State of Environment Report, Manipur State Is More Moist Than the Eastern Because of Its Location on the Windward Slope of the Hills

Home , Chakpikarong, Emblem of Manipur, Imphal District, Kakching Khunou, Kumbi, Lamphelpat

Chapter: I Introduction

STATE OF ENVIRONMENT REPORT MANIPUR A : Introduction :

Geographical area of Manipur ( Sq.Km.) : A:1: A ‘soft-state’ on the North-Eastern Total Area =22,327 sq.km. border between India and Myanmar,

Manipur has a total geographical area of Valley, 2,238 22,327 Sq. Km. of which 90% are hilly 10% regions, largely, characterised by dense forests and inaccessible terrains. The valley (Plain area) at the centre surrounded by the hills claims 10% only. The valley area is Hill cadastrally surveyed while only some parts 20,089, 90% of the hills are surveyed. As part of peculiarity of this physical feature of the area, 61.54 of the total population(2001) is in the valley while 38.45 per cent in the hill districts. Besides the state is surrounded by equally backward states on the north and west; Nagaland and Mizoram while on the south there is Myanmar, a very less developed country. The positive “spill-over” effects of development are visibly limited. The length of international border shared by the state is 352 kms accounting for 41.21% of the total length of the border. This peculiar location has been a visible handicap on the perceptible process of development of the state.

Table-1 : Distinctive features of Manipur

Region Percentages to the total Population Area Remarks

Valley 61.54 10 Cadastrally surveyed

Hills 38.45 90 Only parts of the area cadastrally surveyed

A:2: Climate : The impact of terrain diversity, altitudinal variation and river regime has become eloquent in the seasonal variatility of climate from one place to another. The Barak basin and lower foothills of Manipur Western hills have a warmer climate than the central valley and surrounding hills. Similarly, the western part of the Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur state is more moist than the eastern because of its location on the windward slope of the hills. By and large the state has a fairly good climatic behaviour of less heat.

Maximum Temperature of Imphal (East & West)

2000 2001 45

ar pr ct eb O ov -F M -A 1-Jul -N 1-Jan 1 1- 1 1-May 1-Jun 1-Aug 1-Sep 1- 1 1-Dec

Source : Metrological Dept. The climate of Manipur can be broadly classified into a) Temperate prevailing in the higher altitude of hill where temperate fruits and vegetables can be grown throughout the year, b) Sub-tropical prevailing in the lower attitudes hills and central valley plain where winter lasts from November to February and rainy season from May to September. The transition period of March, April and October can be described as spring and autumn though short, c) Tropical prevailing in Jiri plains and foothills- during March. In this plain and foothills all the tropical crops can be raised. The temperature ranged from sub-zero to 36ºC

Chapter: 1 2 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Imphal Sunshine:

Latitude: +24.7900000 Longitude: +93.9400000 Time zone: UTC+5.5 hours

X-axis: Months Y-axis : Hours

Darkness Dawn Sunshine Dusk

A:3: Rainfall: The rainfall in the state is around 1435 mm. Monsoon confers upon Manipur a very handsome rain as seen below : - South-West monsoon ( June-Sept.) - 825 mm Post monsoon period ( Oct. to Dec. ) - 151 mm Winter monsoon ( Jan. to Feb. ) - 52 mm Pre monsoon ( March – May ) - 407 mm Total - 1435 mm

Chapter: 1 3 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Fig : Total rainfall pattern at Imphal (East & West) 1998-2001

1998 2000 2001 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 Total Rainfall in mm 50 0 -50Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Date / Month / Year

Source : Metrological Deptt. Although the State receives adequate rainfall, it suffers from temporal and location variations. There are great variations of rainfall in different districts. There is scarcity of water for economic activities in some districts. Right now (April, 2006) the Imphal Districts are facing acute problem of shortage of drinking water.

Rrainfall 2005

1600

1400

1200

1000

800 mm

600

400

200

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total Normal 16.3 36 65.5 137.8 203.7 280.2 229.1 184.6 131 108.7 32.7 10 1435.6 Actual 0 36.8 115.9 77.1 109.3 112.2 236.8 213.5 252 194.7 16.2 31.8 1396.3 Months

A:4: Drainage : Chapter: 1 4 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

The state is drained by various streams which belong to three river systems. The Manipur river and its tributaries - Imphal, Thoubal, Nambul, Nambol, Khuga, Sekmai, and other smaller streams with Loktak and other associated lakes form the water resources of the valley having catchment of 6,332 sq. km about 28.4% area of the state. Discharging maximum quantity of water during the monsoon months (May- September), they frequently inundate the land along their banks. Every year Manipur experiences havoc of flood. River Barak and its tributaries Irang, Makru, Jiri and their associated streams which drain the Northern and Western hill areas, have a catchments of 9042 Sq. Km. about 40.5% area of entire State. The Eastern slope of Manipur eastern hills is connected by a number of small streams of the Chindwin river system, which have a catchment area of 6953 sq.km., about 31.1% area of the State. River Axenglox and its tributaries, – Chamu and Chingai and river Yu and its tributaries – Maklang, Tayungbi, Taretlok, Lokchao and Tuiyaag flow in sub-parallel pattern and their supply terminates in the valley of Myanmar.

A:5: Geological Features:

Geologically, Manipur is said to belong to the young folded mountains of the Himalayan system. The rocks in the state vary from upper Cretaceous to the present alluvium. The oldest rocks found in the state are mainly confined in the eastern part of the state close to Indo-Myanmar border and the rocks are grouped as cretaceous rocks consisting of chromite (Epilates), serpentine etc. Availability of Asbestos, Chromite, Copper ore, Coal, Big iron, Lignite, Lime stone, Nickel ore and petroleum is reported in some parts of the state. In Ukhrul district limestone deposits are found which belong to upper cretaceous period. The sandstone, shale of the Disang group found over the eastern half of Manipur belong to the Eocene period. The rocks consisting of sandstone, shale, clay, etc.of the Barail group are confined to the rocks of Disang group and extend along the mid western portion of the state and they belong to the upper Eocene and Oligocene periods. The shales and sandstone of the Tipam and Surma groups cover the western blanks of Manipur and they belong to Miocene period. Rocks of alluvial deposits found in the Manipur valley portion are of recent origin and further they can be

Chapter: 1 5 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur grouped as older and younger alluvium. The state is mainly composed of tertiary rocks. In the Ukhrul area there are igneous rocks which contain quartz, sandstone, limestone, etc. The soil of the state is of two major types – residual and transported, which cover both the hill and plain of the State. The residual soils are either laterized or non-laterized. The laterized red soils covering an area of 2,500 sq. km. in the Barak drainage on the Western slope of Manipur. It contains rich portion of nitrogen and phosphate, a medium acidity and lesser amount of Potash. The old alluvial is brought down by river Barak basin and Jiri river and their tributaries from their lateritic water ship hills. The compact and less permeable soils contain higher quantity of potash, fair amount of nitrogen and phosphorus with medium acidity. The transported soils are of two types – alluvial and organic. The alluvial soils cover 1600 sq. km. in the valley. This soils have general clayey warm texture and grey to pale brown colour. They contain a good proportion of potash and phosphate, a fair quantity of nitrogen and organic matter and are less acidic. The organic soils cover the low lying areas of the valley. With dark grey colour and clayey loam texture, these peaty soils have high acidity, abundance of organic matter, a good amount of nitrogen and phosphorus but are poor in potash. The hill soils are more or less rich in organic carbon ( 1 to 3% ) in the top soil, but poor in available phosphorus and potash. They are acidic in nature.

A: 5.1 : Distribution and Classification of Soils :

The soil of Manipur belongs to 4 orders, 8 suborders, 13 greatgroups and 23 subgroups. It is observed that the Inceptisols are the dominant soils followed by Ultisols, Entisols and Alfisols and occupy 38.4%, 36.4%, 23.1% of the total geographical area of the State, respectively. Lakes and marshy lands occupy 1.9 percent.The area- wise distribution of soil at order and suborder levels of Taxonomy are given below.

Chapter: 1 6 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 2 : Distribution of Soil Order and Sub-orders of Manipur

Sl. No Soil order Suborder Area('000 ha) Percent of TGA 1. Inceptisols 858.3 38.4 Ocrepts 654.6 29.3 Acrepts 203.7 9.1 2. Ultisols 811.0 36.4 Humults 374.0 16.8 Udults 436.9 19.6 3. Entisols Orthents 515.6 23.1 4 Alfisols Udalfs 3.8 0.2 5 Miscellaneous Marshy land 42.4 1.9 Total 2231.0 100.0

TGA: Total Geographical Area Source : Dept. of Horticulture & soil conservation, GoM

Soil erosion caused by the continuation of Jhum

1. First year of Jhum - 146.6 tonnes/ ha / year 2. Second year of Jhum - 170.2 tonnes/ ha/ year 3. Abandoned Jhum - 30.2 tonnes/ ha/ year (Source : NBSS publication 56, Soil of India series, Nagpur)

A : 6 : State of Economy :

The Per Capita Net Income (SDP) of the State based on a quick estimate at current prices is Rs. 11,370/- for 1999-2000 as against the All India Average of Rs. 16,047/-. The average annual growth rate of the State Domestic Product is 10.52% in 1999-2000 as against 8.03% of the manufacturing sector.

The table No. 3 below will throw some light on the level of development in the State.

Item Unit Ref. Year Quantum Decennial growth rate of % 1991-01 30.02 population Literacy % 2001 68.87 Workers % 1991 42.18 Agriculture i) Rice production ‘000 tonnes 2000-01 381.69 ii) Fertiliser consumption tonnes 1999-00 39,624

Fish production ‘000 tonne 1999-00 15.51 Road length per 100 Sq. Km Km 1999-00 32.12 Power i) Per capita consumption KWH 1999-00 77.04 ii) Villages electrified % 1999-00 91.70 Banking Banks No. 1999 105 Source : Department of Economics & Statistics, Government of Manipur

Chapter: 1 7 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

GSDP Details of Manipur (93-94) GSDP Details of Manipur (1999-2000)

Agricult Agricultu re ure Services Service 36% 35% s 45% 50% Industri Industrie es s 14% 20%

Source : Central Statistical Organisation

A : 7 : Manpower Potential of Manipur :

Table : 4 : Workers and Non-Workers in Rural and Urban areas of Manipur

Sl. Main Workers Marginal workers Non-workers Total Year/District No. Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total

1. 1981 4,53,210 1,20,129 5,73,339 27,250 13,219 40,469 5,65,033 2,42,112 8,07,145 10,45,493 3,75,460 14,20,953

2. 1991 5,55,727 1,52,556 7,08,283 46,343 20,278 66,621 7,29,434 3,32,811 10,62,245 13,31,504 5,05,645 18,37,149

3. Senapati 1,04,681 * 1,04,681 3,439 * 3,439 1,00,286 * 1,00,286 2,08,406 * 2,08,406

4. Tamenglong 39,210 * 39,210 494 * 495 46,574 * 46,574 86,278 * 86,278

5. Churachandpur 65,323 9,576 74,899 2,408 344 2,752 74,787 23,746 98,533 1,42,518 33,666 1,76,184

6. Chandel 30,998 3,303 34,301 2,421 601 3,022 27,922 5,769 33,691 61,341 9,673 71,014

7. Imphal West 60,978 61,736 1,22,714 3,445 4,437 7,882 1,00,512 1,49,693 2,50,205 1,64,935 2,15,866 3,80,801

8. Imphal East 88,088 18,649 1,06,737 10,968 1,051 12,019 1,55,588 56,116 2,11,704 2,54,644 75,816 3,30,46

9. Bishnupur 45,969 23,145 69,114 6,623 4,455 11,078 65,011 35,570 1,00,581 1,17,603 63,170 1,80,773

10. Thoubal 71,547 36,147 1,07,694 15,157 9,390 24,547 99,800 61,917 1,61,717 1,86,504 1,07,354 2,93,958

11. Ukhrul 48,933 * 48,933 1,388 * 1,388 58,954 * 58,954 1,09,275 * 1,09,275

Source: Office of the Registrar General of India

Chapter: 1 8 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Rhododendron : Botanical name: Rhododendron vaseyi. : Local Name: Kokluiwon. :Family: Ericaceae /Rhodoraceae

Chapter: 1 9 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

MANIPUR

Chapter: 1 10 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: 1 11 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Resource team at the spot of heavy mud slide at Gopibung Rolling down of Stones during the land slide leads to the burying the school building at Gopibung, Senapati District

Chapter: 1 12 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Imphal

Chapter: 1 13 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Source : Department of Earth Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur

BASINE DELINEATION MAP OF MANIPUR

Chapter: 1 14 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Source : Department of Earth Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF MANIPUR

Chapter: 1 15 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Source : Department of Earth Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur KEY : 1. Umbric Dystochrepts 8. Typic Haplumbreplts 15. Raptic Ultic Dystochrepts 2. Typic Dystochrepts 9. Typic Dystochrepts 16. Umbric Dystochrepts 3. Typic Haplaquepta 10. Typic Paleudults 17. Mollic Haplaquepts 4. Typic Haplohumults 11. Typic Palehumits 18. Flavaquentic Haplaquepts 5. Typic Dystochrepts 12. Typic Udorthents 19. Typic Haplaquepts 6. Typic Kanhapludults 13. Typic Udorthents 20. Marshy Land 7. Typic Haplohumults 14. Typic Haplaquepta

Chapter: 1 16 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

VILLAGE & ROAD MAP OF MANIPUR

Chapter: 1 17 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: II Driving Force:

B: Population:- By and large the growth of population, rather the demographic behaviour has been a driving force on the environmental front. In fact, the demographic character of any region has a perceptible bearing upon the life-support system directly or indirectly. The central concern is poverty in income and knowledge. This has become also the question of “ignorance” and “indifference” in the larger context. Rightly, man becomes both asset and liability in the long run. Man cannot work with only two hands for a long time. Normally the supply of complimentary factors for efficient utilization of manpower runs short - thereby forcing the additional labour force to depend more on land-based-primary activities. The rate of growth of population in Manipur registers much higher rate than the All-India-rate from 1961.The decadal growth rate was 35.04 per cent during 1951-61, 37.53 per cent during 1961-1971, 32.46 per cent during 1971-81, 29.29 per cent during 1981-91, and 24.86 per cent during 1991-2001, - much higher than the All –India – average as seen in the following table

Table : 5 : Growth of population, Manipur vis-a- visa India during 1951 to 2001(P)

Census Year Total population (in lakhs) Decennial Growth Per cent Manipur Manipur All-India

1951 5.78 12.80 13.31 1961 7.80 35.04 21.51 1971 10.73 37.53 24.80 1981 14.21 32.46 24.66 1991 18.37 29.29 23.85 2001 22.94 24.86 21.34 (Source: - Census Operations, Manipur) B:2: Growth of marginal workers:- The marginal workers belong to the section below poverty line. They suffer more. They are forced by the highly competitive character of modern society to seek any possible help and get them engaged in odd works with meagre earnings. They constitute a larger segment of the “working poor” who make the attempt to take advantages of opportunities within their easy reach. In fact, their margin of employability is very low. The growth of marginal workers speaks of the extent of incidence of poverty of a portion of the population. The larger the number of marginal worker, the greater is the incidence. In 1981 the number of marginal workers in Manipur was 40,469

Chapter: II 18 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur which increased to 66,621 in 1991 and to 2,85,849 in 2001. In other word, during 1991-2001, the growth rate of marginal workers was 329 p.c. Besides, all along the population of female marginal workers accounts for more than 85% till 1991. In 2001 it was marginally reduced to 66% as indicated in the table.

Table-6 : Marginal workers in Manipur. Year Number of marginal workers p.c. Male Female 1981 40,469 15.32 84.67 1991 66,621 15.0 85.0 2001 2,85,849 34..0 66.0

(Source: - Govt. of Manipur Directorate of Eco. and Statistics) B: 3: Population by occupation. The structure and character of economy is largely reflected in the occupational composition of the economy. In 2001 in Manipur workers engaged in the agricultural activities account for 50 %, of the main workers - fairy high, - indicating the marked importance of land-based primary activities. 2.17% is accounted for by the household industrial workers while 47 percent by other workers in tertiary sectors as shown in the table.

Table-7 : Population by occupation in Manipur 2001(Source: - Census Reports)

Worker Nos. P.C. .to the total Cultivators 4,92,696 46.06 Agri - Labourers 1,20,991 11.31 Household Industry 97,955 9.15 Other workers 3,57,936 33.46

B: 4: Density of Population:- The density of population which exerts pressures on the environmental behaviours of the area, keeps on rising in the valley. The density of population increased from 64 in 1981 to 631 in 2001 while even in 2001 it remains very low in the hills; only 44 per Sq .Km. In Imphal area it is more than 600 with all attendant consequences, giving rise to the problem of urban onslaught with huge accumulation of solid wastes and unplanned settlement.

Chapter: II 19 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 8 : Density of population in Manipur per 1 sq.km. area Year Hill Valley 1981 24 64 1991 34 82 2001 44 631

(Source: Govt. of Manipur Directorate of Economics and Statistics; Statistical Abstracts) B: 5: Road:

Road is unpaid factor of production, although it remains lifeline and foundation for economic development. Development tempo of the state largely depends upon the conditions of 434 Kms of National Highways (Nos. NH53 and NH39) and 1436.94 Kms of State Roadways ( Nos. 31). But till today the volume of traffic of the roads has not been ascertained. Internally Manipur suffers from poor connectivity and structural deficiencies while externally it is inadequately linked with the rest of the country. Transportation is very much road- based. The irksome interstate movements passing through Nagaland and Assam and unpredictable landslides during rainy season are the cause of concern. Of course, air connectivity has picked up although it is fairly expensive. Manipur is expecting a rail-connection up to Imphal within a near future. As such, the small open economy of Manipur remains plagued with cost escalation and time-overrun resulting in the delay of development. There is obviously less temptation for competitive atmosphere of high- value industrial initiatives. The road density per 100 Sq. km. was only 51.2 as against 77 of the All India. In 1997, the road density was 49 as against 1792.45 kms of Delhi and 374.92 of Kerala. The village connectivity in the hill districts ranges from 26 per cent in Tamenglong to 63 per cent in Ukhrul. But the conditions of rural roads are hardly fit for vehicular traffic during rainy season. The rural roads and the inter-village roads are not adequately surfaced.

Chapter: II 20 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 9 National Highway : Length:(in KM) 434.00

NH-53 Traffic Volume(Nos/Day)- NA Major Route District Served Town Touched IMPHAL, IMPHAL, TAMENGLONG JIRIBAM, IMPHAL, NUNGBA SILCHAR NH-39 Traffic Volume(Nos/Day)- NA Major Route District Served Town Touched MAO-MOREH SENAPATI, IMPHAL, THOUBAL, MAO, TADUBU, KAROUP, KANGPOKPI, IMPHAL, THOUBAL, PALLEL, CHANDEL MOREH, TENGNOUPAL

Table : 10 State Roadway : Length (In KM): 1436.94 Route Traffic District Served Places Touched Volume (Nos/Day) PALLEL-SUGNU ROAD NA CHANDEL PALLEL, SUGNU CHURACHANDPUR-TIPAIMUKH NA CHURA- CHANDPUR CHURA- CHANDPUR, TIPAIMUKH, THANLON, ROAD FARBUNG D I ROAD NA IMPHAL CHINGMEIRONG, SINGJAMEI BAZAR CHECKON ROAD NA IMPHAL CHECKON IMPHAL-KANGCHUP ROAD NA IMPHAL LAMSANG, KANGCHUP THANGMEIBAND ROAD NA IMPHAL THANGMEIBAND LAISHRAM LEIRAK ROAD NA IMPHAL IMPHAL N M C ROAD NA IMPHAL IMPHAL PAONA BAZAR-KHUYATHONG NA IMPHAL IMPHAL R M C ROAD-SUPER MARKET NA IMPHAL IMPHAL NAGAMAPAL ROAD NA IMPHAL NAGAMAPAL BIR TIKENDRAJIT ROAD NA IMPHAL IMPHAL LAMPHELPAT ROAD NA IMPHAL LAMPHELPAT GANDHI AVENUE-B T ROAD NA IMPHAL IMPHAL IMPHAL-CHURACHANDPUR- NA IMPHAL, BISHNUPUR, CHURA- IMPHAL, MOIRANG, BISHNUPUR, CHURA- BEHIANG ROAD CHANDPUR CHANDPUR, SINGHAT, BEHIANG JIRIBAM-TIPAIMUKH ROAD NA IMPHAL, CCHURA- CHANDPUR JIRIBAM, MADHUPUR IMPHAL-SAIKUL ROAD NA IMPHAL, SENAPATI IMPHAL, SAGOLMANG, PANGEI, SAIKUL IMPHAL-CHAKPIKARONG ROAD NA IMPHAL, THOUBAL, CHANDEL IMPHAL, MAYANG, IMPHAL, SUGNU, CHAKPIKARONG FINCH CORNER-TENGNOUPAL NA IMPHAL, THOUBAL, CHANDEL FINCH CORNER, PHUNGYAR, ROAD KASOMKHULLEN, TENGNOUPAL IMPHAL-UKHRUL ROAD NA IMPHAL, UKHRUL IMPHAL, SIKIBUNG, GAMLANG, UKHRUL IMPHAL-YAIRIPOK ROAD NA IMPHAL,nT THOUBAL IMPHAL, YAIRIPOK TADUBI-LAII ROAD NA SENAPATI TADUBI, TUNGJOI, LAII IMPHAL-TAMENGLONG ROAD NA SENAPATI, TAMENGLONG KONGPOKPI, THONGLAN AKUTPA, TAMAH, TAMEI, TAMENGLONG URBAN BYE-PASS NA TAMENGLONG LANGOL TAMENGLONG-KHONGSANG NA TAMENGLONG TAMENGLONG, KHONGSANG ROAD THOUBAL-KASOM KHULLEN ROAD NA THOUBAL THOUBAL, YAIRIPOK, MOLEM, KASOM, KHULLEN PALLEL-CHANDEL ROAD NA THOUBAL, CHANDEL PALLEL, CHANDEL UKHRUL-CHINGMEIKHULLEN NA UKHRUL UKHRUL, TOLLOI, CHINGM EIKHULLEN ROAD UKHRUL ROAD(NEW HEAVEN) NA UKHRUL GAGIPHEMA UKHRUL-JESSAMI ROAD NA UKHRUL, SENAPATI UKHRUL, TOLLOI, LIYAIKHUNOU, JESSAMI

Source: CHIEF ENGINEER, P.W.D., IMPHAL, MANIPUR

Chapter: II 21 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

B: 6: Industries:- The State Industrial Policy (1996) is a policy document for industrial development in Manipur. The industrial policy is silent on the necessity for earmarked industrial area. Industrial Area has not been declared so far. The small- scale units are operating at any convenient area within the thickly populated villages. Many Brickfields, Saw Mills and Jewelry units are coming up in many prime and sensitive areas. Indications of mass deflowering of horticultural crops have been seen in the villages where coal-brick-fields are operating. The micro enterprises ( 79,555 ) and the small-scale units ( 8771 ) accounts for larger segment of the industrial sector. Most of the State-Owned corporations have been closed. 30.86 pc of SSI units are sick and 90 pc of micro enterprises are in troble. The state has less number of so-called dirty industrial units.

Table: 11 : The district wise cumulative number of Registered Industrial Units in Manipur Production Value, Investment and Employment in 2000:-

Name of District Units Production Investment Employment ( SIDO + NON value (Rs. crore) SIDO ) (Rs.crore) Imphal West 5146 77.92 16.57 26262 Imphal East 80 3.54 0.91 477 Thoubal 538 11.00 3.23 3662 Bishnupur 648 10.74 2.47 3674 Urkhul 744 11.42 2.85 4284 Senapati 290 3.74 0.90 1293 Churanchandpur 522 5.96 2.00 2712 Tamenglong 477 6.17 1.13 1752 Chandel 326 5.19 1.21 1793 ( Source:- Govt. of Manipur; Department of Industries, Lamphel ).

