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Chemical abundances in closed-box, open-box and infall models; multi-component treatment

M. Forusova, S. Pucher, M. Zendel

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box

Ø : • Chemical Elements • Origin and Abundances • àToday‘s Overview • Formation Processes ØUniverse's 'element factories' Ø Models: • Parameters • Closed-box and open-box • Multi-component

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 2 Nucleosynthesis

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 3

Periodic Table of Chemical Elements

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 4 Chemical Elements and

• Characterized by the number of . • 118 elements have been identified. • Some elements are not stable and have only radioactive isotopes. • Isotopes have the same number of protons but different number of . • Isotopes of the same element have identical chemical properties (Some elements have up to 36 known isotopes, e.g. Xe!). • Most isotopes are radioactive and decay with a specific halflife. • Decay modes: β- ,β+,α , sf

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 5

Abundance of Chemical Elements (1)

Abundances in the https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosynthesis

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 6 Abundance of Chemical Elements (2)

• The abundance of a is a measure of how often you can find it relative to all other chemical elements in a given environment. • Mainly expressed in mass fractions • The abundance of elements in the and outer is similar to that in the universe. • All chemical elements except H and He are considered . • is the mass fraction of all metals. • Metallicity is usually expressed as the of the ratio of a 's abundance compared to that of the Sun

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 7

Big Bang: Nucleosynthesis (1)

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 8 Big Bang: Nucleosynthesis (2) • - ratio were set in the first second after the Big Bang. • The universe was almost homogenous, and strongly radiation-dominated. • Within the first few minutes à nucleon gas cooled and p and n fused to D ( 2H) • Still hot enough to fuse D to 4He ( α), and minor amounts of T ( 3H), 3He 7Li • Too cool after expansion to support further fusion to higher elements • mass abundances: Ø 75% 1H (proton) Ø 25% 4He Ø ~0.01% 2H ,3H, 3He and Ø trace amounts (on the order of 10 −10 ) of

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 9

Primordial Nucleosynthesis (3)

• Be-Bottleneck due to short halflife of 8 -17 Be ( τ1/2 = 6.7*10 s) • Plasma of 1H, 2H , ( 3H), 3He, 4He (will recombine with much later when falls below 3000 Kàend of dark age) 3 • free neutrons (τ1/2 = 10.2 min) and H (τ1/2 = 12.32 y) will die away. • All other elements are produced by using different nuclear processes!

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 10 B2FH • Most cited paper in Cosmology!

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 11

§ α – process: • pp – chains • triple α – process • CNO – cycle Element • α – ladder Formation in Stars § shell – burning § s – process § r – process § p – process § fission and

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 12 Proton-Proton Chain Reaction (1)

• Dominant fusion process for ! <= !" (majority of stars) • “soup” of electrons and ionized atomic nuclei in the center. • Two protons form nucleus that fuses further with a proton à He-3 • Two He-3 nuclei will combine à He-4 nucleus + 2 protons (86%)

1 4 + 41H®2 He + 2e + 2n e + 2g + 26 2, MeV https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 13

Proton-Proton Chain Reaction (2)

• T > 14 million K: He-3 fuses with a pre-existing He-4 nucleus à Be-7 nucleus à capture ( reverse of β-decay) à Li-7 nucleus à +proton à Be-8 à split into two He-4 nuclei. • Alternatively, Be-7 can combine with a proton à B-8 à Be-8 à 2 He-4 nuclei. • He-3 nucleus + proton à He-4 + electron and a (change one proton à neutron).

