Trop. Agr. Develop. 6（2 2）：94 － 103，2018

Effects of Agriculture on the Water Quality of the Cisadane River System in West ,

Luqman Arif LUBADA 1, Kenji YOKOTA 2, Arief HARTONO 3, and Rie MIYAURA 4, *

1 Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan 2 Faculty of Applied Biosciences, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan 3 Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural University, Dramaga, Bogor, 16680, Indonesia 4 Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan

Abstract This study investigates the impact of agriculture on the water quality of the Cisadane River system in West Java, Indonesia by focusing on one stream flowing from an upland area through an intensive agricultural area before merging with the rest of the river system downstream. In total, 25 water samples were collected from this river system over a straight-line distance of ~70 km and an altitudinal difference of 750 m during the dry season of 2015 and the rainy season of 2016. The samples were analyzed to measure the pH, EC, and concentrations of NO3-N, NH4-N, and PO4-P. The average contamination in the water -1 -1 samples during the dry and rainy seasons was 0.61 and 0.45 mg NO3-N L , respectively, 0.56 and 0.28 mg NH4-N L , respectively, -1 and 0.64 and 0.55 mg PO4-P L , respectively. The results revealed that water was contaminated by inorganic P even in the upper stream. Moreover, the spring water in the agriculture-intensive areas of a rural community, which is believed by the locals to be sufficiently clean for use, was found to more be contaminated by nitrogen than the water in the lower part of the river. As the flow of contaminated water can cause eutrophication in estuaries, it is important to characterize the contamination of water systems to encourage the implementation of sustainable water management strategies. Key words: Eutrophication, Fertilizer, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Water quality

issue facing society today (Carpenter, 1998). Past studies Introduction have reported that eutrophication of freshwater streams Asia accounted for ~60% of the world fertilizer due to various agriculture activities has caused algal consumption in terms of nitrogen (total N nutrients), bloom in the mouths of rivers, e.g., in lakes, reservoirs phosphate (total P2O5 nutrients), and potassium (total (Chrost et al., 1984; Makarewicz et al., 2007; Qin et al.,

K2O nutrients) in 2014 (FAO, 2017). In Asia, after China 2013), and estuaries (Conley et al., 2009). In Indonesia, and India, Indonesia stands fourth in the consumption particularly in Bay, harmful algal blooms (HABs) of nitrogen and phosphate and third in the consumption caused by nutrient runoff (Prayitno, 2011) occurred sev- of potassium. The consumption of these fertilizers in eral times in early 2000s. Jakarta Bay is an estuary where Indonesia has drastically increased between 2002 and 13 rivers that flow through the West Java Province to the 2014: nitrogen consumption increased by 47%, phos- DKI Jakarta Province meet the Java Sea. The study by phate consumption increased by 201%, and potassium Prayinto (2011) also showed that Jakarta Bay was in a consumption increased by 400%, whereas the increases eutrophic state due to the abundance of phosphate and in the world were 32%, 35%, and 41%, respectively. More nitrate contaminants, although the contamination was than 55% of the total Indonesian population of 260 mil- not significant enough to cause HAB. lion resides in Java, a highly populated island. Intensive It is known that small-scale intensive agriculture farming predominates in small local farm households. is supported by the fertile volcanic soil at the foot of Nowadays, it is easy for local farmers to access chemical 2000-3000-m-scale mountains and the abundant rainfall fertilizers in these rural areas. throughout the year in the western region of Java. The However, agriculture can impact the water quality Cisadane River is one of the main rivers in the West Java by introducing non-point source pollution; this is a major and Provinces. It covers an area of 1,100 km2 and is 80 km in length, flowing from the water sources of

Communicated by Y. Oikawa Mt. Salak (2,211 m above sea level) and Mt. Gede (2,958 Received Mar. 24, 2017 m)/Pangrango (3,019 m) to the Java Sea through Bogor Accepted Mar. 7, 2018 * Corresponding author Regency, Bogor City, City, and Tangerang [email protected] Regency. The estuary of the Cisadane River is located in Lubada et al.: Water quality of the Cisadane River 95