Table : 12 : The number of a few selected registered small-scale units in Manipur. ( Upto 2000 ) Units Number Rice Mills 1893 Flour Mills 25 Saw Mills 207 Oil mills 37 ( Source :- Manipur Assembly Proceedings dated 24.7.2000)

Chapter: II 22 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Employment in the organise sector ( Manipur & India )

Source : Statistical hand book, Manipur 120 3220

3202 3200 100 97

3180 80 71 Public sector Employment 3160 Private sector Employment 60

3140 Organised sector employment per lakh population

40 3124 29 3120

20 3100

3 0 3080 Manipur All India

B: 7 : Urbanization : Urbanization hardly remains stagnant in the process of development. Modern development encompasses urbanization also. While it enriches the quality of life through a wider range of exciting amenities, it also becomes a new burden and a new breeding ground for multiplying concerns. The unplanned urbanization has, thus, a strong bearing upon the rising problems of unabated expansion of slums, accumulation of solid wastes, dust, pollution and adulteration. Manipur has started getting seized with aggressive onslaughts. Heaps of solid waste in the entire commercial area of Nagamapal, Dharmasala road, Thangal Bazar and Bir Tikendrajit Road are seen. The problem is accentuated by the smoke-emission of second hand cars and jeeps. As such a well conceived design of urbanization becomes imperative. Till 1971 the rate of urbanization was fairly slow in Manipur with only 8 towns including Imphal town. The urban population was only 1,41,492 according for 13-19 per cent of the total population. 1981 witnessed a greater momentum of

Chapter: II 23 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur urbanization with 32 towns having been declared and placed in position. The total urban population accounted for 26.42 percent. In 2001 Manipur has 33 towns with a total population of 5,76,410 accordingly for 25.12 per cent. The annual arrange growth rate of urban population was 16.54 per cent during 1971-81 followed by 3.47 per cent during 1981-1991. The rate of growth of urban population was only 1.28 per cent during 1991-2001. Although in terms of area and population urbansation is slow in Manipur, the visible expansion of commercial activities in Khwairamband Bazar (main Bazar of Manipur ), Singjamei Bazar, Lamlong Bazar and kwakeithel Bazar has started creating the usual problem of “urban –onslaught” on many sensitive fronts. For days and months even mere skeleton municipal services are not available;- a nice sign of institutional weakness. The same dismal picture is seen in other hill districts viz; Tamenglong Bazar, Chandel Bazar, Moreh Bazar, and Ukhrul Bazar. The small Town Committee are sitting on the creeping problems with a sense of helplessness and callousness. The culture of inaction and indifference has taken root. Table: 13 : Urbanization in Manipur, 1901-2001 Census

Census Total No. of Total Total % of Decennial Growth Annual exponential Growth Year UAs/Towns Population Urban Urban Absolute Percent rate (Urban) Population Population 1901 1 2,84,465 72,234 25.39 - - - 1911 1 3,46,222 74,650 21.56 2,416 3.34 0.33 1921 1 3,84,016 80,003 20.83 5,353 7.17 0.69 1931 1 4,45,606 85,804 19.26 5,801 7.25 0.70 1941 1 5,12,069 99,716 19.47 13,912 16.21 1.50 1951 1 5,77,635 2,862 0.50 (-) (-) 97.13 (-) 35.51 96,854 1961 1 7,80,037 67,717 8.68 64,855 2266.07 31.64 1971 8 10,72,753 1,41,492 13.19 73,775 108.95 7.37 1981 32 14,20,953 3,75,460 26.42 2,33,968 165.36 9.76 1991 31 18,37,149 5,05,645 27.52 1,30,185 34.67 2.98 2001 33 22,93,896 5,76,410 25,12 64,765 12.81 1.21 Source : Directorate of Census Operations, Manipur.

Table: 14 : Growth of Rural and Urban Population in Manipur (1961-2001) Year No. of Towns Urban Population Percentage to total population 1961 1 67,717 8.68 1971 8 1,41,492 13.19 1981 32 3,75,460 26.42 1991 31 5,05,645 27.52 2001 33 5,76,410 25.12 (Source: Govt. of Manipur, Directorate of Eco./Stas : Economic Survey, Manipur, 2002-2003). Chapter: II 24 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table: 15 : Average Annual Growth Rate of Rural – Urban Population (1951-2001) Period Rural Urban Total 1951-61 2.39 226.61 3.50 1961-71 3.07 10.89 3.75 1971-82 1.25 16.54 3.25 1981-91 2.74 3.47 2.93 1991-2001 3.66 1.28 3.00 ( Source : Ibid ) Table : 16 : Number of Establishment and Own Account Enterprises, Manipur , 1998

Sl District Number of Enterprises no. Agricultural Non-Agricultural All (agri.+ Non-Agri)

Total OAE Estt. Total OAE Estt Total OAE Estt.

1. Senapati 118 101 10 4630 3242 1388 4748 3350 1398

2 Tamenglong 30 28 2 1390 808 582 1420 836 584

3 Churachandpur 25 21 4 2691 1305 1386 2716 1326 1390

4. Chandel 170 169 1 2895 2011 884 3065 2180 885

5 Thoubal 497 430 67 12146 9547 2599 12643 9977 2666

6 Bisnupur 3137 2977 160 9312 7762 1550 12449 10739 1710

7 Imphal west 1443 1237 206 27102 20174 6933 28550 21411 7139

8 Urkhul 42 21 21 2515 1235 1280 2557 1256 1301

9 Imphal East 554 500 54 10853 9053 1800 11407 9553 1854

STATE 6016 5491 525 73539 55137 18402 79555 60628 18927

OAE :-Own account Enterprises; Estt. : - Enterprises with at least one hired worker. ( Source : Govt. of Manipur, Directorate of Eco/ Statistics, Economic census, 1998 )

Table : 17 : Principal characteristics of Enterprises, Manipur

Number of Enterprises Sl Total Without Without Under Perennial Financed by either no. Disrict premises power private IRDP or other poverty owner alleviation programme ship** 1 Senapati 4748 1202 4362 4310 3989 13 2 Tamenglong 1420 44 1331 1124 1262 2 3 Churanchandpur 2716 165 1711 1594 1852 1 4 Chandel 3065 646 1704 1691 1749 10 5 Thoubal 12643 2347 4693 5362 5599 28 6 Bisnupur 12449 2372 5280 5340 5024 15 7 Imphal west 28550 1970 6117 7489 7727 16 8 Urkhul 2557 71 2025 2083 2378 19 9 Imphal East 11407 2290 9026 9884 10235 26 State 79555 9416 36249 38877 39815 130 ** Private non-profit institution and private others Source : Ibid

Chapter: II 25 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

B:8: Unemployment : The incidence of unemployment in Manipur is fairly high compared with other states. The reason is simple. The range employment – opportunity in the agricultural sector, on which more than 60 per cent of employment depends – is very limited. In 1983 the rate of unemployment was 0.4 percent of the total labour force. It increased to 1.8 per cent in 1993-94. It further increased to 3.5 percent in 1999-2000. According to the department of Planning, Government of Manipur, 21.58 % of the total population remained unemployed in 2005 (4.93 lakhs)

Table: 18 : Incidence of Unemployment in Manipur (As a percentage of Labour force) Year Male Female Persons 1983 0.6 0.0 0.4 1993-94 2.2 1.0 1.8 1999-2000 3.7 3.1 3.5 (Source : Rounds of the NSSO : Quoted by the National Human Development Report, 2001 – p-161).

B: 9 : Poverty : Abject poverty forces many resources including land, forest and water to be misused, contaminated and destroyed. The poverty ratio of Manipur remains fairly high. In absolute number it increases. Although in percentage it records a steady decline. In absolute number it increases from 5.29 lakhs in 1987-88 to 7.19 lakhs in 1999-2000.

Table- : 19 Poverty Profile of Manipur. Year Number (in lakhs) Poverty ratio 1973-74 5.86 49.96 1983-84 5.65 37.02 1987-88 5.29 31.35 1993-94 6.80 33.78 1999-2000 7.19 28.54 (Source : Planning Commission Quoted by the Indian Economic Survey, 2001-2002.

Chapter: II 26 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

B: 10 : Sectoral Development: The trend of development in Manipur is largely marked by structural stagnation. The primary sector, - particularly agriculture, livestock, forestry, logging and fishing – remains the principal area of living. Land – based activities are major sources of production, employment and income. The Primary Sector accounts for 31.46 percent of the Gross State Domestic Product (average of 10 years) while 20.71 per cent is accounted for by the Secondary Sector. Nearly 48 percent is derived from the Tertiary Sector.

Table-20: Percentage Distribution of Gross State Domestic Product of Manipur at constant prices (1993-94). (Average of 10 years from 1993-94 to 2002-03(Q)).

Sector Percentage Primary Sector 31.46 Secondary Sector 20.71 Tertiary Sector 47.82 (Source : Govt. of Manipur Eco./Statistics Estimates of State Domestic Product, Manipur 1993-94 to 2002-2003 , New Series).

Table 21 : Gross State Domestic Product of Manipur by Industry of Origin at Current Prices (1993-94 to 2002-2003 (Q) ).(Rs. in lakhs) Year Primary Sector Secondary Sector Tertiary Sector TSDP 1993-94 46424 24342 60043 130809 (35.84%) (19.60% ) (45.90%) (100) 1997-98 75694 37680 98533 215788 (35%) (17.46%) (45.66%) (100) 2001-02 986.30 67259 168534 334423 (29.49%) (20.11%) (50.39%) (100) 2002-03(Q) 104606 75219 188337 367862 (28.35%) (20.44%) (51.19%) (100) (Source : Ibid ).

Chapter: II 27 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Decadel growth of population of M anipur

600000

500000

400000 19 8 1 300000 19 9 1 2001 200000

100000

0 Tam engl Churach Bishnupu Imphal- Imphal- Senapati Chandel Thoubal Ukhrul ong andpur r West East

19 8 1 153091 62289 134494 56444 232675 141760 557254 82946

19 9 1 208406 86278 176184 71014 293958 180773 380801 330460 109275 2001 379214 111493 228707 122714 366341 205907 439532 393780 140946 D istricts

Districtwise decadal growth of population of Manipur

2499800 2399800 2299800 2199800 2099800 1999800 1899800 1799800 1699800 1599800 1499800 1399800 1981 1299800 1991

Year 1199800 1099800 2001 999800 899800 799800 699800 599800 499800 399800 299800 199800 99800 -200 Tamenglon Churachand Imphal- Senapati Chandel Thoubal Bishnupur Imphal-East Ukhrul Total g pur West 1981 153091 62289 134494 56444 232675 141760 557254 82946 1420953 1991 208406 86278 176184 71014 293958 180773 380801 330460 109275 1837149 2001 379214 111493 228707 122714 366341 205907 439532 393780 140946 2388634 Districts

Chapter: II 28 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Districtwise Population density of Manipur : 2001 census (per sq.km.)

900 847

800 713 700 628 600 555

y 500 415 400 Densit

300

200 116 107 100 49 50 31 25 37 0 Ukhrul Thobual Chandel Senapati Manipur Bishnupur districts Imphal East Imphal Tamenglong Average 4 Average Imphal West Imphal Average 5 HillAverage Valley districts Churachandpur Districts

Population density (per sq.km.)

Source : 2001 Census (P), Manipur

District-W ise Population Decadal Grow th rate Details of M anipur 100 Decadal grow th rate 1981-1991 80 Decadal grow th rate 1991-2001

0 C hurachandp Senapati Tam englong B ishnupur Tho ubal Imphal West Imphal East Ukhrul C handel ur D ecadal growth rate 1981-1991 36.13 38.51 31 27.52 26.34 26.14 29.41 31.74 25.81 D ecadal growth rate 1991-2001 81.96 29.23 29.81 13.9 24.62 15.42 19.16 28.98 72.8 Source: www.censusindia.net

District-Wise Population Density in Manipur Density 1991 900 847 Density 2001

800 734 713 y 700 600 572 555

500 466 415 400 364 300 200

Population Densit 116 50 100 64 37 31 25 39 21 24 20 0 est Ukhr ul Thoubal englong Chandel Senapati phal East Bishnupur phal W Im Im Tam

Districts Churachandpur

Source : Statistical Hand Book of Manipur

Chapter: II 29 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Satellite map of Imphal

Chakpi River

Chapter: II 30 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Dzuko lily

Dzuko Valley, Senapati

Siroi lily

Siroi Hill, Ukhrul

Chapter: II 31 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter:III Land

C. LAND : Let us begin with the institutional system of the use of land. The state has no well – defined, strictly, efficiently and uniformly enforceable property rights. Three distinctly different property – rights are found in the state. In the hills, the property right is governed by traditional unwritten laws and convention. Among the Nagas the community ownership is accepted. The entire village is said to have belonged by tradition to the Village – Chief. However, the individuals are permitted to operate with inalienable rights. The land – use pattern of the Nagas has certain clear-cut-divisions. First, they have house-sites. The house-sites by and large permanently belong to them. Second, surrounding the house-sites there is protected area where no felling of trees is allowed. This protected area serves as a defensive well against fire and other attacks. Third, beyond this protected area, there is cultivated land. The Kukis have land under the ownership of the Chief only. He is, by tradition, the sole authority over the use of land. The lands are, however, made available to the individuals members for agricultural purposes subject to the payment of grain – rent. The new phenomenon causing concern is the rising population of landless families. Besides, investment in land for improvement in both cases, is not made in the absence of inspiring urge of individual ownership. The third system is the private – property ownership system that prevails in the valley. Individual owners have sole right of use and transfer. But in the absence of effective public law, misuse of land is on the rise. While the Manipur Land Revenue and Land Reforms Act, 1960 is ineffective, the Manipur State Land Use Board remains practically unknown without any convincing activity whatsoever so far.

C: 1 : Land Use-Pattern : The forest cover including land with or without scrub account for 88 percent of the total geographical area (22,32,700 ha.). Land available for cultivation is only 1,48,572 hectares accounting for 6.65 per cent.

Chapter:III 32 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Land use/ Land cover categories of Manipur Settlement

1% Agriculture land 1% 0% 7% 1% Forest cover

40% Land with or without Serub (a) Group --A 50%

(b) Group -- B Others

Group – A = Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal Group- B = Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land/ Biomass /Submerged Cropped Land Graph : 7

Table -22 : Land Use, Manipur. Sl.No. Category Area ( ha.) % of the total area 1. Settlement 54,520.00 2.44 2. Agriculture 1,48,572.00 6.65 3. Forest 10,99,590.00 49.25 4. Land with or Without scrub 8,64,612.80 38.72 5. Water bodies 36,824.63 1.65 6. Others 28,579.65 1.29 Total : 22,32,700.00 100 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Table – 23 : District- wise Land Use pattern (Valley ) (% of the district total )

Category Imphal Bishnupur Thoubal Settlement 17.2 11.58 19.57 Agriculture 50.47 49.32 42.40 Forest Cover 12.22 1.26 -- Land with or without scrub 10.40 3.05 5.77 Water Bodies 7.0 30.02 24.81 Others 2.73 4.82 7.45 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 33 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 24 : Land Types Available (In Hectare) BUILT UP 7834 KHARIF 168792 NET SOWN AREA 168792 GROSS CROP 168792 AGRICULTURE PLANTATION 420 EVERGREEN FOREST 58664 DECIDUOUS FOREST 1094571 DEGRADED AREA 260843 MARSHY/ SWAMPY 29010 LAKE TANK 10664 SHIFTING CULTIVATION 578529 Source : North Eastern Council, 2002

Table – 25 : Land Use Details of Land Use/Land cover in Manipur, 1989-90

Sl. District Area in Percentage of total District Area No. ha. Settlem Agricultu Forest cover Water Others ent re Bodies Dense Moderate Low (> 40% (20-40%) (< 20% cover) cover)

Valley 120.100 17.2 50.5 0.1 12.2 10.4 6.9 2.7 District 1 & Imphal (W 2 & E)

3. Thoubal 50.700 19.6 42.4 - - 5.8 24.9 7.5

4. Bishnupur 53.000 11.6 49.3 - 1.3 3.1 30 4.8

Hill District 5. Snapati 327.100 0.80 3.40 1.90 38.80 53.90 - 1.30

6. Ukhrul 451.400 0.70 1.40 3.50 49.30 44.30 - 0.70

7. Chndel 331.300 0.400 1.90 8.46 37.80 50,50 - 1.20

8. Churachand 457.000 1.40 2.10 450 58.60 32.50 - 0.90 pur

9. Temenglong 439.100 1.00 1.60 7.20 54.40 35.10 - 0.80

Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 34 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table – 26 : Major Land use/Land cover categories, Manipur, 1989-90

SL. NO Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area 1 Settlement 54520,00 2.44 2 Agriculture land 148573 6.65 3 Forest cover 1099590 49.25 4 Land with or without Scrub 864613 38.72 5 Water Bodies (a) Group –A 13221.4 0.59 (b) Group – B 23603.2 1.06 6 Others 28579.8 1.29 TOTAL : 2232700 100 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Table : 27 Detail Statistics of land use/land /Cover of Manipur State (1989-90) Percentage to the total Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) state area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation 89.9 0.004 1.2. Settlement with plantation 54430.1 2.44 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 148572.62 6.66 3 FOREST Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) 101990.65 4.57 3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 997599.65 44.68 3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 864612.8 38.72 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal 13221.43 0.59 Group-B 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land 11526.2 0.52 2. Biomass 8596.5 0.38 3. Submerged Cropped Land 3480.5 0.16 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 13888.27 0.62 5.2 Road 12953.38 0.58 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land 1738.1 0.08 Total : 2232700 100 Total geographical area of the state : 22,327,00.00 ha. • It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 35 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 28 : Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Imphal District, Manipur (1989-90)

Sl. No. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. 1. Settlement 20735.90 17.26 2. Agriculture land 60616.80 50.47 3. Forest cover 14673.10 12.22 4. Land with/without scrub 12486.70 10.40 5. Water Bodies (a) Group –A 1629.90 1.36 (b) Group –B 6687.00 5.56 6. Others 3270.60 2.73 Total 120100.00 100.00

Table : 29 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Imphal District, Manipur State (1989-90)

Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total district area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation 89.90 0.07 1.2. Settlement with plantation 20646.00 17.19 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 60616.80 50.47 3 FOREST 3.1 Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) 13.10 0.10 3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 14660.0 12.21 3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 12486.70 10.40 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal 1629.90 1.38 Group-B 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land 733.50 0.64 2. Biomass 4627.70 3.85 3. Submerged Cropped Land 1285.80 1.07 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 1407.10 1.18 5.2 Road 1595.90 1.33 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land 267.60 0.22 Total : 120100.00 100.00 Total geographical area of the District 120100.00 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 36 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 30 Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Bishnupur District, Manipur (1989-90)

Sl. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. No. 1. Settlement 6139.00 11.58 2. Agriculture land 26138.60 49.32 3. Forest cover 662.50 1.26 4. Land with/without scrub 1618.46 3.05 5. Water Bodies (c) Group –A 9610.40 18.13 (d) Group –B 6267.70 11.89 6. Others 2563.40 4.82 Total 53000.00 100.00 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Table : 31 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Bishnupur District, Manipur State (1989-90)

Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total district area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation -- --- 1.2. Settlement with plantation 6139.00 11.58 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 26138.60 49.32 3 FOREST 3.1 Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) ------3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 662.50 1.26 3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 1618.40 3.05 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal 9610.40 18.13 Group-B 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land 382.70 0.72 2. Biomass 3968.80 7.49 3. Submerged Cropped Land 1916.20 3.63 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 1136.10 2.14 5.2 Road 1427.30 2.68 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land -- --- Total : 53000.00 100.00

Total geographical area of the District 53000.00 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre Table : 32 : Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Churachandpur District, Manipur (1989-90)

Sl. No. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. 1. Settlement 6569.10 1.44 2. Agriculture land 9675.02 2.12 3. Forest cover 288330.98 63.09 4. Land with/without scrub 148347.82 32.4 5. Water Bodies (e) Group –A ------(f) Group –B --- 6. Others 4077.08 0.89 Total 457000.00 100.00 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 37 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 33 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Churachandpur District, Manipur State (1989-90)

Percentage to the total Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) district area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation - - 1.2. Settlement with plantation 6569.10 1.44 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 9675.02 2.12 3 FOREST Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) 20627.20 4.51 3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 267703.78 58.58 3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* *148347.82 32.46 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal - - Group-B - -- 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land - - 2. Biomass - - 3. Submerged Cropped Land - - 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 2071.48 0.45 5.2 Road 2005.60 0.44 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land - Total : 457000.00 100.00 Total geographical area of the District 457000 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area.