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 14 CNO Cycle

• Dominant process for stars > 1.3 M" • C-12nucleus + proton à N-13 nucleus à emission à C-13 à +proton à N-14 à +proton à O-15 à à N-15 à +proton à C-12 +He-4. • Cycle produces He-4 + 26.7 MeV. • C, N and O act as catalysts (unchanged from their original form at the end of each cycle). • Variations of the CNO cycle à N-15, O-16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNO_cycle

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 15

• Fusion of He-nuclei Triple- • C-12 nucleus by the fusion of three alpha particles • Two-stage process: 2 alpha particles à Be-8 à +alpha à C-12. • Be-8 is extremely unstable à decays quickly to He nuclei. • At T > 100 million the second stage proceeds faster than the Be-8 nucleus can decay. • T > 100 million only reached in the cores of most massive stars https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple-alpha_process • Q/m (C-12) = 5.9 ×1017 erg/g ( ≈ 1/10 of H - burning)

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 16 Alpha Ladder

• Once sufficient 12 C has been produced by triple alpha • Heavier elements are formed by ( α ,γ) reactions à O, Ne, Mg , Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti, Cr and Fe.

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 17

Shell burning (1)

• Stars with M > 8 M" create high and densities • C can fuse with C, thereafter Ne with Ne, etc. à Onion-like structure • Examples: • 2C-12 → Mg -24 # → Ne -20 + α + 4.6 MeV ($ 50%) • 2C-12 → Mg -24 # → Na-23 + p + 2.2MeV ($ 50%) • 2N-20 → O-16+Mg-24 +4.6MeV ( $ 95%)

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 18 Shell burning (2)

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 19

s-process (1)

• S-process produces ~ 50% of the isotopes of elements heavier than iron à important role in the galactic chemical . • Rate of by atomic nuclei is slow relative to the rate of radioactive beta-minus decay. • Subsequent β- decay moves nucleus up the periodic table of elements. • Low neutron density and intermediate temperature conditions

• Process can occur in AGB-stars (late red-giant stage for M > 0.6 M" < 10 M" ) • The elements heavier than iron with origins in large stars are typically those produced by the s-process, which is characterized by slow neutron diffusion and capture over long periods in such stars.

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 20 s-process (2)

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 21

r-process

• r-process is a ‘rapid’ version of the s -process • Happens in SN core collapse, maybe in merger with a in a binary system. • Synthesise atomic nuclei up to Pu-244. • Requires high and temperature (10 %& ncm '%, ~10 ( K) • Addition of many neutrons within seconds • Complicated calculations due to the formation of ~ 4000 • Most of the generated nuclides are unstable and decay (ß -, alpha or fission) to stable nuclides

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 22 r-Process Animation

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 23

r-process: Formation of Transuranium elements

Isotop Yield 237Np 0,55 239Pu 0,49 243Am 0,32 248Cm 0,64 249Cf 0,84 253Es 0,44 Vergleich: 238U 0,75 Si 1,E+08

Lingenfelter, R. E., Higdon, J. C., Kratz, K.-L., & Pfeiffer, B. 2003, ApJ, 591 , 228

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 24 p-process

• Formation of neutron-deficient isotopes (Kr to Zr) • Occurs in the early stages of a SN • Capture of protons (p, γ) or by nuclei previously formed by the r-process and the s-process • proton-rich isotopes having low abundances • Process still under debate

Chemical abundances in closed-box,open-box and infall 25 models; multicomponent treatment

Other processes

• Fission: ØTransuranium Elements can undergo neutron-induced or spontanous fission ØSplit in two fission fragments plus lot of ØMay have impact producing seed nuclei for s and r- process • Spallation: ØHigh energy cosmic rays (e.g. high energy proton) splits light element (e.g. ) in ISM or on star surfaces to produce Be ØImportant for synthesis of Li, Be and B (not formed by inside stars due to instability)

Chemical abundances in closed-box,open-box and infall 26 models; multicomponent treatment Universe’s element factories

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 27

• The heavy element content of the universe at any point in its History reflect the integrated nucleosynthesis contributions from earlier stellar generations

Universal element formation https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/50-universal-element-formation

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 28 • : First generation of stars

• Hypothetical first -free Pop III stars • Probably all high mass stars ! = 60 ) 300M" • Pop III stars produce first metals • Dying stars explode in SNs and enrich the ISM with first metals • Basis for Pop II (metal-poor) and Pop I (metal-rich)

Artist's impression of the first stars, 400 Myr after the BB, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_population

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 29

• Comparison of spectra of stars with • Only example so far is at redshift 6.6 : CR7 decreasing metallicity (Evidence for Pop III – like stars, Sobral et al. 2015 )