Teluknaga Bay, a small bay in that characterized the water quality of the Cisadane River is located in the western part of Jakarta Bay. system from the upstream part to the estuary with the Land use in the West Java watershed area, includ- aim of gathering information to contribute to sustainable ing the area around the Cisadane River, has shifted from water management in rural areas. paddy and cropland to settlement (Harto and Kondoh, Materials and Methods 1998). The water from the Cisadane River is utilized for industrial and agriculture use and daily consumption Field Survey (TKCM, 2005). Therefore, water quality should be A field survey was conducted in the catchment area guaranteed because the river water and underground alongside the river stream by collecting water samples water are commonly utilized directly by humans for from 25 random points along one stream of the Cisadane daily household tasks, including washing clothes and River system. Each water sample was scooped with 1-m dishes and bathing, particularly in rural communities. handle ladle, placed in a 500-ml plastic container, sealed At the same time, people living in these rural areas without air, and immediately stored in a cool, dark place. use water for various agricultural activities, including In wide rivers, the water was collected approximately 1.5 irrigation of farmlands, inland fish farming, and animal m from the shore and at a depth halfway between the husbandry. Subsequently, the used water flows through surface and the bottom. Fig. 1 shows a map of the Cis- farmland drainage or undergoes nutritional leaching to adane River system and the sampling points along the reach the underground water source. In this study, we river. Fig. 2 shows the geographical characteristics of

Fig. 1. Map of the Cisadane River system and the sampling locations. 96 Trop. Agr. Develop. 62（2）2018

) 800 UPPERMOST ① 700 waterfall

600 2 500 UPSTREAM agricultural area 400 3 ④ 5 6 ⑪ 7⑧9⑩ 300 12 ⑬ Aaltitude (m) 14⑮ 200 16 17 MIDDLE water stream 18 merges to river ESTUARY 100 19 ⑳21 LOWER 22 23 24 25 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Distance from the highest sampling point (km)

Fig. 2. Geographical distribution of the sampling points. Notes: Water resources (indicated by circled numbers in the chart), irrigation canals (indicated by underlined numbers), and river bodies (indicated by the remaining numbers). Distances were measured along straight lines.