Table : 34 : Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Chandel District, Manipur (1989-90)

Sl. No. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. 1. Settlement 1160.90 0.35 2. Agriculture land 6192.13 1.87 3. Forest cover 152804.13 46.12 4. Land with/without 167166.32 50.46 scrub 5. Water Bodies (g) Group –A ------(h) Group –B --- 6. Others 3975.83 -- Total 331300.00 100.00

Chapter:III 38 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : : 35 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Chandel District, Manipur State (1989-90) Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total district area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation - - 1.2. Settlement with plantation 1160.90 0.35 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 6192.82 1.87 3 FOREST Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) 27657.60 8.35 3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 125146.53 37.77 3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 167166.32 50.46 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal - - Group-B - -- 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land - - 2. Biomass - - 3. Submerged Cropped Land - - 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 1975.75 0.60 5.2 Road 2000.08 0.60 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land - Total : 3,31,300.00 100.00 Total geographical area of the state : 22,327,00.00 ha. *Total geographical area of the district 3,31,300.00 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Table : 36 : Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Senapati District, Manipur (1989-90) Sl. No. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. 1. Settlement 2526.10 0.77 2. Agriculture land 11101,82 3.39 3. Forest cover 133024.08 40.66 4. Land with/without scrub 176391.12 53.93 5. Water Bodies (i) Group –A ------(j) Group –B 6. Others 4056.88 1.25 Total 327100.00 100.00 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 39 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table ::37 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Senapati District, Manipur State (1989-90)

Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total district area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation - - 1.2. Settlement with plantation 2526.10 0.77 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 11101.82 3.39 3 FOREST 3.1 Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) 6230.50 1.90 3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 126793.58 38.76 3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 176391.12 53.93 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal -- -- Group-B - -- 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land - - 2. Biomass - - 3. Submerged Cropped Land - - 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 2019.78 0.62 5.2 Road 2037.10 0.63 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land -- Total : 327100.00 100.00 Total geographical area of the District 3,27,100.00 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Table : 38 Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Tamenglong District, Manipur (1989-90)

Sl. No. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. 1. Settlement 4225.00 0.96 2. Agriculture land 6907.89 1.58 3. Forest cover 270223.78 61.54 4. Land with/without scrub 154192.72 35.12 5. Water Bodies (k) Group –A 55.63 0.01 (l) Group –B ------6. Others 3359.78 0.74 Total 439100.00 100.00 Source : Ibid

Chapter:III 40 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 39 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Tamenglong District, Manipur State (1989-90)

Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total district area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation - - 1.2. Settlement with plantation 4225.00 0.96 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 6907.89 1.58 3 FOREST 3.1 Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) 31382.70 7.15 3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 238841.08 54.39 3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 154192.72 35.12 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal 55.63 0.01 Group-B - -- 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land - - 2. Biomass - - 3. Submerged Cropped Land - - 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 2385.68 0.54 5.2 Road 1109.30 0.25 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land - - Total : 439100.00 100.00 Total geographical area of the District 4,39,100.00 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Table : 40 : Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Ukhrul District, Manipur (1989-90)

Sl. No. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. 1. Settlement 3242.70 0.71 2. Agriculture land 6442.92 1.42 3. Forest cover 239871.48 52.79 4. Land with/without scrub 201483.12 44.34 5. Water Bodies (m) Group –A ------(n) Group –B --- 6. Others 3359.78 0.74 Total 454400.00 100.00 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 41 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 41 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Ukhrul District, Manipur State (1989-90)

Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total district area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation - - 1.2. Settlement with plantation 3242.70 0.71 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 6442.92 1.42 3 FOREST 3.1 Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) 16079.30 3.54 3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) 223792.18 49.25 3.2 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 201483.12 44.34 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal - - Group-B - -- 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land - - 2. Biomass - - 3. Submerged Cropped Land - - 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 1785.28 0.39 5.2 Road 1574.50 0.35 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land - Total : 454400.00 100.00 Total geographical area of the District 4,54,400 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Table : 42 Major land Use/Land Cover Categories, Thoubal District, Manipur (1989-90)

Sl. No. Category Area in (ha.) Percentage to the total dist. Area. 1. Settlement 9921.40 19.57 2. Agriculture land 21496.50 42.40 3. Forest cover -- --- 4. Land with/without scrub 2926.60 5.77 5. Water Bodies (o) Group –A 1925.50 3.80 (p) Group –B 1648.80 21.01 6. Others 3781.20 7.45 Total : 50700.00 100.00 Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 42 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 43 : Detail Statistics of Land Use/Land /Cover of Thoubal District, Manipur State (1989-90)

Sl.No. Category Area (in ha.) Percentage to the total dsistrict area 1 SETTLEMENT 1.1. Settlement without plantation -- --- 1.2. Settlement with plantation 9921.40 19.57 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND 21496.50 42.40 3 FOREST 3.1 Dense Forest. (Canopy cover above 40%) ------3.2 Moderately Dense forest (Canopy cover 20% - 40%) ------3.3 Land with or without scrub (Canopy cover below 20%)* 2926.60 5.77 4 WATER BODIES : Group – A 1. Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal 1925.50 3.80 Group-B 1. Waterlogged/marshy/Swampy Land 10370.00 20.45 2. Biomass ------3. Submerged Cropped Land 278.80 0.56 5 OTHERS 5.1 Rivers/Stream 1107.10 2.18 5.2 Road 1203.60 2.37 5.3 Waterlogged area converted to new agricultural land 1470.50 2.90 Total : 50700.00 100.00 Total geographical area of the District 50700.00 ha. * It also includes abandoned jhum/terrace cultivation/plantation area. Source : : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Districtwise % of Land to total area of Manipur

20% Imphal East 21% Imphal West Bishnupur Thobual Senapati 20% 15% Churachandpur Ukhrul 2% 2% 2% 3% 15% Tamenglong Chandel

Source : Economic Survey of Manipur 2002-2003

Chapter:III 43 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

C : 2 : Man- Land- Ratio : In valley, the available agricultural land remains constant for many years and on the other hand population has increased manifold. This has reduced man land ratio thus producing more marginal farmers with smaller land holding. The present concerns may be stated as follows : - Acidification of larger area of agricultural land. - More fractionalization of land holdings - Marginalization of farmers. - Increasing use of chemical fertilizers such as urea and chemical pesticides. - Unhindered reclamation of wet lands for agricultural use - Low fish productions due to indiscriminate catch of small fishes. - Increase in area for jhum cultivation - Large scale deforestation - Soil erosion due to human pressure on land in hills causing flood and drought in the valley and land slides and mudslides in the hills. Against the fixed area of land population increases arithmetically at 3% annually. Such increase has created a social and economic impact. In the hills the marginalization of cultivators is not so acute due to high man land ratio. However, there is also scope for expansion of agricultural land in the hill areas and also in foothills of the valley. The warning of the negative social impact due to low man land ratio can be seen in the valley. Agricultural labourers with negligible area of arable land for cultivation has increased from 28,613 in 1981 to 47,350 in 1991 and to 1,20,991 in 2001. Marginal labours who do not have any cultivable land and who survive on an average of 100 working days have been increased from 38,322 in 1981 to 55,528 in 1991 and it would be more than double in 2001. The increase in both agricultural labour and marginal labour would further reduce the man-land-ratio with all possible tendencies for a change in the land-use-pattern.

C : 3 : Lack of institutional framework on land use : The valley land is classified and cadastrally surveyed under the MLR Act. However, there is no legal provision to protect the wetlands/lakes from converting into agricultural land. There is no law to deal with the encroaching on the lake areas. For example, the existing lakes such as Loktak, Pumlen, Kharung etc. have Chapter:III 44 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur no legally demarcated boundaries. Encroachment by human population is such that Jamabandies are issued by the authorities even inside the Loktak lake areas. Many fishing co-operative societies have been formed inside the Loktak Lake. This has created a new constraint. Lack of proper co-ordination between institutions such as Loktak Development Authority and Department of Fisheries is visible. In the hill, the picture is quite different. The land in the hills are not cadastrally surveyed as it is not under the purview of the Manipur Land Revenue and Land Reforms Act. In Naga Villages most of the lands belong to village individuals. Though historical records of jhum cultivation exist, sometime, villagers encroached on protected forest land for jhum cultivation destroying the forest. In most of the Kuki inhabited Villages, the land belong to the community. However the Village Authority, though elected, comprised of few individuals who are related to the Village Chief and exercise all the rights to the land, rendering mass of people landless. People are insensitive to degradation. The Jhum period is reduced to 3-4 years which results in mass conversion of hilly slopes into barren land. The picture of pressure of population on land is different in the hills. The area under Jhum cultivation has increased to 90.05 pc in Ukhrul, 89.40 pc in Tamenglong, 89.60 pc in Churachandpur in 2002-03 ( Dept. of Eco/ Statistics, GoM) Area under wasteland (abandoned Jhum fields) has tremendously increased from 11.17% in 1987 to 20.04% in 1994 in Churachandpur whereas it was increased from 12.44% in 1987 to 16.11% in 1997 in Tamenglong districts. The unclassified forest has been regularly encroached upon for Jhum cultivation and area has been increased from year to year. The result is denudation of rivers and lakes in the valley by the soil particles brought down from the hills due to large scale soil erosion caused by Jhum cultivation. Inundation of low laying areas and flash flood during the rainy season has become annual feature in the valley due to rising river bed in all the rivers in Imphal Valley. There were around 85 small and medium size lakes besides the largest fresh water lake, the Loktak. At present only 7 lakes have survived. All the other small and medium sized lakes are getting converted into agricultural land as lakes have been become shallow due to heavy silt deposition brought down by rivers from the Watersheds. In the hill areas, heavy landslides and mudslides are frequent feature causing heavy damages to the property rendering many homeless.

Chapter:III 45 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

The recent heavy landslides at Gopibung and Mao ( Senapati district ) are not exception as well as unexpected in view of “ Public ignorance” and “ Public indifference”. The social and economic dislocation suffered by the state and heavy price we pay could certainly be a fresh warning. On the whole what is urgently required is a scientific study on Land Capability of the lands in the state in order to understand better and identify properly the changing character of (a) inherent soil characteristics, (b) external land features and (c) environmental factors that limit the use of land.

C : 4 Jhum cultivation : Jhum cultivation is bad for the jhumias and worse for the community and the state. The environmental harmony gets disturbed and distorted. The planned public interventions have, it appears, not been able to address this concern. The jhum area in Manipur records a high rate of increase. The area increases from 24.29 ( ,000 ) Ha in 1991-92 to 42.49 ( ,000 ) Ha in 2001-02. The percentage increase during this period was 74. 48, :- really disturbing. Tamenglong district presents dismal picture with 98.60 % being accounted for by the Jhum area. 83.86 % of the total area under paddy is accounted for by the Jhum area in Ukhrul. On an average the jhum area increased from 46.49 % in 1991 – 92 to 69 % in 2001-02 in the state. Nearly 10 % of forest area covered by the shifting cultivation is under constant threat of land degradation and environmental disturbance.

Distribution of Jhum area in Manipur (1991-92 to 2001-02 )

120

100

0 Senapati Tamenglong Churachandpur Chandel Ukhrul Area under Jhum ('000 ) 1991-92 2.73 8.26 4.9 3.22 5.18 Area under Jhum ('000 ) 2001-02 2.74 10.49 10.55 6.53 12.16 Percentage to district total area under paddy 12.45 82.77 53.15 44.29 39.82 cultivation 1991-92 Percentage to district total area under paddy 11.47 98.6 76.56 74.04 83.86 cultivation 2001-02 Districts

Area under Jhum ('000 ) 1991-92 Area under Jhum ('000 ) 2001-02 Percentage to district total area under paddy cultivation 1991-92 Percentage to district total area under paddy cultivation 2001-02 Source : Dept . Of Eco/Stast. Report on crop- estimation survey, Manipur

Chapter:III 46 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Distribution of Jhum area ( Districtwise as % to state total, Manipur

35 34

30 28.63

24.7 24.84 25 21.33 20.17 20

P.C 15.38 15 13.26 11.24

10 6.45

0 Senapati Tamenglong Churachandpur Chandel Ukhrul Hill Districts

1991-92 2001-02

Source : Dept . Of Eco/Stast. Report on crop- estimation survey, Manipur

Area of Jhum cultivation in 4 hill districts of Manipur

40 Sq. Km. 30

0 1987 1994 1987 1994 1987 1994 Area of Jhum cultivation including Forest Land Scrub waste land abundant Jhum Senapati 39.83 44.56 53 48.27 0.04 0.01 Ukhrul 21.82 35.77 75 61.06 0.04 0.08 Churachandpur 18.36 48.14 65.17 25.84 11.1 20.64 Tamenglong 37.94 34.74 45.4 44.88 12.44 16.1

Senapati Ukhrul Churachandpur Tamenglong

Source : Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre

Chapter:III 47 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

TABLE : 44 : WASTELANDS CATEGORY OF 5 HILL DISTRICTS OF MANIPUR (2003)

District Wast-Land Categories Area (in Sq.Kms) % of TGA

Chandel Land with Scrub 1290.6 38.96 Shifting Cultivation 679.1 20.50 (Abandoned) Shifting Cultivation (Current) 287.5 8.68 Total 2257.2 68.13

Churachandpur Land with Scrub 689.61 Shifting Cultivation 1345 29.43 (Abandoned) Shifting Cultivation (Current) 493 10.79 Total 2527.61 55.31

Ukhrul Land with Scrub 2319 51.03 Shifting Cultivation 989.6 21.78 (Abandoned) Shifting Cultivation (Current) 172.6 3.80 Total 3481.2 76.61

Tamenglong Land with Scrub 1827.17 2.55 Shifting Cultivation 324.89 7.40 (Abandoned) Shifting Cultivation (Current) 113.1 2.58 Total 2265.16 51.59

Senapati Land with Scrub 1600.35 48.93 Shifting Cultivation 313.87 9.60 (Abandoned) Shifting Cultivation (Current) 51.32 1.57 Total 1965.54 60.09

Chapter:III 48 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 45 : Non-Waste land category of 5 hill districts of Manipur ( 2003)

District Non Wast-Land Categories Area (in Sq.Kms) % of TGA Chandel Water Bodies (Ponds, Tanks & - - Reservoir) Settlement 41.6 - River 2.8 - Misc. Polygons 1011.4 - Total 1055.8 -

Churachandpur Settlement 91.76 - River 20.74 - Misc. Polygons 1929.89 - Total 2042.39 -

Ukhrul Settlement 40 - River 13.5 - Misc. Polygons 1009.3 - Total 1062.8 -

Tamenglong Water Bodies (Ponds, Tanks & 0.88 Reservior) Settlement 39.7 - River 21.68 - Misc. Polygons 2063.58 - Total 2125.84 -

Senapati Water Bodies (Ponds, Tanks & 0.4 Reservior) Settlement 17.11 - River 6.5 - Misc. Polygons 1281.45 - Total 1305.46 -

Status of Land Degradation in Manipur 14 13.26

12 10 8 7.34

Area(Lakh Hectare) 2 0 O ld Assessm ent (1985) Present Assessm ent (1994)

Source : Draft Report on Status of Land Degradation in India.Dept. of Agriculture& Co-operation, Govt. of India.

Chapter:III 49 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 46 : W a s te la n d s in M a n ip u r

( A rea in Sq . K m s .) Land Shifting Degraded % to To tal with/Witho ut Water logged/ C u lt iv a t io n Notified Total Geo graphical District Scrub Marshy La nd Area Forest Land Wastelands Area C handel 1.32 0 2868.39 347.59 3217.3 97.11 Ukhrul 0 0 4119.53 261.05 4380.58 96.4

Senap ati 0 0 2081.62 0 2081.62 63.64

Churchandp ur 0 0 1765.1 0 1765.1 38.62 Tho ubal 0 115.68 30.9 0 146.58 28.91 East Im p hal 0 105.71 193.66 0 299.37 24.93 Bishnup ur 0 103.21 26.28 0 129.49 24.433

Tam ang lo n g 0 0 928.58 0 928.58 21.15

-W e s t Im p hal To tal 1.32 324.6 12014.06 608.64 12948.62 58 Source : W astelands A tlas of India 2000, Dept. of Land Resources, M inistry of R u ra l D e v e lo p ment, Govt. of India

G ross Cropped A rea in M anipur (1991-1998) 220 210 216

207 200 203 199 190 192 189 187 180 182 170

Hectares) '000 Area (in 160 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99

Source: Trends in Land Utilization (CMIE) December 2002,Page No. 22

T r e n d s o f F e r tiliz e r s C o n s u m p tio n P e r H e c ta r e in M anipur & India (1992-2000) Manipur 120 India

100 93.81 84.98 87.08 86.34 75.49 80 72 .13 74 .38 65.53 66.34 60

40 (K g/H ectare)

Consumption Consumption 20

0 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

Source: Fertilizer Consumption: States (CMIE) December 2002,Page No. 45

Chapter:III 50 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Source : CMIE & TERI Energy data Directory 1999/2000

46 43 44 42 42 40 40 38 38 36 34 32 s 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 Value in '000 tonne '000 in Value 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0.78 0 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1994-95 Share% Pesticide consumption in Manipur Year

Tungjoi, Senapati district (Barak catchment area )

Chapter:III 51 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Source : MRSAC, Imphal

Vegetation map of Manipur

Chapter:III 52 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

After wild fire barren land

Regenerated area after Jhum farming & Path for rolling down of the Fire wood

Chapter:III 53 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Hill settlement in Manipur

Condition of NH 39 after Heavy Landslide at Mao, Senapati district

Chapter:III 54 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Preparing for Jhum/ Shifting cultivation

Large scale Jhum cultivation

Terrace cultivation

Chapter:III 55 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: IV Water

D : WATER Water qualities as well as quantity are major concerns of the state of Manipur. Biological contamination of drinking water supply combined with scanty quantity has been a major cause of most of the ill health. Other than two major water supply schemes at Imphal – The Singda and the Porompat – which have facilities for monitoring water quality, there are a number of water supply schemes in all the districts which do not have regular monitoring system. Data for regular maintenance and monitoring of water quality are not available. Because of the shortage of safe drinking water many people use the available surface water for drinking and domestic purposes from any source. The people illegally break the water pipe and tap inviting another problem of Annual Requirement of Water for Domestic Purpose in hazard. Manipur(Cubic Km.)

The 0.12 development of 0.099 infrastructures can 0.08 not cope with the 0.071

faster rate of 0.04 population. Reckless disposal of human and 0 animal wastes 1991 2001

contributes to surface Graph : 16 : Source : Central Water Commission water pollution leading to the spread of water borne diseases. Only 12.41 percent of the households in Manipur have access to toilet facility in 1997 ( National Human Development Report, 2001, - page 171) and 37 pc safe drinking water (Economic Survey, 2004-05) Urbanisation is on the rise. While over-congestation is on the rise, drainage system remains fairly outdated and is unorganized. During rainy season most of the latrines both sanitary & non sanitary are overflooded contaminating the drinking water with biological agents. Because of shortage of safe drinking water there is also a number of unauthorized and unhygienic taping from the pipes contributing to health hazards. Increased use of

Chapter: VI 56 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

fertilizer & insecticides in agriculture leads to chemical contamination of food & water. D : 2 : River systems : Manipur represents a peculiar physiographic situation in the eastern Himalayas and watershed area of two great river basin systems i.e. the Brahamaputra and Irawaddy. Located in the International border between India and Myanmar, Manipur is endowed with an enormously diverse heritage of wetlands. The wetlands in the state are mostly located in the valley areas but hilly regions also possess a number of wetlands. Almost all the water bodies of Manipur comprising the aged lakes and ponds are subjected to a number of environmental threats like artificial eutrophication and encroachments. These wetlands and lakes have been subjected to a number of physico- chemical stress viz. intermittent flooding, siltation, encroachments, lack of oxygen (anoxia) and consequent chemical depletions in the soil. The lakes in the valley are located in the plains of basins and inter-fluve areas of the rivers and its branches. The drainage system in the state is attributed to and connected with various streams which belong to three river systems. The Manipur River Location of Hydrological stations has important tributaries like Imphal, Thoubal, Nambul, Khuga and Sekmai rivers. These rivers and Loktak Lake and other associated lakes constitute the main water resources of the central valley with the catchment’s area of 6,332 sq. km. constituting 28.4% of the valley. The second river system is formed by Barak river and its tributaries namely, Irang, Maku, Tuivai, Jiri, and their associated streams which drain in the northern and western hill areas. The rivers have a catchment area of 9,042 sq. km. accounting for 40.5% of the entire region. In the eastern hilly slopes of the state a number of small streams join the Chindwin River in Myanmar. The important river in this system is Akonglok River and its tributaries

Chapter: VI 57 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur viz. Chamu and Chingai. The other important river is the Yu River with its tributaries like Maklang, Tuyungbi, Taretlok, Lokchao, Lalimlok and Tuiyang. These rivers, flowing sub-parallelly in the steep valley, finally culminate in the Chindwin River in the Kabaw valley in Myanmar. These rivers have a catchment area of 6953 sq. km. constituting 31% of the geographical area of the state. The wetlands of the state comprise of large as well as small lakes in the southern portion of the Manipur valley. There are also a number of freshwater swamps and marshes in the inter revering tracts. The wetlands in Manipur are given in table below:- Table : 47 : Wetlands in different districts of Manipur District Wetland category Number Wetland Water spread Area Major lakes (Area in area (ha) (ha) Post monsoon ha) Bishnupur Lakes 4 17979.0 10877.0 Loktak (24672.0) (including Keibul Lamjao, Sanapat, Laphupat & Thaunamchapat ) Utrapat (185.0) Sanapat (282.0) Waterlogged 21 1926.5 1926.5 - Sub-Total 25 19905.5 12803.5 - Imphal Lakes 10 8684.0 1460.0 Karam pat(65.0) Tankha pat (85.0) Heingang pat (62.0) Porom Pat (810) Water logged 69 4581.5 3678.5 - Sub-Total 79 13265.5 5138.5 - Thoubal Lakes 7 16695.0 2211.0 Pumlen, Khoidum & Lamjao Pat (8022.0) Ikop Pat & Kharung Pat (6520.0) Waithou & Pumlen Pat (455.0) Ushoipokpi Pat (65.0) Aongbikhong Pat (225.0) Loushi Pat (1864.0) Ox-Bow Lakes 2 35.0 35.0 Waterlogged 40 2958.0 2958.0 Sub-Total 49 19688.0 5204.0 Senapati Reservoir 1 20.0 20.0 Tamenglong Reservoir 1 80.0 80.0 Total 155 52959.0 23246.0 ( 2.37% of the total geographical area) No wetlands could be delineated in the Ukhrul, Churachandpur and Chandel districts

Chapter: VI 58 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Source: Manipur Remote Sensing Application centre and Space Application centre, Ahmedabad

17979

Waterlogged 16695 18000 Lakes

16000 Ox-bow Lakes 14000 Reservoir 12000 8684 10000 8000 4581 6000 2958 4000 1926 2000 35 20 80 0 Bishnupur Imphal Thoubal Senapati Tamenglong

Wetland Distribution in Manipur

D : 3 Lakes : According to the recent survey conducted by the Remote Sensing Application Centre, Govt. of Manipur, there are 17 lakes and 2 ox-bow lakes in the state. Largest number lakes are in Imphal and Thoubal districts. However there are also a number of smaller lakes which are termed as kom (pits). About 134 waterlogged marshy and swampy wetlands are in different districts. These areas are low lying, situated either in the peripheral area or vicinity of the lakes. Highest numbers of water logged areas are recorded in Imphal valley (69), followed by Thoubal (40) and Bishnupur districts (21). There are 2 man-made reservoirs, one each in Senapati and Tamenglong districts. The data of the wetlands in the different districts are presented along with the major lakes of Manipur in the

Chapter: VI 59 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table. It has been observed from the remote sensing data that about 78% of the total area of the wetlands in the state are found infested with a number of weed species during the pre-monsoon season. During the post-monsoon season (September onwards) 72% of the total area is covered with aquatic vegetation. The lakes in the state are comparatively old with their own distinct characteristic life-span, topographic, physiographic as well as hydrologic features. These features have been closely related to the evolving geo-physical features of the state. In the state, there were about 500 lakes in the valley of the state in the beginning of the 20th century. They have been reduced fast in the past few years and as a result, hardly 55 lakes were found existing in the state by 1950s. Loktak lake is the most important fresh water lake not only in the state but also in the North- East India. Other important existing Lakes in the State are Ikop, Waithou, Ngakrapat and Loushipat. These lakes remain threatened due to artificial eutrophication and encroachment for cultivation and fish farming. Highly degraded Lakes in the state are kharungphat, Khoidumpat, Pumlen, Lokoipat, Sanapat, Yaralpat and Poiroupat. Some important major Lakes of the State are given in the following table. TABLE 48 : SOME IMPORTANT MAJOR LAKES OF MANIPUR Sl. No. Name of the Lakes District 1. Loktak pat Bishnupur 2. Sanapat Bishnupur/Thoubal 3. Lamjao pat Bishnupur 4. Laphupat Bishnupur 5. Thaunamchapat Bishnupur 6. Sanapat Bishnupur 7. Pumlenpat Thoubal 8. Khoidumpat Thoubal 9. Lamjaopat Thoubal 10. Kharungpat Thoubal 11. Punnempat Thoubal 12. Ushoipokpipat Thoubal 13. Aongbikhong pat Thoubal 14. Loushi pat Thoubal 15. Karam Pat Imphal 16. Tankha pat Imphal 17. Heingang pat Imphal ( Pat means Lake and compact low-lying- water logged areas) D : 3.1 Driving Forces (Environmental stress): Almost all the lakes are subject to a number of environmental stresses and threats which have been in vogue since the last four decades. Though natural aging is product of natural eutrophication processes, it is noteworthy that artificial Chapter: VI 60 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur eutrophication (also termed as cultural eutrophication) has been the most important cause for the fast and untimely degradation threatening the life of these lakes. The major causes for degrading and polluting the lakes are listed below;

i. Human encroachments for habitation on the catchment areas of the lakes – Population Pressure index are high in Imphal ( 15.5), Thoubal ( 14.12) and Bishnupur ( 9.80) ii. Encroaching the low lying areas in the boundaries of paddy cultivation. iii. Conversion of the low lying areas into fish farms and horticultural farms. iv. Disposal of untreated domestic garbage into the lakes. v. Leaching of chemical fertilizers due to agricultural and piscicultural activities in and around the lake areas. vi. Massive destruction of the forest in the catchment areas of the Lakes. vii. Draining of insecticides, pesticides and weedicides from the neighbouring crop fields due to rain. viii. Misuse of toxic chemicals like DDT, BHC, Aldrin, Endolan, Endosulfan, Rogo etc for catching fish without much labour. ix. Pressure exerted on the lakes by poverty.

