than 12 ka: 1- Pampa de los Fósiles (Chauchat et al., 2004), 2- Huaca Prieta (Dillehay et al., 2012), 3- Guitarrero (Jolie et al., 2011), 4- Quebrada Jaguay (Sandweiss et al., 1998), 5- Quebrada Tacahuay (deFrance and Umire, 2004), 6- Tuina Cave (Núñez et al., 2002), 7- La Chimba (Llagostera, 1979), 8- Tulán 109 (Núñez et al., 2002), 9- Salar de Punta Negra-1 (Grosjean et al., 2005), 10- Santa Julia (Jackson et al., 2007), 11- San Ramón (Salazar et al., 2011), 12- Tagua Tagua (Núñez et al., 1994), 13- Monte Verde (Dillehay, 2000), 14- Cueva Lago Sofía 1 (Massone, 2004), 15- Cueva Fell (Bird, 1988). B. Quebrada Maní floodpain with location of the Pleistocene terrace (T2.5, yellow dash) inset into the late Miocene T1 terraces (outlined in red dash) and active drainage, the aea0 line corresponds to the cross- section shown in Fig. 3 (Image source: SAF 1:50,000 air photo). The QM12 site (orange dash) is mapped along with lithic concentrations and isolated artifacts (pale green dots) and excavation QM12c, (red dot). C. Photograph of site QM12 surface looking northeast. D. Panoramic view of the Quebrada Maní Pleistocene floodplain looking east toward Sierra Moreno (the photo was taken from site QM12c). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

preservation located within the extreme hyperarid core of the Workman, 2012), however, indicates that discrete local oases (i.e. Atacama Desert (21 S, w1200 m asl). This is a vast and near rainless paleowetlands) within the inland Atacama Desert could have sus- expanse akin to e and used as an analog for e the surface of Mars tained human populations at the end of the Pleistocene (Santoro (Fletcher et al., 2012; Valdivia-Silva et al., 2012). No other late et al., 2011). Hence, a potential archeological record could exist in Pleistocene archaeological sites are known from this extreme hy- these extreme environments, as preservation (even of organic re- perarid core (Fig. 2). In fact, late Pleistocene sites previously mains) would be favored by both hyperaridity and landscape discovered in the Atacama Desert occur either at much higher stability. elevation (3000 m asl, Grosjean et al., 2005) or along the coast Site QM12 (1240 m asl, 85 km inland from the Pacific coast) is (Sandweiss, 2008; Dillehay, 2011)(Fig. 2) under very different located adjacent to Quebrada Maní, a hyperarid drainage situated ecological conditions. After presenting the age and environmental in the southernmost portion of the Pampa del Tamarugal (PDT). context of this archaeological site, we discuss how the presence of The PDT is one of the largest closed inland basins in northern this site is related to past climate change as as its relevance for Chile (Rojas and Dassargues, 2007). The site is situated on a small searching for evidence of the first peopling of the South American remnant (w200 1000 m) of the late Miocene T1 alluvial fan continent. surface (Nester et al., 2007) located just to the north of the modern drainage (Fig. 1B). During the late Pleistocene, however, 2. Regional setting this erosional remnant was situated in the middle of an active floodplain (T2) of Quebrada Maní. The T2 terraces in this region of Stretching from the Pacific Ocean up to 4000 m asl along the the Atacama abound with wood (both in situ and transported) and western Andean slope, the Atacama Desert spans more than 12 of in situ leaf-litter remains (Nester et al., 2007). Thirty-one AMS latitude and harbors environments considered some of the most (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) 14C dates at Quebrada Maní and extreme on Earth including the hyperarid core (<2300 m asl), other nearby localities indicate that these terraces and associated where rainfall events occur only a few times per century (Houston, vegetation grew during an interval between 17.6 and 11.4 ka 2006). Until very recently, there was little to indicate that the (Nester et al., 2007; Gayo et al., 2012a). These ancient riparian and Atacama was less extreme in the prehistoric past, and therefore was ecosystems were maintained by perennial streams and not explored intensely for early American archaeological sites, elevated groundwater tables (Nester et al., 2007; Gayo et al., despite the incredible preservation afforded by the extreme aridity. 2012a). The implication is that the overall local environment Given the above, it is not surprising that very few archeological remained hyperarid (no local rainfall) but with increased avail- studies or surveys have been carried out in this region. New ability of freshwater (i.e. a desert oasis- see also Gayo et al., paleoecological and geomorphologic evidence (Gayo et al., 2012a; 2012a). They were coeval with two distinct pluvial episodes C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30 21

Fig. 2. Early archeological sites (with the oldest age of human occupation in calibrated 14C years BP) along the western Andean slope between 16 and 25S. Dark dots: coastal sites, Green dots: sites located at elevations above 3000 m asl. Yellow area describes the extension of the Atacama Desert hyperarid core. Note that the QM site represents the first late Pleistocene (and oldest in northern Chile) site discovered within this extreme environment. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

(17.6e13.8 ka, 12.7e9.7 ka) associated with the Central Andean 3. Materials and methods Pluvial Event (CAPE) that occurred throughout the central Andes (Quade et al., 2008; Placzek et al., 2009). Such ecosystems would We used paleoecological, stratigraphic, and geomorphologic ev- have constituted attractive, conspicuous oases and biogeographic idence (Nester et al., 2007; Gayo et al., 2012a) to guide archeological corridors for groups of hunter-gatherers in an otherwise hyper- surveys toward possible human habitats during the late Pleistocene. arid, barren landscape. The late Pleistocene setting is in stark Our strategy was successful and resulted in the discovery of an contrast with the modern day landscape that is devoid of surface open archeological site (QM12) in Quebrada Maní (Fig. 1BeD). water, lacks vegetation, and is currently uninhabited (see Gayo To reconstruct the local late Pleistocene environment of the et al., 2012b). region adjacent to the archaeological site, we examined late 22 C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30

