Persistent Soccer Pitch Unrestand Its Implications on Security in Nairobi City County, Kenya

PERSISTENT SOCCER PITCH UNRESTAND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON SECURITY IN NAIROBI CITY COUNTY, KENYA

MAELO FREDERICK WANJALA CI59/CTY/PT/28890/2014

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF SECURITY, DIPLOMACY AND PEACE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SECURITY MANAGEMENT AND POLICE STUDIES OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

JULY,2019

DECLARATION

This research project is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other

University.

MAELO FREDERICK WANJALA

CI59/CTY/PT/28890/2014

Sign: ______Date: ______

This research project has been submitted for examination with my own approval as the

University Supervisor.

Sign: ______Date: ______

DR EDWARD O. ONANTWA

Kenyatta University

DEDICATION

I wish to bestow this work to my family members, friends and colleagues for support and concern they have demonstrated.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Sincere regards to my SupervisorDr Edward O. Onantwa for the support he has offered while coming up with this research project. I can’t forget to acknowledge my family members who have stood by me through this time. A big thank you to God my creator for enabling me move this far.

TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION ...... ii DEDICATION ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENT ...... v LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF TABLES ...... viii OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS ...... ix LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... x ABSTRACT ...... xi CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.0Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.3 Purpose of the study ...... 5 1.4 Main Objective ...... 5 1.4.1 Specific Objectives of the Study ...... 6 1.5 Research Questions ...... 6 1.6 Significance of the Study ...... 6 1.7 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ...... 7 1.8 Assumptions of the Study ...... 7 CHAPTER TWO ...... 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1 Introduction ...... 8 2.2 Circumstances Underlying Football Violence ...... 8 2.3 Factors that correlate to violence ...... 10 2.3.1 Social Identity ...... 13 2.3.2 Factors in Football Violence ...... 15 2.3.3 Stadia Safety Measures ...... 17 2.3.4 Security Personnel Adequacy ...... 19 2.3.5 Drugs and Substance Use ...... 20 2.4 Policy Governing Football Violence ...... 21 2.5 Summary of Literature and the Gaps ...... 24 2.6 Theoretical Framework ...... 25 2.6 .1 Frustration–Aggression Theory ...... 25 2.6.2 Conceptual Framework ...... 26 CHAPTER THREE ...... 28 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 28 3.1 Research Design ...... 28 3.2 Location of the Study ...... 29 3.3 Target Population ...... 29 3.4 Sample size and Sampling Procedure ...... 30 3.5 Research Instruments ...... 32 3.5.1 Questionnaires ...... 32 v

3.5.2 Interview Schedule ...... 33 3.6 Validity ...... 33 3.7 Instruments Reliability and Pretesting ...... 33 3.8 Data Collection Techniques and Procedures...... 34 3.9 Data Analysis ...... 34 3.10 Ethical Considerations ...... 35 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 37 DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATIONS AND PRESENTATION ...... 37 4.1 Introduction ...... 37 4.2 Response Rate ...... 37 4.3 Background Information ...... 38 4.3.1 Respondents Organisations ...... 38 4.3.2 Respondents Gender...... 39 4.3.3: Respondents Age ...... 40 4.3.4 Stadiums Mostly Affected by Football Violence in Kenya ...... 41 4.4 Circumstances Amenable to Football Violence...... 42 4.4.1 Circumstance Underlying Football Violence ...... 42 4.4.2 The Extent to which Pre- and Post-Match Circumstances Influence Football Violence .45 4.5 Factors That Correlate to Violence during Match and Post-Match Violence ...... 47 4.5.1 Security Measures Adopted During Matches Correlation with Football Violence in Kenya ...... 49 4.6 The Existing Policy Framework on Football Violence in Kenya ...... 51 4.6.1 Favourable Structural Environment Under Which Football Matches are played ...... 51 4.6.2 The extent to Which Available Structural Environments During Matches Contributes to Football Violence in Kenya ...... 53 4.7 Interview Guide Responses ...... 56 4.7.1 Duration involved in football issues ...... 56 4.7.2 Causes of football violence in Kenya ...... 57 4.7.3 Comment on the measures used by stakeholders in football in curbing football violence58 4.7.4 Challenges Facing Stakeholders in Curbing Football Violence ...... 58 4.7.5 Measures That Can Be Used to Prevent Football Violence in Kenya ...... 59 4.7.6 The Effects of Football Violence in Kenya...... 60 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 62 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 62 5.1 Introduction ...... 62 5.2 Summary of the Key Findings ...... 62 5.2.1 Circumstances Under Which Football Violence Occurs in Kenya’s Stadia ...... 62 5.2.2 Factors That Correlate to Violence during Match and Post-Match Violence...... 63 5.2.3 The Existing Policy Framework on Football Violence in Kenya...... 64 5.3 Conclusion ...... 65 5.4 Recommendations ...... 66 5.5 Suggestion for Further Research ...... 68 REFERENCES ...... 69 APPENDIXES ...... 74

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Target Population ...... 30 Table 3.2: Sample Size ...... 31 Table 4.1: Response Rate ...... 37 Table 4.2: Stadiums Mostly Affected by Football Violence in Kenya ...... 41 Table 4.3: Circumstance under which football violence occurs in Kenya Stadia ...... 42 Table 4.4: The Extent to which Pre- and Post-Match Circumstances Influence Football Violence ...... 45 Table 4.5: Factors that have a Correlation with Football Violence in Kenya’s stadia...... 47 Table 4.6: Security Measures Adopted During Matches Correlation with Football Violence in Kenya ...... 49 Table 4.7: Favourable Structural Environment Under Which Football Matches Are Played . 52 Table 4.8: The extent to Which Available Structural Environments During Matches Contributes to Football Violence in Kenya ...... 53 Appendix II: Interview Schedule Senior Police Officers Sports Managers and Club officials 81

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LIST OF TABLES

Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework...... 27 Figure 4.1: Organisation of the Respondents ...... 39 Figure 4.2: Respondents Gender ...... 39 Figure 4.3: Age Gap ...... 40 Figure 4.4: Years Involved in Football Issues ...... 56

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OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Drug abuse: The habitual taking of addictive or illegal drugs. Is the recurrent use

of illegal drugs or misuse of prescriptions or over the counter drugs

leading to negative consequences like addiction, psychological injury,

behaviours pattern or death.

Football violence: Football violence or Soccer violence refers to unruly, violent, and

destructive behaviour by overzealous supporters of association

football clubs, including brawling, vandalism and intimidation

Safety measures: This is the condition of being protected against physical, social,

financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological or other

types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or

any other event which could be considered non-desirable.

Security personnel: These are individuals responsible for security of personnel, physical

assets and information in both physical and digital form.

Match- fixing: Involves the manipulation of an outcome or contingency by

Competitors, teams, sports agents, support staff, referees and officials

and venue staff.

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AFC : Abaluhya Football Club -Leopards Sports Club

CCTV : Closed-Circuit Television

FIFA : Federation Internationale de Football Association

FKF : Football Kenya Federation

KPL : Kenya Premier League

SNAPS : Sports Need for Achievement and Power Scale

SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences

UEFA : Union of European Football Associations

ABSTRACT

This study sought to investigate and to document the causes of football violence in the Kenya soccer fields. The specific objectives were: to examine the circumstances under which football violence typically occurs in Kenya’s stadia, to identify some of the factors that correlate to violence during match and post-match violence, to review the existing policy framework that governs football in Kenya. The study utilized Frustration -Aggression theory. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The target population comprised of 320 respondents drawn from officials in football management, club officials, football fans and police officers. The study sampled 246 respondents from the target population using purposive and simple random sampling. Quantitative Primary data was gathered using questionnaires. Interview schedule was used to collect qualitative primary data from senior managers of sports management, police officers and club’s management. Qualitative data was analysed using the thematic method, data reduction and classification of information. Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics using Statistical Package of Social Sciences. Cross-tabulation was used to test the relationship between the study variables. The analysed data is presented in tables and charts to represent quantitative findings. Qualitative findings were presented in narratives, verbatim reporting, discussions and inferences. The study findings are summarised and conclusion made in an attempt to describe the research objectives. Regarding circumstances under which football violence typically occurs, the study found outthat football fans aggression, police action, rude or abusive fans and uncoordinated football match management are circumstances that breeds football violence. On the factors that correlate to violence during match and post-match violence, the study revealed that alcoholism before and after the match, the number of policemen/security officers are not normally enough during matches and also that stadium design and lack of constant monitoring of crowd density by the police and stewards are factors that correlate to violence during match and post-match violence.On the existing policy framework on football violence in Kenya, the study revealed that, to a moderateextent, the following policy frameworks are satisfied: security provision by host clubs, structured complaints and disciplinary mechanism and also safety precautions by regulating government agencies. Thus, the study therefore recommends that the government through its Ministry of Sports should consider setting up policies prohibiting drunkenness in the stadiums while the matches are ongoing and also should hire qualified contractors to derive a quality stadium design. Also, the study recommends that the Ministry of Interior Coordination should deploy adequate police officers to stadia while there are matches going on. Also, the study recommends that the clubs management should deploy adequate stewards to the stadia to control the fans.The management of the football clubs should create schedules that support coordinated football matches to discourage uncoordinated football match management. The policy makers in sports sector should pass regulations,these regulations should include the procedure of crowd handling where fans are segregated, the sale of ticketing to be done away from the venue before the match day, referees and match officials to be train in proper match handling and officiating.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0Introduction

This is the first chapter of this project which outline the background of the study which offers the conceptual and contextual foundation to the study, statement of the problem, the study objectives, research questions, and significance of the study, scope and limitations of the study.

1.1 Background to the Study

Football violence is a security challenge affecting both developed and developing countries.

According to Kwalimwa (2014), football violence can be traced back to 14th century in

England when King Edward II banned football activities as he thought that the disorder surrounding matches could cause violence. Cleland (2015) argues that mass industrialization coincided with growth of football clubs that led to the display of masculine identities revolving around men creating lifelong social affiliation. These lifelong social affiliations have been associated with triggers of football violence globally. The phenomenon of violent behaviour in football among the spectators worldwide has been there since the game was introduced.

The causes of football violence assume diverse dimensions in different countries having been witnessed in the global, regional and local level. In March 1997, Feyenoord and Ajax supporters clashed in a pre-arranged fight away from the stadium in a wasteland beside a motorway and resulted in one Ajax supporter killed(Giulianotti & Armstrong, 2014). Africa 1

like the rest of the world has not been spared from ugly football violence. A number of violent football incidences have been experienced in Africa. For instance, two of Africa’s worst football disasters occurred in 2001and 2012 in Ghana and Egypt respectively (Pannenborg,

2012). Kenya has also experienced crowd chaos and hooliganism during matches pitting local clubs during leagues and friendly matches. Big clubs especially AFC Leopards and GorMahia have been involved in football violence pitting their fans and in some instances with police

(Onwumechili&Akindes, 2014).

According to Maguire (2011), football hooliganism has been to a large extent credited to the purported inherent pre-disposition to violence of the middle and working classes and aggravated by heavy drinking available on the pitch. Working class individuals tend to grow up with a positive attitude towards an aggressive behavior than others their colleagues in the higher social ladder. However, hooligans can come from any social class and not just confined to middle and lower social classes. Scott (2012) posits that football violence and hooliganism can be as a result of reassertion of masculinity especially with men. By asserting their manhood through support of a football team, the males affirm their status as men. They think by being violent, they are creating a masculine national identity. They see a nation’s strength inside and outside the field.

The noble action of the press has also been blamed on instigating violence. For instance, according to Otieno (2014), football violence is motivated by press image or articles which football supporters regard them as offensive or negative. The football fans in responding on the press reports commit illegal acts of violence to capture a sensualized press image at home and around the world (Scott, 2012). This kind of motivation to football violence is common in

Europe where the fans have access to mainstream and social media. Police action has also being blamed on aggravating football violence in some instances (Otieno, 2014).

Football violence has various effects. In Kenya it has led to destruction of property, injuries and in extreme cases death. This violence in football matches lead to disciplinary actions being undertaken by football governing bodies. Cases of stadium stampede have also been reported in the Kenyan stadiums. Seven football fans, including a young woman, died in 2010 when a stampede broke out at a highly-charged Kenyan Premier League football match between GorMahia and arch-rivals AFC Leopards at the Nyayo National Stadium. The report from the police and football administrators in Kenya does not show the actual causes of football violence but in most cases, it reports the aftermath (Onwumechili&Akindes, 2014).