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http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/808/2/139/pdf https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Galactic-archaeology-with- metal-poor-stars-Jessica/04881eaef63fff7e45c22db41a6b385ecf187c1a

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 30 • Stellar nucleosynthesis: Intermediate-mass stars

• Stars as manufactories of metals (* > 4)

• Stars ! < 3!": mostly converting H into He ( ! + 1 M" - PP chain reaction ! > 1.3M" - CNO cycle ) • He into C (Triple-α Process) • C - the main element that causes the release of free neutrons within stars → giving rise to the s -process (> Fe)

• ! < 8!" : eventually lose their atmospheres to become white dwarfs Artist's depiction of the cycle of a Sun-like star; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 31

• Stellar nucleosynthesis: AGBs

• Stars on the

• S-process heavy elements

• Mass loss during the AGB phase is critical for both the evolution of the star itself and the chemical evolution of the hosting

• Our knowledge of AGB stars is still deficient

detached shell surrounding the star U Antliae Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO); F. Kerschbaum. Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 32 • Type Ia nucleosynthesis

• Thermonuclear explosions of CO white dwarfs • Grows past its Chandrasekhar limit

• Produces about 1M" of radioactive Ni(56) • Destroys the WD progenitor in a runaway fusion process • The biggest Fe enrichment

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/4wmx9llQB70/maxresdefault.jpg

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 33

• Stellar nucleosynthesis: Massiv stars

• Stars with ! > 8 !/25 create high Ts and densities • Shell burning at interfaces → up to Fe (56) • Onion-like structure near the end of a its' life (Not to scaled in pic.) • Eject their outermost shells by stellar winds • WR winds peel off burning shells → Release of C, N, O

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 34 • Type II Supernova nucleosynthesis • Gravitational Collaps at the end of massive Stars ( ! > 8 !/25 ) → BH or NS • Within exploding Stars: Mg(12) – Ni(28) • Extremely high neutron fluxes and T • Formation of elements > Fe via r-, p- und s- process • Transuranium elements only in the r-process • In pic. The Chandra X-ray image is shown in blue, the HST is in red and yellow, and the Spitzer 's image is in purple

http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/2857-sig09-009- Chemical abundances in closed and open-box NASA-s-Great-Observatories-View-of-the-Crab-Nebula 35

• Neutron star mergers

• Believed to be the main source of r-process elements • Large amount of neutron-rich matter ejected at extremely high T • Heavy elements may form as the ejecta begins to cool • GW170817 (2017) detection of Au, Pt … • Term kilonova (also for NS with BH) 10 7 times peak brightness of classical

https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilonova

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 36 Competition:

Taking out Formation of those of metals from the in massive ISM by stars low mass stars

https://rampages.us/rogerscl2/wp-content/uploads/sites/19244/2016/10/Blog-image.png

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 37

Simple evolutionary models Closed box

• Metallicity increases with time; region is a perfectly homogenous mix at all times

• Metallicity is determined by metal yield y, and the fraction of the gas R, returned to the ISM

• Yields yi(m) are constant

Closed box Chemical enrichment description

Vincenzo et al. (2015)

IRA vs non-IRA Leaky box

• Outflow/ of gas to the considered volume

Necessary to explain:

• Metallicity distribution for stars in The MWG disk

• Enrichment by metals in the IGM in clusters and groups

Leaky box Literature

1. http://www.sc.eso.org/santiago/uvespop/index.html /(Zugriff 2016-01-11) 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przybylski's_Star/ (Zugriff 2016-01-11) 3. http://www.jinaweb.org/movies/rprocess_s240_rwind.avi (Zugriff 2016-01-11)

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosynthesis 5. https://slideplayer.com/slide/6948410/ 6. http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/808/2/139/pdf 7. http://astronomy2018.cosmoquest.org/newspaper/s343-why-galaxies-care-about-agb-stars/

Chemical abundances in closed and open-box 45

Thank you for your attention!

I think you should be more explicit here in step two

Copyright © 2018 by Sidney Harris. 46