Pleistocene surficial deposits, collected organic material for radio- 4. Results carbon dating, and identified plant macrofossils when possible. We paid special attention to changes in sedimentology and strati- Our surveys along the Quebrada Maní drainage identified at graphic unconformities that could reveal changes in depositional least two different periods of prehistoric human occupation. A late environments in this area over time. Pleistocene occupational phase from w12.8 to 11.7 ka was discov- The entire surface of the QM12 terrace (w207,000 m2)was ered on the surface of a T1 labeled “QM12” (Figs. 1B and 3 see intensively surveyed and mapped for archeological evidence below). Evidence of a second and later occupation is indicated by (Fig. 1B). Both isolated and groups of artifacts, mostly lithic cultivated fields, canals, and ceramics on the lower and unifacial and bifacial , were logged. Other remains found Pleistocene terraces (Fig. 3) situated w5 m below the T1 terrace on the surface include marine gastropods, two sherds, (Nester et al., 2007). These younger sites were abandoned as malachite fragments, and concentrations of a few bone micro- recently as 680 years ago and were part of an occupation that fragments. The only architectural features found correspond to coincided with increased fluvial output in Quebrada Maní during three rock ovals located in the southwest corner of the terrace. the late (Gayo et al., 2012b). Three sectors with superficial bone micro-fragments were then selected for archeological 50 50 cm test pits (QM12a, b, and c) and 4.1. Paleoenvironment setting excavated in layers following natural stratigraphic changes as a guide. Sediment color, grain size and hardness were all criteria used Site QM12 is situated atop a small erosional remnant of the late to establish these levels. Test pit QM12c yielded abundant cultural Miocene alluvial fan surface defined as Terrace 1 (T1) by Nester material and was expanded into a 2 2 m archeological excavation. et al. (2007) (Fig. 3). This surface is devoid of vegetation, covered We recorded a w30 cm stratigraphic profile from the exposed by a desert pavement, and blanketed by a well-developed sulfate south wall of the excavation making a special note of disturbed soil composed of anhydrite and gypsum. It is situated above the late surfaces, interspersed and/or transported clasts, and other salient Pleistocene stream deposits (T2 surfaces) and therefore would have or otherwise unusual or unexpected features. Transport and alter- remained dry and afforded a view of the surrounding landscape ation of the site was also evaluated by taking 30% of the total lithic during the late Pleistocene. The T1 surface probably lacked vege- assemblage sampled (excluding microflakes: <6 mm) from the tation during the occupation of QM12 as there is no evidence for excavated area and analyzing it to look for conjoining lithics across sustained increases in precipitation during the late Pleistocene at horizontal levels and vertical levels. this elevation (Nester et al., 2007; Gayo et al., 2012a). During the Technological analyses of lithic tools follow theoretical and CAPE, increased stream discharge and widespread deposition of a methodological principles proposed by Andrefsky (2005). Recov- sequence (T2, T2.5, T2.7) of fluvial conglomerate terraces occurred ered charcoal fragments were taxonomically identified from wood in Quebrada Maní and in drainages to the north and south between anatomical analyses (Marguerie and Hunot, 2007; Joly et al., 17.6 and 11.4 ka (Nester et al., 2007; Gayo et al., 2012a). The late 2009). Marine shells and insect remains were identified to the Pleistocene channel (T2.5) of Quebrada Maní was broad (w1 km) at highest taxonomic level possible by specialists (see Acknowledg- this locality and separated by isolated erosional remnants of the T1 ments) and comparisons to reference collections. terrace (Fig. 3). Leaf litter deposits consisting of Escallonia angusti- Nineteen archeological samples (charcoal, seashells, animal folia leaves are common and in many places are buried by hillslope dung, wood and other plant remains) were selected for AMS colluvium from the T1 terrace filled with gypsum and anhydrite radiocarbon dating at two different laboratories (UGAMS- Center salts. Two samples of these leaf litter deposits yielded calibrated for Applied Isotopes, University of Georgia; UCIAMS- W.M. Keck radiocarbon ages of 16.1 and 17.2 ka (Table 1) and indicate the Carbon Cycle Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, University presence of riparian woodlands in these channels. Therefore, the of California at Irvine) (Table 1). Additionally, non-cultural plant late Pleistocene fluvial conglomerates pre-date the occupation of remains from in situ paleoecological deposits preserved on the late QM12. Late Pleistocene wetland deposits overlie the fluvial con- Pleistocene terraces adjacent to the site were also dated (Table 1, glomerates to the north of the QM12. Initial radiocarbon dates of also see Gayo et al., 2012a). Radiocarbon dates were calibrated these deposits indicate that the uppermost paludal facies are using CALIB 6.0 (INTCAL09 calibration curve, median probability w17 ka in age and therefore also pre-date human occupation in this method at 2-sigma) (Stuiver et al., 2005; Reimer et al., 2009). For area (Workman, 2012). marine samples, a 400-yr local marine correction was A few outcrops of latest Pleistocene deposits were also identi- applied (De Pol-Holz et al., 2010). All ages reported are given in fied. On top of a small remnant of T2.5, a herbaceous stem within thousands of calendar years before present (ka). fluvial overbank silts yielded a calibrated radiocarbon age of 13.4 ka

Fig. 3. A northesouth geologic cross section of Quebrada Maní with location of site QM12. C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30 23

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates on QM12 archeological samples and on paleoecological remains collected on late Pleistocene terraces at Quebrada ManÌ.