There is a need to underlying factors and circumstances that causes foot violence Kenya

Stadia in Nairobi.

There are various security measures adopted to curb football violence. Football administrators, police and stakeholders have come up with measures of dealing with football violence globally. These measures include deterrent and dialogue engagement with football fans. In Britain for instance positive change of police strategy of using dialogue approach to address football violence has seen reduction of this problem (Stott, Hoggett& Pearson, 2012).

They observed that dialogue strategy has in turn experienced reduction of the number of police deployed during matches and reduced football related violence.

Banning of stadiums where football violence has been witnessed from holding matches has been used as deterrent measure of dealing with problem of football violence. Banning of teams from participating in certain matches has also been used as means of punishing fans

who engage in football violence. Alcohol ban in stadiums has also been used to control violence and as result the problem has significantly reduced the incidences of football violence (Best, 2010). Football fans that are believed to have a possibility of rioting and those are actually engaging in violence activities are arrested by football management agencies as a deterrent and prevention measures.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Football as sport and form of entertainment is one of the most popular sports in the modern world. It is a sport played and watched by many. It has hundreds of thousands of players, millions of fans and billions of viewers. Football makes people who rarely talk, shout their lungs out while cheering for their favourite team. It is also a sport that has created a lot of employment opportunities all over the world. It is a sport that is liked and enjoyed by many people, young and old, men and women; indeed, it transcends cultural and geographical boundaries.

Football events involve a lot of people including opposing teams, fans, sports marketers, media and other stakeholders, and therefore football violence and hooliganism puts these people’s livelihoods at risk. Most of the studies in this area tend to focus on incidences of football violence and hooliganism around the world and not the underlying causes of football violence. Even then, there is need for further research on the causes, especially to determine whether they are specific to particular areas, including Nairobi. Significant ground has been covered by researchers in establishing the effects of football violence on societies and individuals. None of the researches has however focused on Nairobi, despite the fact that it hosts many football matches, local and international. There is therefore need to determine the

unique circumstances that make Nairobi and other urban of soccer entertainment highly susceptible to violence.

Although violence is a major problem to the entire football planet, the problem seems to be taking deeper roots in Kenyan soccer, and the game of football is taken back to the dark old days. The recent spate of violence involvingGorMahia and AFC Leopards, Kenya’s top two most popular clubs, has sent out a clear message that more needs to be done to fight this vice that threatens the very essence and fabric of the social aspects of sports. However, there seems to be a new twist in fan violence with a portion of criminal acts coming into the picture. Could there be dark forces bringing violence back to Kenyan football? What could be their motive?

With whom does the buck stop when it comes to combating this vice? This study sought to fill this gap by analysing the factors contributing to soccer violence in Kenya.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study was to assess the causes of football related violence and hooliganism in Kenya, specifically in Nairobi City County. This study sought to shed more light on the causes of football violence, which often leads to destruction of property, injuries, and in some cases loss of lives.

1.4 Main Objective

The main objective of the study is to investigate and document the factors which underlie the persistence spectre of football pitch violence in Kenya. In particular, the study intended to isolate and examine the diverse factors that underlie the culture of real-time confrontation and unrest that characterize Nairobi’s soccer stadia.

1.4.1Specific Objectives of the Study

i. To examine circumstances under which football violence typically occur in Kenya’s

stadia.

ii. To establish factors that correlate to violence during match and post-match violence.

iii. To review the existing policy framework on football violence in Kenya.

1.5 Research Questions

i. Under what circumstances does football violence typically occur within Kenya’s

stadia?

ii. What are the factors that correlate to violence during and/or after matches?

iii. How effective is the current policy on football management in regulating violence in

Kenya?

1.6 Significance of the Study

This research will go a long way in untangling the mystery of persistent soccer violence in

Kenya’s stadia. Since it aims to locate and seal the knowledge gaps in this area, the research will ultimately enhance the formulation of the relevant policy on stadium safety and security, especially during matches. Further, given the fact that there is an increasing need for greater understanding of the theory and application in the area of entertainment security, many companies are constantly spending lots money on sports sponsorship. The Kenyan government will find the findings from this study useful in identifying appropriate strategies that needs to be implemented to curb this rising menace in the soccer fields. Finally, the researcher will benefit from the study as it will add on to the growing body knowledge in football violence.

1.7Limitations and Delimitations of the Study

The main limitation of this study was its inability to include more regions in Kenya. The study focused on the causes of football violence in Kenya a case of Nairobi City County where the findings would be generalized to such football violence in Kenya. The study anticipated to encounter unwillingness by respondents to reveal information which might be classified as confidential and to minimize this, the researcher informed the respondents that the information they wouldoffer would be treated with utmost confidentiality and a letter from the

Kenyatta University was attached to each questionnaire. The management was also informed and permission requested before undertaking this research. Finances were alsoa major challenge in this study since it wasself-sponsored academic project. The researcher out of his savings sponsored this project till to the far end. In case of language barrier during data collection, an interpreter was engaged.

1.8Assumptions of the Study

It was assumed that football violence has its roots in systematic or structural failures. The study also proceeded on the assumption that Nairobi City County has the requisite microcosmic features that would make it an ideal research site; and from which the research findings would be generalized to other similar settings across the developing world. Further, research in stadium soccer violence suffers from a serious lack the literature in the psychology of fans-behaviour within the entertainment pitch. The researcher worked from a disadvantage in as far as grounding the research on a theoretical foundation and secondary sources, especially within context of African culture.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter dealt with the review of the relevant literature with specific reference to literature on various aspects of football violence. The literature was reviewed from academic sources such as books, journals, electronic library, national policy papers, past research studies, and other published soccer violence scholarly works. This chapter also focused on theoretical framework to guide on the nature, subject, purpose, and broad context of the research problem.

2.2Circumstances Underlying Football Violence

The game of football has been associated with violence since its beginnings in 13th century

England. Medieval football matches involved hundreds of players, and were essentially pitched battles between the young men of rival villages and towns – often used as opportunities to settle old feuds, personal arguments and land disputes. The roots of modern football are in these violent English rituals. Soccer hooliganism in its contemporary sense refers to the social genesis of a distinctive fan subculture among youth and their engagement in regular and collective violence, primarily targeted at rival peers (Giulianotti, 1999). The violence on the playing field are deep. They’re grounded in over conformity to the sport ethic, processes of commercialization, and definitions of masculinity. Therefore, many of the men who control and play power and performance sports resist efforts to reduce violence They understand that their identities in the context of these sports depend on approving and doing violence and that competitive success often requires the strategic use of violence (Tamara D.

Madensen John E. Eck 2008). 8

Football violence has spread from England, South America, Africa and virtually all world football leagues (Scott, 2007). While English fans have largely been tamed domestically, they are widely feared across Europe and still present a danger when traveling with their club for inter-continental league fixtures (Dunning, 2009). Meanwhile, other European countries have experienced an increase in domestic violence as it declines in England (Scott, 2007); for example, one of the most recent studies, performed by Brimson (2012), reports that football violence has been on the increase in Sweden over the last 40 years where domestic violent firms similar to gangs have followed the English and Italian models of spectator violence.

Scott’s study does not include an analysis of international violence in Sweden, though he does state that spectator violence certainly occurs at the national level as well (Scott, 2007).

Crawford (2000, p.135) explains: “Football violence provides the pinnacle of this voyeuristic journey into the (under)world of alcohol, danger, violence and overt masculinity for the consuming public to enjoy in the comfort (and safety) of their own homes.” He contends television programs and videos about football related disorder serve to “allow people to peer into and voyeuristically experience this ‘deviant’ culture” (Crawford,2000, p.151). Giulianotti

(1999, p.53) has suggested that they “provide hooligans (old and new, real and imagined)” the opportunity to “visualize the violence of themselves and others.

Rojek (2000, p.152) argues that many aspects of modern leisure practices should be analysed as an attempt to go beyond moral boundaries and the pacified physical standards of everyday life and identifies what he suggests is “the elective affinity between crime and leisure.” This can also be understood as transgression or transgressive behaviour. The cultural criminologist

Presedee(1994) explains that transgression, or wrong-doing, can become a leisure activity in itself because it offers the consumer an escape from the realities of working life. In today’s 9

advanced consumer culture then, the desire for—and consequently leisure opportunities for— transgression are plentiful as people seek a break from the norm and their restricted, law- abiding lifestyle.

2.3 Factors that correlate to violence

There are various past studies that attribute football violence to search for particular identities.

Maguire (2011) attributes football hooliganism to working- and middle-class football fans’ inherent biological pre-disposition to violence and quest for social identity. Working class individuals view aggression more positively than others their colleagues in the higher social ladder (Gorman, 2017). Ayres and Treadwell (2012) observed that working class football fans engaged in violence when they break free from confines of the working week to gain particular identities and exert control over own lives. Scott (2012) posits that football violence and hooliganism can be as a result of reassertion of masculinity especially among men. By asserting their manhood through support of a football team, the males affirm their status as men. They think by being violent, they are creating a masculine national identity. Many football fans engage in violence to forge social identities hinged on their shared teams according to Cashmore and Dixon (2016). According to Cleland (2015), mass industrialization coincided with growth of football. As clubs in these areas grew, the need to display of masculine identities revolving around men creating lifelong social affiliation to a club grew.

Social identity, the intense involvement characteristic of watching sports can lead fans to closely identify with their team. If their team plays poorly or faces defeat, fans may feel frustrated because their teams have not triumphed over their rivals. This inability to realize their desired identity may create a new frustration in their life that could lead to aggressive 10

behavior. The collective identity of some team supporters is constructed in relation to the club’s historical rivalries with other teams, a position supported by Cashmore and Dixon

(2016) and Riley (2016). Supporters’ strong feelings of hatred towards their rivals have gradually come to overshadow the local rivalry. Walker (2012) observes that in terms of contests held previously, none can match the level of fan rivalry that characterizes Russia verses Poland football teams whose international relations are remembered with centuries of bitter conflict and mutual invasions.

During one of Russia verses Poland games there was added tension since the game took place in Warsaw same day as when Hitler launched an operation from Poland and Russian fans matched waving flags and chanting “Russia”; provoking the Polish fans in the process. Some football hooliganism has been characterized by racism directed towards players of foreign race or ethnic background Kidd (2010). Sometimes hooliganism is not just motivated by the score line but also by hatred towards supporters of members of the rival teams. Some see football matches not as a competition between opposing teams but rather between nations or races. Many associate football supremacies to national identity.

Maguire (2011) also attributes the violence to the heavy consumption of alcohol by fans in the football stadiums. Drug use and alcohol drinking during football matches is taken by football fans as a way of escaping from daily realities and generating excitement. With the quest for excitement, football violence provides a firm setting for hedonistic pursuit of intoxication and violence against routine pressures and legitimate activities. Males of all social classes are often encouraged, for example, to celebrate special occasions with their male friends by drinking to excess (Schaap, 2013).

Football trips abroad, in particular, seem regularly to involve male fans drinking heavily together in situations where drink, often of an unfamiliar kind, is cheap and easily available.

Many violent offences these days are related to the use of alcohol. In 2000 and 2001, for example, 928, or 27%, of all arrests at League Football in England and Wales were for drink related offences (Welsh, 2009). There is a large body of literature that suggests intoxication is related to aggressive behaviour. While drinking does not trigger people to act violently, alcohol can impair the judgment of people who are predisposed to violent behaviour (Keulen- de, Bernstein, Vanstipelen, Vogel, Lucker, Slaats, Hartkoorn&Arntz, 2016; McClintick&

Grant, 2016; Simons, Maisto, Wray & Emery, 2016). From the literature, it is clear that excessive drinking can cause people to act overconfidently and carelessly, lose awareness of their surroundings, and react violently to people they perceive as offensive.

