Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases 35-50

Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases

Katsuhiko Mori *

I. WHY ACTIVE LEARNING? “Democratization” and “sustainable development” were the two main keywords in the post-Cold War world. “Participatory development,” the concept of combining these two keywords, became the leading strategy in the international development community in the 1990s. This concept led to the cutting edge of “active learning” in educational contexts, and “action research” in research activities in the field of international development. When active learning pedagogies, including the case method of teaching, became popular in Japanese universities in the early 1990s there was some criticism that these active learning methods were Western-oriented and therefore not effectively applicable to the non-Western educational contexts of Japan and Asia.(1) This criticism missed the point, because an equivalent of active learning can also be found in the non-Western philosophy of Confucius. According to The Doctrine of the Mean, learning and studying are regarded as the first two of the five steps toward actions for social change.(2) The first step is to “learn widely.” Japanese universities typically offer four-year undergraduate programs. In many instances, the education curriculum designed for first-year students focuses on general education, where new students are exposed to a wide range of academic subjects. In order to pursue higher education in peace and development studies, it is important for students to study not only social sciences but also humanities and natural sciences so that they can develop the basis for applying imagination, communication, and logical

* Professor, Department of Politics and International Relations 35 Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases and critical thinking. Recently, the worrying indications of deterioration in the academic performance of university students in Japan have been highlighted — but I am not concerned about rebuilding the curricula to encompass a wide variety of academic knowledge. What does concern me is developing the capacity of what Confucius called “asking thoroughly,” which is the second step of academic inquiry. It is vital for students of peace and development studies to generate their own appropriate questions, such as “Why do some countries achieve phenomenal economic growth, while others still have difficulties in eradicating poverty?” and “Why are some projects successful in sustaining peace and development, while others perform poorly?” According to Sadako Ogata, former United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, “Whether or not it is the right answer is not the problem. Rather, what the most important is to ask the right question.”(3) In other words, if you ask the right questions, you can get the right answers. The real question to ask is how to develop the capacity to ask the right questions. Assuming that the right question was asked, the next step is the third stage of “considering carefully” when answering the question. To do this requires the incorporation of knowledge from many disciplines, such as political science, economics, sociology, and anthropology. In many universities, students write graduation theses in their fourth year. After the first three steps of learning, asking, and considering, it is in the fourth step that students should be able to “understand clearly” that the answer to the research question in a senior thesis is a compilation of all the studies in the four years of university life. It is important to be confident in one’s answers, and yet too much self- confidence leads to undue pride. Thus, Confucius suggested the fifth stage, which is to “act warm-heartedly” with respect to others. In short, learning and inquiry in the early stages lead to deliberation, understanding, and eventually action. In today’s rapidly changing global community, it is often pointed out that “soft power” or “word power” is

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relatively more important than military or economic power. To help students develop their “word power,” the focus should be placed not only on substantive but also on procedural aspects of the knowledge applications in the real community. These two underlying objectives call for active learning and active research.

II. THE CASE METHOD AS INTERACTIVE LEARNING There are many active-learning methods, including debate, coaching, and service learning. The case method of teaching, one of the interactive pedagogies, has spread from its origins in American and European professional schools such as law and business. Unlike research case studies, teaching case studies are narrative stories in which normal real-world problems are reconstructed and described, but without clear answers being given. Students identify, analyze, and prescribe the problem in the case study through case-based discussions facilitated by the case teacher. In the field of international relations, following the Pew Faculty Fellowship in International Affairs at Harvard University, the Active Learning in International Affairs Section (ALIAS) of the International Studies Association (ISA) has been the forum for case teachers and writers. Harvard University’s Business School and the John F. Kennedy School of Government have published many case studies in a variety of topics, including international relations. The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy (ISD) in Georgetown University’s Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service has published international cases since 1991. In Japan, the Foundation for Advanced Studies on International Development (FASID) launched its case method workshop in the field of international development in 1992, and has published the FASID Case Library series since 1995. As in other countries, normal Japanese universities have long used the traditional “lecture,” wherein the teacher imparts a store of knowledge to students, who are thus passive learners. On the contrary, “seminars,” in which students initiate their own presentations, are regarded as student-oriented because the teacher can play the role of coach. However, in Japanese universities