D: 4 : CASE STUDIES Loktak lake (Bishnupur District ): The Loktak Lake, situated in Bishnupur district at a distance of about 30 km from Imphal is the largest freshwater lake in the North -East. The physiographical and morphometric features of the lake reveal degraded nature of the lake. The surface area measures about 180.4 sq. km in the rainy seasons. The depth ranged from 0.90 to 5.20 m with the shoreline length of 55.8 km. Studies were carried out in different sites viz. Kambong,Phabi, Takmu, Chinglakpat, Keibul Mamangpat etc. The basin of the lake which is saucer shaped shows a gentle slope with silted bottom texture. The volume of the lake measures 0.55 cu km. The vegetations in the lake can be catogorized into Phumdi (floating mat) species and non-phumdi (clear water) species. Altogether 86 plant species have been reported out of which 13 belong to the non-phumdi area while 73 to the phumdi areas of the lake. The phumdi (floating mat) makes its appearance in the lake 3 distinct vertical zones, ( lying one above the other). The uppermost root zone is generally 0-15 cm, thick whereas the next mat zone ranges from 25-65 cm in Chapter: VI 61 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur thickness. The lowermost peat zone varies between 10-25 cm in thickness. The Phum represents the main source of the major essential elements to the water and soil sediments.

Density of Athaphums ( Source : LDA)

1989 1999 2002 source : LDA

Chapter: VI 62 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

The Keibul Lamjao, ( Keibul Floating open field) the only native home of Sangai (Brow-antlered deer) represents a unique vast expanse of floating mats (phumdi) located inside the lake. The phumdi has got its own unique species of plants and animals of endemic nature. A number of local fish species have comfortable breeding grounds under the phumdi. Thousands of people in and around the lake earn their living through economic activities connected with fishing, vegetables and other products. Analysis of a number of physico-chemical parameters like pH, dissolved carbondioxide, dissolved oxygen content, turbidity etc. in the water samples from various sites in the lake reveals growing degradations in the quality of water.

D : 4.1 : Driving Force : A number of changes in the form of degradations of the natural resources, water quality and socio-economic conditions of the inhabitants in and around Loktak are observed for the last three decades. Some of the salient factors along with the consequences are listed below: i.) Water Inundation : Due to the commissioning of Loktak project by the National Hydro-Electric power Corporation ( NHPC ) in 1983, the level of water has been raised to 769 m permanently with the help of the Ithai barrage for generating electricity. This has caused a number of doubtful changes. The unique natural up and down movement of the phumdis (floating mats) in the vast expanses of the same in Keibul Lamjao area which generally occurs alternately during summer and winter seasons have been disturbed over the last 30 years. As a result the phumdis are always raised, thus not allowing the same to come into contact with the soil-sediment layer at the bottom of the lake. Thus the supply of sediments to the soil is cut off resulting to depletion of nutrients. There occurs sharp decrease in the population of a number of economic plants (Saccharum species, Setaria pumila, Alpinia nigra, Hedychium spicatum, etc) .As the major food plants like Zizania, Latifolia, Carex species, Coix, species, Narenga are on the decline, the main source of food for Sangai is visibly reduced. As the phum becomes thinner, the hoofs of the limbs of Sangai get slipped and entangled and they generally suffer from drowning. The undesirable changing character of phumdi has negative bearing on the proliferation of the animal. The growth and productions of Trapa Natans fruit (Heikak), :-Production of the edible fruit and rhizome (Thamchet and Thambou) of lotus plant has decreased to a great extent. These plants have also degraded due to polluted water. Thousands of Chapter: VI 63 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur people who earn their livelihood due to the sale of these plant products have suffered to a great extent. The growth and production of the edible fruit of Euryale ferox (Thanging) has also decreased by 40% only and also many people who earn their livelihood have suffered to a considerable extent.

D : 4.2 : Pressure : i.) The manner of phum thaba ( Artificial planning of phum ) for fishing in which patches of phum (floating mats) are fixed by using bamboo poles etc. is undergoing a change. On an average 3000-4000 phums have been used for phum thaba all the year round whereas less number of phums was used earlier in the winter season. As phums do not move freely due to the direction of the wind, the growth of the grasses and weeds have greatly increased. Control is difficult. As a result, the water becomes contaminated. ii). Currently many marginal farmers have been dispossessed of their main means of earning as a result of heavy inundation of water caused by Ithai barrage

D : 4.3 : Pollution of Loktak Lake due to Nambul river : Population of 0.28 million people living within Nambul river (passing through the heart of Imphal City) catchments generates 72.23 million of solid waste and 31.207 cum of sewage daily. Nambul also, therefore, contributes 4.9 million tones of solid waste and 2,121 cum of sewage annually into the lake. All the wastes directly or indirectly find their way into Loktak lake.

Nitrate nitrogen, dissolved inorganic phosphate phosphorous and organic phosphate phosphorus concentrations as indicated in the exercise reveal that all the rivers carry high loads of mineral nutrients. Among Khujairok, Ningthoukhong, Potsangbam, Merakhong and Irumbi draining the agricultural fields subjected to high amounts of fertilizers, in general, have higher concentration level of nitrogen and phosphorous. Nambul and Nambol rivers bring a heavy load of agricultural chemicals into the lake and contribute significantly to water quality deterioration of the Lake. Internally the Loktak Lake is getting weakened and externally disturbed with dismal future in all manifestation. All stakeholders including Government are not sufficiently sensitive to the interdependence and connectivity between rivers and Lake.

Chapter: VI 64 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

D : 4.4 : Mineral Dynamics A comparative analysis of mineral nutrients within water, sediments and Phumdis, indicates that Phumdis provide biological sink to N.P and K which are mainly implicated for water quality deterioration. Sediments act both as a source and sink for these nutrients. Phumdis play an important role in filtering of nutrients responsible for deterioration of water quality. A thick strip of phumdis in the northern sector is carried for the maintenance of water quality of the lake by acting as a biological sink to the key nutrients. The assessment of mineral accumulation indicates that annually 478.6 tones of nitrogen, 19.6 tones of phosphorous and 157.2 tones of potassium accumulate within the phumdis of Northern Zone. The huge amount of the pollutants brought in the rivers, particularly Nambul and Nambol makes the lake unfit for fisheries and other aquatic biodiversity. It could also further trigger the growth of micro organisms thereby compounding the problems by interfering with the growth of macrophytes by shading effect.

Table : 49 : Inflow of Nutrients (MT) from Major Rivers into Loktak in 2001 River Discharge (MCM) N P K Nambul 161 2.338 270 2.081 Nambol 104 243 34 198 Awang Khujairok 9 54 8 41 Thongjaorok 30 57 9 45 Ungamel 210 642 118 462 Khordak 65 57 11 45 Source : Loktak Development Authority

Table :50: Mineral Nurient Accumulation (MT) in Water, Phumdis and Sediments in Loktak lake in 2001 N P K Water 1441.2 717 1,658 Phumdis 1627 136 621 Sediments 8.060 559 4,524 Source : Ibid Table :51: Mineral Nutrient Accumulation (MT) in Phumdis of Different Zones of Loktak lake in 2001. Zone Area (Sq.km.) N P K Northern 41.6 478.6 39.6 157.2 Central 59.6 729.0 60.3 239.5 Southern 33.4 419.2 36.1 224.3 Source : Ibid Chapter: VI 65 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table: 52 : Regions in Loktak lake having excessive encroachments due to fishing. Sl. No. Name of inland water bodies (Patshel)

1. Kopat 12. Laishoi pat 2. Kakyen 13. Liklai Karong pat 3. Birahari pat 14. Phumlenbi pat 4. Leishembi pat 15. Tharoipokpi pat 5. Goda pat 16. Moirangkom pat 6. Tekla pat 17. Awang-Laishoi Pat 7. Yeina-pat 18. Kao-pat 8. Leihao-kom pat 19. Leingang-thingjom pat 9. Manung –khom pat 20. Patang-khong pat 10. Khullakpa pat 11. Ngakra pat

Table :53 : List of some endangered fishes in the lakes and rivers of Manipur.

Anabas testudinus (Ukabi) Labeo dero (Khabak) Anguilla begalenis (Ngaril leina) Labeo pangusis (Ngatin) Acantophthalamus punctatus (Nganap) Puntius sarana (Nganoi/Ngahou) Acantophthalamus pangia (Nganap) Puntius sophore (Phabounga) Channa orientaties (Meitei ngamu) Tor putitora (Ngara) Botia historionica (Sareng khoibi) Tor tor (Ngara) Bagarius bagarius ( Ngarel) Colia sota (Phetin) Barilius dogarsinghi (Ngawa) Wallago attu (sareng) Crossocheilus burmanicus ( Ngaroi) Puntius ticto ticto (Ngakha) Garra gravelyi (Ngamu sengum) Ompok bimaculatus (Ngaten) Oesteobroma belangeri (Pengba) Oesteobroma cunna (Ngaseksha) Labeo bata (Ngaton)

(words in the brackets express local name)

Encroachments on the lake due to fishing co-operation societies have increased to a great extent recently because fishing is better option for earning higher income. In Moirang alone approximately 50 ha of land inside the lake have reportedly been used for fish farming. Similarly in the IKoppat area, about 100 hectares area have been used for fish farming by10 co-operative societies whereas in the Kakyen farm in Naranseian 30-40 hectares area have reportedly been acquired for fish farming. Hence according to a survey approximately 200 hectares of the Loktak lake has been encroached with a visible consequence of reducing the size of the Lake. Misuse and overuse of chemical fertilizers as well as pesticides, insecticides and weedicides in the cultivated area in the lake have deteriorated the water quality to a great extent. In many areas water has become acidic (pH 6.0-9.5) while in other areas it has become highly alkaline. In many places the content of Chapter: VI 66 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur dissolved carbon dioxide has been found to be very high (1.0-39.ppm) while in many places the oxygen contents are very low (0.4-9.5). Large numbers of people have been suffering from skin diseases, fever and respiratory diseases since 2000.

D : 4.5 : State : i ) Due to the disturbance of the breeding grounds of the local fish species, and since the introduction of the carp species, the local species of fishes are declining gradually. Osteobroma belangeri (Pengba), Channa orientalis (Meitei ngamu), Colisa sota (Phetin) etc. are highly endangered. ii.) Encroachments on the lake due to construction of Phum-shang (huts on floating mats) have reportedly been increased from about 600 in 1998 to 800 by 2003. Draining the faecal matters of such families directly into the lake pollutes the water and thus increases the spread of the waterborne diseases. iii. It is noteworthy that as much as 18 inlake water bodies in Loktak which are known as Patshel belongs to co-operative societies thereby not allowing other people to fish in these areas. Atha – phum (fixing of floating mats ) of 300- 500 sq. meter in area for each phum have been developed in large numbers in these Patshels which block the passage area for the passenger boats. Physical enmity is apprehended among the different groups if control measures are not taken up. iv. Removal of forest trees in the hill slopes of the catchments areas of the lake is very high and about 18 sq. km. of forest area in the district is subjected to jhum cultivation annually. D : 4.6 : Impact : Crops are destroyed and many poor people are made poorer by Ithai Barrage, which is principal instrument for regulation of water level of the Lake. A number of economic plants and animal species have been threatened to extinction. Major impacts are as follows:- 1. Due to the depletion of the plant and fish production people are leading miserable life style. 2. The degradation of water due to reckless use of toxic chemicals, insecticides, pesticides etc. for cultivation and fishing have resulted in the outbreak of dreaded disease like skin diseases, typhoid, dysentery and other un-identified diseases in the district. Animals and cattle have also become victims of epidemics. Chapter: VI 67 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

3. Vast encroachments due to fish-farming in about 20 regions of the lakes have not only decreased the area of the lake but also has polluted the lake. Swallowing of the lake due to such malpractices is enhanced. Siltation is on the rise. 4. Increase n Atha-phum round the year has deteriorated the water quality of the lake. 5. Poaching and burning in Keibul lamjao area disturb the ecological balance in the lake and the lives of Sangai, wild boar and important birds of the lake are increasingly threatened. 6. Degradation in water quality coupled with the killing of wild life has repelled the seasonal visit of the Siberian cranes and other birds in last few years. 7. The higher amount of accumulation silt owing to heavy deforestation is said to be responsible for gradual swallowing of the lake.

D : 4.7 : Responses: Loktak Development authority (LDA):- The Loktak Development Authority was set up by the Govt. of Manipur in 1986 for developing the lake from conservation point of view. The LDA gets financial assistance from the State Government, Ministry of Environment and Forest and Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India. One of the achievements of LDA is the completion of the hydrographic and meteorological survey of the lake and its drainage system, carried out in 1990’s under the sponsorship of the North East Council (NEC). Mention also may be made of the Manipur Loktak Lake (Protection) Acts, 2006. This is a new institutional initiative for restriction on the discriminate utilization of the lake resources. As Loktak Lake became a Ramsar Site in 1990, a joint venture with Wetlands International-South Asia (New Delhi) started working on a 5 year Research Project on Sustainable Development and water Resources Management of the lake. Conservation measures have, now, been initiated. The Environment and Ecology Department, Govt.of Manipur, has taken keen interest in conserving Loktak and other wetlands by making people aware of the ecological degradation occurring in the state under the National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan (NBSAP) and the preliminary study of the biodiversity resources has been completed. Inspite of these initiatives, the health of the Loktak Lake is getting deteriorated.

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D : 4.8 : Public Organisations:

A number of Non-Governmental Organisations in the state came up to undertake ways and means of protecting the rich bio-resources of the lake. Actions have been directed towards conserving Sangai and other important fish and bird species and important economic plants. Measures have been taken up to rectify the deteriorating conditions of water and soil as well as stopping the poaching and misuse of toxic chemicals in the lake. The Manipur Association of Science and Society (MASS), Imphal has taken up awareness programs on protecting and conserving the natural resources of the lake. The mid-winter waterfowl Census in the Loktak has been a regular annual activity of the MASS since 1996. A number of local organizations like Global Science Club, Khoijuman; Enviroment and Sangai Protection Forum, Keibul Lamjao; Loushi Hills cutting Committee, Wabagai; Generation New Image (GENIM), Ningthoukhong etc, are meaningfully involved in various environmental and conservational activities of the wetlands.

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D : 5 : WAITHOU LAKE. The Waithou lake is situated at a distance of 17 km. south of Imphal on the National Highway No. 39. The lake is a fairly old one like the Loktak. The lake is famous for its unique topographic features as well as its fish resources Waithou Lake is oval shaped which is also in the advanced stage of degradation. The lake located at an elevation of 785 meters above MSL has a surface area of 0.992 sq. km during the raining season. The depths in different regions of the lake have become very shallow ranging from 0.75 m to 1.67 m with the shoreline length of 3.48 km. The basin of the lake is saucer shaped and represents a gentle slope while the bottom has a highly silted texture. The volume of the lake measures 0.0012 cu m. The seasonal distribution of the important plant species have changed significantly and as such the occurrence of plant species has decreased. Only 35 higher plant species (Macrophytes) is found distributed in the lake. The lake is largely covered with water hyacinth. The leading economic plants are Euryle ferox (Thanging), Nelumbo nucifern (lotus), Nymphea pubescence (Lilly), Nymphoides indicum (Thariktha), Trapa natans (Heikak). A decrease in the distribution of the plant species is in different areas of the lake in the last 10 years as only 12 plant species are found regularly through out the year. The people inhabiting around the lake has earlier been earning for their livelihood through the sale of Trapa fruits (Heikak) which is used as a substitute food for rice. The business of Euryale ferox (Thangjing) fruits, underground rhizome ( Thambou) and fruit of lotus fruits (Thamchet) etc, is a good source of income of the people. The growth and production of these plants and other economic plants is now reduced. Physico-chemical analyses of water and soil sediments riveal high values of important parameters (pH ranging from 7.8-8.3; dissolved carbondioxide, 10-35 ppm;dissolved oxygen 2.2-7.4 ppm etc.) They reveal that water samples are polluted. Some of the local fish species have vanished from the Lake.

D : 5.1 : Driving Forces : 1. The construction of Chekshabi barrage and ring bund around the lake in 1970s has upset the natural characteristics as well as ecological balance in the lake. Water level is raised due to inundation of water which disturbs the natural habitat of the fishes and plants.

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2. Heavy encroachments have taken place inside the lake due to development of a large number of fish farms of the Fishing co-operative societies. 3. Most of the peripheral and low lying areas in the lake have been used for paddy cultivation; a sign of encroachment.

D : 5.2 : Pressure : Overuse of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, weedicides in the cultivated areas has been noticed. These chemicals drain into the lake and as result the lake water become toxic and polluted. Some important chemicals used are Thionel, Endolan, Rogo etc. Banned chemicals like DDT,BHC, Di-aldrin and Phenyle are also administered in these areas.

D : 5.3 : State : 1. As encroachments due to cultivation and Pisciculture are increased to a great extent, the lake is found shrinking and the depth is gradually decreased. 2. Due to deforestation in the catchment areas of the lake, there is much deposit silts in the bottom of the lake which reduces the fertility in the lake. 3. Misuse and overuse of chemicals in the lake has caused chemical changes. Turbidity increases and water becomes alkaline. As dissolved carbon dioxide become excessively high the growth of plants is decreased a lot. Due to the accumulation of excised plant parts in the water, decomposition of organic matter takes place and as a result the water is excessively rich in organic carbon. This is responsible for the death of the economic plants. There is much depletion in the production of Heikak, Thangjing, Thambou, Thamchet etc.

D : 5.4 : Impact : 1. Due to the increased toxicity in the lake water, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water has decreased significantly and as a result the water become anoxic (absence of oxygen). Lethality is found in the locally available fish species. The rare local species like Channa species (Ngamu) and Porom fishes) and Anabas (Ukabi) have almost disappeared. 2 Waithou was famous for the production of the precious and delicious fish, Labeo bata (Ngaton). Said to be more delicious than Hilsha fish. Due to the

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construction of barrage coupled with high toxicity levels in water, the fish has completely disappeared from the lake after 1970s. 3 People around the lake have started suffering from skin diseases on account of the consumption of the toxic lake water.

D : 5.5 : Responses: Right now some awareness programmes have been undertaken to find out the causes of the shrinking as well as environmental deterioration going on in the lake. But no significant practical actions have come up so far. The activities of the Government and the NGOs are nominal in nature and effect.

D : 6 : UTRAPAT This small eutrophic lake is a very old historic lake. It is situated in Nambol (Bishnupur district), about 20 km due south-wet of Imphal. The existence and sustenance are much threatened due to excessive human interference. The lake located at an altitude of 783 m above MSL has dimension measuring 0.741 km in length and 0.494 km. in breath during the rainy season. The total surface area of the lake during the raining season is 0.366 sq km and the average depth during the rainy season is 2.18m. The different areas in the lake become shallower in the last a few years, ranging from 0.68 to 2.18 m in depth. The shoreline length measures 2.47 km and the volume of the lake is estimated at 0.0052 cu km.

D : 6.1 : Driving Forces : The growth and distribution of plant species have deteriorated significantly due to encroachments and now only 26 macrophytic plant species are found in the lake in different seasons of the year. The dominant plants are Ceratophyllum, Alternanthera, Nymphoides, Nymphaea, Nelumbo and Trapa natans. The growth of the economic plants like Trapa, Nymphoides, Nymphaea and Nelumbo have been much disturbed and as result, their production has decreased significantly. Hardly 10 out of the 26 species are found regularly round the year. The production of Trapa fruits and Euryale ferox fruits have decreased to a great extent. The population of endemic fish in the lake is on the decline.

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D : 6.2 : Pressure : Physico-chemical analyses of water samples from the lake clearly reveal degradation in the water quality due to over exploitation. Besides rise in the temperature and turbidity index of water, the water is found acidic in many areas. The concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide reveals very high values while lower values of dissolved oxygen clearly indicate oxygen deficiency in the water of the lake. These values indicate clearly the highly eutotrophic and deteriorated water quality in the lake. Some of the economic plants like Trapa natans, Nymphoides, Nymphaea and Nelumbo species have become endangered. It is noteworthy that people in the vicinity of the lake have started planting Trapa and Nelumbo in the various areas of the lake. D : 6.3 : State: 1. Increasing encroachments have occurred in the lake in the last 10 years for paddy cultivation. 2. Most areas have been developed into fish farms by a number of fishing cooperative societies. 3. Due to the use of inorganic fertilizers in excess quantities in the paddy fields, acidity has increased and as result water quality has decreased. 4. Overuse of insecticides and pesticides inside the lake is of concern. 5. Pumping water out of the lake takes place two times in a year for fish farming which is responsible for rapid swallowing of the lake. D : 6.4 : Impact: 1. Due to the heavy farming activity in the lake, the lake is shrinking rapidly and by now the lake is almost dry. 2. The growth and production of the economic plants is degraded to a great extent which compels the local people to change their occupations. 3. As water becomes highly toxic, people around the lake have been suffering from a number of skin diseases and gastro-intestinal diseases. 4. As water is deficient in dissolved oxygen content, most of the precious indigenous fish species have vanished from the lake. 5. Due to high siltation rates, the sediments are found to be highly acidic. The organic carbon content increases rapidly which results in the decay and death of the plant species in the lake.

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D : 6.5 : Responses: 1. There are no significant efforts from the general public as well as from the Government for the conservation of this historical lake. 2. So far no measures have been taken to rectify and rejuvenate the highly toxic water. 3. In some areas plantations of Trapa (Heikak) have been initiated by enthusiastic public.

D : 7 : IKOP LAKE: This eutrophic lake is an old lake of historical importance. The lake is situated in Thoubal district, at a distance of about 40 km in the south-eastern direction of Imphal. The lake has been the life line of thousands of people as they depend entirely on fishing occupation. The Ikop Lake is currently under great human pressure due to heavy encroachments by a number of fishing co-operative societies. Ikop Lake located at an altitude of 772 m above MSL is 7.5 m in length and 1.8 m in breadth during the rainy season. The surface area measures 13.5 sq km while the depth in the different areas ranges between 0.93 and 1.59 m. The depth has become much shallower currently. The volume of the lake is estimated as 0.013 cu m .The Lake is physiographically characterized by a saucer shaped basin with gentle slope and a much silted bottom. D : 7.1 : Driving Forces: The growth of plant species has deteriorated for the last a few years due to human interferences and at present only 26 plant species are found growing in different seasons of the year. Important plant species are represented by Alternanthera, Azolla pinnata, Carex cruciata, Trapa natans, Nymphaea etc. The growth of the economic plants has been found much degraded. The endemic species are gradually disappearing. D : 7.2 : Pressures : Physico-chemical analyses of the water samples from the lake reveal highly polluted condition. There occurs rise in the water temperature while the turbidity rate also stands high. The water in many areas is found to be highly acidic (pH-3.6) while in other areas high alkalinity (pH-9.3) has been noticed. Observation of high concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide coupled with lower values of dissolved oxygen in different seasons reveal the deteriorating quality of water. Chapter: VI 74 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

D : 7.3 : State : 1. Almost all the areas in the lake have been converted into piscicultural farms by a number of fishing co-operatives societies. 2. There occur heavy encroachments in the peripheral and low-lying areas of the lake for paddy cultivation. 3. There is heavy use of chemical fertilizers without farm yard manures and compost for paddy fields. 4. Overuse and misuse of banned like DDT, BHC as well as overuse of toxic chemicals like Endolan, Endo-sulfan, Rogo have been seen inside the lake as insecticides and pesticides which degrade the water quality to a great extent.

D : 7.4 : Impact. 1. Cultivation of paddy in the lake which is associated with heavy application of chemicals in the lake, has caused heavy siltation in the lake and as result the lake has become infertile.

2. As growth is upset by the acidity and alkalinity of water, the distribution and growth of important plants have been affected. As the growth and production of Trapa fruit as well as edible rhizomes of lotus and lily have been decreased, the life of these economic plants has been threatened to extinction.

3. As the occupation for the sale of economic plants as well as endemic fish species is highly disturbed, the socio-economic status of the people has gone down.

4. Due to the remarkable changes in the carbondioxide and oxygen contents of water, most of the sensitive endemic fish species like Channa and Esomus species are on the decline and they are threatened to extinction.

5. Almost all of the areas in the lake are covered with over-populations of tall weeds like the reed species which need control measures less the lake will be threatened to extinction.

D : 7.5 : Responses : Some programmes have been taken up, about the various causes and effects of the changes happening in the lake, by the various clubs and NGOs. The institutional initiatives are low.