Site N Level Lab Codea 14C age Median probability 2s (cal. yrs BP) Material dated (cal yrs BP)b

Archeological samples QM12b 2 UCIAMS 84345 10,155 25 11,860 95/100 Charcoal QM12b 2 UGAMS 7048 10,390 30 12,265 115/120 Charcoal QM12c 1 UCIAMS 84346 12,420 35 14,480 290/155 Charcoal QM12c 1 UGAMS 7049c 10,800 30 12,675 60/45 Charcoal QM12c 1 UCIAMS 89014 4580 20 5310 10/10 Fibrous plant material QM12c 2 UCIAMS 89016 13,920 40 16,980 105/90 Charcoal QM12c 2 UCIAMS 89015 10,080 25 11,660 150/95 Fibrous plant material QM12c 2 UCIAMS 89019 10,505 25 12,480 60/60 Fibrous plant material QM12c 2 UCIAMS 89020 10,120 25 11,760 120/185 Fibrous plant material QM12c 2 UCIAMS 89458 10,655 25 12,600 (12,200)d 40/25 Marine gastropod QM12c 3 UGAMS 8241 10,130 30 11,790 80/165 Wood QM12c 3 UGAMS 8242 10,220 30 11,955 125/90 Wood QM12c 3 UGAMS 8243 10,340 30 12,180 110/195 Wood QM12c 3 UCIAMS 89017 10,160 25 11,870 100/90 Fibrous plant material QM12c 3 UCIAMS 89022 10,360 30 12,220 115/160 Animal dung QM12c 4, feature 13 UCIAMS 89018 10,930 30 12,790 80/80 Charcoal QM12c 4 UCIAMS 89021 10,165 25 11,875 105/90 Fibrous plant material QM12c 5 UCIAMS 84347 10,365 25 12,230 105/150 Charcoal QM12c 5 UGAMS 7050e 10,210 30 11,920 95/110 Charcoal Paleoecological (non-cultural) samples QM4f T2 surface CAMS 131272 13,190 35 16,100 670/520 Escallonia angustifolia leaves QM15Ag T2,5 surface UGAMS 4066 10,260 40 12,020 200/180 In situ (cf. Stipae sp) stem QM15Bg T2,5 surface UGAMS 4561 10,110 30 11,740 320/230 In situ (cf. Stipae sp) stem QM17g T2,5 surface UGAMS 4562 10,030 40 11,530 200/220 In situ (cf. Stipae sp) stem QM19g T2,5 surface UGAMS 4564 9960 40 11,380 130/230 In situ (cf. Stipae sp) stem QM22B T2,5 surface UCIAMS 84740 10,120 430 11,730 1230/1060 In situ root remains within a silty matrix mound QM31 T2,5 surface UCIAMS 84738 14,155 35 17,210 260/320 Escallonia angustifolia leaves QM32 T2 surface UCIAMS 84340 11,525 35 13,370 100/100 Herbaceous stem under a rock

a Lab codes are UGAMS (Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia), UCIAMS (Keck Carbon Cycle AMS Facility, University of California Irvine) and CAMS (Lawrence Livermore National Labs, Berkeley, California). b Calibrated using CALIB 6.0 with INTCAL09 (Reimer et al., 2009). c Replicated radiocarbon determination of UCIAMS 84346. Samples statistically different at 95% level. T-Test ¼ 36.21311, c2 ¼ 3.84 at a ¼ 0.05. d Age in parenthesis is after a 400-yr marine carbon correction (De Pol-Holz et al., 2010). e Replicated radiocarbon determination of UCIAMS 84347. Samples statistically different at 95%. T-Test ¼ 15.7541, c2 ¼ 3.84 at a ¼ 0.05. f Reported previously in Nester et al. (2007). g Reported previously in Gayo et al. (2012a).