The extant literature attributes some instances of football violence to the poor management of matches, for instance poor referring and poor ticket management. The operational and planning decisions in various matches in the FIFA World Cup Germany, FIFA World Cup

South Africa, and the FIFA World Cup Brazil tournaments are blamed for the football violence incidences reported in the tournaments by Wong and Chadwick (2017). Wong and

Chadwick (2017) assert that operational and planning decisions may lead to violence in the

2018 FIFA World Cup Russia. Academics studying contemporary football violence in its early years are that violence only occurs at or near football grounds and that it can be caused by incidents of violence on the field of play or by incompetent refereeing. Sports officials play perhaps the most important role supporting professional sports, yet they receive little to no attention until they have in fact erred, or the fans perceive error (Akhigbe, Newman &

Whyte, 2017; van der Meij, Klauke, Moore, Ludwig, Almela& van Lange, 2015).

An official’s error can cause a professional team significant monetary harm. Liability of a professional sports referee, sometimes referred to as referee malpractice, has received significant academic commentary (Akhigbe, Newman & Whyte, 2017; van der Meij, Klauke,

Moore, Ludwig, Almela& van Lange, 2015). Violence was also thought to be generated when supporters feel dissatisfied with the running of their club or ticket management systems, or if they sense injustice (Greenfield, Karstens, Osborn & Rossouw, 2015). Akhigbe, Newman and

Whyte (2017) also suggest that manipulations of sports result, match fixing, and sport corruption contribute to football violence. Chiweshe (2014) asserts that sport corruption is rampant across Africa. In Africa, corruption is one of the endemic elements of the administration of football.

Otieno (2014) presents football violence as being fuelled by the type of language used in sports news reporting in Kenya. The language is filled with metaphors whose overriding theme is war. That is clear from the sports pages of the leading newspapers in Kenya, the

Daily Nation along with the Standard (Otieno, 2014). The metaphorical language used in the newspapers is colourful and vivid, insinuating that football should be taken as a continuing battle or even war between teams and their supporters. The language used has the effect of fuelling the rivalry between supporters of different teams, possibly leading to football violence according to Otieno (2014).

2.3.1 Social Identity

Social identity, the intense involvement characteristic of watching sports can lead fans to closely identify with their team. If their team plays poorly or faces defeat, fans may feel frustrated because they have not ‘‘proven’’ themselves. This inability to realize their desired

identity may create a new frustration in their life that could lead to aggressive behaviour. This biologically based understanding of fan violence has lead sport psychologists to measure the aggression levels of individual fans and focus on the type of people who attend sporting events. In a study of spectator aggression toward officials (Wann, et al 1999) find that fans who report a high degree of identification with their team report more acts of aggression toward officials than fans who report low team identification. This is important because team personnel and venue management encourage fans to believe that they can motivate home team players and distract visiting team players. The collective identity of some team supporters is constructed in relation to the club’s historical rivalries with others for Sparta and Ajax, Celtic and Rangers of Scotland, Yanga and Simba of Tanzania and back home in Kenya, the rivalry between AFC leopard and GorMahia. Supporters’ strong feelings of hatred towards their rivals have gradually come to overshadow the local rivalry.

Thus, according to All port (1924), collective behaviour is said to arise where there is a coming together of individuals who ‘owing to similarities of constitution, training and common situations, are possessed of a similar character’. A possible reading of this individualistic account is that the commonalties observed among (rioting) crowd participants is owing to the common traits of these participants— in particular their inherently violent, criminal and anti-social personalities. While no longer a major force in crowd psychology,

Allport’s account finds resonance within contemporary theories of football hooliganism.

The Leicester school’ (Dunning, 1994; Dunning, Murphy, & Williams, 1988; Dunning,

Murphy, &Waddington, 1991), for example, provides an analysis of football crowd violence in terms of the given propensities of certain types of people who attend football matches.

They suggest that, given a historical civilizing process (Elias, 1978), values of ‘roughness’ , meaning a propensity to physical violence created through particular forms of socialization

(Suttles, 1968), have become increasingly marginalized as growing sections of the working class have been incorporated into mainstream society.

2.3.2 Factors in Football Violence

A study done by Spaaij (2007) on football violence in Egypt revealed that many respondents noted that a number of occurrences within a game itself such as a bad result can trigger violent reactions from supporters. A good result away from home can be dangerous. Some lads like to take it out on the away end. Most respondents also agreed that refereeing decisions and other minor details can cause violence, but claimed the outcome of matches and the significance of an encounter are key factors in spectator disorder.

South Africa, and the FIFA World Cup Brazil tournaments are blamed for the football violence incidences reported in the tournaments by Wong and Chadwick (2017). Wong and

Chadwick (2017) assert that operational and planning decisions may lead to violence in the

Whyte, 2017; van der Meij, Klauke, Moore, Ludwig, Almela& van Lange, 2015). 15

Whyte (2017) also suggest that manipulations of sports result, match fixing, and sport corruption contribute to football violence. Manipulations of sports result(match fixing),the small amount of available literature on sport corruption there is much debate as to what constitutes corrupt practices in the field of match-fixing (Maening 2005, 187-225).

Some authors emphasize the link to betting activities -for example the French research centre

IRIS defines sporting corruption as any manipulation or attempted manipulation of a result or aspect of a game with the aim of securing financial gains on the sports betting market (Iris

2012). Gorse and Chadwick adopt a broader approach, defining sport corruption as “any illegal, immoral or unethical activity that attempts to deliberately distort the result of a sporting contest (or any element of it) for the personal material gain of one or more parties involved in that activity” (Gorse and Chadwick 2011). The definition of match-fixing provided by the Australian Sport Minister (Sport and Recreation Ministers’ Council

Communiqué 2011) is even more complete: “Match-fixing involves the manipulation of an outcome or contingency by competitors, teams, sports agents, support staff, referees and officials and venue staffChiweshe (2014) asserts that sport corruption is rampant across

Africa. In Africa, corruption is one of the endemic elements of the administration of football.

The 2007 Champions League final between Liverpool and AC Milan in Athens was a notable example discussed by participants. Leading up to the final, supporters were angry about the role that Liverpool FC and UEFA played in the distribution of tickets. Allt (2007) also refers to this issue, criticizing those responsible for handing out bundles of preferential treatment and tickets to other bloated ties, double-dealing suits and big-game glory-hunter using nepotism, snobbery and power play. In the build up to this game ticket touts, policeman and supporters were subjected to violent outbursts, with many claiming that disorder only occurred due to the unjust ticketing policies of Liverpool and UEFA and the greedy scumbags that took advantage (Bale, 2009).

2.3.3 Stadia Safety Measures

In his study in England, Bale (2009) revealed that closed circuit television and plain clothes police officers are stationed within the ground where problem supporters are gathered act as perfect deterrence in curbing football violence (Bale, 2009). Control strategies inside football stadia have moved from establishing segregation to panopticism throughout the 1970s and

1980s. Since 1985, this process has also intensified outside stadia; football violent is now one of the major public demons referenced for the political legitimization of CCTV in city centres

(Murphy, 2009). Chisari and Passeron (2007) revealed Male fans will also be expected to practice more chivalrous behaviour towards one another before ladies. Failure to observe such behaviours may cause internal wrangles and therefore this requires closer surveillance and arrest.

Campbell (2006) in his study revealed that police impositions outside stadia have extended to removing hooligans from their preferred social spaces. A long-standing practice has been to

clear pubs of their violent clientele in a bid to undermine these fans’ venue for association.

Ironically, this strategy of forcing football goons out onto the streets can lead to greater policing problems, particularly when groups of opposing goons are also in town (Dunning,

2009). Concerted harassment of pub landlords over confiscation of licenses may also succeed in shifting violent from their chosen locales (Evans, 2008). More recently, however, in

Scotland especially, police tactics have extended into completely eliminating ‘known undesirables’ from the match-day context. No longer is it deemed sufficient to patrol and set boundaries on these supporters’ locales (Poulton, 2009). Price (2003) Verbal insults and other aggressive behaviour by spectators close to the action can also prompt retaliatory behaviour from entertainers who feel threatened or disrespected (Sappenfield, 2004).

One of the most consistent findings regarding higher levels of aggression in stadiums relates to the type of seating available to spectators. An individual seat is related to lower violence levels, while general admission seating that requires spectators to stand, often referred to as festival seating, generates higher violence levels. Roberts and Benjamin (2000), while all crowds eventually become mobile, when entering and exiting the stadium, it appears that assigned seating helps maintain order during the event. When seats are not assigned, enthusiastic fans will try to push their way toward the stage, and crush those ahead of them.

Roskilde Festival Empty spaces without seats can encourage mashing or provide places to start bonfires. However, individual seats do not guarantee a violence-free event. People who move into unoccupied seats or toward railings can instigate aggression if they refuse to move when the ticket holder arrives or if they block the view of those seated directly behind access barriers (Arbetter& Holy,1994). In addition, temporary seats not bolted to the floor can become weapons. 18

Crowding contributes to increased levels of spectator aggression. Russell (2004) crowding increases the likelihood of violence for a variety of reasons: it limits mobility, increases the likelihood of unwanted physical contact between spectators, and increases wait times for entry, purchases, and exiting. A major difference between British and North American soccer is that North American venues are generally less crowded. Road burg (1980) larger crowds are also theoretically more likely to have more people willing to engage in violent behaviours.

2.3.4 Security Personnel Adequacy

Police are regularly criticized for their aggressive style of policing at football matches

(Giulianotti, 2009). Certain police forces in particular, hold a reputation for their indiscriminate use of violence. Policing football matches often seems to amount to nothing more than reacting to problems as they arise (Redhead, 2008). It is likely that in the near future policing will be reinforced due to the aggressive nature of the football competitions. In this process the presence of police personnel will serve to minimize the event of students’ violence. Policing appears to have been, to some extent, a successful strategy in the containment of football violence. Psychology has so far meant that a quantitative analysis of police deployment and disorder has not been forthcoming, Adang and Cuvelier’s (2001) focus on the quantitative analysis of broad patterns of behaviour meant that the psychological processes underlying these patterns could not be examined. Provision of maximum security at competitions can prevent possible violence or minimize its effects, should it occur (Duke,

2007).

For police officers themselves, this technologizing process represents intensification in the scientific management of control over public order (Redhead, 2007). Politically, the major justification for this new economy of control relates not only to the public disgust that 19

spectacular displays of aggression generate among witnesses; but also, the everyday danger that ‘law-abiding citizens’ may be caught up in the cross-fire. These instances are extremely rare and are usually the site for expressing as much moral righteousness among hooligans privately as among the media and police publicly (Frosdick, 2008).

2.3.5 Drugs and Substance Use

Football trips abroad, in particular, seem regularly to involve male fans drinking heavily together in situations where drink, often of an unfamiliar kind, is cheap and easily available

(Williams, 2006). On occasions like this, situations can ‘get out of hand’ because Englishmen placed in an unfamiliar, and perhaps threatening, culture have had too much to drink. Also, many violent offences these days are related to the use of alcohol. In 2000/2001, for example,

928 or 27% of all arrests at League football in England and Wales were for drink-related offences (Welsh, 2009). Drinking can 'aggravate' football violence and calls for further restrictions at football grounds. Proposals for Europe-wide restrictions on the availability of alcohol at football games have recently been made by the European Parliament, although the legal status of such proposals is currently unclear. Such an approach, however, ignores the

wide cross-national variations in the consumption of alcohol by football fans and its apparent effects.

There is a large body of research that suggests intoxication is related to aggressive behaviour.

While drinking does not trigger people to act violently, alcohol can impair the judgment of people who are predisposed to violent behaviour (Keulen-de, Bernstein, Vanstipelen, Vogel,

Lucker, Slaats, Hartkoorn&Arntz, 2016; McClintick& Grant, 2016; Simons, Maisto, Wray &

Emery, 2016). From the literature, it is clear that excessive drinking can cause people to act overconfidently and carelessly, lose awareness of their surroundings, and react violently to people they perceive as offensive. Johnson (2004) Studies of college students have found a link between sports, binge drinking, and problems associated with high intoxication levels.

(Neal et al. 2005) In addition, if people drink, they become violent.

2.4 Policy Governing Football Violence

Elementarily, this paper evaluates peer-reviewed articles published in past and related to the policies put in place in different countries to help tackle the football violence problem.