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D : 8 : POIROUPAT PAT Poiroupat is an aged, eutrophic and historical lake and it is situated in Imphal East at a distance of 15 km from Imphal. The existence and sustenance of this small and precious lake is much threatened due to excessive human encroachment. The lake is located at an altitude of 881 m above the MSL. The surface area of the lake is 0.16 sq km and the average mean depth measures 1.42 m. The lake has become much shallower.

D : 8.1 : Driving Forces : The disturbed and degraded distribution of the plant species in the lake is attributed to encroachments and at present 30 macrophytic species have been recorded during the various seasons of the year. The dominant species are Alternanthera, Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla and Nymphoides species.

D : 8.2 : Pressure : The physico-chemical analyses of water (Table 4) clearly indicate that temperature of water and turbidity index are high which indicate the degraded quality of water. The acidic reaction, high concentration of carbon dioxide, and lower values of dissolved of oxygen also indicates the deterioration in water quality. Exceptionally high values of electrical conductivity and total hardness reveal the highly eutrophic condition of the lake which warn us of the high feasibility of the complete extinction of this lake in the near future. The growth of the economic plants like Euryale ferox, Nelumbo nucifera, Nymphoides indicum is declining and these plants have been endangered. Some of the important fish species are also vanishing from the lake.

D : 8.3 : State : 1. Heavy encroachments for paddy cultivation occur in the lake. About 80% of the total area of the lake has been changed into paddy fields. 2. A number of fish farms have been developed inside the lake. 3. There is overuse of chemicals and toxic insecticides in the lake for paddy cultivation. 4. Heavy siltation and accumulation of organic matter takes placers in the lake due to deforestation in the catchment areas of the lake. 5. There are much biotic disturbances due to grazing by cattle’s. Chapter: VI 76 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

D : 8.4 : Impact: 1. Due to the pollution of water, most of the economic plants in the lake are gradually disappearing. 2. The indigenous fish species have been affected by the degradations in the quality of water, 3. The lake is almost dry in the different seasons except in late summer and rainy season. 4 Due to heavy grazing by cattle, the growth of weed species is increased. 5 The overall conditions of the lake are miserable and the same warrants rapid vanishing of the Lake in the nearest future.

D : 8. 5 : Responses: At present no remedial action has been taken by the government as well as the local clubs and organization to save this lake. Awareness camps to protect the lake from heavy encroachment are required. Action – Plan is required. TABLE:- 54 : MORPHOMETRY OF LAKE MORPHOMETRY LOKTAK LAKE WAITHOU LAKE. UTRAPAT LAKE IKOP LAKE POIROUPAT LAKE

Altitude ( msl) 768 785 783 772 881 Longitude 93 0 45’ – 93 0 55’E 93 o 58’E-24o 41’N 93o 45’ E- 93o55’E 93 o 52’E- 94o05’E 93 o 58’9.82”E Latitude 24 0 25’ – 24 0 40’N 24 o 25’N- 24o40’N 24o 31’ E- 24o40’E 24o 40’6.24”N Maximum length (km) 20.5 1.044 0.741 7.5 0.53 (Rainy seasons) 8.8 0.950 0.494 1.8 0.44 Maximum breadth (km) Surface area (sq. km.) 180.4 0.992 0.366 13.5 -- Maximum depth (m) 5.20 1.67 2.18 1.59 1.92 Minimum depth (m) 0.90 0.75 0.68 0.93 0.790.79 Mean depth (m) 3.05 1.21 1.43 -- 1.42 Mean depth\maximum depth ratio 0.58 0.72 0.66 0.58 0.73

Shoreline (km) 55.8 3.488 2.47 27.5 1.67 Shoreline development 1.172 0.987 1.15 2.12 1.17 Development of volume 1.76 2.17 1.97 1.75 2.22 Basin shape Saucer (U shaped) Saucer shaped Saucer Shaped saucer Saucer Basin shape Gentle slope Gentle sloped Gentle slope Gentle Gentle Bottom texture Silted Silted Silted Silted Silted Annual rainfall ( Cm) 212.89 1305.42 118.24 1476.8 124.25 Maximum temperature ( o c) 21-31 25.15o-33.27 o c 21.64-30.65 24.9-30.6 22.5-39.5 Minimum temperature ( o c) 5.32 – 22.37 2.8o-20.63oc 4.38-22.23 4.3-17.8 2.0-22.0 Volume of lake ( Cu km.) 0.55 0.0012 0.0052 0.013 0.00023 Surface area\volume ratio 328.0 836.6 703.84 1038.5 695.6 Total catchment area (sq.km) 962.0 _ _ _ _

Source : MU life Sc. Dept.

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Table 55 : IMPORTANT CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF WATER SAMPLE OF THE LAKES. Important chemical LOKTAK WAITHOU UTRAPAT IKOP LAKE POIROUPAT LAKE characters of water LAKE LAKE. sample and dominant plants

Temperature 13.0-35.80C 11.0-28.0oc 5.5-30.3 o c 17.1-35.8oc 13.0-27.1 o c Turbidity 28.0-219.5 cm 15.0-45.0cm 36.3-107.9 cm 25.5-79.2 cm 32.5-142.8 cm Total solute content 8.3-59.2 mg/1 --- 40.0-200.0 mg/l 40.0-600.0 mg/l 35.0-240.0 mg/l pH 6.0-9.3 7.4-8.3 6.9-8.9 3.6-9.2 5.0-6.8 Electrical Conductivity ------20.0-120.0 µ/cm 70.0-380.0 µ/cm 60.0-4000.0 µ/cm

Dissolved carbon dioxide 1.0-39.3 ppm 1.0-35.0 ppm 4.3-41.0 ppm 0.2-23.0 ppm 3.0-39.0 ppm Dissolved oxygen 0.4-9.5 ppm 2.2-7.4 ppm 1.2-9.0 ppm 1.1-10.3 ppm 1.0-10.1 ppm Chlorine content ------5.9-28.6 mg/l --- 12.8-75.3 mg/l Total alkalinity ------19.7-55.2 mg/l --- 11.0-147.0 mg/l Total hardness ------8.7-37.9 mg/l --- 30.0-974 of mg/l Source : MU life Sc. Dept.

Table 56 : DOMINANT PLANTS OF THE LAKES

LOKTAK WAITHOU UTRAPAT LAKE IKOP LAKE POIROUPAT LAKE LAKE. Ceratophyllus Azolla pinnata Alternanthera Dominant plant Alternanthera demersum Eichhornia Azolla pinnata species: Azolla pinnata Eichhornia crassipes Carex cruciata Alternanthera Carex cruciata crassipes Salvinia Ceratophyllum philoxeroides Ceratophyllum demersum Hydrillla natans Euryale ferox Azolla pinnata Echninochloa verticillata Ultricularia Nelumbo Carex cruciata Eichhornia Nymphoides Euryale ferox nucifera Ceratophyllum Cyperus difformis cristatum Nelumbo Nympaea demersum Euryale ferox Savinia nucifera stellata Echinochloa Hydrilla verticillata cucullata Nymphaea Nymphoides colonum Savinia natans nouchali cristatum Eichhornia Trapa natans Nympaea Nymphoides Nympaea Utricularia pubescence indicum stellata species Nymphoides Oryza minuta Nymphoides Valllissnaria indicum cristatum Oryza rufipegon Trapa natans Nymphoides (Wainu chara) indicum Spiranthus Zizania latifolia sinesis Nelumbo nucifera

Chapter: VI 78 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

D : 9: Water quality of a few River ( 1997 ) : Reference may also be made to a meaningful finding of the Physio-chemical Analysis of surface water in four major rivers of the central valley ( Imphal district, Thoubal district and Bishnupur district )conducted by the Manipur Pollution Control Board in 1997. The findings reveal high dilution factor as seen in the following table. The total surface water resource of Manipur has been estimated to be 1.85 million hectare meter per annum. This includes contributions from all the lotic ( running water ) and lentic ( standing water ) water bodies. The ground water in Manipur Valley occurs in both confined and unconfined conditions. The water table rests between 1-3 meters below land surface except in the northern part of the foot hills where it is around 4-5 meters below ground level. Some of the artesian wells located below 50 m in the valley have shown a poor yield between 300 to 400 litres per hour. The flow rate decreases during winter. The people of Manipur depend on both lotic and lentic water bodies. 37.20 percent of households depends on tanks/ponds for drinking purposes ( 1995-1996). Only 24. 80 percent depend on tap-water whereas other-unclassified-sources remain fairly high. 22.60 percent of the households depend on “Other-sources”. Table : 57 (a) : Households by Major Source of Drinking water ( 1995-96) – combined, Manipur. Source Percentage of households Tap 24.80 Tube well/ Hand Pump 4.20 Tanker 0.80 Pucca well 3.10 Tank/Pond ( Reserved) 37.20 River/canal 6.30 Others 22.60 Source : National Human Development Report, 2001 The available data show that the water quality of Nambul river has more organic and biological load compared with Imphal and Iril rivers. The load comes mainly from domestic wastes, dumping filth and debris from the city areas; - thereby increasing the acidity and bio-chemical oxygen demand. All the rivers under study show their physico-chemical characteristic within standard of permissible limit. However, the recent disturbing trend of commercial expansion speaks of the shouldering danger of huge accumulation of solid wastes. The following tables

Chapter: VI 79 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur indicate the physico-chemical characteristics of a few rivers and community ponds in Manipur. Table : 57 (b): Report on Physio-Chemical Analysis of surface water samples : Sl. Spot Parameter No. Name of River pH DO( mg/l) BDO ( mg/l) Conductivity ( µohms/cm) 1. Nilakuthi Imphal 8.00 8.40 2.40 100 2. Koirengei Do 7.00 2.40 10.30 320

3. Langjing Langjing-I 7.40 8.40 3.60 140 4. do Langjing - II 7.20 7.70 4.30 110

5. Manipur College Nambul 7.50 5.60 9.32 130

6. Lamsang Lamsang 8.00 5.88 6.08 280

7. Pangei Pangei 7.40 7.70 5.20 130

8. Lilong Lilong 7.60 7.30 6.88 130

9. Yairipok Yairipok 7.60 7.70 5.01 170

10. Bishnupur Posangbam 7.60 6.80 8.11 100

11. Moirang Stream 7.20 7.50 5.68 70

12. Do Posangbam 7.30 6.80 8.11 100

13. Do Ningthoukhong 7.70 6.80 8.50 800

14. Manipur MU - I 7.60 7.30 4.80 360 University 15. Do MU-II 7.70 7.90 5.20 100

16. Kakching Kakching 7.10 7.50 7.72 189

17. Sugunu Sugunu 7.00 5.70 8.90 190

18. Kumbi Khuga 7.00 7.70 3.26 190

19. Andro Andro 7.00 8.30 4.04 130

20 Mayang Imphal Stream 6.90 7.10 3.66 250

21 Swombung Iril 7.10 7.30 2.44 270

22 Jiribam Jiri 7.60 7.80 4.20 200

Source : Manipur Pollution Control Board

Chapter: VI 80 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 57 ( c) : Physico- characteristics of some selected community ponds Characteristics Sampling sites P1 P2 P3 P4 pH 6.5 7.5 8.5 7.0 Dissolve oxygen 5.6 8.9 8.2 8.8 Biological oxygen 9.4 8.8 8.2 8.2 demand Chemical oxygen 31.8 12.66 25.33 14.13 demand Total hardness 400 146 82 112 Nitrate 0.43 3.45 0.77 2.90 Calcium 25.65 12.02 16.83 21.64 Chloride 44.02 44.02 51.12 66.74 Magnesium 31.8 25.33 12.66 14.13 Phosphate 0.38 0.25 0.50 0.49 Sulphate 0.75 0.20 0.11 0.08 Source : Environment Deptt. GoM i. All the characteristic are expressed in ppm except the pH ii. P1= Langthabal Community pond, Imphal ( Drinking & domestic use ) iii. P2 = Khurai Heikru Makhong Community pond ( Drinking & domestic use ) iv. P3 = Ningthem pukhri Community pond, Imphal ( Drinking & domestic use ) v. P4 = Thangmeiband Community pond, D.M. College gate, Imphal ( Drinking & domestic use )

Table :57 (d) : Underground Water Quality of Imphal-west district, Manipur Total Sl. Conductivity Calcium Chloride Hardness Iron Potassium Sodium Location District pH Alkalinity No. m S/Cm mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l 1 Manahingol Imphal 6.6 285.12 155 6.00 8.78 60.00 5.10 2.00 41.00 West 2 Yaingangpokpi -do- 6.2 836.00 385 20.84 35.2 224.00 0.55 7.00 61.00 3 Champhai -do- 6.6 315.90 240 21.64 21.3 150.00 0.10 2.00 34.00 4 Nungoi Mayai -do- 6.7 585.00 350 29.66 32.6 270.00 0.40 5.00 46.00 Leikai 5 Koirengei -do- 6.8 376.2 175 15.23 11.36 74 0.2 2 39 6 Nilakuthi -do- 6.7 274.54 155 6.41 17.04 54 4.3 1 41 7 Keikol -do- 6.8 268.9 130 6.41 9.94 62 5.0 1 29 8 Potsangbam -do- 6.6 291.5 175 9.62 9.94 78 3.2 3 36 9 Khurkhul -do- 6.6 232.2 155 10.42 11.36 104 5.5 7 12 10 Phayeng -do- 6.2 485 230 16.83 17.04 96 2.9 4 54 11 Irom Meijrao Imphal 6.8 790.9 485 41.68 21.3 222 3.2 4 99.5 East 12 Hitangthang -do- 7.2 1027.14 350 20.84 65.32 150 2.0 4 100.5 13 Konthousam -do- 7.2 1027.14 620 30.46 24.14 290 2.0 2 106.5 14 Keithelmanbi -do- 5.2 394.2 215 15.23 50.88 122 1.8 4.5 48 Bazar 15 Leimaram -do- 6.5 175.5 180 12.02 1.42 48 2.2 1.5 43 16 Angtha -do- 7.1 530.4 315 36.87 19.88 200 2.0 1.5 29.5 17 Andro -do- 6.8 329.4 190 15.23 15.62 116 1.5 1 23 Source : Environment & Ecology Wing, Govt. of Manipur

Chapter: VI 81 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 57 (e) : Water Quality Report on some Lakes of Manipur (as on March 2005)

Parameters Loktak Ikop pat Waithou Pat Angoubikhong Pat Kharungpat Pumlen Pat Lamphel Lake Pat

pH 6.80 8.0 8.32 7.22 6.9 6.82 7.1

Biochemical 3.45 4.26 4.26 5.18 3.46 3.82 5.48 Oxygen Demand (BOD) mg/l Chemical Oxygen 18.73 16.45 12.00 16.40 12.98 9.62 15.40 Demand COD) mg/l Nitrogen mg/l 2.21 3.47 2.80 3.64 2.86 1.86 1.68

Phosphorus mg/l 1.17 1.62 1.40 1.60 1.46 1.08 1.62

Potassium mg/l 7 12 11 13 8 10 5

Total Coliform per 570 350 150 203 240 220 140 100 ml Feacal Coliform 370 210 80 100 190 170 90 oer 100 ml

Table :57 (f): Water Quality Report on some major ponds of Manipur (as on March 2005)

Parameters Kangla Pat Bijoy Govind Wangkhei Thanga Pat Ningthem Pukhri pH 7.70 6.92 7.6 7.8 Total Dissolved Solids mg/l 100 130 340 98 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) mg/l 3.96 3.35 3.65 2.76

Chemical Oxygen Demand COD) mg/l 10.92 11.46 9.87 7.21

Nitrogen mg/l 0.90 1.81 1.56 0.86 Phosphorus mg/l 0.98 1.26 1.41 0.87 Potassium mg/l 4 6 6 3 Total Coliform per 100 ml 470 620 3.40 120 Feacal Coliform oer 100 ml 260 280 210 58

Chapter: VI 82 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Loktak Lake

Phum hut in Loktak Lake Migratory birds

Fishing Utra pat

Chapter: VI 83 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Zailad Lake Khoudong ( Barak Water fall)

Sidu Chiru water fall Imphal river

Sangai

Chapter: VI 84 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: V AIR

E : AIR :

Manipur is least industrialized. A few small and village industries are struggling for survival. There is hardly, perhaps, any major threat of industrial pollution in the state. The main source of air pollution has been identified as auto exhaust emissions of the fast growing number of automobiles, dust-fall due to bad road management and other miscellaneous commercial earthmoving activities. The slash and burning of fresh forest during February- March every year for preparation of the field for agricultural crop under Jhum practices adds huge mounts of fumes and particulates into the atmosphere. There is an increasing trend in vehicle number in Manipur. Two wheelers are by far dominant type in Manipur. Most of the vehicular population is found in urban areas. The number of vehicles registered as on 31-03-2003 was 97,346 out of which 68975 was two-wheelers. The number of registered vehicles increases from 56,786 (in 1994 ) to 97,346 ( in 2003). That is, during the last decade the number of registered vehicles has increased to almost double. The number of motor vehicles registered in the state as on 31-03-2003 shows that there is an increase of 7.48 % over that of previous year. The level of growth in private modes of transport in comparison with public transport is a significant contributory factor for urban air pollution. Although two wheelers are generally more fuel efficient than passenger cars they typically emit more pollutants per kilometer thereby contributing more to the particulate carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxide emissions.

E : 1:1 : Vehicular emission: There is sudden increase in the number of vehicles in the town area during the last one decade producing a lot of smoke. The use of a large number of second-hand diesel jeeps as transport is another cause of concern. In addition to this, the ambient air is further polluted by the dust from the poorly maintained road and smoke emitted from the burning solid-waste here and there.

Chapter: V 85 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table :58 Number of Vehicles Registered as on 31.3.2004

Imphal Imphal Churchandpur Kangpokpi Thoubal Bishenpur Total West East Truck 5374 105 421 424 499 334 7,157

Bus 1460 1 56 60 83 83 1743

M. Bus 527 21 36 11 51 11 657

Jeep 6787 89 56 224 519 183 7858

Car 7059 364 36 138 270 152 8019

Taxi 340 6 2 7 4 2 361

Tempo 35 x 1 1 - - 37

Tractor 646 10 3 148 323 43 1173

Auto-R 1842 33 372 - 60 109 2416

2- 62430 2800 2468 1592 4617 1156 75063 Wheeler Trailers 381 - 54 53 76 16 580

Others 209 - - - 2 - 211

Total 87090 3429 3505 2658 6,504 2,089 1,05,275 ( Source : Dept. of Transport, Govt. of Manipur )

Increasing number of Vehicle Regd. in Manipur

120000

105275

100000 96346

80000 76881

61511 60000 51151

40000 29760

20000

0 1 1988 1992 1996 2000 2003 2004 Source : Directorate of Transport, Manipur

Chapter: V 86 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

C onsumption of Major Petroleum Products in Manipur (1996-2000) 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99* 1999-2000* LPG=Liquefied Petroleum Gas. 40 SKO=Superior Kerosene Oil. 2000-01* HSDO : High Speed Diesel Oil.

10 Consumption

0 LPG SKO HSDO

Source : Indian Petroleum & Natural Gas Statistics, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Govt. of India.

E : 1.2 : Indoor air quality : The rural and hill areas experience this problem of indoor air pollution more. Majority of the population use the traditional pattern of housing where there are less number of doors and windows contributing to ill ventilation wood (particularly the pines) is the main source of fuel for cooking, heating etc. producing a lot of smoke inside the house. This produces varieties of lung diseases. 85.50 of the households are using fuel wood for cooking in Manipur ( Compendium of Environment statistic, 1998, New Delhi )

Table: 59 : Percentage of households using different fuels for cooking in Manipur and All India, 1991. Item Manipur All India Cowdung 0.28 15.39 Electricity 0.18 0.31 Coal/Coke/Lignite 0.08 3.47 Charcoal 0.44 0.77 L.P.G. 6.66 7.94 Fuel Wood 85.50 61.50 Bio-gas 0.39 0.49 Kerosens 3.26 7.16 Source : Compendium of Environment Statistics, 1998, New Delhi.

Chapter: V 87 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

E : 1.3 : Industrial : Industrialization implies the creation and growth of factories, mills, power plants and soon. It refers to the development of manufacturing and other related activities. There has been an increase in the industrial activity in the state with the growing number of small factories. By the end of March 2003, the number of registered permanent small-scale industries both SIDO (Small Industries Development Organization) and NON SIDO stood at 9852 with an investment of Rs. 37.73 crores in plants and machineries and giving employment to 51,122 persons where annual production was estimated to be Rs. 168.84 crores. The growth of small scale industries over the years in shown in the following Table.

Table : 60 : : Growth of Registered Permanent (PMT) Industrial units, employment, investment and production (as on 31st March).

Year No. of No. of Average no. Investment Average Producti Average per Unit Units Employm of (Rs. in investment per on (Rs. production (Rs. in ent Employment crore) unit (Rs. in in crore) lakh) per unit thousand) 1987-88 3,996 19,900 5.0 12.30 30.78 67.26 1.68 1988-89 5,417 27,000 5.0 16.31 30.11 80.26 1.48 1989-90 6,319 31,500 5.0 19.20 30.38 89.11 1.41 1990-91 6,788 33,390 5.0 20.70 30.49 94.81 1.40 1991-92 7,392 36,910 4.9 22.63 30.61 101.45 1.37 1992-93 7,696 38,400 5.0 23.61 30.68 106.90 1.39 1993-94 8,096 39,680 4.9 24.74 30.56 116.70 1.44 1994-95 8,341 42,613 5.1 26.41 31.66 123.16 1.48 1995-96 8,612 43,842 5.1 28.23 32.78 127.05 1.48 1996-97 8,910 45,460 5.1 29.51 33.12 133.90 1.50 1997-98 9,088 46,464 5.1 30.72 33.80 139.39 1.53 1998-99 9,240 47,388 5.1 31.53 34.12 143.33 1.55 1999- 9,415 48,514 5.2 33.19 35.25 150.69 1.60 2000 2000- 9,635 49,792 5.2 35.08 36.41 157.70 1.64 2001 2001- 9,744 50,374 5.2 36.10 37.05 162.34 1.67 2002 2002- 9,852 51,122 5.2 37.73 38.30 168.84 1.71 2003 Source : Directorate of Commerce & Industries, Manipur

Chapter: V 88 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Reference may be made to the quality of air revealed in the Air quality map of the Valley prepared by the Manipur pollution Control Board based on 22 stations. The parameters adopted were suspended particulate matter ( SPM ), Oxides of

Nitrogen ( NO2 ) and Sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ). At each station monitoring was made for an average of eight hours.

Table : 61 : Ambient Air Quality in the Valley Districts ; 1997

Sl. Location SO2 (µg/m3 ) NO2 (µg/m3 ) SPM(µg/m3 ) No. 1 Nilakuthi 10.00 2.04 100 2 Koirengei 13.30 7.08 128 3 Nagamapal 18.80 5.06 138 4 Keisamthong 18.90 5.01 128 5 Langing 10.80 3.10 100 6 MU 18.70 3.20 100 7 Manipur College 18.60 3.10 128 8 Lamsang 10.50 3.00 100 9 Kwakeithel 18.70 5.03 158 10 Lamlong 10.30 6.08 180 11 Pangei 10.40 3.08 150 12 Thoubal 10.50 2.00 110 13 Yairipok 10.60 3.08 120 14 Bisnupur 10.70 2.00 110 15 Kakching 28.00 6.61 160 16 Sugunu 20.47 6.83 145 17 Kumbi 28.75 6.83 150 18 Singda 25.70 5.70 100 19 Andro 20.00 5.21 100 20 Mayang imphal 23.02 5.66 151 21 Swombung 28.75 6.50 145 22 Jiribam 30.80 8.02 200 Source : MPCB

Table : 61 (b) :Ambient Air Quality Report (August 2005)

Parameter Unit CM’s Gate, Civil Secretariat Road, Imphal City Standard as per MoEF, GoI* Sample - 1 Sample - 2 Sample - 3 Sample - 4 Suspended m gm/m3 741.72 872.39 769.44 813.92 200 particulate Matter (SPM)

Respirable m gm/m3 125.31 221.35 161.11 216.55 100 Particulate Matter (RPM)

The air quality in all the three Valley Districts of Manipur is within the permissible limits. There are no major highly air polluting Industries in the area.