36 37 Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases there has emerged a situation called “Lectures lead to whispering, seminars lead to silence.” This appears to mean that one-way lecturing (seemingly authoritarianism) leads to talking and whispering “revolutions” among students, whereas “student-oriented” seminars, which in actuality are sometimes teacher- oriented and filled with antirevolutionary guidance, lead to silence among students. In contrast, the case method of teaching and learning constructs knowledge in an interactive way. This cooperative learning is a practice of constructivism in international relations. It is said that the teacher here takes on the role of a “choreographer” rather than a teacher or coach. A classroom often resembles a virtual theatre, where students undertake role-play in the manner of actors and actresses. In this situation, the wisdom of the theatre is being constituted and constructed. Compared with traditional lectures and seminars, case-based discussions might be less efficient in terms of covering a wide range of substantive knowledge. However, the case method is more effective than lectures in internalizing and sustaining a meaningful range of substantive knowledge. Compared with general-purpose role-plays and simulations, which emphasize procedural aspects, case-based discussions can be more specific. Nevertheless, the case method of learning is also incorporated in procedural aspects of knowledge and wisdom. In this sense, the case method aims at seeking both substantive and procedural wisdom, and both sustainability and internalization.

III. USE AND MISUSE OF CASE TEACHING In a culture where teaching cases are not prevalent, students as well as teachers still tend to confuse the two types of case studies — research cases and teaching cases. There should be a clear distinction between research cases, in which the authors have analyzed the problems and drawn conclusions, and teaching cases, in which the authors have described but not analyzed the problems. This is because, in the teaching cases, it is learners who define, analyze, and prescribe the problems. Thus, the use of research cases as “case studies” may not always provide

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active and interactive learning in the classroom. In addition, even the “use” of teaching cases may not always arouse interactive and cooperative learning if case teachers are not trained to facilitate discussions using appropriate pedagogies. According to Rangan, four types of teaching cases can be distinguished.(4) The first is lecturing on a case; that is, the teacher gives a lecture on the case material. If the teacher, rather than the learner, analyzes and explains the problem described in the case, it could be a misuse of the case material. The second type is the deductive use of a case. Before students read the case material, they are expected to be familiar with some theoretical frameworks or analytical tools through reading or attending lectures. This allows them to apply such instruments to analyze case studies and examine the gap between theory and reality. This deductive usage is often useful for learners to acquire some systematized knowledge, such as in development economics and logical frameworks for development project formation and evaluation. However, because deduction assumes that such conceptual frameworks preexist, students will approach the problems in the case material with some preconceived ideas, which could limit their potential. In contrast to the deductive use of a case, the third type is inductive use. By definition, induction is the raison d’être of any type of case study. Students will read and tackle the problem without any prejudices and frameworks. While they may feel stressed when faced with a new and unexpected situation, they can choose from a wide range of instruments and criteria free from any preexisting frameworks. While this is sometimes an excellent opportunity to develop new theories, pedagogical confusion can be a concern when a case teacher does not manage discussion appropriately. Choreographic usage is based on the above three types of case usage. Similar to the inductive usage, the case teacher facilitates case discussions based on student-oriented interpretations of the case text. However, this goes beyond a simple induction in the sense that learners cooperatively search for solutions to the problem within the context provided by the teacher. It is student centered,

38 39 Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases but not in the sense that there is no role for the teacher, whose role is undeniably that of a choreographer. I understand that these four types of case usage are identical to William Arthur Ward’s maxim.(5) The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires. The mediocre teacher relays a narrative even if a teaching case study is used. The good teacher explains what theoretical and conceptual frameworks can be applied to the case study material. The superior teacher demonstrates a model of how to define, analyze, and find a solution to the problem using case material, in which no clear answer is shown. The great teacher inspires, not by explicitly transferring the knowledge to the learner, but by implicitly setting up the context, which facilitates intentional learning by students.