the sampling points. The stream that originates from Mt. 2016-September 2016 for additional analysis. The climate Salak was followed downstream. The river that passes of the region was classified as tropical based on the high through Petir Village is referred to as the Cihideung annual fluctuation in the rainfall. The annual rainfall in River. It merges with the Cisadane River in the Ranca Darmaga, Bogor, the upstream area in this study, is Bungur area, a sub-district of Dramaga. This point down 3,672 mm on average (1971-1997), reaching 2,002 mm to the estuary in Teluknaga Bay comprises the main in the rainy season and falling to 1,670 mm in the dry body of the Cisadane River. season (Egashira et al., 2003). However, the dry season Table 1 summarizes the detailed geographical and of 2015 was more severe than usual, with only 692 mm of social information about the areas from which the sam- total rainfall. Moreover, the rainfall during the following ples were obtained. The source was the Curug Kawung rainy season was 3,066 mm (Fig. 3). Waterfall in the Bogor Regency (a Curug Nangka tour- In the uppermost area, there were three waterfalls ism site in the Gunung Halimun National Park), located at different altitudes, with the Curug Kawung Waterfall 713 m above sea level at the foot of Mt. Salak (no. 1). The being the highest. The waterfalls were in a tourism site ending point was at Jembatan Kalibaru in the Tangerang of a national park. However, there was no human activity Regency, located 7 m above sea level (no. 25). The water above the Curug Kawung Waterfall in the upper part of samples were classified into different categories based Mt. Salak. on the sample type, including water resources (springs In the upstream area, the water flowed through the and communal sanitary facilities; 8 samples), irriga- Petir Village, where farmers had set up an integrated tion canals (5 samples), and river body (12 samples). farming system of small ruminant farming, inland fish The samples were also divided into five groups based farming, and crop production throughout the year on location: uppermost (no. 1; 713 m above sea level), (Miyaura et al., 2013). This village received irrigation upstream (nos. 2-17; 509-176 m above sea level), middle water from the water flowing through the Purwasari (nos. 18-22; 122-23 m above sea level), lower (nos. 23-24; Village—which also had agricultural areas—and output 19-14 m above sea level), and estuary (no. 25; 7 m above the water to Neglasari Village. All of this water flow is sea level). included in the upstream area. There were five samples The study area experiences are two seasons: dry taken from concrete irrigation canals in this area that (from April to September) and rainy (from October to were less than 1 m (nos. 2, 3, 6, 9, and 12), six samples March). The water samples were obtained in August taken from water resources that were captured and sup- 2015-September 2015 (representing the dry season) plied via PVC pipes (nos. 4, 8, 10, 11, 13, and 15), two and in February 2016-March 2016 (representing the samples taken from river streams that were less than 3 rainy season). Some samples collected from the water m in width (nos. 5 and 7), and three samples taken from spring in the upper stream were also collected in August the main river streams that were 5-8 m in width (nos. 14, Lubada et al.: Water quality of the Cisadane River 97 2 ) R R R R R I C I C I C I C I C W R W R W R W R * W R * W R * W R * T y p e S a m p l e C o n d i t r b o d y ( w i t h f 6 m ) ; c n u a e C g R v l s a n l i g r c u t e ; p m o ( w d h f s 1 ) c a n l ( w i d t h o f e s 1 m ) v u r g C i a p u s R v e r w t C i h d e u n g R v r w a t b o y ( f 8 m ) l c ; s k I r i g a t o n c l f d fi s h p ; e u m c o n r e t N a t u r l w e s o c m d f p i n g h P V C v ( a g r i c u l t e ) W a t e r g o f h C i d u n R v w 3 m , l c N a t u r l w e s o c m d f p i n g P V ; b y h - m u n i t y f o r d a l h s e k I r i g a t o n c N a t u r l w e s o c m d f p i n g h P V C v ; b y t h e c o m u n i f r d a l s k I r i g a t o n c l u e ; p m ( w d h f s 1 ) v o l u m e f r n i g w a t N a t u r l w e s o c i h m n f d p g P V C ; f o r d a i l y h u s e t k ; p c w n m g fl C R i v e r I r i g a t o n c l u e ; - s ( w d h f 1 m ) y v o l u m e f r n i g w a t C i h d e u n g R v r w a t b o y ( f 5 m ) l c N a t u r l w e s o c i h m v f n g d p P V C p i e f o r P u w a s V l g W a t e r f l , o c d u i s m n h G g H N P k b y w M t . S a l k I r i g a t o n c l u e ; p m ( w d h f s 1 ) v o l u m e f r n i g w a t C i h d e u n g R v r w a t b o y ( f l s 1 m ) ; c - h i l f r o m a v g e C o m u n a l s i t r y f c ; w e p d g v P V v o l u m e f r n i g w a t a r e s p r i n g e a t h w S a m p l i n g L o c t C i h d e u n g r i g a t o n R W 4 M a i n R o d B r g e C i h d e u n g I n l a d fi s h e r i I r R W 4 W a t e r s p i n g R 4 C a d s G n t u g w e r C i n e k o l w a t r s p g I r i g a t o n R W 6 W a t e r s p i n g R 6 I r i g a t o n f e h w W a t e r W a t e r s p i n g fi h o d g a t e C u r g K a w n W t e f l , C u r g N a n k T a m n s r i ( e t h D S a u n g R e s t r ) C i h d e u n g S a n i t r y f c l R W 6 P e t i r V i l a g e S u k a j d i S u k a j d i D r a m g N e g l a s r i P u r w a s i