(Table 1). At several locations on top of the T2.5 terrace, we iden- 12.5 and 11.7 ka (Fig. 6). Eight AMS 14C dates on surface leaf-litter tified eolian sandsheet deposits (<1 m thick) capped by red silt deposits and other organic non-cultural remains from the Pleisto- floodplain deposits. Within these deposits, rooted plants of Equi- cene surfaces within Quebrada Maní yielded a spread of ages be- setum sp. (horsetails) were found along with grasses (Stipae). tween 17.2 and 11.4 ka (Table 1). Calibrated radiocarbon ages of these in situ plants range from 12.0 to 11.4 ka, contemporaneous with the latter part of the occupation 4.3. Surface assemblage of QM12 (Table 1). Therefore, during the occupation of QM12 (from w12.8 to 11.7 ka- see below), the main channel of Quebrada Maní Many artifacts lie scattered across the surface of QM12 including was to the south of the site adjacent to the modern channel. The lithic debitage and several well-crafted bifacial (Fig. 4A, B) and active floodplain was vegetated and consisted of seasonal marshy unifacial tools, along with a few bone fragments and seashells. The conditions, and encompassed areas to the north and south of QM12 maximum concentration of artifacts occurs along the north-eastern within the T2.5 terrace (Fig. 3). Further paleoecological evidence sector of QM12 and most elevated part of the terrace (Fig. 1B). Lithic comes from anthracological analyses (Joly et al., 2005). Anatomical tools found scattered across the site surface comprise two projectile comparisons between archaeological and reference collection point types that morphologically resemble early Holocene (w10e charcoal made on 1468 charcoal fragments from QM12c (levels 2e 11 ka) Andean typologies (Osorio et al., 2011; Santoro et al., 2011): 4, see Section 4.4) revealed the presence of Myrica pavonis, a ri- (1) triangular stemmed projectile points similar to those known parian willow-like tree that no longer occurs today at Quebrada from Las Cuevas (Fig. 4C) and (2) “Patapatane” projectile points Maní but is occasionally found in the valleys of northern Chile with with barbs either on one or both sides between the and the perennial rivers. stem (Fig. 4D; Santoro, 1989; Osorio et al., 2011). Lithic artifacts from the surface are made from fine-grained local 4.2. Chronology (i.e. quartzitic sandstone) and extra-local raw material (i.e. silicified limestone, opal, and jasper). The quartzitic sandstones and other Age control is provided by 19 AMS radiocarbon dates from levels fine-grained, igneous dark rocks, all locally available and abundant 1e5 at QM12b (2 samples) and QM12c (17 samples) (Table 1). Eight on the surface of QM12, are the only raw materials for which the charcoal ages span between 17 and 11.9 ka, although 10 14C dates on complete operational sequence (from nodule to formalized ) other cultural remains including plant fibers, wood and wooden can be reconstructed. In contrast, imported raw materials include artifacts, animal dung and a gastropod shell yielded ages between medium and final stages of lithic elaboration especially retouch and 24 C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30

Fig. 4. Surface lithic tools from QM12 site. A. Thin, elongated bifacial tool; B. Naturally broken bifacial tool reworked in one margin as a burinant point, and as a side-; C. Triangular stemmed projectile points that resemble “Las Cuevas-type”;D.“Patapatane” reworked . All scale bars are 2.5 cm. bifacial trimming flakes, as well as formalized tools. The silicified pavement is underlain by light orange-brown pedogenic silt that limestone and white opals were one of the most common imported is weakly cemented with gypsum and anhydrite (Avyz horizon) raw materials, likely transported from an outcrop w20 km to the and known locally as chusca (Fig. 5). This level contained char- north of Quebrada Maní. coal, plant remains, animal dung, rock fragments, marine shells (cf. Argobuccinum (Priene) rude), unidentified organic material, 4.4. Stratigraphy and cultural contents and animal bone fragments. Most of the 283 pieces of lithic debitage correspond to retouch flakes and fragments (mostly Excavations at site QM12c revealed five strata or soil horizons marginal debitage pieces), followed by flakes, blades, micro- (Fig. 5). Below we describe the sediments and present the cultural blades, bifacial trimming flakes and undetermined (unclassifi- objects associated with each of the layers, followed by a summary able cultural lithic debris) (Table 2). More than 72% of the lithic of the lithic assemblage. We interpret the site formation processes raw materials are extralocal including mostly white and trans- in the following section. lucent opals, followed by low quantities of silicified limestone, brown/grey opals, jasper and translucent quartz. Local raw Level 1: w5 cm layer of undisturbed desert pavement imbedded materials (w22%) include fine-grained, igneous dark rocks and in grayish, fine to medium sand with small granules that typi- quartzitic sandstone (Table 3). Three AMS dates come from the cally extend over the entire surface of the T1 terrace. The desert first 2 cm of this level. Two of these ages (14.5 and 12.7 ka;

Fig. 5. Photograph and detailed stratigraphy of an exposed section along the southeast wall at QM12c. Note the abundance of charcoal fragments and plant remains in layers 2e4. Red string marks the 0 cm reference. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30 25