IV. TEACHING PRACTICE WITH CASES Much practical wisdom is involved in case teaching and an experienced case teacher uses the same case study material differently to accord with teaching purposes and targeted learners. Of the variety of case teaching materials available, one of the most frequently used case studies in the field of international development and peace-building is the so-called decision-forcing case. This requires students to make a decision relating to a real-world problem. We now look at one of the example steps in decision-forcing case teaching that follows Laurence Lynn’s suggested template.(6) The first step is “problem identification.” At the very beginning of case discussion, students may be asked to summarize the case story in one sentence. This encourages them to “ask thoroughly.” However, this questioning still assumes that there is a distance between the case text and the learner’s mindset. For students to understand empathetically the context of the case story, it might be good to ask the following question: “If you are the decision maker of the case

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story, what problem are you faced with?” There could be a variety of identifications of the main problem and interpretations of contexts even within the same case text. Thus, after listening to some different problem identifications, the case teacher should start by discussing a selected problem identified by students. Assuming that the class has identified an appropriate problem to discuss, the second step is “fact confirmation” to share the basics of the story. Who did what, when, and where should be reconfirmed. The why and how questions should not be asked at this stage. Fact confirmation in a stakeholder’s analysis is equivalent to the step of “learning widely,” and it is important for the class to confirm not only objective facts but also subjective or human aspects of key figures in the case. A fact confirmation session can be shortened or even omitted if students have read and fully prepared the case material before participating in the case discussion. The third step is “analysis by doing.” The students actively read the information and text of the case materials and the case teacher then sets up the context for case discussion. Context setting is largely dependent on Socratic dialogue between the case teacher and the students. The following three types of questioning exercises can be identified by the deliberative actions of the case teacher and the students in setting up an appropriate context for analysis by doing. The first type of questioning is the T–S exercise, which is initiated by a question from the case teacher (T) and followed by an answer from a student (S). This simple combination of question and answer can often be used for quick exercises in fact confirmation on who did what, when, and where. Equally important, it could be used for posing the why question in analyzing the cause of the problem. However, students sometimes make factual mistakes and do not adequately analyze the problem. On such occasions, the second type of questioning is used. This is the S –T exercise, where a student initiates a question in the context set up by the case teacher, and the case teacher, wearing another hat, answers. From

40 41 Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases the students’ perspective, the case teacher remains the teacher, and yet is no longer just a teacher but is a teacher with an assigned role in a specific context. In role-playing, the case teacher can demonstrate a model and thus can correct factual errors, provide an in-depth analysis, and widen the perspectives of the students. Here the case teacher is not a one-way lecturer, but exemplifies that “the superior teacher demonstrates.” The third type is the S –S exercise, where a student asks a question and another student answers. In this exercise the case teacher has the least control over the students. The S –S exercises are used usually in the fourth step of case discussions, the “challenge” step. This step challenges students to ask the how questions, such as “if you were the key decision maker in the case story, what would you do and how would you do it?” Students may give several options for possible courses of action, and the class can cooperatively simulate a consensus- building process by discussing what the decision criteria should be. In discussing a decision-forcing case, students are eager to learn the actual decision made in the real world. This may be described in Part II of some case materials, or briefly summarized in a sequel; however, in many instances, the actual decision is omitted in case materials. It may in fact not be the right decision, but whatever the actual decision is, priority can be given to the case discussion process. When Part II or a sequel is used in case discussion, the class can discuss why and how the actual course outcome is similar to, or different from, the simulated outcome. The last step of the case discussion is a wrap-up reflection of “lessons” learned from the case. Although lessons drawn from a case in a specific context of time and space may or may not be applicable to other contexts, it is important for students to have a wrap-up reflection to ask the “so what” questions for both academic and policy implications at the end of the case discussion. According to Rosenau and Durfee, one of the most important key questions leading to understanding the complex dynamism in international relations is: “Of what is this instance?” (7) The case method of learning is virtually an inductive process to consider this question intersubjectively. In other words, the case discussion is a

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cooperative learning process or a practice of social constructivism.