1 ) 3 ) 3 ) 4 ) ( 3 , 2 6 8 ) ( 3 , 2 6 8 ) ( 4 , 8 1 ) D r a m g d e n s i t y ) T a m n s r i T a m n s r i S u b - d i s t r c ( p o u l a t i n N a m e o f u n i c p l t y C i t y e g n c y B o g r B o g r R R e g n c y R e g n c y / i n c e J a v J a v W e s t W e s t P r o v - 6 5 2 8 9 4 1 3 7 1 7 1 6 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 1 3 1 0 N o . Upstream: Water stream enters villages and agricultural area Uppermost T a b l e 1 . W t r s m p i n g o c d 98 Trop. Agr. Develop. 62（2）2018 R R R R R R R W R w i t h e n d o f p . 5 r i n g s v a P V C p e i c t o f R a n b u g r F e s 2 0 1 6 ) , B P S K p . a t e d i n h m l o f u s r w a m A n g k T h u 2 0 1 6 ( S b D i s t r c o f F e ) , B P K p . R i v e r w d t h o f 5 0 m ; l c a n g s u R i v e r w d t h o f 9 0 m ; l c a n u s g r e g i o n ; w a t l s u p d f m h M k v c R i v e r w d t h o f 7 0 m ; l c a n g , u p C i a p u s R v e r ( w d t h o f 4 0 m ) ; g n R i v e r w d t h o f 8 0 m ; l c R i v e r w d t h o f 5 0 m ; l c a n g , u s u s e d f o r a i l y h t k E s t u a r y o f h e C i d n R v ( w 6 0 m ) ; l c b C o m u n a l s i t r y f c ; w e p d r i v e d u n g t h y s a o ; l c C i c a n g k l , G u S d r - R u m p i n b r d g e P i n t u B a r R o d A H . M i n g R o a d C a g k M i n R o d b r e T e u k U m a r R o d b i g P r a d S m l w i R o b g e K a l i B r u M n R o d b g e S a n i t r y f c l ) i n 2 0 1 5 u d e r t h s b - c l v . 2 - - S a w h K a r i h k l K a l i b r u K a m p u n g S u k a m l y R a n c b u g r 8 ) 9 ) 5 ) 6 ) 7 ) R u m p i n C i s e n g P a k u h j i ( 1 , 3 ) ( 2 , 6 9 1 ) ( 1 , 9 6 ) ( 2 , 3 0 5 ) ( 1 2 , 4 ) T a n g e r R a n c b u g r C i t y B o g r R e g n c y R e g n c y T a n g e r T a n g e r J a v W e s t B a n t e B a n t e W R : w a t e r s o u c , * p i n g d l ; I C v . 2 3 2 5 2 0 1 9 2 2 4 2 1 1 8 Lower: lower stream in the Cisadane River Estuary: Estuary of the Cisadane River system Estuary: Estuary of the Cisadane 4 ) B a d n P u s t S i k K b p e o g r ( c f R y 2 0 1 6 . m D l A F , 5 ) B a d n P u s t S i k K b p e o g r ( c f R y 2 0 1 6 . m D l A T h 6 ) B a d n P u s t S i k K b p e o g r ( c f R y 2 0 1 . m C D l A F , 7 ) B a d n P u s t S i k K b p e o g r ( c f R y 2 0 1 6 . m D l A F , Middle: Water stream merges into the main body of the Cisadane River Middle: Water stream merges into the main body of Cisadane 1 ) F i g u r e n p a t h s o l d y ( / k m 2 ) D a t s o u r c e : 3 ) B a d n P u s t S i k K b p e o g r ( c f R y 2 0 1 6 . m T D l 8 ) B a d n P u s t S i k K o T g e r ( c f M p l y 2 0 1 6 . D m A F , 7 5 9 ) B a d n P u s t S i k K b p e T g r ( c o f R y 2 0 1 6 . m h j D l A F , 4 T a b l e 1 . Continued. Lubada et al.: Water quality of the Cisadane River 99

900 30 2014 2015 2016 800 25 700 mm ) – (

600 20 ● – R oun t

500 a i m

15 n A

400 D a y s nfa ll 300 10 a i R 200 5 100 0 0 r r p p p n b y n b y a a e e e a e a a e a Ju l Ju l J J Ju n Ju n Oct Oct S S S F F Ap r Ap r Dec Dec M M Au g No v Au g No v Au g M M Months

Fig. 3. Monthly rainfall from August 2014 to September 2016 in the Dramaga Sub-District, Bogor Regency, Indonesia. Source: Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, dan Geofisika Staklim Klas I Bogor (2016).

16, and 17). Four of the six samples taken from water re- from the main river where the width was 60 m (no. 25). sources (nos. 8, 11, 13, and 15) were collected from the The water was stained black and had an odor. Agricul- water springs near the agricultural fields in Petir Village. tural fields and housing, including simply built bamboo These springs are commonly utilized by the community houses, were located near this area. for daily household tasks. For example, the shallow river (where sample no. 16 was collected) was used by local Chemical Analyses women to wash clothes and children to bathe in evening. The obtained water samples were filtered by filter In the middle section, several streams combine and paper before analysis. Chemical analyses of the water become a wider river at the upper point, where sample samples were conducted in a laboratory in the Depart- no. 18 was collected. Sand and stone mining, communal ment of Soil Sciences and Environmental Resources housing, and less-intensive agricultural farming were in the Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural Uni- observed near this area. The main activity in this area versity, Indonesia. To evaluate the water quality, recently shifted from agriculture to mining due to active Cataldo’s colorimetric method (Cataldo et al., 1975), the exploration by contractors and because of the sandy indophenol blue method (Zadorojny et al., 1973), and underground soil layer. Four samples were collected the molybdenum blue method (Holman, 1943) were from the main river system that was 40-70 m in width used to measure the levels of NO3-N, NH4-N, and PO4-P, (nos. 18, 19, 21, and 22), and one sample was collected respectively. A UV-1201 spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, from a water resource collected via a PVC pipe for the Kyoto, Japan) and a UV-1280 spectrophotometer (Shi- communal sanitation facility (no. 20). Similar to the vil- madzu, Kyoto, Japan) were used to perform colorimetric lage communities located in the upstream section, the measurements for the samples from the dry season and community in this area also utilizes the river for washing the rainy season, respectively. clothes and bathing. To evaluate the results of these assays, they were The lower section comprised an urban environment compared to the quality standard created by the Indo- with several factories. Two samples were collected from nesian government in Government Regulation (PPRI) the main river, the width of which was in the range No. 82, Year 2001 with regard to the water quality 80-90 m (nos. 23 and 24). A factory was located beside management and water pollution control; the standards the river, and a considerable amount of garbage was are summarized in Table 2 (Kementerian Keuangan observed floating along the riverbank where sample no. Republik Indonesia, 2001). The table also includes the 23 was collected. For personal consumption, fishing was maximum contamination levels for N and P in each carried out by local residents where sample no. 24 was sample. According to these contamination levels, the collected. samples were categorized into different groups depend- In the estuary section, a sample was collected ing on the water quality. 100 Trop. Agr. Develop. 62（2）2018