Tsoukala (2013) concluded that in France, the event-centered policies aimed at curbing football violence are impacted on significantly by policies on risk management. The policies are not global strategy embedded. According to Tsoukala (2013), in France, the violence may be attributed to the continuing conflicts between law enforcement policies and respect for the law in football stadiums across the country.

On the global stage, various studies have in the past examined the efficacy of particular policies in curbing football violence (Cleland&Cashmore, 2016; Stott, Adang, Livingstone &

Schreiber, 2008). In the UK, there are various policies aimed at curbing the violence. The

policies include changing police strategies accordingly, alcohol bans, banning orders, installation of CCTV, and selling of football match tickets at high prices. Cleland and

Cashmore (2016) sought to establish whether football fans thought that the policies had decimated football violence. Of all the fans interviewed by Cleland and Cashmore (2016),

56% associated the decrement of football violence in the UK to enhanced policing policies and 50% to the CCTV policy.

Stott, Adang, Livingstone and Schreiber (2008) focused on the policies that eliminated all forms of violence from the 2004 UEFA finals played in Portugal. Largely, Stott, Adang,

Livingstone and Schreiber (2008) attributed the absence of the violence to the adoption of a non-paramilitary policing policy at the finals. Roberts and Benjamin (2000), who studied violence in spectator sports in North America, appear to disagree with Cleland and

Cashmore (2016), Stott, Adang, Livingstone and Schreiber (2008), and Tsoukala (2013) that criminal justice-related policies can deal with football violence effectively. Roberts and

Benjamin (2000) concluded that criminal justice-related policies have very limited, if any, impact on sports spectator violence in North America.

A wide-ranging search for the pertinent literature did not return any scientific study specifically focusing on anti-football violence policies in Africa. Even then, there are several studies offering significant insights into such policies in African countries (Bolsmann, 2011;

Chiweshe, 2014;Okolie-Osemene&Okoh, 2014). Okolie-Osemene and Okoh (2014) argued that in Nigeria, football season instabilities, including violence, stemmed from varied factors.

They identified the factors as including lack of effective policies for guiding Nigeria

FootballFederation in the execution of own mandate. They advised that an effective policy

framework should be put in place to guide the federation in tackling the problems associated with football, including fan violence induced by for match officiating, in the country.

Chiweshe (2014) appears to agree with Okolie-Osemene and Okoh (2014) on the need forsuch policies in Africa. Especially, Chiweshe (2014) called for policies that may end football violence in Africa by decimating the “rampant corruption, maladministration and lack of accountability” in African football (para.1). Bolsmann (2011), studying the football world cup matches held in South Africa, implied that a policy requiring governments to pronounce themselves against football-related violence may put an end to the violence. Specifically,

Bolsmann (2011) determined that there was no xenophobic-related football violence in the world cup matches since President Jacob Zuma spoke against such violence and deployed sufficient numbers of law enforcers to check on it.

McHenry (1980) suggested that anti-football violence policies in Tanzania are utilized to meet some political ends. Augu, Mwisukha and Onywera (2012) appear to agree with McHenry

(1980). Augu, Mwisukha and Onywera (2012) decried that in East Africa, policies that are aimed at enhancing football standards are never implemented effectively owing to ineffective administration, poor facilities, and a general lack of coherency in the policies. Augu,

Mwisukha and Onywera (2012) advised that the putting up an East African Cultural and

Sports Commission and charging it with the implementation of the policies would ensure that the policies enhance football standards in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya as expected.

Kenya suffers many instances of football violence every year. Asego (2016), writing for The

Standard newspaper, asserted that “Kenyan football is no stranger to acts of hooliganism”, especially ethnicity-fuelled football violence (para.1). Njororai (2009) observes that Kenya is

devoid of a policy for putting an end to the ethnicity-fuelled football violence regardless of the fact that fact that many Kenyan communities continue to solidify “their ethnic identity and nationalism through football” violence (p.866). A wide-ranging search for the pertinent literature did not return any scientific study specifically focusing on anti-football violence policies in Kenya.

2.5Summary of Literature and the Gaps

Existing studies on football Violence have been severely limited in their scope. The vast majority of research in this area focuses on domestic violence, between rivals of competing clubs. One of the greatest weaknesses in current of football violence studies is the lack of a cross-cultural perspective; research has been focused primarily on football violence as “the

English disease,” and therefore studies tend to direct attention almost exclusively on English.

Most of the prevalent football violence research was conducted in the 1990’s, focusing on football violence at its height in England from the 1960’s-1990’s.

However, these studies are becoming out-dated, as spectator violence has transformed a great deal in the previous two decades, both in its manifestations and locales. International football violence has not been thoroughly examined in a cross-cultural context. The vast majority of studies on football violence focus chiefly on domestic violence, while international incidents have only been mentioned as side notes in a small number of readings. Scott and Reicher employ an incident involving English fans during the 1990 World Cup in Italy as a case study, but as Anthony King has noted, their study underestimates the nationalist motivations of a large portion of English fans. The literature reviewed found that there is no developed policy of addressing football violence in Kenya. This implies there is a gap occasioned by lack of

polices of addressing football violence. This study therefore sought to analyse the causes of football Violence in Kenya Soccer Fields a case of Nairobi County.

2.6Theoretical Framework

This study used ofFrustration–Aggression theory.

2.6.1Frustration–Aggression Theory

This study was guided by Frustration–Aggression Theory. The frustration-aggression hypothesis is based on the work of Dollard et al (1939) and suggests that all aggression is the result of feeling frustrated which is defined as “any event or stimulus that prevents an individual attaining some goal and its accompanying reinforcing quality”. Barriers may be real or imaginary and prevent an individual achieving their aim causing frustration which then needs to be relieved in a cathartic way, through the display of aggression.

According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis various factors affect the likelihood of aggression being displayed one of which is the proximity to the goal itself. If an individual perceives themselves to be close to achieving their goal then displaying aggression is more likely due to frustration when a barrier presents itself compared to if they believe the goal is much further away or less attainable. The aggression is more likely to be displayed when individuals perceive the barrier to be unjustified in preventing their goal. Another factor which also affects the display of aggression according to this theory is contextual factors such as the threat of punishment. The occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration, aggression does not occur without any form of prior frustration, and frustration always leads to some form of aggression, aggression is a certain outcome of any frustration 25

The premise of frustration–aggression theory is that aggressive behaviour can be traced to frustration (Baumeister, 2017). The intense involvement characteristic of watching sports can lead fans to closely identify with their team. If their team plays poorly or faces defeat, fans may feel frustrated because they have not ‘‘proven’’ themselves. This inability to realize their desired identity may create a new frustration in their life that could lead to aggressive behaviour (Bachman, Schutt &Plass, 2017). This biologically based understanding of fan violence has led sport psychologists to measure the aggression levels of individual fans and focus on the type of people who attend sporting events. In a study of spectator aggression toward officials find that fans who report a high degree of identification with their team report more acts of aggression toward officials than fans who report low team identification (Ryan &

Deci, 2017).

The frustration – aggression theory aided the study by linking the behaviour of the football fans that seems to be drawn from frustration and leads to them being outwardly aggressive to the other team or fans.

2.6.2 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual model is a conceptualization in functional form of how the independent variables affect the dependent variable which is football violence as shown in Figure 1.1.

Independent variables Dependent variable

Circumstances underlying Football Violence • Match fixing • Internal stadium organisations • Poor officiating • Ticketing

Football violence Factors that Correlate to Football • Ethnic-based unrest violence • Injuries/loss of life • Few police manning matches

• Poorly equipped and • Match disruption remunerated officers • Property destruction • Poor stadia designs

• Fans excitement/social identity

Policy framework • Football management bodies • Safety policies • Laws and regulations • Risk contingency plans

• Government policies • FIFArules • FKF and KPL regulations

Intervening Variables Source:Author ,2018

Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the design and methods that was employed to carry out the study on the football violence phenomenon in Nairobi City County. The chapter sets out various stages and phases that were followed in completing the study. It comprises: research design, target population, research instruments, sampling, data collection, data analysis procedures and ethical consideration.

3.1 Research Design

The study adopted a descriptive survey design method to collect primary data. The design is chosen as the study intends to describe a factors that cause soccer violence with respect to study variables.The advantage of this design method enabled the study to describe the situation or phenomenon of the study the way it is at that time or duration (Kothari, 2004); it is also appropriate in describing characteristics of respondents without manipulating the variables under study; help in describing the characteristics of the sampled population and is appropriate for generalising the findings for the entire population (Mugenda & Mugenda,

2003). In addition,descriptive survey design has the advantage of collecting both quantitative

(numerical variables) and qualitative data suitable for validating the findings (Creswel, 2013) and assisted the study to collect information needed to describe the attitudes, opinions and views of the respondents on the football violence phenomenon in Kenya.

3.2 Location of the Study

The study was carried out in Nairobi City County which is one of the counties with largest sports stadiums in Kenya and a huge fan following. Majority of the football violence pitting the major clubs happens in Nairobi City County. Nairobi City County hosts three major stadiums that host both local and international matches. Moi International Stadium Complex-

Kasarani and NyayoNational Stadium are the major one with a capacity of sixty and thirty- five thousand sitting capacity respectively. They both host international and local matches.

City Stadium located in the low-income area of Nairobi City County is the third largest soccer field with a capacity of fifteen thousand spectators and normally host local matches.

3.3 Target Population

This study targeted football managers, law enforcement agencies and soccer fans as respondents. These groups of respondents were the major stakeholders of soccer. The football managers comprised personnel working in government institutions responsible of managing soccer in stadiums. Officials of Kenya Football Federation and Premier Leagues Limited -

Kenya responsible of managingfootball leagues were also targeted. Football managers of two main football clubs-AFC leopards and GorMahia F.Cwere also enrolled to participate in this study as respondents. The law enforcement agencies comprised of police officers who had participated in providing security during soccer matches. These categories of respondents provide relevant data that was used to address the specific objectives of this study. Table 3.1 presents the target population.

Table 3.1: Target Population

Institutions Respondent category Target population Sports Kenya Senior managers 2 Operations staffs 10 Kenya Football Federation Senior managers 2 and Premier Leagues Ltd- Operations staffs 16 Kenya Law enforcement agencies Senior officers 2 Police officers 120 Clubs management (2 major Senior managers 2 clubs) Club officials 14 Clubs Soccer Fans (2 major Chairpersons 2 clubs) Registered fans in 2 major 150 clubs in Nairobi County Total 320

Source: Respective institutions records (2018)

3.4 Sample size and Sampling Procedure

This study targeted different categories of respondents who comprised of senior and other officials. The study employed purposively sampling method to select one senior official from each institution to beinterviewed orally. The number of target population for operations staff

(26) and club officials (14) was not large to warrant sampling. The study therefore enrolled the entire population (40) of operations staff and club officials.

The target population for police officers and registered soccer fans was too large thus

푁 requiring sampling. The study usedSlovin’s formula 푛 = , (where“n” is the desired 1+푁(푒)2 sample size, “N” is the population size, and “e” is the margin of error) to determine the

sample size of law enforcement officers and registered club soccer fans. A 5% (0.05) was used as the margin of error). Sample size was calculated from the total target population of police officers (200) and 6500 registered soccer fans of two major clubs. The commutations were done as follows;

120 i) Police officers푛 = = 92 1+120(푒)2

150 ii) Soccer fans (Club A and B) 푛 = = 109 1+150(푒)2

Table 3.2 presents the sample sizes for each category of respondents

Table 3.2: Sample Size

Institutions Respondent category Target Sample size population Sports Kenya Senior managers 2 1 Operation staffs 10 10 Kenya Football Senior managers 2 1 Federation and Operation staffs 16 16 Premier Leagues Ltd- Kenya Law enforcement Senior officers 2 1 agencies Police officers 120 92 Clubs management (2 Senior managers 2 1 major clubs) Club officials 14 14 Clubs Soccer Fans (2 Chairpersons 2 1 major clubs) Registered fans in 2 major 150 109 clubs in Nairobi County Total 320 246

A list of the police officers and football fans were obtained from the respective institutions,

(police records and football fan clubs) to be used as sampling frame. Simple random sampling method was employed using lottery method to select individual subjects who would be enrolled in this study. The entire census of Sports Kenya, Stadia management and club management were the samples for this study. Finally, purposive sampling method was used to select one senior official in each institution for oral interview. A total of 246 respondents were sampled are respondents for this study.