V. WRITING CASES: FASID CASE LIBRARY Development and peace are teleological as well as practical concepts. They are the goals, consequence, and being. At the same time, they are sustainable practices in daily life. That is why they require active and interactive learning that emphasize both substantive and procedural aspects. The characteristic of this pedagogy has been widely recognized in the 15 years since the first FASID Case Method Seminar in 1992. The Seminar participants also share the assumption that there is no single answer to the goal and process, but that some desirable, workable, and feasible paths can be deliberated and chosen cooperatively, depending on temporal, spatial, and interdisciplinary contexts. As often symbolized in key phrases such as “the integration of theory and practice” and “the fusion of arts and sciences,” new generations of practitioners in the fields of international development and peace-building are expected to experience and empower their arts and sciences to solve complex dilemmas or trilemmas through concrete case studies. In other words, this type of academic endeavor is what Murakami calls “fluctuant equilibrium” or “functional tolerance,” which can be a basis for cooperative learning for sustainable peace and development.(8) The following section examines some dimensions of “fluctuant equilibrium” in peace and international development by reviewing the case study series developed in Japan as the FASID Case Library.(9) The accumulated collection of the FASID Case Library accounts for 94 cases during the period from 1995 to 2007. These include 67 cases written in English and 27 cases in Japanese, with a limited number of bilingual cases. In the early years, the case writing workshops were conducted in English only, with FASID introducing the case writing workshop in Japanese in 2001 to meet the increased demand from Japanese educational and training institutions. The geographical focus of the case materials is: Asia, including Japan, 64 cases (68%), Africa 15 (16%), Latin America and the Caribbean 7 (7%), and others, including unspecified regions, 8

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(9%). The first feature of these case topics relates to the convergence of diversified concepts of development and the integration of development and peace concepts. The term “economic cooperation” has been used in Japan for many years, and the main focus of Japan’s economic cooperation has been bilateral official development assistance (ODA) loans for economic infrastructure. This policy is based on the Asian model of development, in which the role of the government is emphasized over the market. Since the 1980s there has been tension between this model and the neoclassical model, in which the role of the market is maximized and the role of the government is minimized, in the structural adjustment program. The FASID cases dealing mainly with sustained economic growth, including the tension between the Asian and Washington consensus models, account for 13 cases (14%). These cases include the heavy industrialization strategy in Korea, difficulties in economic assistance for the privatized sector in Latin America, policy issues in two-step loans for Asia, policy responses to the Asian financial crisis, and the central and local governments’ responses to the failed financial institutions in Japan. With 36 cases (38%), sustainable human and social development is the most popular topic in the FASID Case Library. The two main agendas for human and social development are health and education. In the health sector, many FASID cases cope with infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS and polio. Some cases have been used for a FASID course on public health programs relating to HIV/AIDS. Former participants in the FASID Case Method Seminar have taken the leadership in developing a variety of case studies in local fields, outside FASID. For example, 10 case studies, both written and multimedia, on health sector human resources development were compiled at the University of the Ryukyus and used for the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) training courses for public health practitioners from small island developing states.(10) Another former participant, a specialist in the education sector, facilitated the development of case-based courses in the field of international development at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. Another former FASID Case