Table 2. Indonesian government regulation (PPRI) No. 81, Year 2001 with regard to water quality management and water pollution control. Class Description Parameter Unit I II III IV If naturally out of the range, hence determined as the pH 6–9 6–9 6–9 5–9 natural condition Total phosphate as P mg L-1 0.2 0.2 1 5 -1 NO3 as N mg L 10 10 20 20 For fisheries, free ammonia content for sensitive fish NH -N mg L-1 0.5 (–) (–) (–) 3 ≤0.02 mg L-1 as NH3 Source: Kementrian Keuangan Republik Indonesia, 2001.

-1 According to PPRI No. 82, Year 2001, water can be NH4-N L , respectively, and 0.64 and 0.55 mg PO4-P classified into four categories based on the quality: L-1, respectively. The water samples collected from the • Class I: Water that can be used as drinking water upstream section in an agricultural area with a relatively or for other purposes that require the same water high population density (4,814 people/km2; nos. 2-17) quality. had higher nitrate and ammonium contents than the • Class II: Water that can be used for infrastructure samples collected from the middle and lower sections and water recreation, freshwater fish cultivation, (nos. 18-24) except no. 18. Sample no. 18 was collected animal husbandry, crop irrigation, or other pur- from an area where multiple streams meet, which may poses that require the same water quality. have increased the nitrate content in the dry season. • Class III: Water that can be used for cultivating The average values of the samples from each type freshwater fish and livestock, irrigating crops, or of location are listed in Table 4. The average nitrate other purposes that require the same water qual- contents in the four water springs in agricultural areas ity. (nos. 8, 11, 13, and 15) during the rainy seasons was • Class IV: Water that can be used for agricultural highest. We suspected that the contamination of the irrigation or other purposes that require the same water springs located close to the agricultural fields water quality. was a result of the agricultural activities, e.g., the over- application of compost to upland crops and freshwater Results and Discussion fish cultivation. The analysis of the water samples indicated that the Even though the government standard for N and average pH values of the samples in the dry and rainy P contamination states that the water in the Cisadane seasons were 6.6 and 6.1, respectively, with seasonal River is still of good quality, sample no. 1, which was minima of 5.6 and 4.8, respectively, and seasonal maxima collected at the Curug Kawung Waterfall, had a high of 7.7 and 6.5, respectively (Table 3). In general, the am- level of N with a trace amount of P. This implies that the monium ion content is less toxic when the pH is low. It water in the river system was already contaminated from remains under 10% when the pH is below 8 (Thurston the source. et al., 1981). The average electrical conductivity (EC) The ammonium contamination in the estuary values of the water samples in the dry and rainy seasons (sample no. 25) was 10.97 mg L-1 during the dry season. were 0.33 and 0.13, respectively, with seasonal minima This may have been caused by the domestic wastewater of 0.05 and 0.07, respectively, and seasonal maxima of discharged from the overcrowded areas around Jakarta, 3.57 and 0.34, respectively. The sample with the highest which has a high population density (12,441 people/ EC was collected in the estuary of the Cisadane River km2). system (no. 25) during the dry season. This condition It should be noted that the HABs in Jakarta Bay was a result of the seawater entering the estuary be- that occurred during the transition from the dry season cause the water flow from upstream is slower during the to the rainy season [i.e., from September to October dry season. (Wouthuyzen et al., 2007)] can promote HABs in the The results show that many of the water samples estuary of the Cisadane River. were contaminated by N and P. On average, the water Pawitan et al. (2007) analyzed the contamination samples in the dry and rainy seasons contained 0.61 of the nutrient fluxes of the major Java rivers, including -1 and 0.45 mg NO3-N L , respectively, 0.56 and 0.28 mg the Cisadane River at the Batu Belah monitoring post, Lubada et al.: Water quality of the Cisadane River 101 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C l a s ) 1 - R S 0 . 