3.5 Research Instruments

The study used questionnaires and interview schedules to collect primary data from football fans. The use of questionnaires and interview schedules assisted in collecting qualitative and quantitative data.

3.5.1 Questionnaires

Questionnaires techniques of data collection was preferred because it has the ability of collecting a lot of information within a short period of time. It also offers confidentiality especially when the respondents self-administer questionnaires. This research instrument consisted of close-ended questions (Appendix II). The close ended questions comprised of options for the respondents to select from. Open ended items had spaces where the respondents wrote their views. This research instrument had four sections. Section “A” captured background information while the others parts collected data for each specific objectives of the study. The questionnaires were administered using “drop and pick later” method and collected by research assistants or by the researcher. This type of instruments were used to collect data from operation staffs police officers, club officials and football fans.

3.5.2 Interview Schedule

Interview schedule data collection tool is suitable for collecting qualitative data from small number of respondents mainly from people with wide knowledge (expert) in an area or phenomenon (Kothari, 2003). This research instrument was used to collect data from senior officials of Football Kenya, Stadia management, police officers, club management and chairperson of football fans clubs. This interview schedule was useful especially in that it provided an avenue for clarifying information from the respondents.

3.6 Validity

Validity is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data collected in a study actually represents the phenomenon under investigation (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).

Validity is the extent to which information collected by the researcher truly reflects the phenomenon being explored (Veal & Darcy, 2014). The study ensured content validity of the instruments. The researcher sought guidance from the supervisor and research experts on validity of the items on the questionnaires. Content validity ensured that the questionnaires collected the right data according to the purpose of study and research objectives. Also to ensure validity of the instruments simple language was adopted to avoid ambiguity in an effort to promote the accurate responses by the respondents.

3.7 Instruments Reliability and Pretesting

This is the extent to which the results obtained from research instruments are consistent over time using same measuring instruments and same methodology. To establish the reliability of the research instruments the researcher was subjected to pre-testing in the sampled institutions targeting persons who were not enrolled in the actual study. The pretested instruments were subjected to internal consistency to determine their reliability. This was done by subjecting 33

questionnaires to Cronbach Alpha analysis to determine their reliability. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 1.0 is an indicator of a greater internal consistency of the items piloted.

However, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value less than 0.6, it is an indicator that the instruments are not reliable.

3.8 Data CollectionTechniques and Procedures

A consultation was done between the researcher and the selected institutions on the methodology, participants and the purpose of the study. A briefing on data collection was done to ensure participants were aware of what are expected of them. Self-administered questionnaire was administered to the respondents for them to fill. The researcher administered the questionnaires to the respondents in their respective work places or in other convenient places. The senior officials were orally interviewed by the research in their offices or in any convenience place of their choice. The number of the institutions and the respondents were too large for the researcher to collect alone. This necessitated the need of using research assistants to administer questionnaires. They were trained on the study topic, ethics and methodology of collecting the data as well as guiding the respondents in filling the questionnaires. The researcher exercised care and control to ensure all questionnaires issued to the respondents were received, and to achieve this, the researcher maintained a register of questionnaires, which were administered and those which were received.

3.9 Data Analysis

Data collected was subjected to both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques. Data from questionnaires was cleaned, coded and entered into the Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS) version 20 software for analysis. Open ended items responses captured from questionnaires were grouped according to themes and coded to produce data that was 34

analysed quantitatively. Quantitative data was analysed descriptively using statistics like dispersion, distribution and cross tabulation was generated to describe the variables under study. The analysed quantitative data was presented in tables and charts.

Qualitative data analysis was analysed in three-stage namely data reduction, data discussion and drawing conclusions. Data reduction involved data mining of data collected through oral interview by transcription to reveal the key issues that helped to separate the relevant issue from irrelevant. Data discussion involved the compilation of the reduced data into an organized and compressed logical context. Finally, data discussion offered interpretation of data and logical explanations on the relationship of the findings. Qualitative research findings were presented as phrases or key voices quotation as per the interview responses.

3.10 Ethical Considerations

Resnik (2011) describes ethical considerations as a measure for conduct that recognises and distinguishes acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Prior to conducting the study, the researcher obtained a written authorization to conduct the study from Kenyatta University and

National CommissionforScience, Technology and Innovation. The researcher also obtained permission from the respondents; the researcher explained to the respondents the purpose of the study. The researcher will share the research findings and conclusion of the research to the appropriate stakeholders who may have interest in the outcome of this study. The researcher observed three principles, viz.; confidentiality, anonymity and use of data collected for academic purposes only.Confidentiality of the respondents was maintained where no names or employment numbers were recorded on the questionnaire. The senior officials were

identified using pseudo names like “officer XX” to ensure their views and opinions were treated with utmost confidentiality.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATIONS AND PRESENTATION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter analyses, interprets and presents the study findings as per the aim of this study, whose purpose is to isolate and examine the diverse factors that underlie the culture of real- time confrontation and unrest that characterize Nairobi’s soccer stadia. The chapter presents the response rate, respondents’ background information and the findings of the study according to the objectives.

4.2 Response Rate

The study targeted 246 respondents who were drawn from different categories comprising senior and other officials from the departments. The study response rate was as shown in table

4.1

Table 4.1: Response Rate

Instruments filled and Administered Instruments Percentage Returned Questionnaires 238 228 95.79% Interview guides 8 8 100% Total 246 236 95.93%

The respondents were distributed in strata’s as follows; senior managers, operation staffs, senior managers, operation staffs, senior officers, police officers, senior managers, club officials, chairpersons, registered fans in major clubs in Nairobi county. Out of 238 questionnaires distributed to respondents, 228 responses were obtained back giving a response rate of 95.79%.The interview guide response rate was 100%. Mugenda (2012) states that a

50% response rate is adequate, 60% is good and above 70% is rated very well. The response was therefore rated very well.

The commendable response rate was achievable after the researcher administered the questionnaires and interview guides personally and made personal visits and phone calls to remind the respondents to fill-in and return the questionnaires.In that, descriptive statistics, relative frequencies, pie charts and graphs were used in some questions and other were analyzed using mean scores with the help of Likert scale ratings in the analysis.

4.3 Background Information

This section presents the respondents bio data; the study findings are as presented in each of the section.

4.3.1 Respondents Organisations

Respondents were asked to indicate their organisation. The study findings were as presented in figure 4.1

Organisation 45.00 40.00 38.2% 35.00 30.00 24.6% 25.00 20.6% 20.00 15.00 10.00 6.6% 5.8% 4.1% 5.00 0.00 Kenya Police Sports Gor Mahia AFC Federations Club Kenya Leopards Officials

Figure 4.1: Organisation of the Respondents

As was shown in figure 4.1,38.2% of the respondents indicated that they had been in Kenya

Police, 24.6% indicated that their football club is GorMahia and 20.6% belong to AFC

Leopard football club, while 6.6% indicated that their organisation was Football Kenya.Club officials and Sports Kenya represented by 5.8% and 4.1% respectively. This shows that the study involved all the major clubs in Nairobi with most respondents being from soccer fans and Kenya police. The study population was deemed fit for this study since much of the reported violence erupts when the two teams meet.Further, the Police Service, Sports Kenya and Football Kenya Federation are the institutions bestowed with the responsibility of managing and ensuring there is no violence any time there is a football match.

4.3.2 Respondents Gender

Respondents were asked to indicate their gender; the study findings were as shown in Figure

4.2

Gender Female 12.7%

Male 87.3%

Figure 4.2: Respondents Gender

As was shown in Figure 4.2, 87.3% of the respondents indicated that they were males whereas

12.7% of the respondents indicated that they were female. Thus, the study involved both genders in the study with the majority being males and hence the study was not gender

biasedand it also shows that football is male dominated game. According to Bolsmann (2011) hooligan culture is a male dominated culture. In the violent fights only, men participate.

Furthermore, it is a culture with strong sexual conventions. These respondents gives a clear picture on the culture of real-time confrontation and unrest that characterize Nairobi’s soccer stadia

4.3.3: Respondents Age

Respondents were asked to indicate their ages, the study findings were as presented in the

Figure 4.3

Age

Above 45 Years 25.9%

35-45 Years 16.2%

26-35 Years 51.3% Age Age years in

18-25 Years 6.6%

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 Percentage

Figure 4.3: Age Gap

As was shown in Figure 4.3, the study findings showed that 51.3% of the respondents were aged between 26 to 35 years, 25.9% were aged above 45 years, 16.2% were aged between 35 to 45 years and 6.6% of the respondents were aged between 18 to 25 years. Thus, from the study findings the research involved all the respondents in all the age gaps and it also shows that the age gap for soccer fan is between 26-35years.

Respondents were asked to indicate their role in soccer management in Kenya, majority of the respondents indicated that they served to as facility managers, also majority of the 40

respondents indicated that they served in communication and public relations for the Football

Kenya Federation. Also, respondents indicated that they served to facilitate liaison and event management, provision of security, human resource managers and match arrangements.

4.3.4 Stadiums Mostly Affected by Football Violence in Kenya

Respondents were asked to indicate the stadiums that are mostly affected by football violence in Kenya. The study findings were as shown in the table 4.2. A scale whereby 4 was highly affected, 3 moderately, 2 was low affected and 1 was not affected thus the higher the mean the higher the stadium was affected.

Table 4.2: Stadiums Mostly Affected by Football Violence in Kenya

Stadia Highly Moderately Low Not affected affected Affected Std. Mean Deviation Moi Kasarani 44 118 66 0 2.904 0.689

Nyayo 165 63 0 0 3.724 0.448

City Stadium 89 114 25 0 3.281 0.650

As was shown in Table 4.2, majority of the respondents indicated that Nyayo Stadium was highly affected as was shown by a mean of 3.724, respondents indicated that City stadium was moderately affected and also majority of the respondents indicated that Moi Kasarani

Stadium was also moderately affected as was shown by a mean of 2.904. This can be associated to the proximity between the stadiums and the slums. According to Dunning

(2014) those fans who engage most persistently in hooligan behaviour in a football context, view fighting and aggressive behaviour as an integral part of going to the match. Majority of such fans are slum dwellers who comes to the football pitch intoxicated and with disruptive intentions.

4.4 Circumstances Amenable to Football Violence.

This section sought to find out the circumstances under which football violence occurs in

Kenya Stadia. The study responses were as shown in each of the section.

4.4.1 Circumstance Underlying Football Violence

Respondents were asked to indicate the circumstances that breeds to football violence before and after the match. The study findings were as shown in Table 4.3

Table 4.3: Circumstance under which football violence occurs in Kenya Stadia

Circumstances Hostile fans Frequency Percentage Yes 180 78.9 No 48 21.1 Total 228 100 Uncontrolled Fans Yes 135 59.2 No 93 40.8 Total 228 100 Uncoordinated football match management Yes 134 58.8 No 94 41.2 Total 228 100 ExcitedSupporters Yes 204 89.5 No 24 10.5 Total 228 100 Rude/ Abusive Fans Yes 156 68.4 No 72 31.6 Total 228 100 Traditional rivalries / Rival fans conflicts 228 100 Yes 228 100 Total 228 100 Police action Yes 136 59.6 No 92 40.4 Total 228 100 Football fans aggression

Yes 181 79.4 No 47 20.6 Total 228 100 Organised Violence by teams Yes 87 38.2 No 141 61.8 Total 228 100 Gate crushers Yes 160 70.2 No 68 29.8 Total 228 100 Previous match results Yes 63 27.6 No 165 72.4 Total 228 100.0

As was shown in Table 4.3, 78.9% of the respondents agreed that hostile fans before and after the match contributes to football violence whereas 21.1% of the respondents indicated otherwise, this shows that hostile fans are one of the circumstances that leads to football violence as was shown by majority of the respondents. Also 59.2% of the respondents indicated that football violence before and after the match is caused by uncontrolled fans whereas 40.8% were of the contrary opinion.