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Method Seminar participant from Ochanomizu University produced a casebook on gender and development.(11) Thus, FASID Case Writing Workshop participants have made a notable impact on higher education and professional training in social and human development in Japan. A number of other FASID cases focus on environmentally sustainable development. Since the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, three pillars of sustainable development — economic, social, and environmental — have been widely recognized. Nine (10%) of the cases developed at FASID relate to the environment. These include cases relating to the atmospheric environment, such as acid rain and climate change; the geospheric environment, such as deforestation, desertification, and biological diversity; and the hydrospheric environment, such as international rivers and oceans. The development of these cases owes much to former FASID Seminar participants, who teach and research environment courses at the University of Tokyo, Hosei University, the Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, and others. Equally important is the relatively new topic of peace-building. At a Cabinet meeting in 2003, the Japanese government determined the new ODA guidelines, which listed peace-building as one of the most important policies on its agenda. Cases on the topic of postconflict peace-building related to international development first appeared in the FASID Case Library in 2001. The number of these has increased rapidly to nine cases (10%). Key figures chosen by the case writers include international and national government officers, such as an officer at the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, and members of international nongovernment organizations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross. Cases in other areas total 27 (29%) and include overlapping topics across the above dimensions of sustainable development and peace-building, including integrated community development and governance. The second feature is the blurring of the demarcation between the public and the private spheres and the integrated concept of governance. The traditional conceptualization of the public sphere is the state and the government, and

44 45 Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases thus it is understood that ODA by definition is provided on a government-to- government basis. On the other hand, market-based trade and investment or civil society-based activities have been recorded as private flows from developed to developing countries. However, the trend in international development since the 1990s is eroding this dichotomy. Developing countries and transitional economies are different, but the structural adjustment programs prescribed by the Breton Woods institutions were similarly applied to both developing countries and transitional economies. In both cases, case topics commonly include deregulation and privatization of the public sector. For instance, in the case study material dealing with partial privatization, the project-identifying team is faced with scoping problems in both the public and the private spheres. There could be various alternatives to privatization, such as the new public management, where the ownership of the project is in the hands of the government but the daily operation component is transferred into the private sector. Another option can be public–private partnerships across business and NGOs. The first Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD), the Japanese government-hosted event held in 1993, proposed the concepts of ownership and partnership, and these have now been widely accepted by the international development community. Ownership and partnership are in fact somewhat oppositional concepts because the autonomy and balanced partnerships among diversified stakeholders, especially the state, businesses, and civil society actors, are still sought in governance agendas. The third feature is the importance of the golden mean in the tension between the individual and the group or society as a whole, as occurs between human development and social development, and between human security and national security. For instance, a key decision maker would be faced with a dilemma between hygiene at the individual level and environmental sanitation at the society level. It is necessary to maintain a balance in the public health sector to focus on both individual-level human development and community-level social development, and yet the decision maker must analyze the situation and

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determine and prioritize the allocation of limited available resources. The fourth feature seen in many FASID case studies is the tension between short-term quick fix solutions and long-term sustainability. There is a gradual timeline stretching from emergency relief assistance to long-term development through restoration and reconstruction. Decision makers sometimes face the dilemma of having to choose between short-term humanitarian assistance and long-term sustainable development strategies. It could be understood that mid- term targets, such as the UN millennium development goals, are set as a practical guide that lies somewhere between the two. In the case of the Asian financial crisis there was a policy debate about whether the crisis should be viewed as a short-term illiquidity crisis or a long-term structural crisis of insolvency. In the cases of environmental problems, a balance between intragenerational and intergenerational justice has often been discussed and considered.

VI. TOWARD A CENTER OF EXCELLENCE IN ACTIVE LEARNING The FASID Case Method Seminar has spread the case method of teaching and learning in the field of international development and peace-building in the Japanese context. A large number of education and training staff members in universities and international development institutions have participated in the Seminar. One of the main reasons for the success of the FASID Case Method Seminar is a series of efforts made by the leading case teachers, especially those who contributed to the case program at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government. The first invited lecturer was the late Professor Marc Lindenberg, who was highly involved in the launch of the FASID Case Method Seminar. For many years Professor Laurence E. Lynn taught the essentials of the case method to a large number of Japanese participants. Thanks to Professor John Boehrer, some of the FASID case studies are now released through the Electronic Hallway at the Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs, University of Washington. The FASID Case Method Seminars 2006 and 2007 were co-