5 2 0 . 1 0 . 4 8 0 . 5 0 . 4 5 0 . 6 0 . 7 2 0 . 7 2 0 . 5 8 0 . 5 7 0 . 6 4 0 . 4 5 0 . 1 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 6 0 . 6 0 . 5 3 0 . 5 4 0 . 6 2 0 . 5 3 0 . 5 1 0 . 6 3 0 . 5 8 0 . 5 2 0 . 6 2 0 . 5 7 0 . 5 3 0 . 6 2 0 . 5 7 0 . 5 9 - P ( m g L 4 I I I I I I V I I I I I I I I I I I I I I V I I I I V I I I I I I I C l a s P O 0 . 5 D S 0 . 6 4 0 . 6 1 0 . 8 5 1 . 0 8 0 . 8 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 5 0 . 5 7 0 . 6 0 . 9 4 0 . 7 6 0 . 5 8 0 . 7 6 0 . 6 3 0 . 5 8 0 . 5 7 0 . 5 7 0 . 6 8 0 . 5 7 1 . 0 5 0 . 6 0 . 5 9 1 . 0 8 0 . 8 0 . 9 7 t r a c e t r a c e t r a c e t r a c e t r a c e I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C l a s ) 1 - R S 0 . 2 5 0 . 3 0 . 2 8 0 . 2 6 0 . 8 0 . 4 8 0 . 8 0 . 2 6 0 . 2 4 0 . 2 4 0 . 2 3 0 . 1 7 0 . 2 9 0 . 2 7 0 . 1 7 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . 2 5 0 . 3 1 0 . 2 3 0 . 2 3 0 . 2 3 0 . 3 0 . 2 0 . 2 3 0 . 2 7 0 . 2 0 . 2 4 0 . 2 0 . 2 3 0 . 2 8 - N ( m g L 4 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C l a s N H D S N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D 0 . 3 0 . 2 0 . 5 6 0 . 3 0 . 8 0 . 1 3 0 . 5 6 0 . 3 9 0 . 3 7 0 . 7 0 . 6 0 . 3 4 0 . 1 5 0 . 6 0 . 1 6 0 . 2 0 . 0 . 3 4 0 . 9 1 0 . 9 7 1 0 . 9 7 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C l a s ) 1 - R S N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D 3 . 6 0 . 4 5 3 . 6 2 . 6 0 0 . 2 6 0 . 1 . 7 4 1 . 3 2 0 . 7 1 0 . 1 . 5 3 0 . 2 6 - N ( m g L 3 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C l a s N O i s t e d n T a b l 1 . D S 0 . N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D N D 0 . 2 0 . 6 9 0 . 6 1 6 . 0 8 6 . 0 8 0 . 5 9 3 . 8 0 . 6 0 . 5 3 0 . 7 4 3 . 2 8 ) 1 - R S 0 . 7 0 . 9 0 . 1 3 0 . 3 4 0 . 1 2 0 . 1 5 0 . 3 4 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 2 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 2 0 . 7 0 . 9 0 . 1 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 2 0 . 1 0 . 1 6 0 . 1 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 2 0 . 1 5 0 . 1 2 0 . 1 2 0 . 1 4 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 3 0 . 9 0 . 1 4 0 . 1 2 0 . 1 4 8 E C ( d S m D S 0 . 6 5 0 . 3 0 . 1 7 0 . 1 4 0 . 2 3 . 5 7 0 . 1 4 0 . 4 3 0 . 1 5 0 . 1 4 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 2 7 0 . 1 5 0 . 1 0 . 1 2 0 . 2 5 0 . 1 0 . 2 4 0 . 1 5 0 . 1 6 0 . 1 3 0 . 3 1 0 . 1 6 0 . 1 8 0 . 2 8 0 . 9 3 . 5 7 0 . 2 1 0 . 1 4 0 . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I V I V I V I V I V I V I V C l a s R S 6 . 2 6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 5 6 . 5 6 . 5 6 . 3 6 . 3 6 . 4 5 . 3 4 . 8 4 . 8 6 . 5 6 . 0 6 . 2 6 . 1 6 . 3 5 . 4 6 . 2 6 . 0 5 . 9 5 . 9 6 . 1 6 . 0 6 . 4 6 . 2 5 . 3 6 . 1 6 . 3 6 . 2 6 . 1 p H I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I V I V C l a s 8 7 . 6 . 6 . 9 6 . 8 7 . 6 . 5 6 . 8 7 . 0 6 . 7 5 . 6 6 . 3 6 . 5 6 . 3 5 . 6 6 . 7 6 . 6 . 8 6 . 4 6 . 4 6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 5 6 . 3 6 . 9 6 . 5 D S 6 . 0 6 . 5 6 . 1 6 . 6 . 7 . 5 1 5 2 6 3 7 4 8 9 1 4 2 1 1 5 2 1 6 2 3 1 7 2 4 1 0 1 8 1 2 5 1 9 1 2 2 0 1 3 S a m p l e N u m b e r A r e a U p e r m o s t O v e r a l A g * A v e r a g l u i n c h . N D d t s 0 N o t e : D n d c . S r y s a ( A u g 2 0 1 5 – p m b ) ; R i F 6 M h C l a s e r f t o h p c i fi d b y G v n m R g u ( P I ) N . 8 2 , Y 0 1 U p s t r e a m M a x i m u M i n m u A v e r a g * L o w e r A v e r a g * M i d l e A v e r a g * E s t u a r y T a b l e 3 . R s u t o f h c m i n y w r p 102 Trop. Agr. Develop. 62（2）2018