Chapter: V 89 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

The use of boilers and the existing brick kilns of seasonal operation produce emission of local influence only. The air quality in the Valley is not considered bad. However, there is urgent need for putting a check on the rising and indiscriminate establishment of small industrial units within thickly populated areas and also a check on the rising trend of use of second-hand vehicles in the state.

E : 2 : Noise levels : Noise levels measured during peak traffic hours at certain specific points in Imphal city are given below : Table : 62 Sl.No. Location Noise Level Measured on 1. Khwairamband Bazar 67 dB (A) 02.11.2002 2. Keisampat Junction 63 dB (A) -do- 3. Uripok Junction 67 dB (A) 03.11.2002 November, 2002 4. RIMS Gate 67 dB (A) 04.11.2002 5. Johnstone Hr. Sec. School 89 dB (A) -do- Gate

1. Keishampat Junction 83 dB (A) 25.10.2003 2. Sagolband Traffic Point 74 dB (A) -do- 3. Singjamei Traffic Point 71 dB (A) 25.11.2003 Oct., Nov., 2003 4. Paona Bazar 70 dB (A) -do- 5. B.T. Road 73 dB (A) -do- 6. Thangal Bazar 80 dB (A) -do- (Courtesy : MPCB)

Per-Capita Sales/Consumption of Petroleum Products in M anipur (in Kgs)

50 45 44.4 40 41.4 40.9 35 38.6 35.6 36.5 36.7 30 32.6 32.6 31 25 20 15 10 5 0 1991 -92 1992 -93 1993 -94 1994 -95 1995 -96 1996 -97 1997 -98 1998 -99 1999 -00 2000 -01

Source : Indian Petroleum & Natural Gas Statistics, 2000-01, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Govt. of India & Past Volume Chapter: V 90 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Different Vehicle Regd. in Manipur ( 1973 to 2004 )

80000

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0 31/3/73 31/3/74 31/3/76 31/3/80 31/3/84 31/3/88 31/3/92 31/3/96 31/3/2000 31/3/2001 31/3/2002 31/3/2003 31/3/2004 Truck 824 842 1138 1548 2226 3255 4234 4939 5947 6203 6422 6829 7157 Bus 260 262 272 322 421 648 882 1105 1461 1562 1641 1746 1743 Jeep 961 980 1261 1561 2043 2856 3863 4500 6185 6746 7132 7474 7858 Cars 248 263 415 523 641 1011 2763 3271 4870 5848 6574 7010 8019 Taxis 0 10 15 0 0 0 274 302 316 323 356 357 361 Auto Rickshaws 0 77 105 136 212 527 1601 1853 2226 2315 2352 2358 2416 2- Wheelers 429 439 971 2167 6078 20409 35266 41495 53695 58328 63189 68975 75063 Others 199 212 241 571 772 1054 2268 4046 2181 2275 2425 1597 2658

Truck Bus Jeep Cars Taxis Auto Rickshaws 2- Wheelers Others

Source : Directorate of Transport, Manipur

Number of Road Accidents in Manipur (1994-2000)

600

500 495 506 400 411 377 399 397 300 352

200

100

AccidentsNumbers) (in 0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Motor Transport Statistics of India 1999-2000,Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India & Past Volume.

Chapter: V 91 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: VI Solid Waste

F : Municipal Solid Waste : As per the information given by Imphal Municipal Council the average output of waste is around 100-120 tones per day in Imphal only. The facilities for effective collection and disposal of waste are very much inadequate in all towns resulting in a high proportion remaining uncollected. There is no specific landfill site for disposal. As a result the waste is dumped at unspecified places in unscientific manner. Till date Manipur has not officially declared dumping ground.

F: 2 : Source & characterization Solid waste : Imphal : Area of Imphal District ( East + West ) : 1,228 Sq. Km. Area of Greater Imphal : 104.54 Sq. Km. Area of Municipal limit : 34.48 Sq. Km. Year 1981 1991 2001 Population Imphal city 1,56,622 1,99,329 2,17,325 Greater Imphal 2,93,334 3,69,605 4,22,514 Decadal Growth Imphal city 28.69% 27.27% 9.03% Rate Greater Imphal - 26.00 % 14.32%

F : 2.1 : Characterisation of Waste ( Imphal ) Components Percentage Organic Waste : 60 Paper : 10 Plastic : 05 Glass : 02 Lather : 01 Textile : 05 Rubber : 01 Wood : 05 Porcelain/Stone/Clay : 03 Metals : 01 Fine Fraction ( < 10 mm ) : 07

Chapter: VI 92 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

F : 2.2 : Source of Solid waste ( Imphal ): Greater Imphal Imphal Municipality area. Number of vegetable and fruit : 15 Markets :

Quantity of wastes generated 45-50 MT per day No. of meat and fish markets : One fish Market One fish Market No classification meat No classify meat Market but about Market but about 130- 20-25 butcher Houses 150 butcher Houses

Number of Hospitals, Nursing : 16 nos. 14 Nos. homes, Clinics, etc

Total number of beds : 1454 1372 Quantity of Bio-medical : 350-587 Kg/day 322-547 Kg/day waste generated

Number of Hotel and : 144 Restaurants ( No five and three star category of Hotel )

Total quantity of waste : 80-100 MT per / day 45-60 MT per/day generated from all sources

Main Tourist Spots : 27 Nos. 25 Nos.

Road less than 20 feet wide : 42 Km ( including 26 Km. ( including connected & connected & linked linked paths) paths) Number of incineration plant : One unit at the campus of Regional for Bio-medical Waste. Institute of Medical Science.( Capacity : 80 Kg. per hour )

Quantity of waste generated in Imphal : Maximum Quantity Per day : 100 MT ( Approximately ) Minimum Quantity per day : 85 MT ( Approximately ) Source : Environment & Ecology office, Govt. of Manipur

Chapter: VI 93 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

TABLE: 63 : DISTRICTWISE POPULATION & SOLID WASTES QUANTITY GENERATED (MARCH 2004)

Total Population as per Total Solid Wastes Generated in MT# # Sl. Name of District & City / Category / census Area in No. Villages / Towns status Sq. Km. 1991 2001 1991 2001

I. Thoubal District Valley 514 293,958 366,341 130 - 175 150 - 180 01. Heirok NAC, NP 1,932 2,445 0.80 – 0.90 1.00-1.20 02. Kakching M, MCI 24,437 28,746 10 - 12 12 - 14 03. Kakching Khunou NAC, NP 8,234 9,314 3 . 70 4 . 20 04. Lilong (Thoubal) NAC, NP 13,822 18,710 6 . 20 8 . 40 05. Samurou NAC, NP 4,101 5,049 1 . 85 2 . 30 06. Sikhong Sekmai NAC, NP 5,339 6,117 2 . 40 2 . 75 07. Sugnu NAC, NP 4,058 4,507 1 . 80 2 . 00 08. Thoubal M, MCI 33,011 41,149 15 . 00 18 . 50 09. Wangjing NAC, NP 5,609 6,970 2 . 50 3 . 10 10. Yairipok NAC, NP 6,911 8,263 3 . 10 3 . 80 II. Bishnupur District Valley 496 180,773 205,907 01. Oinam NP 6,275 2 . 82 02. Nambol (Pt.) M, MCI 14,254 6 . 40 03. Bishnupur MCI 9,704 4 . 36 04. Ningthoukhong NP 10,446 4 . 70 05. Moirang MCI 16,684 7 . 50 06. Kwakta NP 7,958 3 . 58 07. Kumbi NP 7,947 3 . 57 II. Ukhrul District Hill 4,544 109,275 140,946 49 . 20 63 . 40 01. Chingai TD / SD 18,536 25,121 8 . 34 11 . 30 02. Ukhrul TD / SD 61,444 79,125 27 . 65 35 . 60 03. Phungyar Phaisat TD / SD 10,830 13,280 4 . 90 6 . 00 04. Kamjong TD / SD 12,124 12,994 5 . 45 5 . 85 05. Kasom Khullen TD/ SD 6,341 10,426 2 . 85 4 . 70 III. Chandel District Hill 3,313 71,014 122,714 31 . 95 55 . 22 01. Machi TD / SD 17,076 7 . 68 02. Tengnoupal TD / SD 30,888 32,513 14 . 63 03. Chandel TD / SD 18,544 26,127 11 . 75 04. Chakpikarong TD / SD 21,582 46,998 21 . 15 05. Moreh NAC/STC 9,673 14,960 6 . 73

# : Provisional Population # # : Estimated for per capita waste Quantity @ 0.45 kg / capita / day (Ref : for a residential refuse of 0.3 – 0.6 kg / cap / day, i.e. population at a range of 0.1 – 0.5 million peoples, page 48 Table 3.6 & Section 3.3.6.2 of Manual on Municipal Solid Wastes Management (1st Edn.), the Expert Committee, CPHEEO, Govt. of India)

Note : CD = Community Development, TD= Tribal Development Block, SD = Sub division Block, NP = Nagar Panchayat, MCI = Municipal Council, M= Municipal , CT = Census Town UA = Urban agglomeration, STC = Small Town Committee, NAC = Notified Area Committee ( Source : Ibid)

Chapter: VI 94 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Solid waste cleaning drive taken by Environment & Ecology office

Status of open dumping site of solid waste (Lamphel)

Chapter: VI 95 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: VII Health

G. Health Institutions in Manipur The list of the Institutions under State Health Department with bed strength is as given below : Sl. Name of Institute Number of Institutions No. of Beds Remarks No Total Hill Valley Total Hill Valley 1 State Hospital 1 - 1 200 - 200 JN Hospital 2 District Hospital 7 5 2 355 255 100 3 T.B Hospital 1 1 100 - 100 4 Leprosy Hospital 3 - 3 70 70 Including temporary hospitalization ward

5 Maternity & Children Hospital 1 - 1 40 - 40

6 CHC 16 6 10 314 150 160 7 PHC 72 36 36 370 238 132 8 PHSC 420 222 198 - - - 9 Medical Dispensary 20 13 7 - - - 10 Homeo Dispensary 8 5 3 - - - 11 Nature Cure Clinic 1 - 1 - - - 12 Drug Addiction Centre 7+2 4+2 3 NA NA NA Only 7 are functioning 13 District TB Centre 6 5 1 14 Mini District TB Centre 2 - 2

15 STD Clinic 6 5 1 16 Leprosy Control Unit 4 3 1

TOTAL 575 304 271 1449 643 802

The state has a number of private hospitals and nursing homes registered under govt. of Manipur.

There are no incinerators in the state except one at Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, at Lamphel area, which is an autonomous institution under the North Eastern Council, Shillong. The Govt. Hospitals, Health Centres and Private nursing homes and Clinics dispose of the waste in their own ways according to their convenience. There is no proper system of disposal of solid waste in the Municipal Areas, areas under Small Towns and other public places. The said areas are experiencing increasing nuisance of rodents, helminthes etc leading to unhygienic exposure of

Chapter: VII 96 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur raw and prepared food and food items in the marketing centres. producing nuisance of this, rodents, helminthes etc. leading to unhygienic sell of both raw and prepared foods in the vendors, hotels etc. There are two big Govt. Hospitals and a number of private nursing homes/clinics are also coming up producing increasing amount of waste. However there is no regular system of disposal of bio-medical waste which threatens the health of the people.

12 Annual Death Rate in India & Manipur (per thousand) 1996 1997 1998 1999 10 2000

0 Rural(India) Rural(Manipur) Urban(India) Urban(Manipur)

Source : Sample Registration System (SRS) Bulletin, Volume 35, No. 1,April 2001, Registrar General, India.

State-wise PerCapita Expenditure on Health in Manipur & India Manipur 250 India

200 202.81 189.19 188.73 150 162.81

133.73 100

65.98 69.85

Expenditure (in Rupees) 50 60.61 47.82 54.57

0 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90

Source : Health Information of India, 1995-96, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India

Chapter: VII 97 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

G: 2 : Health Status of Manipur :

Health department is rendering health care services to the people of Manipur specially who reside at rural and hill areas. The Health system of the State is based upon the Primary Health Care approach with the objective of attainment of "Health for All" and "All for Health".

The basic health care is provided at Primary Health Care Units and the population coverage by these units as on 2001 based on the census 2001 is as given below:

Sl,No Health Institutions Population (Hill) Population (Valley) 1 PHSC 4,428 5,799 2 PHC 27,308 31,896 3 CHC 1,63,845 1,14,822

The state has also 13 hospitals including 7 District Hospitals and 1 state level hospital ie J.N Hospital as referral centre. Secondary health are are provided at these hospital.

The health status of the state may be gauged by the health indicators given below :

Sl.No. Demographic Indicator/thousand Manipur State All India Average population 1 Crude birth rate 18.3 (SRS 2001) 25.8(SRS 2001) 2 Crude death rate 5.4(SRS 2001) 8.5(SRS 2001) 3 Infant mortality death rate 23(SRS 2001) 68(SRS 2001) 4 Leprosy prevalence 0.59 5 Malaria prevalence 0.39

The state has altogether 539 Primary Health Care Institutions, 13 hospitals including one state level hospital (JN Hospital) as referral centre and 7 District Hospitals. Other 9 Drug de-addiction centres, TB Centers at 6 districts, 4 Leprosy Control Unit and 6 STD Clinics are functioning in the State. With this, state has achieved almost the National Norm for establishment of Health Institutions. Although department has been able to establish the required number of health institutions, wide infrastructure gaps still exist in the area of building equipments and manpower. The emphasis is now on the optimal functioning of the already

Chapter: VII 98 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur established institutions by providing the necessary infrastructures. Performance of services at hospitals and other Institutions during 2001-02 are as follows:

Sl.No Item J.N Hosp. Churachandpur Other Total District Hosp Institutions State 1 OPD Cases 129904 73765 834738 1038407 2 Inpatient cases 10418 4235 16571 31224 3 Deliveries 3517 1261 3703 8481 4 Major Operation conducted 1908 942 79 2929 5 Minor operation conducted 1931 615 11193 13739 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2) conducted by International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India; ORC Macro, Calverton, Maryland, USA and the East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA in 1998-99

G: 3 : HEALTH IMPACT : G : 3.1 : Due to water quality & quantity : The risks of microbiological Infant Mortality rate in India & Manipur 1996 contamination of water are widely 1997 90 known. They are mostly the 80 1998 gastro-intestinal diseases like, 70 1999 60 2000 diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A 50 40 infection, Poliomyelitis, enteric 30 20 fever, etc. Malaria and Japanese 10 encephalitis are also an indirect 0 Rural(India) Rural(Manipur) Urban(India) Urban(Manipur) result of surface water Source : Sample Registration System (SRS) Bulletin, Volume 35, management. The effect of No. 1,April 2001, Registrar General, India.

chemical contamination of water is not yet proved.

N u m b e r o f M a la ria In c id e n c e in M a n ip u r (1996-2000)

3000 2662 2500 2151

2000 1742

1500 1306 1064 1000 Numbers)

Incidence (In 500

0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Source: Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No 1521 Dated 01/08/2001

Chapter: VII 99 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

G: 3.2 : Indoor and outdoor air pollution : The effects of the air pollution on health are mainly in the form of acute respiratory infection, chromic obstructive lung diseases, asthma, cancer of the respiratory tract, cardiovascular diseases etc.

G : 3.3 : Municipal Waste & Biomedical Waste : Although specific evidence of health effect is yet to be established, the multiplication of insects in dumped waste and foul smell in the air during rainy season is observed. Even in the dry season the heaps of solid waste and foul smell are experience.

G : 4 : Response : The state has no State Health Policy. Medical Directorate has a Food Testing Laboratory for prevention of food adulteration. This does not function independently. It has to depend on outside laboratory experts. The infrastructures like equipment and qualified personnel are not in position. Its proper functioning is call for because of the trend of adulteration in a variety of edibles in the market. The Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India introduced “The Biomedical Waste (Management & handling) Rules 1998”. However the state has yet to implement it. The Pollution Control Board, Manipur remains fairly weak.

A few Voluntary Health Associations are working for the improvement of health but their contribution is not widely felt. (The Indian Red Cross Society, Indian Medical Association, Voluntary Health Association of Manipur etc.)

Chapter: VII 100 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Meeting of Resource team with DC, Bishnupur and District level officers regarding the health status of district

Hon’ble Chief Minister & Minister (Environment), Manipur inspecting while cleaning the Nambul River

Chapter: VII 101 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: VIII BIODIVERSITY

H : Biodiversity of Manipur. H : 1.1 : Plant biodiversity The first botanical exploration in Manipur was made by G. Watt, who was deputed as a Botanist member of Boundary Commission of 1881-2 set up by British Government, since then the flora of this state attracted the attention of many western explorers like Clarke, Kaith, Kingdon ward etc. from time to time. The noteworthy publication or the floristic account of Manipur state is by D.B. Deb, 1961. (1575 dicots + 438 monocots) followed by Mukherjee, Jain & Shukla, Rao & Verma etc. But non of these studies have given a comprehensive detailed account of the state flora and only checklist of plants of Manipur have been provided until the publication of “Flora of Manipur”, Volume-I, Ranunculaceae-Asteraceae, by the B.S.I., 2000. Now, the state harbours over 3,000 species of higher plants and contribute important source of germplasm. The Manipur state also harbours a good number of primitive flowering plants. As many as 41 primitive flowering plants under 11 families and 75 species of endemic plants have been listed so far. Moreover many taxa in Manipur are facing threat of survival in their natural habitats; probably few of them have already been exterminated. Some of the taxa facing threat of survival are given below: Table : 64 : Some of the Taxa facing threat of survival : Sl.No. Scientific name Family 1. Acer laevigatum Aceraceae 2. Aconitum elcoesii Ranunculaceae 3. Aconitum magarum Ranunculaceae 4. Alangium sp. Alangiaceae 5. Anneslea fragrans Theaceae 6. Anoectochilus Tetraplerus Orchidaceae 7. Aquilaria malaccensis Thymelaceae 8. Aldrovenda vasiculosa Orchidaceae 9. Ascocentrum ampullaceum 10. Ascocentrum miniatum 11. Begnia obverse Begoniaceae 12. Canarium strictum Burseraceae 13. Clematis opiculate Ranunculaceae 14. Delhausiea bracteata 15. Dendrobium bensonae Orchidaceae 16. Dendrobium draconis Orchidaceae 17. Dendrobium heterocarpum Orchidaceae 18. Dendrobium wardianum Orchidaceae 19. Epigeneium amplum 20. Hedychium greenii Zingiberaceae 21. Hedychium marginatum Zingiberaceae 22. Hex embelioides Aquifoliaceae Chapter: VIII 102 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Sl.No. Scientific name Family 23. Hex hasiana Aquifoliaceae 24. Ophiorrhiza wattii Rubiaceae 25. Phoebe hainsiana 26. Sapria himalayana 27. Sheflera shweliesis 28. Psychotria symploco folia Caprifoliaceae 29. Trachelospermum auritum.

Manipur has a rich genepool of primitive cultivars and land races. There are enormous genepool of rice (269 varieties), maize and coix etc. There are also numerous wild relatives of cultivated plants. Mention may be made of Alpinia, Alocasia, Amomum, Mucuna, Payrus, Prunus & Rubus etc. The genus Dioscorea is represented by 8 species and Piper with 21 species. Wild species of banana like Ensete glaucum, Musa cheesmanii, M. magnesium, M. balbisiana etc. have been recorded from this state. The genus Citrus is represented by Citrus indica, C. latipes, C. maxima, C. medica and other varieties etc. Fiber crops like Bauhinia, Butea, Cannabis, Corchorus, Crotalaria, Sesania, Side and their varieties are common in this state. The state of Manipur has a large population of bamboo. Out of 126 taxa of bamboos reported from India over 53 species are from Manipur. Many epiphytic and terrestrial orchids of immense horticultural value are grown in wild. About 249 species belonging to 69 genera of the family Orchidaceae have been reported from this state. Venda coerulea (Blue venda) and Rananthera imschootiana (Red venda) are included in schedule VI (plants) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Amended, 1991). Due to overexploitation most of the orchids have already been depleted considerably and several are seen only in orchidaria. The wealth of medicinal plants is an important asset in the flora of a state. As many as 1200 species of medicinal plants are reported by S.C. Sinha (1996) and the local medicinal uses of about 430 speices have been noted. Clerodendron siphonanthus and Texus baccata are rare medicinal plants found in Manipur. Gymnosperm of Manipur was reported by Sharma & Singh (1992) and identified over 20 species of endemic and exotic taxa. Important plants from conservation point of view are Gnetum montanum, Gnetum gnemon, Podocarpus spicatus and Ginkgo biloba. Pteridophytic flora of Manipur also shows a great diversity. More than 300 species of Pteridophytes are collected. A few plants like Cyathea gigantean (Tree

Chapter: VIII 103 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur fern). Isoetes debii (Quilwort) Lycopodium phragmites (Clubmoss) and Platycerium alcicorna (Stag’s horn fern) need an immediate measure of conservation. Manipur has a record of existence of more than 121 algae, 50 species of fleshy fungi and a few Moses. Algae like Lamanea australis ad fungi like Ustilago consimilis, Ustilago esculenta an Vulvariella esculanta are some of the rare species.

H : 1.2 : Animal Biodiversity Manipur with its just 0.7% of India’s land mass produces more than 22% animal resources, and two-third of which are on land bound. Many of its wildlife are not yet fully identified and studied and many more species are still to be discovered.

Table : 65 : Vertebrate animals of India and Manipur Category India Manipur Mammals 370 120 Birds 1,200 500 Reptiles & Amphibians 580 100 Fishes 1,700 170 (Shamungou-2000) Table : BFC-I

Table : 66 : Other species of wildlife (fauna) described in Manipur are Annelida 16 sp. Arthropoda 150 sp. Mollusca 28 sp. Nematoda 292 sp. Zooplankton More than 50 sp.

Chapter: VIII 104 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 67 : Few threatened mamals of Manipur. A . Mammals Common name 1. Arcotonyx collaris Hog-badger 2. Arctictis binturong Binturong 3. Bos gaurus Gaur or Indian Bison 4. Cepricornis umatraensis Sarow 5. Cervus eldi eldi Manipur Sangai 6. Elephas maximus Indian elephant 7. Felis temmincki Golden cat. 8. Felis temmincki Fishing cat. 9. Hylobates hoollock Hoolock gibbon 10. Hystrix hodgsoni Crestles Himmalayan Porcupine. 11 .Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin 12 Neofelis nebulosa Clouded leopard. 13 Nycticebus coucang Slow lorris. 14. Pataurista palaurista Red flying squarrel 15. Panthera pardus Leopard or Panther. 16. Presbytis Pileatus Capped langur. 17. Prionodo pardicolor Spotted linsang. 18. Sur Scorta Wild bear.

Table : 68 : Few threatened Birds of Manipur B. Birds : Common name 1. Acero nipalenusis Hornbill. 2 Anthracoceros malabaricus Indian Pied hornbill 3. Bambusicola Malabaricus Assam bamboo partridge. 4 Buceros bicornis homrai Great pied hornbill. 5. Cairina scutulate White winged wood duck. 6. Plyplectron bicalcaratum Peacock-pheasant 7. Ptilolaemus tickelli austeni Hornbill. 8. Rhyticeros undulates ticehursti Assam wreathed hornbill. 9. Syrmaticus humiae Hum’s bartailed pheasant. 10. Tragopan blythii Blyth’s tragopan

Table : 69 : Few threatened Reptile and Amphibians of Manipur C. Reptile and Amphibians : Common name 1 Pythons sp. Python. 2. Tylototriton verrucosus Himalayan newt. 3. Varanus bengalesis Large Bengal monitor lizard. 4. Varanus salavator Water lizard.