Additionally, the study indicated the following circumstances to breed to football violence; uncoordinated football match managementas was shown by 58.8% of the respondents, excited supporters as was shown by 89.5% of the respondents, rude/ abusive fans as was indicated by

68.4% of the respondents, traditional rivalries/rival fans conflicts as was indicated by 100% of the respondents, police action this was shown by 59.6% of the respondents. Further the respondents agreed that football fans aggression leads to football violence as was shown by

79.4% agreement by respondents, gate crushers cause violence as was shown by 70.2% of the respondents.

On contrary respondents indicated that the following were not circumstances that lead to football violence; organised violence by the teams this was shown by 61.8% of the respondents and those who agreed that football violence is a result of organised violence by teams were 38.2% this shows that majority of the respondents countered that; organised violence by teams leads to football violence. Respondents also counted that previous match results leads to football violence as was shown by 72.4% of the respondents and those who agreed were 27.6%. This shows that majority of the respondents disagreed that previous match results leads to football violence. Also, the study from the majority of the respondents indicated that gate charges is a circumstance that contributes to football violence.

The above findings concur with Reiner (2014) who revealed that violence was always generated when supporters feel dissatisfied with the running of their club, or if they sense injustice. Reiner further revealed that Football violence ranges from shouts to opposing fans to actual fist fights that can then lead to riots. In the most extreme cases, hooligans, police, and bystanders have been killed, and riot police have intervened with tear gas, armoured vehicles and water cannons.

According to Cashmore and Dixon, (2016) if fan’s club plays poorly or faces defeat, fans may feel frustrated because their teams have not triumphed over their rivals. This inability to realize their desired identity may create a new frustration in their life that could lead to aggressive behaviour.The findings are also in line with those of Maguire (2011) who revealed that causes of violence at sports events also include antagonism towards fans of the opposing club, poor security at the event, poor performance of the home club, unsporting behaviour of players, excessive consumption of alcohol and drugs, poor stadium infrastructure.

4.4.2 The Extent to which Pre- and Post-Match Circumstances Influence Football

Violence

Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement on the listed statements about extent the pre and after match circumstances influence football violence in Kenya. A scale whereby 1- very low extent, 2-low extent, 3- Neither low nor large extent 4- large extent, 5- very large extent was used. The study findings were as tabulated in Table 4.4

Table 4.4: The Extent to which Pre- and Post-Match Circumstances Influence Football

Violence

Statement Very Low Neither Large Very Mean S.D low extent low extent large extent [2] nor [4] extent [1] large [5] extent [3] Hostile fans 23 0 0 68 137 4.298 1.194 Uncontrolled fans 0 45 24 96 63 3.776 1.061 Uncoordinated football 49 24 92 40 23 2.842 1.235 match management Excited supporters 24 0 24 107 73 3.899 1.170 Rude/Abusive fans 48 48 24 20 88 3.228 1.626 Previous match results 73 111 0 24 20 2.154 1.230 Traditional rivalries 0 0 0 96 132 4.579 0.495 Police action 25 0 43 111 49 3.697 1.142 Football fans aggression 24 23 20 136 25 3.504 1.144 Organised violence by 72 40 25 91 0 2.592 1.296 teams Gate crushers 48 0 20 160 0 3.281 1.213 As was shown in Table 4.4, majority of the respondents agreed to a very large extent that traditional rivalries influence football violence in Kenya as was shown by a mean of 4.579 and a standard deviation of 0.495. Further majority of the respondents agreed to a large extent that the following circumstances influences football violence in Kenya; hostile fans as was

indicated by a mean of 4.298 and a standard deviation of 1.194, excited supporters as was shown by a mean of 3.899 and standard deviation of 1.170, uncontrolled fans as was indicated by a mean of 3.776 and a standard deviation of 1.061, police action as was indicated by 3.697 and a standard deviation of 1.142 also respondents agreed by a large extent that football fans aggression leads to football violence as was shown by mean of 3.504 and a standard deviation of 1.144.

The study also showed that majority of the respondents were neutral that the following circumstances influences football violence in Kenya; gate crushers as was shown by a mean of 3.281 and a standard deviation of 1.213, rude/ abusive fans as was shown by a mean of

3.228 and a standard deviation of 1.626, uncoordinated football match management as was shown by a mean of 2.842 and a standard deviation of 1.235 also organised violence by teams as was shown by a mean of 2.592 and a standard deviation of 1.296. Additionally, majority of the respondents indicated that to a low extent previous match results as was shown by a mean of 2.154 and a standard deviation of 1.230 is a circumstance that leads to football violence in

Kenya.

The study findings go hand in hand with those of Madensenand Eck, (2008) who found out that each team has its firms, these are extreme fan groups who fight each other regularly.

Leadersof firms meet up at bars to set up fights and to discuss previous fights over a beer as if it werenothing. They furtherasserted that many of the men who control and play power and performance sports resist efforts to reduce violence. They understand that their identities in the context of these sports depend on approving and doing violence and that competitive success often requires the strategic use of violence. Kidd (2010) further asserts that hooliganism is not just motivated by the score line but also by hatred towards supporters of

members of the rival teams. Some see football matches not as a competition between opposing teams but rather between nations or races. Many associate football supremacies to national identity.

4.5 Factors That Correlate to Violence during Match and Post-Match Violence

Respondents were asked to indicate the factors that have a correlation with football violence in Kenya’s stadia. The study responses were as shown in Table 4.5

Table 4.5: Factors that have a Correlation with Football Violence in Kenya’s stadia

Factors Yes Percentage No Percentage Alcoholism in the stadium 228 100% 0 0 Alcoholism outside the 203 89% 25 11% stadium Police action 183 80.30% 45 19.70% Lack of stadium perimeter 135 59.20% 93 40.80% fence Lack of fans separation 180 78.90% 48 21.10% Selling of tickets at the 178 78.10% 50 21.90% stadium during match Exceeding stadium capacity 110 48.20% 118 51.80% Lack of barrier between the 135 59.20% 93 40.80% pitch and players Lack of screening for objects 184 80.70% 44 19.30% Stadium design 134 58.80% 94 41.20% Lack constant monitoring of crowd density by the police 183 80.30% 45 19.70% and stewards Lack of enough seats 86 37.70% 142 62.30%

As was shown in Table 4.5 majority of the respondents agreed that the following factors have a correlation with football violence in Kenya’s stadia; alcoholism in the stadium as was

shown by 100% of the respondents, alcoholism outside the stadium as shown by 89%, police action as shown by 80.3%, lack of stadium perimeter fence as was shown by 59.2%.

Additionally, respondents agreed that; lack of fans separation as shown by 78.9%, selling of tickets at the stadium during match as shown by 78.1%, lack of barrier between the pitch and players as shown by 59.2%, lack of screening for objects 80.7%, stadium design as shown by

58.8% and lack constant monitoring of crowd density by the police and stewards as shown by

80.3% of the respondents are the factors that have a correlation with football violence in

Kenya’s stadia. Further respondents highlighted that the following factors lacks a strong correlation with football violence in Kenya’s stadia; lack of enough seats as was indicated by

62.3% of the respondents and exceeding stadium capacity as was shown by 51.8%.

The above findings are in agreement with those of Maguire (2011) who revealed that the heavy consumption of alcohol by fans in the football stadiums attributes to violence. With the quest for excitement, football violence provides a firm setting for hedonistic pursuit of intoxication and violence against routine pressures and legitimate activities. The findings are also in line with those of Campbell (2006) who revealed that police impositions outside stadia can lead to removal of hooligans from their preferred social spaces. According to Russell

(2004) crowding increases the likelihood of violence for a variety of reasons: it limits mobility, increases the likelihood of unwanted physical contact between spectators, and increases wait times for entry, purchases, and exiting.

4.5.1 Security Measures Adopted During Matches Correlation with Football Violence inKenya

Respondents were asked to indicate their opinion on whether security measures adopted during matches have a correlation with football violence in Kenya. The study findings were as shown in Table 4.6

Table 4.6: Security Measures Adopted During Matches Correlation with Football

Violence in Kenya

Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Mean Std Disagree Agree deviation [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] The number of policemen/security officers are 72 88 20 23 25 2.303 1.308 normally enough during matches and prevents violence Enough security officers are adequately deployed in the 48 112 0 43 25 2.496 1.309 stadium during matches thus preventing violence Enough security officers are adequately 24 111 25 43 25 2.711 1.207 deployed on time during matches thus preventing violence Adequate clubs security/marshals are deployed during 48 87 25 43 25 2.605 1.305 matches thus preventing violence

Enough security officers are 24 110 25 44 25 2.719 1.209 responded on time to quell violence

As was shown in Table 4.6, majority of the respondents were neutral that; enough security officers responded on time to quell violence as was shown by a mean of 2.719 and a standard deviation of 1.209, enough security officers are adequately deployed on time during matches thus preventing violence this was shown by a mean of 2.711 and a standard deviation of

1.207. Also, respondents were neutral that; adequate club’s security/marshals are deployed during matches thus preventing violence this was shown by a mean of 2.605 and a mean of

1.305.

Additionally, respondents disagreed that; enough security officers are adequately deployed in the stadium during matches thus preventing violence as was shown by a mean of 2.496 and a standard deviation of 1.309. Also, respondents disagreed that the number of policemen/security officers are normally enough during matches and prevents violence as was indicated by a mean of 2.303 and a standard deviation of 1.308.

Respondents were asked to indicate ways of ensuring security lapses are avoided to prevent football violence, majority of the respondents indicated that; there should be deployment of enough police officers, peace should be preached and co-existence of different clubs’ fans regardless of match results. Also ensuring thorough checks are done at the gates to avoid weapons and other dangerous weapons from getting into the stadium. Also, majority of the respondents indicated that there should be satisfactory accreditation of plans, training and education of security personnel, prohibition of specified items e.g. weapons and developing of contingency plans. Additionally, respondents indicated that there should be constant advice to

the fans before and after the matches and also that there should be proper controlled gates.

Further majority of the respondents indicated that there should be adequate coordination between the policemen and team stewards.

The study findings agrees with those of Njororai, (2009) who observed that Kenya is devoid of a policy for putting an end to the ethnicity-fuelled football violence regardless of that fact that many Kenyan communities continue to solidify their ethnic identity and nationalism through football violence. Respondents were asked to indicate ways of preventing football violence on soccer stadiums in Kenya. The study showed that majority of the respondents indicated that; fans should be educated on the importance of security within the stadium and also that there should be adequate deployment of security officers, also respondents indicated that the referees should not be biased in matches. Also, majority of the respondents indicated that there should be the development of risk management plans and that advance tickets sales should be discouraged, there should be enhancement of the stadium capacities, selective segregation of football fans and also that the exit capacities should be enhanced. Additionally, respondents indicated that there should be adequate space between the players and the fans.

4.6 The Existing Policy Framework on Football Violence in Kenya

This section sought to find out about the existing policy framework on football violence in

Kenya. The study findings are as presented in each of the section.

4.6.1 Favourable Structural Environment Under Which Football Matches are played

Respondents were asked to indicate the favourable structural environment under which football matches are played in Kenya. The study findings were as shown in Table 4.7

Table 4.7: Favourable Structural Environment Under Which Football Matches Are

Played

Factors Yes Percentage No Percentage Involvement of football league management 203 89% 25 11% bodies Involvement of clubs’ management bodies 228 100% 0 0

Host team having the responsibility of 205 89.9% 23 10.1% organising the matches Security provision by Kenya Police Service 228 100% 0 0

Security provision by host clubs 159 69.7% 69 30.3% Structured complaints and disciplinary 159 69.7% 69 30.3% mechanism Adherence to local and international football 180 78.9% 48 21.1% bodies Safety precautions by regulating government 135 59.2% 93 40.8% agencies Safety and emergency lighting and power 160 70.2% 68 29.8% supply Communication with fans inside the stadium 132 57.9% 96 42.1% Security of players and VIPS 180 78.9% 48 21.1%

As was shown in Table 4.7, majority of the respondents agreed that the following structural environment are available for football matches played in Kenya’s urban centres; involvement of football league management bodies as was shown by 89% of the respondents, involvement of clubs management bodies as indicated by 100% of the respondents, host team having the responsibility of organising the matches as indicated by 89.9% of the respondents and security provision by Kenya Police Service as was shown by 100% of the respondents.