Table 4. Average values of the water quality parameters sorted by the type of location.

-1 -1 -1 -1 pH EC (dSm ) NO3-N (mg L ) NH4-N (mg L ) PO4-P (mg L ) DS RS DS RS DS RS DS RS DS RS Water resources (n=4) 6.6 6.2 0.27 0.17 1.03 0.00 0.08 0.24 0.49 0.45 Water springs around 6.7 5.4 0.08 0.09 0.45 2.38 0.32 0.29 0.15 0.56 agricultural area (n=4) Irrigation canal (n=5) 6.7 6.1 0.16 0.14 0.00 0.05 0.21 0.29 0.76 0.61 River (n=12) 6.5 6.2 0.49 0.12 0.78 0.13 0.96 0.28 0.75 0.55 Note: DS: dry season (August 2015–September 2015); RS: rainy season (February 2016–March 2016). Based on the data summarized in Table 3. by taking water samples from the river in March 2007 gate whether the agricultural practices are sustainable (during the rainy season) and June 2007 (during the dry to provide recommendations to farmers and promote season). The results of the present study showed that appropriate utilization of the nutrient resources with nitrate contamination was relatively low during the rainy the better nutrient recycling system such as integrated season (not detected in sample no. 18, March 2016) and farming. As the flow of contaminated water can cause relatively high during the dry season in comparison with eutrophication in estuaries, it is important to character- the results of their study. The contamination was 19 and ize the contamination of water systems to encourage 37.5 times higher than that measured in the past study the implementation of sustainable water management during the rainy and dry seasons, respectively. In addi- strategies. tion, the ammonium contamination was relatively high Acknowledgements during the rainy season and relatively low during the dry season in comparison with the results of the past study. This study was funded by the Strategic Research Moreover, it is necessary to investigate the water Project—Tokyo University of Agriculture, Society quality of the four water springs of Petir Village that for Agricultural Education Research Development were located near agricultural fields. According to Abroad (SAEDA), and JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number Miyaura et al. (2014), of the total of 3,166 households 16K08117. in the village, 57.8% still used water springs and 37.3% References still used wells. A majority of the individuals did not have private sanitary facilities in their households. Only 38.2% Carpenter, S. R., N. F. Caraco, D. L. Correll, R. W. Howarth, A. N. Sharpley, and V. H. Smith 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface had access to private sanitary facilities, and 61.8% still waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl. 8: 559-568. used the communal sanitary facilities. The communal Cataldo, D. A., M. Maroon, L. E. Schrader, and V. L. 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