Table 2 were recovered (Fig. 7B). We also recovered a fragment of a Lithic debitage distribution by level at QM12c. Numbers in brackets indicate per- cylindrical wooden (28.5 mm in length and 7.9 mm in centages relative to the total debitage in each layer. diameter), with a small orifice on one end and a perimetric Debitage category Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Total beveled cut on the opposite end (Fig. 7C). This artifact is almost Flakes 39 (13.8) 25 (7.0) 23 (5.9) 3 (5.8) 90 (8.3) identical to discarded proximal ends of atlatl shafts Blades 7 (2.5) 0 (0) 1 (0.3) 0 (0) 8 (0.7) described at Quebrada Seca 3 in Antofagasta de la Sierra, Cata- Microblades 3 (1.1) 2 (0.6) 5 (1.3) 0 (0) 10 (0.9) marca, and dated to 11.2 ka (Martinez and Funes Coronel, 2012). Retouch flakes 146 (51.6) 269 (75.4) 295 (75.6) 32 (61.5) 742 (68.6) fl Other salient items found in this level include insect pupae, Bifacial trimming akes 2 (0.7) 9 (2.5) 18 (4.6) 2 (3.8) 31 (2.9) fi Fragments 73 (25.8) 42 (11.8) 36 (9.2) 15 (28.8) 166 (15.3) possibly thermo-fractured rocks, unidenti ed small bone frag- Undetermined 13 (4.6) 10 (2.8) 12 (3.1) 0 (0) 35 (3.2) ments, a marine shell fragment (cf. Concholepas concholepas), Total 283 357 390 52 1082a red granules/dust and a flake with a reddish uniden- a Total debitage does not include 184 flakes obtained from the 70 70 cm test pit tified residue (Fig. 7H). Most of the 390 pieces of lithic debitage initially carried out at QM12c. This test pit was separated into 6 instead of 5 levels, as correspond to retouch flakes, fragments, followed by flakes, occurred in the extended excavation on QM12c. bifacial trimming flakes, undetermined, microblades and blades (Table 2). Around 90% of the lithic raw materials are extralocal and include mostly white and translucent opal, followed by low Table 1; Fig. 6) were obtained from a single in situ charcoal quantities of silicified limestone, brown/grey opal, jasper, sample and dated at two different laboratories. A much younger translucent quartz and fine-medium grained quartz, not found date (5.3 ka) on one plant remain (Table 1) is discussed below. in the previous strata. Local raw materials (w6%) include fine- Level 2: w10 cm of medium to fine-grained sand, tan to light grained, dark igneous rocks and quartzitic sandstone (Table 3). brown, mixed with silt and gypsum/anhydrite. This stratum A prepared fireplace was dug into level 4 (Fig. 8). Two in situ contains no apparent bedding and is non-calcareous. Small wooden sticks (approximately 12e18 cm long by 3e4 cm wide) angular pebbles are present (Fig. 5). This level contains charcoal were found in vertical position in this level, and inserted down and salt concretions with charcoal inclusions, small plant and into level 4. One of these sticks has a prominent v-shaped lon- wood fibers interspersed throughout, burned rocks, marine gitudinal groove and other cultural modifications (Fig. 7E), shells (cf. Nassarius gayi; Fig. 7A), unidentified organic material, whereas the other wooden stick, found near the fireplace, is unidentified small bone fragments, and the remains of a digger partially burned on one end (Fig. 8). Five AMS dates (on animal bee (cf. Apidae). Most of the 357 pieces of lithic debitage dung, fibrous plant material and wooden artifacts) place this correspond to retouch flakes, fragments and undetermined, level between 12.2 and 11.8 ka (Table 1; Fig. 6). followed by flakes, bifacial trimming flakes and microblades Level 4: w4 cm of very fine sands with silt present in discrete (Table 2). More than 88% of the lithic raw materials are extra- pockets (Fig. 5). This level contains charcoal, plant remains, local, including mostly white and translucent opal, followed by unidentified small animal bone fragments e one of these with low quantities of silicified limestone, brown/grey opal, jasper cutmarks (Fig. 7D) e and wood. Most of the 52 pieces of lithic and translucent quartz. Local raw materials (w8%) include fine- debitage correspond to retouch flakes, and fragments, followed grained, dark igneous rocks and quartzitic sandstone (Table 3). by flakes, and bifacial trimming flakes (Table 2). More than 96% Four AMS 14C dates (fibrous plant material and one marine of the lithic raw materials are extralocal. For the most part these gastropod) place this level between 12.6 and 11.7 ka (Table 1; are white and translucent opals, followed by low quantities of Fig. 6), although one additional charcoal date of 17.0 ka could silicified limestone, brown/grey opal, and translucent quartz. have come from old wood used for fuel (see Discussion). Local raw materials (w2%) include fine-grained, dark igneous Level 3: w7 cm of light tan very fine non-calcareous silts and rocks and quartzitic sandstone (Table 3). Two AMS 14C dates (in white salts (anhydrite or gypsum). Thickness is irregular and the situ charcoal, and fibrous plant material) place this level be- layer is not continuous (Fig. 5). Charcoal, animal dung, plant tween 12.8e11.9 ka (Table 1; Fig. 6). remains, and plant fibers coated with a red-stained mixture Level 5: A hardened and irregular pedogenic salt-crust (Byzm soil horizon) of unknown thickness (only the surface of this level was excavated). Small blocks (typically <30 cm) of this indu- Table 3 rated salt crust are also reworked into levels 2e4(Fig. 5). No Lithic debitage raw material distribution by level at QM12c. Numbers in brackets indicate percentages relative to the total debitage in each layer. lithic material or other cultural remains were recovered from this level except for a charcoal sample that returned two Raw material Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Total different AMS 14C dates of 12.2 and 11.9 ka, at different labora- Local fine-grained, 32 (11.3) 14 (3.9) 10 (2.6) 0 (0) 56 (5.2) tories (Table 1). dark rocksa Quartzitic sandstonea 31 (11) 14 (3.9) 13 (3.3) 1 (1.9) 59 (5.5) White and translucent 165 (58.3) 271 (75.9) 306 (78.5) 40 (76.9) 782 (72.3) opalb 4.4.1. Lithic assemblage Silicified limestoneb 23 (8.1) 20 (5.6) 16 (4.1) 3 (5.8) 62 (5.7) Of the 1303 lithic remains found in the four excavated levels the b Brown/grey opal 13 (4.6) 19 (5.3) 19 (4.9) 5 (9.6) 56 (5.2) vast majority consists of debitage (n: 1266, 97.2%) with a few tools b Jasper 4 (1.4) 2 (0.6) 1 (0.3) 0 (0) 7 (0.6) (n: 34, 2.6%), and possibly three cores (0.2%; Table 4). The assem- Translucent quartzb 1 (0.4) 3 (0.8) 3 (0.8) 2 (3.8) 9 (0.8) Fine-medium grained 0 (0) 0 (0) 5 (1.3) 0 (0) 5 (0.5) blage was made mostly of extra-local raw material like white and quartzb translucent opal, followed by low quantities of silicified limestone Others 4 (1.4) 5 (1.4) 10 (2.6) 1 (1.9) 20 (1.8) and brown/grey opal. Nodules were absent with the exception of a fi Unidenti ed 10 (3.5) 9 (2.5) 7 (1.8) 0 (0) 26 (2.4) few medium sized quartzitic sandstones (a locally available source Total 283 357 390 52 1082c of raw material). a Local raw material. Lithic tools are too small to be diagnostic in terms of identifying b Extra-local raw material. full size morphologically early types (n ¼ 20, 58.8% of the total; c Total debitage does not include 184 flakes obtained from a 70 70 cm test pit fi dug initially at QM12c. This test pit was separated into 6 instead of 5 levels, as Table 5). We recognized ve small biface fragments (Fig. 7F), one of occurred in the extended excavation on QM12c. them possibly lanceolated, two fragmented side-scrapers or 26 C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30