46 47 Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases sponsored by the FASID and the 21st Century Center of Excellence Program, International Christian University. In 2006, Professor Jim Erskine was invited from the Richard Ivey School of Business, University of Western Ontario. In 2007, FASID invited Professor Wee Beng Geop from Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University. The case study materials collected in the FASID Case Library have been utilized in Japan for university education programs undergoing reform as well as for training courses for international cooperation agencies undergoing administrative reform. In a rapidly changing globalized world, the increased importance of active learning and action research has been recognized. For further development of the FASID Case Method Seminar as a possible center of excellence in active learning, the key is international networking in case teaching and active learning.

Notes (1) For international comparisons of case-teaching experiences in American and non-American universities, see Karen A. Mingst and Katsuhiko Mori. Eds. Teaching International Affairs with Cases: Cross-National Perspectives. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997). (2) Gakumon, the Japanese equivalent of learning or scholarship, is the abbreviation of these two steps. Confucius identifies “the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it, careful reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it.” Confucius. The Doctrine of the Mean. (MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 11. (3) Tatsuhiko Kuroda. Ogata Sadako to iu ikikata (Sadako Ogata’s Way of Life). (Tokyo: Best Sellers, 2002), 130. (4) According to Rangan, case teachers use one of four approaches: lecturing a case; theorizing a case, illustrating a case; and choreographing a case. V. Kasturi Rangan. Choreographing a Case Class. (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School, 1996). (5) http://www.wow4u.com/william-arthur-ward/index.html (6) Laurence E. Lynn. Teaching & Learning with Cases: A Guidebook. (New York: Chatham House, 1999). (7) James N. Rosenau and Mary Durfee. Thinking Theory Thoroughly: Coherent Approaches to an Incoherent World. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 230-232.

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(8) Yoichiro Murakami. Bunmei no shi, bunka no saisei (The Death of Civilizations, the Revival of Cultures). (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2006). (9) http://www.fasid.or.jp/english/training/case/index.html (10) Sumiko Ogawa. Ed. Okinawa Health Sector Human Resources Experiences since the Mid-1940s and their Applications to International Health. (Okinawa: University of the Ryukyus, 2003). (11) Ochanomizu University COE Program. Casebook: Gender and Development. (Tokyo: Ochanomizu University, 2007).

References Confucius. The Doctrine of the Mean. MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Kuroda, Tatsuhiko. Ogata Sadako to iu ikikata (Sadako Ogata’s Way of Life). Tokyo: Best Sellers, 2002. Lynn, Laurence E. Teaching & Learning with Cases: A Guidebook. New York: Chatham House, 1999. Mingst, Karen A. and Katsuhiko Mori. Eds. Teaching International Affairs with Cases: Cross-National Perspectives. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997. Murakami, Yoichiro. Bunmei no shi, bunka no saisei (The Death of Civilizations, the Revival of Cultures). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2006. Ochanomizu University COE Program. Casebook: Gender and Development. Tokyo: Ochanomizu University, 2007. Ogawa, Sumiko. Ed. Okinawa Health Sector Human Resources Experiences since the Mid-1940s and their Applications to International Health. Okinawa: University of the Ryukyus, 2003. Rangan, V. Kasturi. Choreographing a Case Class. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School, 1996. Rosenau, James N. and Mary Durfee. Thinking Theory Thoroughly: Coherent Approaches to an Incoherent World. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995. Ward, William Arthur. http://www.wow4u.com/william-arthur-ward/index.html

48 49 Teaching and Learning Development and Peace-Building with Cases

Katsuhiko Mori

This paper reviews the Japanese experience in case teaching and case writing in the fields of international development and peace-building. Special attention will be paid to the case method seminar series hosted by the Foundation for Advanced Studies on International Development (FASID), Tokyo, during the past 15 years. The case method is particularly effective in training functional tolerance in practitioners facing the dilemmas between the different dimensions of sustainable development and peace, between public and private spheres, between individual and overall interests, and between short- term and long-term targets.

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