Further respondents indicated that the following frameworks are in place for handling of soccer violence; security provision by host clubs and also presence of structured complaints and disciplinary mechanism as was shown by 69.7% in each of the statement. Also, respondents agreed that there is adherence to local and international football bodies as was 52

shown by 78.9% of the respondents, safety precautions by regulating government agencies as was shown by 59.2%. Additionally, respondents agreed that there is safety and emergency lighting and power supply as indicated by 70.2% also there is communication with fans inside the stadium as was shown by 57.9% and that there is security of the players and VIPS as was shown by 78.9% of the respondents.

These findings are in line with those of Okolie-Osemene and Okoh (2014) who argued development and implementation of effective policies for guiding FootballFederation who help a lot in reducing football violence. In case of an everyday match the local organizers are responsible for the security inside the stadium, and the police for the security of public places.This situation requires huge coordination and empathy from security force members.

The cooperation could be started with the joint training of the security force members.

4.6.2 The extent to Which Available Structural Environments During Matches

Contributes to Football Violence in Kenya

Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which the listed structural environments are available during matches towards contributing to football violence in Kenya. The study findings were as shown in Table 4.8

Table 4.8: The extent to Which Available Structural Environments During Matches

Contributes to Football Violence in Kenya

Policy framework Very Low Neither Large Very Mean Std low extent low extent large deviation extent [2] nor [4] extent [1] large [5] extent [3]

Involvement of football league management 23 0 73 83 49 3.592 1.132 bodies Involvement of club’s 23 0 48 108 49 3.702 1.118 management bodies Host team having the responsibility of 0 48 0 107 73 3.899 1.076 organising the matches Security provision by 23 0 48 112 45 3.684 1.105 Kenya Police Service Security provision by 23 24 68 88 25 3.298 1.118 host clubs Structured complaints and disciplinary 23 73 20 112 0 2.969 1.104 mechanism Adherence to local and international football 23 48 0 137 20 3.364 1.200 bodies Safety precautions by regulating government 23 72 0 133 0 3.066 1.142 agencies Safety and emergency lighting and power 0 24 48 156 0 3.579 0.675 supply Communication with 72 24 0 112 20 2.930 1.488 fans inside the stadium Security of players and 47 24 24 83 50 3.285 1.449 VIPS

As was shown in the table majority of the respondents agreed to a large extent that the available structural environments during matches contributes to football violence in Kenya; host team having the responsibility of organising the matches as was shown by a mean of

3.899 and a standard deviation of 1.076 also involvement of club’s management bodies as was shown by a mean of 3.702and a standard deviation of 1.118. Additionally, respondents agreed to a large extent that there is security provision by Kenya Police Service as was shown by a mean of 3.684 and a standard deviationof 1.105 and involvement of football league management bodies as was shown by a mean of 3.592 and a standard deviation of 1.132also

availability of safety and emergency lighting and power supply as was shown by a mean of

3.579 and a standard deviation of 0.675.

Respondents were neutral that; thereis adherence to local and international football bodies as was shown by a mean of 3.364 and a standard deviation of 1.200 also that there should be security provision by host clubs as was shown by a mean of 3.298 and a standard deviation of

1.118. Respondents were also neutral that; there is security of players and VIPS as was shown by a mean of 3.285 and a standard deviation of 1.449, also that there is safety precautions by regulating government agencies as was shown by a mean of 3.066 and a standard deviation of

1.142 and that there is structured complaints and disciplinary mechanism as was shown by a mean of 2.969 and a standard deviation of 1.104. Further respondents were neutral that there is communication with fans inside the stadium as was shown by a mean of 2.930 and a standard deviation of 1.488.

Respondents were asked to indicate some structural football management policies that need to be developed to address football violence in soccer stadiums in Kenya. Majority of the respondents indicated that; there should be frequent renovation of the stadiums, also there should be the development of stadium policies, also formulation of football security training policies, establishment of safety and safety regulations, access control and information systems system policies. Additionally, respondents indicated that fans should be made aware on the importance of peace during the matches, also that all the sports stakeholders should be involved, tickets should be properly managed, all the coaches and referees should be well trained and that stadiums should have enough capacity to hold any match.

The study findings agree with those of Cashmore, (2016) he indicated that there are various policies aimed at curbing the violence the policies included changing police strategies

accordingly, alcohol bans, banning orders, installation of CCTV, and selling of football match tickets at high prices.

4.7 Interview Guide Responses

The study also used an interview guide to collect data from the top officials. These officials included; a senior official of Football Kenya, Stadia management official, senior police officer, club management official and chairperson of football fans clubs. A total of 5 interview guides were received from this segment of respondents.

4.7.1 Duration involved in football issues

The study wanted to establish the duration in which the five respondents had been involved in football issues;

Years involved in football issues

Chairperson of football fans 10

Club management official 13

Senior police officer 9

Stadia management official 22

Senior official of Football Kenya 15

0 5 10 15 20 25

Figure 4.2: Years Involved in Football Issues

From Figure 4.4, majority of the respondents had been involved for over 9 years on issues regarding football management. This is an indication that the respondents had sufficient knowledge on football management in Kenya and the violence trend that has been growing in the Kenya football stadiums.

4.7.2 Causes of football violence in Kenya

According to the five respondents, football violence is fast becoming the face of Kenyan football. This is associated with ugly scenes of violence and destruction of properties.

Sometimes,people get injured or even die after acts of violence. One of the major causes cited by all the respondents was the defeat of big teams by small teams. The fans of the defeated team cause violence,abuse fans and players of the other team,intimidate the referee and match officials and throw stones and bottles into the pitch.

The respondents further indicated that Clubs have no adequate finances to provide professional security providers and hence rely heavily on the police administration. The police unit takes this responsibility in such a casual manner. Majority of the police officers have no training on crowd handling and in the event of violence, police only throw teargas to the fans which increases the magnitude of the violence. Poor match officiating was cited as a major cause of football violence. The respondents further stated that the media has played a role in glorifying violence. Giving such ugly event live coverage makes the opponent team to prepare for a revenge in the next match.

Respondents also stated the increase in violence, spread among the clubs, has exposed inaptitude of Kenya’s soccer administration. On a larger scale, it reflects their inability to predict and deal with challenges. The football management officials do not collect intelligence prior to the start of match. Further, majority of the fans gets into the stadium fully intoxicated, some sneaking empty bottles, stones and metal bars among others.

4.7.3 Comment on the measures used by stakeholders in football in curbing football violence

According to the study respondents, a lot have been done in ensuring football violence is no longer an issue in the Kenyan stadiums. First, the Football Kenya Federation came up with new rules regarding matches officiating. First, in the event of a football match, the two teams are forbidden from appointing their own match stewards.Further if a player or team official who by their actions is deemed to cause or aggravate crowd trouble or incite fans, players or team officials to actions that could lead to crowd trouble, match disruption or abandonment will be banned for four matches and incur a fine of Kshs 20,000 for the first offence.

Any player or team official who attacks or attempts to attack a match official will be suspended for three hundred and sixty-five days (365 days). The team that the player plays for will be liable for any and all damages caused to the match officials. A spectator who causes a fight or incites crowd violence will be banned from attending all football matches in the country.

From the fans perspective all the soccer clubs are cultivating for a new football culture in

Kenya. This is the culture of accepting defeat. No one rejoices in defeat but sportsmanship demands that oneaccepts defeat and congratulate his/her opponent for winning.They understand that when their team is defeated,that is not the end of the world.It means that their team should go back to the drawing board.True fans believe in fair play and respect.

4.7.4 Challenges Facing Stakeholders in Curbing Football Violence

On the challenges facing stakeholders in curbing football violence, the respondents stated that thepolice play the greatest role in quelling violence in any football matches. Every match

involving a notorious team becomes a huge police operation. There are careful, well-planned preparations before matches, alertness during games and planning to keep fans apart after games until all are safely home.

In the Kenyan scene, number of police who man the stadiums and take charge after matches is a huge joke. The respondents stated that it does not make logic how 10 to 20 police officers are expected to control crowds of thousands of fans. The respondents further stated that violence will only end when chaotic fans are arrested and personally charged for destruction of property, the message will go down to one and all, there is no hiding place in the crowds no longer. According to the respondents the clubs cannot arrest or prosecute nor have they capacity to deal with violence.

Another challenge cited by the respondents was the meagre resources by the clubs. The clubs therefore do not have a capacity to hire match stewards to help them forestall chaos during the matches.

4.7.5 Measures That Can Be Used to Prevent Football Violence in Kenya

A number of measures were suggested by the respondents regarding the prevention of football violence in Kenya. The respondents suggested that there should be a rigorous search and identification process of the perpetrators within the stadium environs culminating in charges before a court of law would therefore go a long way in reducing incidents of violence and hooliganism in sports.

Alternatively, the government could consider enacting a special law on violence and hooliganism in sports which could make the following acts, punishable by law; entering the playing area without authority; throwing objects at or towards the field or spectator areas and

Selling and consuming alcohol inside the stadiums.These laws should also empower courts to impose a stadium ban on any person convicted of a sports related offence and provide for the establishment of a Sports Policing Unit.The FKF should come up with a safety and security regulations. This regulation should include the procedure of crowd handling, ticketing, match officiating, dispute handling, installation of CCTV, appointment of stewards to assist police in maintaining peace among others. Further, the stadium board should prohibit the sale and consumption of alcohol inside stadiums.

The police, the federation and the clubs should develop an effective working relationship.

This can be done by the FKF liaising with the national police and engaging the latter should come up with a part time special police force of football intelligence officers assigned to follow high risk matches, gather intelligence and spot any potential troublemakers or ringleaders or banned offenders who may turn up at matches. This would also help in preventing the clubs charged with violent misconduct from claiming that the perpetrators of the acts in question are not their fans but were rather goons hired by their rivals with the aim of tarnishing their name and getting them into trouble with the authorities. Spectator education is very crucial as a tool for mitigating the risks of crowd trouble. This is something that the league managers and the federation must take a lead.

4.7.6 The Effects of Football Violence in Kenya

According to the respondent’s football violence has no place in modern football.It leads to injury and even deaths of players,fans,referees and innocent citizens.It also leads to destruction of properties.Clubs are heavily fined if their fans participate in football violence.Sometimes the team may be banned from participating in tournaments if their fans participate in hooliganism. The clubs have also lost revenue because of low attendance. 60

Football violence equally leads to sponsorship loss putting clubs into huge financial predicaments.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations for the study and further research on the problem.

5.2 Summary of the Key Findings

5.2.1 Circumstances Under Which Football Violence Occurs in Kenya’s Stadia

The first objective of the study was to examine the circumstances under which football violence typically occurs in Kenya’s stadia. The study revealed that hostile fans before and after the match contributes to football violence. Also, that football violence before and after the match is caused by; uncontrolled fans, uncoordinated football match management, excited supporters, rude/ abusive fans, traditional rivalries / rival fans conflicts, gate crushers, police action and also that football fans aggression leads to football violence.

Additionally, the study revealed that; traditional rivalries influences football violence. To a large extent the following circumstances influences football violence in Kenya; hostile fans,

excited supporters, uncontrolled fans, police action, fans aggression. Further the study revealed that to a large extent the following circumstances influences football violence in

Kenya; gate crushers, rude/ abusive fans, uncoordinated football match management andorganised violence by teams. Additionally,the study revealed that to a low extent previous match results is a circumstance that leads to football violence in Kenya.

5.2.2 Factors That Correlate to Violence during Match and Post-Match Violence.

On the second objective of the study which was to establish some of the factors that correlate to violence during match and post-match violence. The study research revealed that the following factors have a correlation with football violence in Kenya’s stadia; alcoholism in the stadium, alcoholism outside the stadium, lack of stadium perimeter fence; lack of fans separation, selling of tickets at the stadium during match, lack of barrier between the pitch and players, lack of screening for objects, stadium design and lack constant monitoring of crowd density by the police and stewards. The study also revealed that the following lacks a strong correlation with football violence in Kenya’s stadia; lack of enough seats and also exceeding stadium capacity.

Additionally, the study revealed that to a moderate extent the following measures are adopted during matches; enough security officers responded on time to quell violence, enough security officers are adequately deployed on time during matches thus preventing violence and also that adequate club’s security/marshals are deployed during matches thus preventing violence.

The study revealed that inadequate security officers are adequately deployed in the stadium during matches thus preventing violence and also that the number of policemen/security officers is not normally enough during matches and hence fails to prevent violence.