D. Few threaten Fishes of Manipur: 1. Gara litanensis 2. Gara manipureusis 3 Psilorhynchus microphthalmus

An intensive research on the invertebrates of Manipur has to be worked. We may point out that there is a great destruction in their habitat.

Chapter: VIII 105 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Orchids Chapter: VIII 106 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Water fall ( IT road ) Wild Deer in a forest of Senapati

Killed wild birds being sold in Senapati bazar A hunter in progress (Parbung, CC pur)

Barak river passing through Tipaimukh Net being prepared to catch wild birds at Toubul

Chapter: VIII 107 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: IX FOREST OF MANIPUR

I : Forest Cover : Manipur has several hill ranges running nearly from north to south with occasional connecting spurs and bridges of lower elevation between them. The hills occupy approximately 90% of the total area of the state (Manipur valley occupies 2,238 sqkm. Only). The hills have forest clan of various nature and diversity. The total forest of the state covers 16,925 Sq.km. in 2001 against 17,384 in 1999, 17,475 in 1997 and 17,621 in 1993 (Deptt. of Forest, Govt. of Manipur) Table : 70 : Area under forest by legal and Composition in sq. km.

Sl. No. Class of forest 1990 1995 2000 1. Reserved forest 1,425 1,467 1,467 2. Protected forest 4,171 4,171 4,171 3. Uncased forest 12,289 11,983 11,780 Total 17,885 17,621 17,418 Source S.H.M. – 2002 Classification of forests with the dominant and associated plant species in each zone was given by Deb (1960). According to him the state was divided into four climatic Zones, Tropical climate (valley and hill upto 900m), Mountain subtropical climate (area lying between 900-1800m).Mountain temperate climate (area ranging from 1800-2400m), Sub-alpine (hills ranges above 2400m). Currently, Manipur has legal forest area constituting 78% of its surface area (Forest Bulletin, 1999-2000, which is more than two-third of the total land area for hilly state as prescribed in the National Forest Policy). But according to the report of the Remote Sensing Centre, Manipur (1997), there is a gap of 17% in the area of legal forest and forest cover area by satellite imaging. The main driving force for the destruction of forest and biodiversity in Manipur is high rate of population growth. The growth rate is higher in the hill districts of Manipur.

I : 2 : Deprivations : Acute multiple deprivations are visible in the hill areas. Low density of road, low skill formation, low employability, low market interaction and low factor mobility keep the tribal economy in a state of stagnation and crisis of descent living. The number of tribal families found below poverty line accounted for 62.42 p.c. in

Chapter: IX 108 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur the hill areas ( GoM, Tribal Bench Mark Survey of 1992-93). In the absence of wider range of employment – opportunities in the secondary and tertiary sector, most of them are forced to the primitive form of economic activities such as Jhum cultivation, hunting, fishing and cutting of trees. Forest-based activities are mainstay of life. As such, degradation of forests is on the rise. The Forest Cover Records a loss of 759 sq. km. during 1991 to 2001 in Manipur ie, the annual average loss is 75.9 sq.km. Loss of Forest Cover due to Shifting/ Jhum cultivation increased 64 Sq. Kms during 1991 to 1993. During this period regeneration of forest in the Jhumed area could be seen. However, the Jhum cycle has been reduced to 3-5 years. Repeated onslaught on forest-areas remains unabated.

Table : 71 : Change in the Forest Cover in Manipur ( Sq. Km. )1991-2001 Year Area ( Sq. Km.) Years Changes 1991 17685 1991-93 - 64 1993 17621 1993-95 - 63 1995 17558 1995-97 -140 1997 17418 1997-99 - 34 1999 17384 1999-2001 - 458 2001 16926 2001-03 +293 2003 17219 1991-2003 - 456 Source : FSI

Table : 72 : Loss and gain in Forest Cover in Manipur ( Sq. Km.) Period Loss due to Gain due to Net + ( gain ) Jhum/ Other Total Natural Other Total - ( loss) Shifting remain regeneration reasons cultivation s in Jhum area 1991-93 28 36 64 - - - ( -) 64 1995- 603 - 603 463 - 463 (-) 140 1997 Source : Forest Survey of India, Dehra Dun, State Forest Report, 1993 & 97 It is estimated that forest cover of about 20 hectares is being destroyed daily in Manipur.

I : 3 : Pressure: The destruction of forest and biodiversity in Manipur is the result of excessive deforestation for firewood and timber and encroachment of forest land multifarious and developmental works like establishment of housing colony, road construction,

Chapter: IX 109 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur dam construction etc. These are the effects of population growth, which gives a great pressure on forests and biodiversity. A. The deforestation for Jhumming (shifting cultivation)is an age-old practice in the hills of Manipur. But during the last 20 years there is a tremendous increase in the area of Jhum cultivation, mostly in the dense forest areas caused by rapid increase of population of the tribal living in forest. B. Illegal occupation of forests land even in the reserved forest areas for housing and agriculture purposes is accelerated in Manipur, This also results in the exploitation of forest areas and forest resources. C. Commercial exploitation of forest plants and animals is a common phenomenon prevailing in this state, Many timber species and commercially important plants like Agar, Cinnamonum , Smilax etc, and animals like Malayan Sun bear, Pangolin etc are constantly exploited for commercial purposes D. The introduction of high yielding varieties and other exotic plants and fishes causes in the loss of our traditional plants and fishes and adversely affected our terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. E. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides etc. causes a great danger to our biodiversity, particularly to microbes and aquatic plants and animals. Still, there is no authentic record on their danger to biodiversity. F. In Manipur there are more than 104 species of animals (fauna)used as age- old medicine and more than 5000 Sacred Groves have been reported. Many of these animals of ethnozoological importance are in threat due to over exploitation. Moreover, many of the sacred Groves are going to disappear.

I : 4 : State During a period of 6 years the total area of dense and open forest in Manipur is decreasing from 17,621 sq.km. in 1995 to 16,926 in 2001. On the other hand the number of threatened species of plant and animals are increasing. The reserved forest area is fixed at 8.6% of the total forest area. i.e. 1467 sq.km.. A. As deforestation continues, many forest areas have become barren and unproductive. Certain areas of hill districts, once with rich vegetation, are now transformed to rocky structures.

Chapter: IX 110 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

B. The environment of Manipur is now getting polluted to a great extent, due to deforestation and uncontrolled use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides etc. During rainy season in areas deforested and devoid of vegetations, the rain water carries top soil along with downstream causing flash flood, depositing it in the fields and silting the reservoirs, rivers and streams, thus affecting the normal life. Water contaminated with the residues of chemical fertilizers, pesticides particularly herbicides is harmful to aquatic plants and animals and finally to our body through the food chain system C. Eastern Himalayan region, where the State of Manipur lies is a place of origin for many plants and animals. But due to multifarious disturbances caused by increasing human population, many rare germplasm (species & varities) are becoming extinct and many more are threatened of extinction. Species that become extinct are forever. This is not like Jurasic Park.

I : 5 : Impact : Loss of biodiversity, deforestation and encroachment on forest lands have a number of impacts on the environments of this state. But, unfortunately no authentic data are available in this regard. The following are some of the salient features which have been secularly observed even by common people. A. In recent years there is a visible change in the climatic condition of Manipur. Rainfall becomes irratic resulting in frequent flood and/or drought devastating crops and vegetable. This ultimately results in the loss of crores of rupees from the state ex-checque and the common people suffer. B. Increase in the rate of siltation and frequent land slide due to the destruction of our forest ecosystem in the region causes great misery to the general people Manipur. C. The recent occurrence of excessive siltation at Keithalmanbi area of Senapati district devastated more than 160 hactare of valuable cultivable lands and landslide at Mao, Senapati District disrupted the important lifeline ( National Highway No. – 39) of the people of Manipur ( B.F.C. Photo-V) for many days . It affected the economy of Manipur to a large extent. D. Manipur state lies in the highest rainfall region of the world and rain water is the main source of water for drinking , house-hold use and irrigation of crops, throughout the year. But now-a-days there is drought during the winter season (i.e. December to March), because people had disrupted the natural Chapter: IX 111 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

water harvesting system by removing trees from the hill slopes. Again during rainy season the runoff water coming down along the hill slopes being muddy is unfit for human consumption. It results in the increase of the incidence of health, properties and productivity. I : 6 : Response Since ancient times forest and biodiversity are treated as the properties of the King of Manipur. During British rule, the Manipur State Darbar issued on 9-3-1926 prohibiting the trapping of wild goose. Darbar’s notice No. 115 ( A) dated 9-1-35 also prohibited temporarily (15-1-35 to 12-2-35) any kind of trapping or killing of birds inside the Loktak Lake area. In the draft Game Rules of Manipur State , Resolution No. 5 also had forbidden fishing and trapping or killing of certain wild animals and birds in certain areas of the State. All these properties ( forest areas) are transferred to the state, when the state was merged with Indian Union. But the ownership of forest is now a unsolved issue in Manipur. Except Reserved and protected forest, a vast areas of Unclassed forest do not have good canopy, so it can not be claimed as real forest from the ecological point of view. To improve the present conditions of forest and biodiversity, prevention and curative measures are taken up by the Govt. of Manipur with the help of N.G.O.s and interested people of the state. Some important responses are discussed below. A. Attempts were made for afforestation in catchment areas and degraded forest areas and barren lands ( social forestry) by different state Govt. Depts. Such as Forest, Environment & Ecology Wing and Lotak Development Authority. Moreover different N.G.O.s are taking up various plantation Programme with financial help from Central and State Government. B. Institutional Response. Declaration and maintenance of certain areas of Manipur as National Park, Sanctuary and Reserved forest are good response of the State Government, for the protection of forest and wild life. The declared Parks and Sanctuary are mentioned below :- a) Keibul Lamjao National Park (40 sq. km. area), the only floating National park in the world, situated inside Loktak Lake, a Ramsar site. b) Yangoupokpi Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary (186.48 sq. km. area) situated in the Myanmar border in Chandel District about 110 Km. from Imphal. c) The Zoological garden (60 Ha) at Iroisemba, Imphal West District and Sangai (Blow-antlerd deer) breeding farm or second home of Sangai near Chapter: IX 112 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

the Zoological garden. An Orchidarium (50 Ha) at Khonghampat, Imphal West District under the purview of Chief Wildlife Wardern. d) The State Botanical Garden established recently near the Orchidarium at Khongampat under the control of Environment and Ecology Wings to conserve the threatened plant species of Manipur. e) The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. f) The Wildlife Protection (Manipur) Rules, 1974 (Manipur Gazette Extraordinary No. 59 June, 27,1974). g) The revised National Forest Policy, 1988 as extended to the State of Manipur. h) As per circulation of the Govt. of India, Ministry of Environment & Forest dated 1-6-1990 for protection and development of degraded forest areas through involment of local communities the Govt. of Manipur issued a notification vide No. 55/4/95-For (Pt) dated 8-06-2000 for participation of villages in regeneration, protection, conservation and management of degraded forests of Manipur in the areas identified for Joint Forest Management (JFM). Further, for implementation of “National Afforestation Programme” (NAP), 9 (nine) Forest Development Agencies (FDAs) were constituted in Manipur vide notification no. 57/6/2001- For. & Envt. Dt. 26-11-2002. So far 383 Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMCs), as on 30th September 2004, have been registered with various Conservators of Forests as per the State Govt. notification and are implementing the NAP. In this state. For Scientific management of forests including Unclassed forests, working Plans are being prepared. Preparation of Working Plan for Tengnoupal Forest Division (Chandel Dist.) covering an area of 2774 sq. km. and Eastern Forest Division (Ukhrul Dist.) covering 3557 sq. km. of forest have already been completed and same have been given technical approved by the Ministry of Environment and Forest Govt. of India and administrative approval by the Govt. of Manipur. Further preparation of working Plan for 3 more Forest Divisions viz. Northern Forest Division (Senapati Dist.), Jiribam Forest Division and Western Forest Division (Tamenglong Dist.) have also been started.

Chapter: IX 113 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

I : 7 : Role of NGOs. The role of Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) in Joint Forest Management in Manipur is not encouraging as per National Record. Only a few organisations are working on the Conservation of Forests and Biodiversity. a) Science Teacher’s Forum Manipur, Imphal has been working on the conservation of wild life with wildlife wing of the Dept. of Environment and Forest since 1983. It is also working with W.W.F. for nature India on the conservation of wildlife in Manipur. b) Manipur Association for Science & Society (MASS), Imphal, with Bombay Natural Hist. Society have started winter birds census since 1999 at Loktak lake. c) Sangai Protection Forum, Keibul is working on the protection of flora and fauna of Keibul Lamjao Naitonal Park with particular emphasis on Sangai. d) Many other organizations like Peoples for Animals, Peoples for Ethical Treatment of Animals. Manipur Association for Promotion of Science etc. are also working on the line of the conservation of Forests and Biodiversity in Manipur.

Table : 73 : Category of Forest in each District (Dense, Open etc.) as per the State of Forest Report- 1993

Name of District Geographic Dense Open Total Others (Scrub) area Forest Forest (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) Manipur Central (Imphal 2,238 East & West + 3,313 2,357 4,859 7,216 Not given Bishnupur + Thoubal) Tengnoupal (Chandel) 4,544 Manipur East (Ukhrul) Manipur North 3,271 671 1,683 2,354 -do- (Senapati)

Manipur South 4,570 913 3,117 4,030 -do- (Churchandpur)

Manipur West 4,391 1,366 2,655 4,021 -do- (Tamenglong)

Total 22,327 5,307 12,314 17,621 -do-

Table : 74 : Category of Forests in each District (Dense, Open etc.) as per the State of Forest Report -2001

Name of District Geographic Dense Open Forest Total Others (Scrub) Chapter: IX 114 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

area Forest (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) Senapati 3,271 788 1,554 2,342 40 (Manipur North) Tamenglong (Manipur 4,391 1,700 2,229 3,929 0 West) Churachandpur 4,570 1,240 2,933 4,173 47 (Manipur South) Ukhrul 4,544 1,111 2,415 3,526 24 (Manipur East) Chandel (Tengnoupal) 3,313 812 1,906 2,718 49 Bishnupur 496 4 8 12 3 Thoubal 514 3 21 24 7 Imphal East 669 38 125 163 17 Imphal West 559 14 25 39 3 Total 22,327 5,710 11,216 16,926 190 Source : Deptt. Of Forest, Manipur

Table : 75 :Category of Forests in each District (Dense, Open etc.) as per the State of Forest Report- 1999

Name of District Geographic area Dense Open Forest Total Others (Scrub) (sq. km.) Forest (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) Senapati 3,486 795 1,648 2,443 83 (Manipur North) Tamenglong 4,197 1,834 2,329 4,163 0 (Manipur West) Churachandpur 4,582 1,273 2,882 4,155 44 (Manipur South) Ukhrul 4,460 1,210 2,346 3,556 1 (Manipur East) Chandel (Tengnoupal) 3,185 756 1,998 2,754 20 Bishnupur 481 0 5 5 5 Thoubal 714 0 17 17 7 Imphal (East & West) 1,222 68 223 291 17 Total 22,327 5,936 11,448 17,384 177 Source : Ibid

Table : 76 : Category of Forest in each District (Dense, Open etc.) as per the State of Forest Report- 1997

Name of District Geographic area Dense Open Total Others (Scrub) Chapter: IX 115 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

(sq. km.) Forest Forest (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) Manipur Central (Imphal 2,238 East & West + 847 2,329 3,176 342 Bishnupur + Thoubal) Tengnoupal (Chandel) 3,313 Manipur East (Ukhrul) 4,544 1,396 2,868 4,264 18 Manipur North 3,271 730 1,529 2,259 347 (Senapati) Manipur South 4,570 931 2,904 3,835 164 (Churchandpur)

Manipur West 4,391 1,033 2,851 3,884 40 (Tamenglong)

Total 22,327 4,937 12,481 17,418 911 Source : Ibid

Table : 77 : Category of Forest in each District (Dense, Open etc.) as per the State of Forest Report- 1995

Name of District Geographic Dense Open Total Others (Scrub) area Forest Forest (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) (sq. km.) Manipur Central (Imphal 2,238 East & West + Bishnupur 2,357 4,829 7,186 711 + Thoubal) 3,313 Tengnoupal (Chandel) 4,544 Manipur East (Ukhrul) Manipur North (Senapati) 3,271 671 1,681 2,352 395 Manipur South 4,570 924 3,073 3,997 217 (Churchandpur) Manipur West 4,391 1,366 2,657 4,023 81 (Tamenglong) Total 22,327 5,318 12,240 17,558 1,404 Source : Ibid

TABLE : 78 : DISTRICT WISE RESERVE FOREST OF MANIPUR 1. Imphal - East district :- (i) Chingkhei-Ching - 14.23 (ii) Heingang - 9.71 (iii) Nongrenching (Khema) - 5.18 Chapter: IX 116 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

(iv) Ningthemchakul (Laiching) - 2.59 (v) - 7.74 (vi) Sambei Purum - 19.40 (vii) Yaingangpokpi - 48.20 (viii) Nongmaiching - 67.00 Total – 174.05 sq. km. 2. Imphal West District : (i) Langol - 19.22 (ii) Langol R/F Extension - 2.05 Total – 21.27 sq. km. 3. Thoubal District :- (i) Heirok Chingdongpok - 1.27 (ii) Gwarok - 5.21 (iii) Thongam Mondum - 8.90 (iv) Waikhong Pine Forest - 5.10 (v) Thongjao Kabui Chingkhongching - 1.00 (vi) Khunulabaching - 0.03 Total – 21.51 sq. km. 4. Bishnupur District : - (i) Keibul Lamjao National Park - 34.58 (ii) Khongjangamba - 0.44 (iii) Warok - 0.32 (iv) Konung - 0.15 Total – 35.49 sq. km. 5. Churachandpur District :- (i) Cheklaphai - 52.84 (ii) Langjingmanbi - 2.59 (iii) Dampi - 135.89 Total – 191.32 sq. km. 6. Senapati District :- (i) Kangchup - 9.60 (ii) Kangchup Chira - 2.59 (iii) Khamenlok Gwattabi - 85.47 (iv) Tadubi-Maram - 7.77 (v) Kanglatongbi – Kangpokpi - 85.47 (vi) Khuman Ching - 2.18 Total – 145.42 sq. km. 7. Tamenglong District :- (i) Kaiphundai Extension - 15.54 (ii) Irangmukh - 92.68 (iii) Vengai - 57.00 (iv) Tolbung - 90.00 (v) Laimaton - 2.59 (vi) Jiri-Makru (Keiphundai) - 36.84 (vii) Kaimai - Total – 549.66 sq. km. 8. Chandel District :- (i) Yangenching - 32.56 (ii) Kangbung - 67.34 (iii) Longya - 41.96 (iv) Yangoupokpi Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary - 186.48 Total – 328.34 sq. km. Grand Total – 1467 Sq.Km. Forest Cover of Manipur (in Sq. Km.) 1. Reserve Forest – 1467 sq. km. - 8.3 % 2. Protected Forest – 4171 sq. km - 23.7% 3. Unclassed Forest – 11,780 sq. km - 68% Total Forest Cover – 17, 621 sq. km.

Detail of divisional Forest of Manipur: Table : 79

Chapter: IX 117 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Division Total Area (In Hectare) BISHNUPUR FOREST DIVISION NA CENTRAL FOREST DIVISION 317600.00 EASTERN FOREST DIVISION 426400.00 JIRIBAM FOREST DIVISION NA NORTHERN FOREST DIVISION 225900.00 SOUTHERN FOREST DIVISION 383500.00 TENGNOUPAL FOREST DIVISION NA THOUBAL FOREST DIVISION NA WESTERN FOREST DIVISION 388400.00

Division Name: JIRIBAM FOREST DIVISION

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 771.30 NA NA 59 NA 139 632 1994-1995 771.30 NA NA 62 2 500 383 1995-1996 771.30 NA NA 136 32 700 620 1996-1997 771.30 NA NA 30 50 286 405 1997-1998 771.30 NA NA NA NA 224 1350 1998-1999 771.30 NA NA NA NA 224 1350 1999-2000 771.30 NA NA NA NA 224 1350

Division Name: BISHNUPUR FOREST DIVISION

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 91.00 NA NA 22 160 2 NA 1994-1995 91.00 NA NA 20 149 1 7 1995-1996 91.00 NA NA 39 87 3 8 1996-1997 91.00 NA NA 35 111 2 8 1997-1998 91.00 NA NA NA 79 7 4 1998-1999 91.00 NA NA NA 79 7 4 1999-2000 91.00 NA NA NA 79 7 4

Division Name: CENTRAL FOREST DIVISION Chapter: IX 118 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 18758.00 NA NA NA 4330 447 240 1994-1995 18758.00 NA NA NA 2714 270 300 1995-1996 18758.00 NA NA 109 5103 NA 749 1996-1997 18758.00 NA NA NA 845 200 400 1997-1998 18758.00 NA NA NA 294 225 500 1998-1999 18758.00 NA NA NA 294 225 500 1999-2000 18758.00 NA NA NA 294 225 500

Division Name: EASTERN FOREST DIVISION

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 NA NA NA NA 2911 2239 NA 1994-1995 NA NA NA NA 2071 5021 300 1995-1996 NA NA NA NA 2636 7867 11 1996-1997 NA NA NA NA 544 12890 300 1997-1998 NA NA NA NA NA 13059 150 1998-1999 NA NA NA NA NA 13059 150 1999-2000 NA NA NA NA NA 13059 150

Division Name: NORTHERN FOREST DIVISION

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 13869.00 NA NA 1722 3105 NA 4100 1994-1995 13869.00 NA NA 1082 4568 NA 1700 1995-1996 13869.00 NA NA 1113 4710 NA 660 1996-1997 13869.00 NA NA 1956 426 NA 300 1997-1998 13869.00 NA NA 315 1668 NA 100 1998-1999 13869.00 NA NA 315 1668 NA 100 1999-2000 13869.00 NA NA 315 1668 NA 100

Division Name: SOUTHERN FOREST DIVISION

Chapter: IX 119 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 191320.00 NA NA 4407 13110 66 1822 1994-1995 191320.00 NA NA 3833 17136 51 3884 1995-1996 191320.00 NA NA 3935 27212 44 1750 1996-1997 191320.00 NA NA 3533 46942 19 25 1997-1998 191320.00 NA NA 30 544 12 300 1998-1999 191320.00 NA NA 30 544 12 300 1999-2000 191320.00 NA NA 30 544 12 300

Division Name: TENGNOUPAL FOREST DIVISION

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 14186.00 NA NA 4330 10924 2 NA 1994-1995 14186.00 NA NA 3245 8300 11 30 1995-1996 14186.00 NA NA 5377 8358 12 100 1996-1997 14186.00 NA NA 5587 3342 5 NA 1997-1998 14186.00 NA NA 20 13003 1 200 1998-1999 14186.00 NA NA 20 13003 1 200 1999-2000 14186.00 NA NA 20 13003 1 200

Division Name: THOUBAL FOREST DIVISION

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Area Reserved Area (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area CuM) 1993-1994 2151.00 NA NA 8 485 NA NA 1994-1995 2151.00 NA NA 22 386 NA NA 1995-1996 2151.00 NA NA 60 414 NA NA 1996-1997 2151.00 NA NA 29 248 NA NA 1997-1998 2151.00 NA NA NA 70 NA NA 1998-1999 2151.00 NA NA NA 70 NA NA 1999-2000 2151.00 NA NA NA 70 NA NA

Division Name: WESTERN FOREST DIVISION

Chapter: IX 120 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Year Area (In Hectare) Timber Fuel Bamboo Cane (In CuM) Wood (In '000 (In 100 Reserved Proposed Unclassed (In Stack Numbers) Bundles) Area Reserved Area CuM) Area

1993-1994 29465.00 NA NA 2772 630 480 44 1994-1995 29465.00 NA NA 2540 620 246 170 1995-1996 29465.00 NA NA 1748 20 139 340 1996-1997 29465.00 NA NA 791 1 389 362 1997-1998 29465.00 NA NA NA NA 420 NA 1998-1999 29465.00 NA NA NA NA 420 NA 1999-2000 29465.00 NA NA NA NA 420 NA

Source: PRINCIPAL CHIEF CONSERVATOR OF FOREST, IMPHAL

Source: MoEF

Chapter: IX 121 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Forest cover map of Manipur

Chapter: IX 122 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: X POWER

J : Power scenario :

Although Manipur has Hydro Transmission & Distribution Loss of Energy in Manipur (1992-2000) Power potential of 2000 MW, at the 70

60 62.06 moment the power Sector of the state 59.55 50 is by and large “powerless” to meet 40 even domestic requirement of 1,74,127 30 23.92 25.3 24.85 20 22.35 22.95 21.09 consumers (all inclusive). We have 10 Energy Loss Percentage) (in 0 utilised only 5%. Tapping of 60% of the 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999- 2000 potential will serve all purposes Source: Energy. (CMIE) April 2002 including earning handsome revenue. Installed Generating Capacities (Utilities) in Manipur The state purchases 438 MV from (1992-2001) NEEPCO and NHPC (central ) 100 84 undertakings) in 2005-06. The gap 80 in M W

( 60

between demand and supply remains y 40

acit 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 12 constant in spite of so-called attempt p 20 Ca 0 of 3918 existing staff. In 2003-04, the 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999- 2000- 2000 2001 gap was highest with 48% followed by Source : Lok Sabha Starred Question No. 164, dated 14.03.2002 and 39% in 2005-06. Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question No.856, dated 27.11.2002.