Fig. 6. Age distribution versus depth in profile of 16 calibrated radiocarbon ages on cultural remains from the QM12c. Samples labeled 1, 2, 3 and 4 indicate ages for charcoal samples UGAMS-7049, UCIAMS-84346, UGAMS-7050 and UCIAMS-84347, respectively. The graph shows two types of radiocarbon samples: large dots correspond to in situ samples, thus a precise depth was measured; small dots corresponding to tiny materials that turned up in the sieve are placed conventionally in the middle of the respective sample level. Color codes for different materials are black: charcoal, red: animal dung, brown: wooden artifacts, green: plant remains, purple: shell fragments. (For interpretation of the ref- erences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 7. Cultural remains found in stratigraphic context of QM12c (layers 2e4). A. Gastropod shell (cf. Nassarius gayi); B. Red mixture-coated plant fibers; C. Proximal fragment of a wooden artifact, shown in lateral and terminal views and part of an atlatl spear shaft fragment; D. Camelid bone with cut marks; E. Wooden artifact with prominent v-shaped longitudinal groove and other cultural modifications; F. Small biface fragment; G. Marginally-retouched scraper; H. Stained flake (with edge detail shown). All scale bars are 2.5 cm except where noted. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30 27

Fig. 8. Plane view of the prepared fireplace (dotted red line- Feature 4; layers 3 and 4, quad N0W1). The concave enclosure is delimited by a salt concretion along with a rock placed in vertical position with signs of burning and ash adherence ( on the left), and also by a wooden pointed stick that has been burned on its tip (arrow on the right). Grid N1W1 shows the location of two protected pedestals, one containing bone fragments and charcoal, and the other (facing the wall) contains the vertical-oriented wooden artifact (with a prominent v-shaped longitudinal groove, see Fig. 7E). The other grids (N0E0 and N1E0, also indicated) show the base of levels 4 and 5, respectively. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) racloirs, a small marginally retouched and broken scraper (Fig. 7G), 5. Discussion and six very small, possibly retouched fragments. An unretouched flake with a reddish unidentified residue was also found (Fig. 7H). Site QM12 is situated on top of the latest Miocene T1 terrace that These tool kits differ from those observed on the surface, where is capped by a well-developed hyperarid soil. Soils in the Atacama complete instruments including bifaces, are common. Desert are characterized by a series of extremely cemented soil Of the total debitage sample retouch flakes constitute 65.6% horizons where alluvial parent materials are indurated with nitrate, (n ¼ 831), whereas flakes (n ¼ 107, 8.5%), bifacial trimming flakes chloride and sulfate salts and known locally as caliche (Byzm soil (n ¼ 50, 3.9%), blades (n ¼ 11, 0.9%) and microblades (n ¼ 12, 0.9%) horizons; Ericksen, 1981). These highly indurated salic and gypsic are far less common (Table 6). The remaining debitage are either horizons are then capped by a weakly cemented vesicular horizon unidentifiable fragments (mostly marginal pieces of debitage) of eolian dust and sulfate salts known locally as chusca (Avyz soil (n ¼ 216, 17.1%) or “undetermined” (unclassifiable cultural lithic horizon; Ericksen, 1981). The chusca horizons are easily disturbed, debris) (n ¼ 39, 3.1%). and once the weakly cemented soil horizon is loosened by any kind Debitage are small (91.2% 21 mm), lack cortex (Table 4), and of disturbance, the soil is removed by eolian deflation. highly shattered with an average of 77.5% of debitage fragments. By Initial occupation of site QM12 would have disturbed the upper calculating a MNF (Minimal Number of Flakes) the debitage chusca soil horizon causing eolian deflation and creating a deflation assemblage is reduced to 561.5 pieces, almost half of the total pit to a depth of approximately 15 or 20 cm below the surrounding sample. We did not find any conjoined lithics either horizontally or landscape. In turn, this would have provided some protection for vertically, within the excavated area. the people occupying this site from the strong winds that are The lithic assemblage, as a whole, is integrated by retouch typical of the Atacama Desert, although no signs of architecture flakes, fragments (mostly marginal debitage pieces), retouch were found. At site QM12, level 5 is the upper portion of the well flakes, and flakes; derived from the reactivation and regularization of instruments previously made and transported from somewhere into the site. This technological system, related with final stage of Table 5 the , is well represented in the first three levels Tool distribution by raw material at QM12c. Numbers in brackets indicate per- centages relative to the total of each type of tool. (Table 2). No remains of the first stages were observed. Morphological type White and Silicified Brown/grey Total of tool translucent limestone opal Table 4 opal Frequency and percentage for lithic categories from QM12c. Biface fragment 4 (16.7) 1 (20) e 5 (14.7) Side-scraper or Racloir 2 (8.3) ee 2 (5.9) Lithic category Frequency Percentage Scraper e 1 (20) e 1 (2.9) Debitage 1266 97.2 Non diagnostic tool 14 (58.3) 3 (60) 3 (60) 20 (58.8) Tools 34 2.6 fragments Cores 3 0.2 Retouched fragments 4 (16.7) e 2 (40) 6 (17.6) Total 1303 100 Total 24 5 5 34 28 C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30