Further the study revealed that the following are ways of ensuring security lapses are avoided to prevent football violence; there should be deployment of enough police officers, peace should be preached and co-existence of different clubs’ fans regardless of match results. Also ensuring thorough checks are done at the gates to avoid weapons and other dangerous weapons from getting into the stadium. Also, the study revealed that there should be satisfactory accreditation of plans, training and education of security personnel, prohibition of specified items e.g. weapons and developing of contingency plans and that there should be constant advice to the fans before and after the matches and the existence of proper controlled gates. Also, the study revealed that there should be adequate coordination between the policemen and team stewards.

On the ways of preventing football violence on soccer stadiums in Kenya. The study revealed that; fans should be educated on the importance of security within the stadium and also that there should be adequate deployment of security officers. Additionally, the study revealed that referees should not be biased in matches and that there should be the development of risk management plans. The study also indicated that advance tickets sales should be discouraged.

5.2.3 The Existing Policy Framework on Football Violence in Kenya.

On the third objective which was to review the existing policy framework on football violence in Kenya. The study revealed that the following structural environment are available for football matches played in Kenya’s urban centres; involvement of football league management bodies, involvement of club’s management bodies, host team having the responsibility of organising the matches, and security provision by Kenya Police Service.

Further the study revealed that the following frameworks are in place for handling of soccer

violence; security provision by host clubs and also presence of structured complaints and disciplinary mechanism. Also, the study revealed that there is adherence to local and international football bodies, safety precautions by regulating government agencies, safety and emergency lighting and power supply frameworks and also communication with fans inside the stadium and security of the players and VIPS.

The study revealed that to a medium extent there is adherence to local and international football bodies also that there is security provision by host clubs. Additionally, the study revealed that to a medium extent there is security of players and VIPS, also that there is safety precautions by regulating government agencies further the study revealed that there are structured complaints and disciplinary mechanism. Also, the study revealed that there are frameworks on communication with fans inside the stadium.

The study research revealed that there are some structural football management policies that need to be developed to address football violence in soccer stadiums in Kenya, the study found out that; there should be frequent renovation of the stadiums, should be the development of stadium policies, formulation of football security training policies, establishment of safety and safety regulations, access control and information system policies.

Additionally,the study revealed that fans should be made aware on the importance of peace during the matches and that there should be the involvement of sports stakeholders.

5.3 Conclusion

The study concluded based on its objectives as follows:

Regarding the first objective of the study which was to examine the circumstances under which football violence typically occurs in Kenya’s stadia. The study concludes that uncontrolled fans and traditional rivalries/rival fans conflicts are circumstances that leads to football violence. The study also concludes that to a large extent football fans aggression leads to football violence in Kenya.

On the second objective of the study which was to establish some of the factors that correlate to violence during match and post-match violence the study concludes that alcoholism inside and outside the stadium, police action, lack of stadium perimeter fence and lack of fans separation are factors that have a correlation with football violence in Kenya’s stadia.

The third objective of the study was to review the existing policy framework on football violence in Kenya. The study concludes that for football matches played in Kenya’s urban centres; there is involvement of football league management bodies, involvement of club’s management bodies and that the security provision is by Kenya Police Service.

5.4 Recommendations

Based on the above findings, this study makes the following recommendations:

First, there should be a rigorous search and identification process of the perpetrators within the stadium environs culminating in charges before a court of law would therefore go a long way in reducing incidents of violence and hooliganism in sports and more so acting as a deterrence to commission of sports related offences.

Second, the government could consider enacting a special law on violence and hooliganism in sports which could make the following acts, punishable by law; entering the playing area without authority; throwing objects at or towards the field or spectator areas and Selling and

consuming alcohol inside the stadiums.These laws should also empower courts to impose a stadium ban on any person convicted of a sports related offence and provide for the establishment of a Sports Policing Unit to handle purely sport events.

Third, FKF should come up with a safety and security regulations. This regulation should include the procedure of crowd handling where fans are segregated, the sale of ticketing to be done away from the venue before the match day, referees and match officials to be train in proper match handling and officiating, and dispute handling mechanism, appointment of stewards to assist police in maintaining peace among others. Further, the management of the football clubs should create schedules that support coordinated football matches to discourage uncoordinated football match management by having match planning meeting that involves stakeholder to ensure that sport events are well planned and coordinated.

Fourth, the stadium board and federation should prohibit the sale and consumption of alcohol inside stadiums.The federation should revise and outlaw the use of alcoholic or the sale and distribution at sporting events. Drinking alcohols can cause people to act overconfidently and carelessly, lose awareness of their surroundings, and react violently to people they perceive as offensive. Spectators shouldn’t be allowed to enter to the stadium if they got alcohol. By doing this, the aggressive behaviors of the drunk people can be prevented. CCTV Cameras should be put in the stadium to monitor the same.

Fifth, the police, the federation and the clubs should develop an effective working relationship. This can be done by the FKF liaising with the national police and engaging the latter should come up with a part time special police force of football intelligence officers assigned to follow high risk matches, gather intelligence and spot any potential troublemakers

or ringleaders or banned offenders who may turn up at matches. The Ministry of Interior and

Stadia Management Board should deploy adequate police to stadia and that the police should handle the fans with due respect. This would also help in preventing the clubs charged with violent misconduct from claiming that the perpetrators of the acts in question are not their fans but were rather goons hired by their rivals with the aim of tarnishing their name and getting them into trouble with the authorities.

Finally,spectator education is very crucial as a tool for mitigating the risks of crowd trouble.

This is something that the league managers and the federation must take a lead. All the soccer clubs should cultivate the culture of accepting defeat. No one rejoices in defeat but sportsmanship demands that one accepts defeat and congratulate his/her opponent for winning. The fans should understand that when their team is defeated, that is not the end of the world. It means that their team should go back to the drawing board. True fans believe in fair play and respect.

5.5 Suggestion for Further Research

This study intent was to isolate and examine the diverse factors that underlie the culture of real-time confrontation and unrest that characterize Nairobi’s soccer stadia. The study recommends that a similar study should be conducted to investigate the effect caused by football violence in Kenya.

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APPENDIXES

Appendix I: Respondent questionnaires

My name is Maelo Frederick, a Master of Security Management and Police Studies of Kenyatta University. I have cleared my course work and am currently embarking on a research project, on“Football Violence in Nairobi Kenya”.This questionnaire is meant to collect data for the research project. You have been selected as one of the respondents. Kindly provide your honest information on all the items in this questionnaire. It is purely for academic pursuit and the views expressed will be treated confidentially.

SECTION A: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

4 Please indicate your organisation

[ ] Kenya Police

[ ] Sports Kenya

[ ] Football Kenya Federation.

[ ] AFC

[ ] GorMahia

5 Kindly select your gender

[ ] Male [ ] Female

6 Tick your age

[ ] 18-25

[ ] 26-35

[ ] 35-45 74

[ ] Above 45

7 Please indicate your role in soccer management in Kenya

______

8 Please identifyby ticking the appropriate box the stadiums that are mostly affected by

football violence in Kenya

Stadia Highly affected Moderately Low affected Not Affected

Moi Kasarani

Nyayo

City Stadium

Others (Specify

SECTION B: CIRCUMSTANCES UNDER WHICH FOOTBALL VIOLENCE OCCURS IN KENYA’S STADIA 9 Football violence is a result of presence of certain circumstances before and after the match. Please identify such circumstance under which football violence occurs in Kenya Stadia [ ] Hostile fans [ ] Uncontrolled fans [ ] Uncoordinated football match management [ ] Excited supporters [ ] Rude/Abusive fans [ ] Previous match results [ ] Traditional rivalries/Rival fans conflicts

[ ] Police action [ ] Football fans aggression [ ] Organised violence by teams [ ] Gate crushers Other please indicate ______10 By filling the table below, 1- very low extent, 2-low extent, 3- Neither low nor large extent 4- large extent, 5- very large extent Agree, please indicate the extent the pre and after match circumstances influence football violence in Kenya.

Statement Very low Low Neither Large Very extent extent low nor extent large [1] [2] large [4] extent extent [5] [3] a. Hostile fans b. Uncontrolled fans c. Uncoordinated football match management d. Excited supporters e. Rude/Abusive fans f. Previous match results g. Traditional rivalries h. Police action i. Football fans aggression j. Organised violence by teams k. Gate crushers l. m. n.

SECTION D: FACTORS THAT CORRELATE TO VIOLENCE DURING MATCH

AND POST-MATCH VIOLENCE.

11 Football violence is associated with many factors. By ticking in the appropriate box kindly

indicate whether the listed factors have a correlation with football violence in Kenya’s

stadia. 76

Factors Yes NO Alcoholism in the stadium Alcoholism outside the stadium Police action Lack of stadium perimeter fence Lack of fans separation Selling of tickets at the stadium during match Exceeding stadium capacity Lack of barrier between the pitch and players Lack of screening for objects Stadium design Lack constant monitoring of crowd density by the police and stewards Lack of enough seats

12 By filling the table below, 1- Strongly Disagree, 2-Disagree, 3- Neutral 4- Agree, 5- Strongly Agree, please indicate your opinion onwhether security measures adopted during matches have a correlation with football violence in Kenya.

Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] a. The number of policemen/security officers are normally enough during matches and prevents violence b. Enough security officers are adequately deployed in the stadium during matches thus preventing violence c. Enough security officers are adequately deployed on time during matches thus preventing violence d. Adequate clubs security/marshals are deployed during matches thus preventing violence e. Enough security officers are respond on time to quell violence

13 Suggest ways of ensuring security lapses are avoided to prevent football violence i) ______ii) ______iii) ______iv) ______v) ______14 Suggest ways of preventing football violence on soccer stadiums in Kenya i) ______ii) ______iii) ______iv) ______v) ______

i. SECTION D: THE EXISTING POLICY FRAMEWORK ON FOOTBALL VIOLENCE IN KENYA. 15 Proper management of football matches is critical in preventing and handling of soccer violence. This is ensured by providing favourable structural environment for the matches to be played without violence erupting. From the list below, please identify the structural environment under which football matches are played in Kenya’s urban centres. [ ] Involvement of football league management bodies [ ] Involvement of clubs management bodies [ ] Host team having the responsibility of organising the matches [ ] Security provision by Kenya Police Service [ ] Security provision host clubs [ ] Structured complaints and disciplinary mechanism [ ] Adherence to local and international football bodies [ ] Safety precautions by regulating government agencies [ ] Safety and emergency lighting and power supply

[ ] Communication with fans inside the stadium [ ] Security of players and VIPS By filling the table below, 1- very low extent, 2-low extent, 3- Neither low nor large extent 4- large extent, 5- very large extent Agree, please indicate the extent available structural environments during matches contributes to football violence in Kenya.

Policy framework Very low Low Neither Large Very extent extent low nor extent large [1] [2] large [4] extent extent [5] [3] a. Involvement of football league management bodies b. Involvement of clubs management bodies c. Host team having the responsibility of organising the matches d. Security provision by Kenya Police Service e. Security provision host clubs f. Structured complaints and disciplinary mechanism g. Adherence to local and international football bodies h. Safety precautions by regulating government agencies i. Safety and emergency lighting and power supply j. Communication with fans inside the stadium k. Security of players and VIPS

16 Please suggest some structural football management policies that need to be developed to address football violence in soccer stadiums in Kenya i) ______ii) ______iii) ______iv) ______79

Thank you for your support

Appendix II: Interview Schedule Senior Police Officers Sports Managers and Club

officials

1. What is your designation?

2. How long have you have been involved in football issues?

3. What are the causes of football violence in Kenya? (Probe on when it happens, major

causes, role of fans, media, police etc. on causing violence

4. Comment on the measures used by stakeholders in football in curbing football violence

(Probe on the measures put in place by the police, sports management, clubs, fans etc.)

5. What do challenges are facing stakeholders in curbing football violence? (Probe on policy,

capacity, political interferences, cooperation between stakeholders etc.)

6. Suggest measures that can be used to prevent football violence in Kenya.

7. What are the effects of football violence in Kenya? (Probe on the impact on law and order

(security), football development, loss of revenues, low attendance etc.)

Thank you for your time.