Table 6 on charcoal of 17 ka, but is underlain by samples that date to 12.2 Frequency and percentage for lithic debitage categories from QM12c. and 11.9 ka, suggesting that the older date is a result of burning old 14 Debitage category Frequency Percentage wood. An AMS C age of 5.3 ka on fibrous plant remains more than

Flakes 107 8.5 likely resulted from surface contamination by younger material Blades 11 0.9 growing in the active drainage which was then blown onto the Microblades 12 0.9 surface of QM12c. Retouch flakes 831 65.6 Until we can confirm that the two older charcoal dates are fl Bifacial trimming akes 50 3.9 indeed from freshly cut or recently deceased wood and not from Fragments 216 17.1 fi Undetermined 39 3.1 wood lying around for thousands of years, we de ned the range of Total 1266 100 occupation as having occurred between 12.8 and 11.7 ka. This does not mean that the site was continuously occupied during this period of time. As the age/depth profile shows several inverted radiocarbon ages (Table 1, Fig. 6), which is to be expected if the site indurated soil horizons (caliche), level 4 is a thin sheet of eolian was visited (and disturbed) intermittently and old wood used for sand that capped this soil, and level 3 e the main occupation layer fuel. People likely excavated into the pre-existing soil profile and of the site e is the original soil chusca horizon. Level 2 represents installed permanent features such as the vertical wooden stick and eolian sands that filled the deflation pit created during the initial the prepared fireplace found at the base of our profile (Fig. 8). We occupation of the site. Hence, charcoal, plant remains, and lithic cannot rule out that some post-depositional vertical migration has material from this layer likely represent re-working of the cultural also occurred (i.e. owing to the presence of tunneling bees or the material from layer 3 below, as well as material associated with re- amount of lithic breakage which could be attributed to trampling occupation of the site. Layer 1 is the modern chusca soil horizon or salt/thermal shattering). The uncovered in situ elements, how- that formed from eolian gypsic dust that has been weakly cemented ever, such as the prepared fireplace, large rocks, buried wooden by occasional precipitation events. This soil horizon formed after artifacts, and the presence of flat-lying lithics (i.e. not inclined the deflation pit was filled with eolian sands, which would have vertically) indicate that post-depositional processes, although occurred quickly after the site was no longer in use after 11.7 ka. present, did not completely modify or erase the remains of cul- The fact that this natural soil profile is visible at QM12c, implies tural activities. As the excavated levels show no clear chronolog- that when abandoned, the original site stratigraphy was modified ical order or age increase with depth (Fig. 6), and because the lithic by soil and surficial processes. Thus, it is important to note that the assemblage shows no apparent technological differences, we excavated stratigraphic levels were separated based on changes in discuss the artifacts, features and associated activities as an un- texture and color, and that levels 1 to 2 are a soil horizon and not a divided occupational phase. stratigraphic layer, formed during and after the actual human Several features reveal that different activities occurred at QM12 occupation of the site. during the period including (1) lithic tool elaboration, (2) hunting, What little evidence exists for surface disturbance includes two butchering, food prepping, (spit), and consumption pottery sherds and a few malachite fragments. These could have (charred and cut bones), (3) fireplace arrangement (presence of been brought by early farmers that arrived at Quebrada Maní by several localized pockets of charcoal as well as a large prepared 2.3 ka (Gayo et al., 2012b). Aside from the occasional incursions fireplace), and (4) two wooden sticks vertically positioned in situ, onto the QM12 surface, the occupants of the intensive farming for which we do not have a clear explanation, but possibly were fields that took place on the lower terraces (T2 and T2.5, Fig. 3) did part of device to set and tie up animal skins or used as a spit for not camp or build structures at QM12. Activities in low terraces cooking over a fire. Other activities included woodworking, show a scarce use of non-local lithic raw material, especially opals, pigment preparation, and the introduction of marine gastropod but no obsidian (an exotic raw material). Also found on the lower shells. The shells are too small for use as a food resource and the terraces are lithic shovels made from local medium grained rocks, natural perforations along their apertures indicate that they may which are not present at QM12. Farmers abandoned the Quebrada have been selected for decorative purposes. as recently as 680 years ago (Gayo et al., 2012b). Other perturbation This evidence shows that aside from subsistence tasks, the site of QM12 surface is also evidenced by a few tire tracks made by off- was used for other social activities possibly comprising body road vehicles. decoration, rituals and art. The presence of gastropods from the Further evidence for site intactness after the late Pleistocene Pacific coast (>85 km away) also point to the mobility and occupation is provided by a lithic conjoining analysis that revealed resourcefulness of the QM occupants. Among our findings is an no conjoining fragments vertically within the excavation. An obsidian retouch flake. This raw material was imported from the alternative explanation for this pattern could stem from the fact high Andes and the closest known obsidian sources are found that the majority of the lithics are retouch flakes from instruments w300 km to the southeast of the site (Cerro Zapaleri and Vilama that have not been found in 4 m2 of the excavated area. We also did Caldera) along the border between Bolivia, Argentina and Chile not find conjoining fragments of instruments in the excavated (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011; Capriles and Albarracin- material. Moreover, a conjoining analysis requires other compo- Jordan, 2012). nents of the operational sequence, such as cores and bifaces, which We point out three salient aspects of the lithic at were scarce in the excavation. QM12 found in the excavations: (1) the preponderance of final Nineteen AMS 14C ages from our excavations at QM12 span from stages of the reduction sequence (i.e. high frequency of retouch 17 to 5.3 ka (Table 1). We are cautious of charcoal dates older than flakes, and very few bifacial trimming flakes, flakes, cores, and 13 ka (especially the 17 ka date) as these could be the product of old tools. Both cores and tools are fragmented and exhausted); (2) the wood common on the T2.5 terrace and utilized for fuel by the early absence of heavy items (i.e. those not easily transported); and (3) a inhabitants, a situation already documented for other (younger) predominant use of extra-local high quality raw materials. In sites along the coastal Atacama (Kennett et al., 2002). Old wood can addition, the shows that the Quebrada Maní oc- even be found readily today on the surface or buried in the late cupants were highly skilled knappers that mostly used bifacial Pleistocene terraces (Gayo et al., 2012a). For instance, a prepared reduction. Tools and prepared cores were carried to the site from at fireplace located near the base of our excavation has an in situ date least one source of high quality extra-local raw material (opal and C. Latorre et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 77 (2013) 19e30 29 silicified limestone). These materials were preferred over the demonstrates the importance and potential of identifying “paleo- locally available fine-grained, dark igneous rocks during the initial habitats” in marginal or extreme environments. Such studies hold occupation. much promise for revealing more clues regarding the complexity, In contrast, the surface lithic assemblage of QM12 recorded from diversity, and antiquity of the peopling of the Americas. our survey demonstrates an extended use of local raw materials showing complete operational sequences, including discarded un- finished and completed tools. Yet the same high quality extra-local Acknowledgments rocks were still transported to the site. Hence, the stratigraphic lithic assemblage indicates that a curatorial strategy was likely Funding was provided by FONDECYT grands #1120454 (to CL applied at QM12. and CMS), #1070140 (to CL and CMS), #3130668 (to EMG) and The decrease from top to bottom in the use of local raw mate- #3120251 (to DJ). We acknowledge the ongoing support from the rials (which is concomitant with an increase of extralocal raw IEB (ICM P05-002 and PFB-23) and CIHDE (CONICYT-Regional materials and a reduction of the initial steps of the lithic opera- R07K1001). We thank L Briones, A Flores, A Vilca, M Ramos, C tional sequence) is the only technological difference found at Santoro, N Villavicencio, MI Mujica, F Díaz, S Fernández, P Villegas, QM12. Besides, the overall lack of technological changes across the M Frugone, K Herrera and S Rodríguez for their help in the field and different levels implies that during the entire late Pleistocene the laboratory. We thank N Blanco (SERNAGEOMIN), M Rivadeneira occupation, the inhabitants of QM12 maintained the same tech- (CEAZA) and M Sepúlveda (UTA) for helping us in the identification nological tradition. of lithic provenance, gastropods, and coated vegetal fibers, The site occupational chronology is coeval with a second phase respectively. T Dillehay and M Aubert are thanked for insights of floodplain aggradation and perennial river flow over the T2.5 during site visits in March 2011 and March 2012, respectively. J terrace surface at Quebrada Maní, which has been linked to the Quade, T Lynch, B Meggers, D Sandweiss, JL Betancourt, R March second event of the CAPE (Gayo et al., 2012a; Workman, 2012). and C Aschero provided comments to different versions of this Stratigraphic evidence and direct radiocarbon dating of in situ plant manuscript. P Salgado and H Orellana helped with the figures. We remains reveals the presence of marshy floodplain environment are grateful to A Valentin, L Briones, C Hidalgo and T Núñez for their when people occupied QM12. hospitality. Site QM12 was contemporaneous with and/or older than late Pleistocene sites further south and at higher elevations in the Atacama Desert (Grosjean et al., 2005). For example, QM12 is most References similar in terms of age and paleoenvironmental context to the latest Pleistocene site at Salar de Punta Negra 1 (SPN-1; Fig. 2, dated from Albarracin-Jordan, J., Capriles, J.M., 2011. The Paleoamerican occupation of Cueva 12.6 to 10.2 ka) which is w350 km south and located at 2976 m asl Bautista: Late-Pleistocene human evidence from the Bolivian Highlands. Archaeol. Latin Am. 28, 95e98. (Grosjean et al., 2005). Both sites show a great density of lithic ar- Andrefsky, W., 2005. Lithics: Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis, second ed. tifacts on the surface and a variety of projectile points and both sites Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. were associated with wetlands or permanent water within a hy- Bird, J.B., 1988. Travels and Archaeology in South Chile. University of Iowa Press, Iowa. perarid context, although SPN is at a considerably higher altitude Borrero, L.A., 2001. El poblamiento de la Patagonia. In: Toldos, milodones y volcanes. and receives slightly more rainfall today (>20 mm/yr, Grosjean Emecé editores, Buenos Aires. et al., 2005). As at QM12, past fluctuations in climate associated Borrero, L.A., 2006. Paleoindians without Mammoths and archaeologists without projectile points? The archaeology of the first inhabitants of the Americas. In: with the second phase of CAPE was the likely factor behind wetland Morrow, J.E., Gnecco, C. (Eds.), Paleoindian Archaeology. A Hemispheric development at SPN (Quade et al., 2008). Perspective. 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