Our peak requirement in 2005-06 is 189 MW as against 115 MW; - peak demand met. The level of power consumption is fairly low. The per capita power Per capita consumption of Electricity of Manipur : consumption is only 146 KWH in 2004- Source :- Statical abstract of Manipur 2001 05 while the All India Average is 354 160 148.87 140 135.35 KWH, and while that of Daman and 119.59 120 109.68 105.77 100 Diu is 2335 KWH, that of Gao is 724 81.31 80 76.49

60 KWH, that of Pondicherry 867 KWH 40 and that of Delhi 577 KWH (1996-97). 20

0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999- The state has so far completed 8 2000 Year projects while the biggest one namely Loktak Hydro Electric Power Project has been undertaken under Central Sector.

Chapter: X 123 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 80 Sl. Name of project Capacity (MW) Type No. 1. Loktak Hydro Electric Power Project. 3 x 35 Hydro. 2. Leimakhong I MH 2 x 0.300 Hydro. 3. Imphal 5.296 Diesel Power. 4. J.N. Hospital 0.100 -do- 5. Assembly 0.400 -do- 6. Governor 0.144 -do- 7. Khuman Lampak 0.376 -do- 8. Parbhung 0.200 -do- 9. Leimakhong Power Plant 36.00 Heavy Fuel Based. (Source:- Govt. of Manipur, Department of Power, Annual Administrative Report, 2005-06).

The state is proposing to undertake the following hydro-project in near future:- Table : 81 Sl. Name of project. Capacity. Type. No. 1. Irang 4 x 15 MW Hydro 2. Tuivai 3 x 17 MW -do- 3. Chakpi/Phunchang 3 x 200 KW -do- 4. Chakpikarong 3 x 200 KW -do- 5. Iring 3 x 100 KW -do- 6. Ijai 3 x 500 KW -do- 7. Tupul 3 x 300 KW -do- 8. Loktak Down Stream (Central) 90 MW -do- 9. Tipaimukh (Central) 1500 MW -do- (Source:- Govt. of Manipur, Department of Power, Annual Administrative Report, 2005-06).

180 Demand & supply of power of Manipur (MW) 156 160 142 140 126 129 117 120 94 97 93 100 86 87 MW 80 63 55 60 40 40 32 23 20

0 1997 – 98 1998 – 99 1999 – 2000 2000 – 2001 2001 – 2002 Year Demand Demand net Short fall

Chapter: X 124 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

J : 2 : Loktak Hydro Electric Project:- A special reference is made to the Lokatk Hydro Electric Project, better known as “Loktak Project”, located at Ningthoukhong 39 km from Imphal. Manipur enjoys agreed entitlement of 12% (52.925 MV) of the total power of 105 MWH, - because of the fact that water diversion from Loktak Lake to the extent of 58.5 cumecs is allowed for generation of power by the National Hydro Electric Power Corporation. The project, commissioned in 1984, has power channel of 3.40 km and Head Race Tunnel of 6.62 km constructed under Austrian Tunneling Method. The Ithai Barrage, the scapegoat of all the woes of Loktak lake, (A:10.7 m high with 5 X 10 m water ways) across the Manipur River is key to maintaining the level at 786.5 meter to ensure steady flow of water from the lake into the narrow Leimatak River which is at the elevation of 312 meters lower than the lake; - thus generating electricity through a well-planned water conducting system. The “Loktak Project” is a rare outcome of combined interaction between a precious Gift of Manipur (Loktak Lake) and scientific intervention of the Central Government. The surface area of the lake is 287 sq. km. and direct catchment area 980 sq. km.;- fairly large and extensive. In a way this “baby” project” belongs to “Mother Loktak”; whose health, very unfortunately, is under mounting stress and strain imposed by manifold disturbing economic activities in and around the lake including acts of encroachment on the “lake-area”. 50,400

Chapter: X 125 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur fishermen right now do indiscriminate fishing in this “troubled lake” causing a visible threat to the very foundation of sustainability of both lake and project. Out of the direct catchment area of 980 sq. km. of the lake, 430 sq. km. is under paddy cultivation, 150 sq. km. under habitation and 400 sq. km. under forest. A very disturbing institutional behavior is seen. Besides, the growth of floating weedmats (locally called Phumdis) is visibly prolific and on the rise dramatically. The area covered by the thick mass floating weedmats (Phumdis) account for 47% of the lake area. Open water decreases by 48.45 p.c. while Phumdis increases by 15.63 p.c. during 1989-2002. Jhum cultivation, extensive deforestation and unscientific land use practices in the catchment areas are responsible for deposition of 6,50,000 tones of silt annually in the lake. This trend is dangerous and bad for Loktak Lake; worse for Loktak Hydro Electric Project and worst for the state of Manipur. It is really interesting to make a mention of the fact those three districts; (a) Imphal west District, (b) Bishnupur District and (c) Thoubal District are involved in the matter and issue of Loktak Lake. Till today the “ownership” of the lake has not been defined and declared. The authority, perhaps, is not fully aware of the fact that maintaining Loktak Lake at optimum level means maintaining the Loktak Project also at optimum level. The visible lack of a Scientific Integrated Approach to systematic utilization of multiple advantages thrown open by Loktak Lake is, perhaps, the root cause of rising concern. The attempt of Loktak Development Authority is both (“marginal” and “isolated”). Unless all these institutional issues including gap of mutual appreciation between the State and Central authorities are settled in the right perspectives, the lifelines of Manipur; i.e. Loktak Lake and Loktak Project may in a near future, face the danger of gradual deterioration and subsequent disappearance. The sustainability of both the Lake and Project is now questioned.

Chapter: X 126 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: XI POLLUTION

K : Air pollution :

DRIVING FORCE :

Rapid growth of human population, especially its fast increasing density in the Imphal valley which hardly comprises one-tenth of the state in area; continued increase both in quality and quantity of material needs of man; Flaws at different levels of policy making, programme implementation and low enforcement; General ignorance about the limit of the self sustaining/self cleansing capacity of nature; Lack of civic sense on the part of citizenry; etc.

PRESSURE :

¾ Rapid increase in the number of automobiles of trucks, car and taxis, - particulars that of 2-wheelers, (during 1973-2004 increased 8, 28 & 36 times respectively, whereas that of more polluting 2-wheelers galloped 161 times ¾ Non-phasing out of smoke belching overage vehicles ¾ Traffic jam/slower vehicular movement during peak hours leads to increased emission of toxic gaseous pollutants. ¾ Rapid decline in the greenery area

¾ Increasing construction activities

¾ Coal-fired brick kilns

STATE ¾ Increased air pollution in urban areas, especially in Imphal (86% of civilian vehicles registered in Manipur remains concentrated in Imphal East & Imphal West districts with a mere total area of 1228 km2. ¾ High levels of SPM in many urban areas. ¾ Rainwater collected in urban areas during the first few days of the rainy season is often found frothy & containing a lot of brownish / black suspensions- a sign of urban air containing a high level of SPM

IMPACT : Impacts on human health

Chapter: XI 127 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

RESPONSE : ¾ Mass awareness campaigns by NGO’s like STFM; observance of World Environment Day & other relevant Day’s at various levels ¾ Checking of automobiles for exhaust/smoke emissions by the MPCB & state Transport authority- issue of vehicular –Fitness Certificate as regards Standard Emission norms for a valid time period – poor enforcement record due to inadequate no. of both necessary gadgets & trained personal ¾ In a drive to mitigate air pollution problems in & around Imphal city the city police detained & fined 32 highly polluting Jeep taxis during 30 Jan, 2006- 12 Feb, 2006 & sent 4 drivers to jail for non-payment of fines. (The Sangai Express, 13 Feb, 2006) ¾ Gradual phasing out of Jeep Taxis from 1/1/2005 onwards has been envisaged –however, not yet implemented State Transport Department acts according to instructions from time to time under central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1988 -However, no State Transport policy till date ¾ Inspection of brick kilns, stone crusting units, lour mills & other SSI units by the MPCB to establish certificate ¾ Zoning Atlas for setting of industries for the valley districts- mapped jointly by MPCB & CPCB in 1997

K : 2 : SOLID WASTE/BIO-MEDICAL WASTE

PRESSURE ¾ Increasing municipal solid waste ¾ Increasing amounts of trash, garbage, construction and demolition debris, etc. ¾ Biomedical waste from hospitals, health care centres/clinies ¾ Problem in the disposal of dead bodies by municipal authorities. Nagar palikas –not empowered duly ¾ No viable method for safe disposal/ recycling /safe reuse of biomedical waste from many hospitals / health care centres/ clinics ¾ No manpower with requisite expertise for MSW management in the MAHUD Directorate which controls 28 local urban bodies at present

Chapter: XI 128 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

STATE ¾ 80to 100 MT of solid waste (60% biodegradable)generated daily in the Imphal municipal area alone ¾ 2500 km of solid waste directly dumped daily into the Naga stream /nullah within less than a km stretch between khuyathong and Maharanithong ¾ 1800 kg of solid waste thrown into the Nambul River within Imphal between Naoremthong and Keisamthong ¾ No permanent dumping site/treatment plant for MSW at present ¾ Floating population aggravates the problem further at Imphal area ¾ Multiplicity of authority for maintenance service within Municipal area compounds the problem

IMPACT : ¾ Road & thorough fore in market areas littered with trash and garbage – unaesthetic &health hazardous ¾ Adverse health impacts from stinking garbage heaps & unclear over flowing refuse bins that also host numerous rodents and insects – vendors of many diseases ¾ Clogging of rains by rubbish in urban areas causing water stagnation and subsequent proliferation of mosquito menace ¾ Possibility of surface water at Lamphelpat being contaminated with biomedical waste, particularly during rainy season is very high

RESPONSE: ¾ Mass awareness campaigns by NGO’s like STFM; observance of World Environment Day & other relevant Day’s at various levels ¾ A solid waste treatment plant is contemplated at Lamdeng with components of segregation, recycling, composting & land fill ¾ Incinerator installed one each at RIMS, Lamphel and Shija Hospital, Langol to deal with the combustible component of biomedical waste.

Chapter: XI 129 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

K : 3 : WATER POLLUTION PRESSURE : ¾ Unplanned expansion of urban areas ¾ Inadequate sanitation & other basic amenities in the field of health and hygiene ¾ Untreated sewage directly run into water bodies. ¾ Run-offs lashed with a variety of agro-chemicals from agricultural fields finding way to drainage system, especially during rainy season. ¾ Increasing number of phum dwellers defiling waters of Loktak lake with faccal matter & domestic waste. (no. of dwelling huts on phums increased from 4 in 1960 to 966 by 2001) ¾ Stress on the supply of safe drinking water (SDW) by the state PHED (meets 80% of the public need in urban area & 50-60% in rural areas) ¾ Demand for outstrips supply ¾ Abuse of toxic chemical in caching fish from rivers & lakes ¾ Construction of kutcha latrines, urinals & crematoria and dumping of refuses in unwarranted proximity of water bodies, especially rivers.

STATE : Contents of colifrom bacteria & Faecal coliform bacteria even in river and pond waters of many rural areas are much above permissible limits as per WHO norms (OCFU/100ml). ¾ Amount of unpolluted fresh water goes on dwindling ¾ Increasing organic loads proved by high BOD & low DO values (w.r. to 151 specification No.15:2296) (ANNEURE) ¾ The Nambul River has turned into a big virtually lifeless, highly polluted nullah well beyond Imphal Municipality area ¾ Chemicals such as PCB’s & phthalic acid esters from printing inks on various packaging materials including plastics dumped into rivers, particularly in the Imphal town segment of the Nambul can leach gradually and make water of the Loktak lake more & more polluted. However, a more comprehensive study in this regard is still awaited.

¾ High alkalimity (PH>9) & large dissolved CO2 values at Takmu and some other areas of the Loktak Lake

Chapter: XI 130 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

IMPACT : ¾ Impact on human health Diarrhoeal outbreak in Manipur during May-Aug, 2005 ¾ Diarroheal out-break during 70

rainy season. July, 63.4 60

50 RESPONSE: 40 ¾ Mass awareness campaigns by

30 NGO’s like STFM; observance of Percentage of cases June, 21.9 20 World Environment Day & May, 13.2 other relevant Day’s at various 10 August, 1.6 0 levels May June July August Months ¾ The Manipur Water (Prevention Diarrhoeal outbreak in Manipur during May-Aug, 2005 & control of pollution) Rules, 1991 –notified us the Manipur Gazette Extraordinary, No 593, Dec. 28, 1991 ¾ Constitution of the Manipur State Water pollution control Board under section 4 of the Water(Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 ¾ Plans a foot to clean the Nambul River under the National River Action Plan- a project report prepared by the MPCB was submitted to MOEFF, Govt. of India through the Govt. of Manipur in Sept. 94. ¾ The PHED of the state Govt. has created installed capacity of 60.82 MLD of safe drinking water against the requirement of 97 MLD for Imphal and other towns and rural areas. By 2015, surplus supply of 101.25 MLD may be produced with the projected completion of various augmentation water supply schemes under taken in the state under NLCPR (vide Imphal Free Press, March 3,2006)

Chapter: XI 131 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table: 82: CONTENTS OF COLIFORM BACTERIA (CB) & FAECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA (FCB) IN WATER SAMPLES FROM SOME RURAL AREAS OF MANIPUR Sl. PLACE OF WATER DISTRICT SOURCE OF COLIFORM FAECAL REMARKS No SAMPLING WATER BACTERIA COLIFORM (CFU/100ml) BACTERIA (CFU/100ml) 1 Natum Heikak Mapal Imphal East TUBE WELL 0 0 As per 2 Keibi Awang Leikai, Imphal East TRILL RIVER 430 200 WHO SAGOLMANG 3 Khuman Nungyungbi, Imphal East STREAM 1050 780 standard the ANDRO WATER value for 4 Nungyungbi Mt. Imphal East SPRING 610 310 CB and ANDRO WATER 5 Sekmaijin Imphal West IMPHAL 1,160 800 FCB both RIVER should be O 6 Senapati Senapati SENAPATI 1,800 600 CFU/100ml. RIVER 7 Maram Senapati SPRING 460 240 WATER Collected in tank 8 River colony, Senapati HAND PUMP 90 20 MAKHREILUI 9 Maram Bazar Senapati POND 200 90 WATER 10 Khangabok part – III Thoubal POND 700 240 WATER 11 Sangai Yumpham, Thoubal POND 500 320 Cherapur WATER Courtesy: (i) A Report of the Investigation on the out break of Acute Diarrloeal Diseases in Manipur (June-August- 2005) by ICMR Research Team of HIV/AIDS & Drug Abuse Project, Directorate of Health Services, Manipur and Environment & Eclogy Wing, Govt. of Manipur. (ii) Dr. Th. Bhubanchandra Singh , CMO, Senapati District Manipur.

Chapter: XI 132 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

K : 4 : NOISE POLLUTION PRESSURE ¾ High traffic density in urban core areas ¾ High pitched hooting of gas hours in thickly populated areas ¾ Noise emitting social/cultural/religious activities Running of rice mills, saw mills, noisy workshops in residential areas. STATE High Noise level is observed at many places in the heart of Imphal during peak hours of traffic daily.

IMPACT Annoyance too many, especially during late hours at night Probable adverse impacts on health, viz insomnia, hypertension, plain irritation & a host of other related health problem.

RESPONSE : Some areas in the capital city declared as SUKEBTZINES ¾ Use of loud- speakers banned at late night hours – violated too often – needs more stringent laws for an effective enforcement. ¾ Hooting of shrill/high pitched gas horns banned - but generally not complied with

Chapter: XI 133 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Chapter: XII RECOMMENDATIONS:

It is a fact that the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is not realistic and cannot capture the reality of situation unless it is adjusted with the value of gross degradation of environment caused by the process of different developmental activities. The quality of life depends upon the standard of the totality of man’s surroundings. Environmental distortion, degradation, depletion and loss have now to be assessed, quantified and measured in money-value. Growth minus value of environmental loss gives us correct picture. As such Environmental Statistics, Natural Resource Accounting and Green Accounting etc have become increasingly important, more so in Manipur whose fate largely depends upon the quality of management of bio-resources. Now we have to go much beyond “trees and tigers”. The focus should not be merely on tools and techniques; but also on changing perspectives, motivation, care and response of daily life. It is also another fact that Manipur has to go with the process of globalization. It may not be wise for the state to go by the beaten track of isolation and insularity. We have to act intelligently to take the best possible advantage of interdependence and growing integration. We have to act swiftly on the Core Competencies. We have to strengthen the Scientific Foundation of Modern Development, which in turn, calls for a fair knowledge of the existing standard of the life supporting system. The bitter experience of the last five decades is a good guide for a new future. It is, indeed, very costly to leave the same sick atmosphere and environment as they are; to the future generation. One should not compromise the intergenerational equity. As such we have to develop pro-active plan of action and also ensure a built-in-mechanism to get the emerging concerns automatically corrected. To-day Manipur should have a new Vision Document (say Manipur Vision-2020) and this master document should clearly set the sensitive borderline and framework of major interventions; and also indicate point-by-point reality check. Based on the available secondary data and short interaction with some stakeholders, it is observed that the following gray areas demand immediate corrective as well as developmental intervention.

Chapter: XII 134 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

A: On capability of land: Indiscriminate and excessive use of chemical fertilizers in the valley and extensive jhuming in the hills have considerably weakened the capability of land. The team suggests a fresh look and in depth investigation with reference to : -

A:1: Changing characteristics of soil. A:2: Changing external factors. A:3: Environmental factors that limit the use of land.

The Manipur State Land Use Board, 1991, although it is assigned a very important responsibility, remains non-functional and has been buried into oblivion; while Manipur requires a scientific planning for land use. Distorted use of land resources must now be stopped. There is a growing need for a scientific blue-print; - a comprehensive document of land resources in Manipur. By and large lack of proper documentation is one of the greatest weaknesses of our administration.

The Manipur State Land Use Board is expected to assess continuously the health of land resources, monitor all land-resource-related-programmes so that scientific land use pattern should be evolved. The Board is also expected to provide a new direction for scientific and integrated approach. The Board should ensure that all available land resources are healthy, productive and well-balanced. The State Government should now enforce a sound and scientific land-use-policy. The team, therefore, is of the considered view that the Manipur State Land Use Board should be reactivated, revitalized and restructured with reasonable areas of administrative autonomy.

B: On deforestation: The loss of about 20 hectares of forest cover a day could possibly be a fresh reminder of alarming trend. Poverty and ignorance go together. The team suggests a strategy with equal focus on (i) Area Development and (ii) Beneficiary Development. The two are interdependent. Area can be developed when people in the area are developed. People develop only when area develops. We can now try: - (a) ICAR-Three-tier-Model or (b) Gujarat WADI Model: depending upon the suitability of the village.

Chapter: XII 135 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

C: On Wetland: Reduction of lakes from 500 to 55 and deterioration of water-quality and river-system may lead us to a new dead end of development interventions. The team is of considered view that these 55 lakes should not face any further threat of destruction. We have to adopt a new strategy to conserve them. The Government of Manipur should enforce very strictly the Manipur Loktak Lake (Protection), Act, 2006. We can also think of the Wetland Development Board of Manipur.

D: On solid wastes: The quantity of solid wastes to the extent of 125 MT to 160 MT a day in greater Imphal including Municipal Area and bio-chemical wastes of 672 kgs/day to 1134 kgs/day in the said area are a visible threat to the quality of life and they are a happy breeding ground of undeclared diseases. The team feels it necessary to embark upon a time-bound programme of Accelerated Urban Cleaning Mission to be followed by a strong institutional intervention to check further accumulation of wastes. Heavy punitive measure may be imposed both on “Service-Provider” and “ Waste-abettor” The proposed site for scientific treatment of bio- wastes at Tingri is an encouraging step. Mass Awareness Programme (Sensitisation) is the need of the hour. We must evolve a new culture of cleanliness and better hygiene.

E: On Bio-diversity: 1200 rare species of medicinal plants growing in different parts of Manipur in wild way are facing the threat of gradual disappearance in the absence of an organised system of care and scientific intervention. In the wake of progressive realization of herbal importance and taking into consideration the bright future of bio-resource based–economy of Manipur, the team recommends a strong institutional linkage between Development Departments of the State and National Institute of Bio-Resources and Sustainable Development, Takyelpat, Imphal, Manipur.

Chapter: XII 136 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

F: On Eco-Tourism

The State Government has identified many prospective areas for development of Eco- tourism in Manipur. The team adds 2 prominent areas: -

1) Serou, (Sugnu) with the temple of Khana-Chaoba-Wangpurel as centre of development. 82 kms, to the south of Imphal, at the foothill of beautiful ranges, - blessed by two great rivers ( Chakpi and Imphal ), Sugunu is now visibly enriched by the glamour of a captivating temple of Khana-Chaoba-Wang Purel Ibudhou, - a living symbol of complete faith and dedication of Dr. Y. Saratchandra whose noble vision is to establish a Centre for Humanism and Integration. The divine temple of Ibudhou ( Lord) is a unique centre where nature and human creation cheerfully meet. Every year during 3 days in May lacs and lacs of people from all walks of life and faith do come and pray, - thereby establishing the human foundation of eco- tourism.

2) Kakching with Angaan Ching Eco-Park. The park is located 2 Kms from the heart of the Kakching town and 47 Kms from Imphal. This may be developed into a promising centre for eco-tourism. The totality of natural surroundings is unique.

Angaan Ching (Hill), Kakching

Chapter: XII 137 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Table : 83 : Budgetary Commitment to a few selected sub-sectors of Manipur (Rs in Lakhs) Year Medical and Water Supply Forestry and Wild Life Ecology and Public and Sanitation Environment. Health 1999-2000 6607.08 1439.22 2046.10 65.63

2000-2001 5874.10 978.90 1443.04 64.99

2001-2002 7158.27 824.53 2076.28 109.38 (R.E) 2002-2003 5057.82 3602.43 1279.63 86.33

2003-2004 5312.74 705.16 1516.44 115.59

2004-2005 5437.36 2435.79 1814.72 196.93

2005-2006 7105.87 2535.59 2623.08 282.06 (RE) 2006-2007 5839.73 1922.77 2630.20 322.44 (B.E) (Source: - Govt. of Manipur: Finance Department: Annual Financial Statement)

Table : 84 : Trend of Budgetary Provision for Ecology and Environment, Manipur Year Rs in Lakhs

1987-88 4.55

1990-91 18.81

2000-01 64.99

2006-07 (B.E.) 322.44

Source: 1) Govt. of Manipur,Department of Economics and Statistics Picture of Manipur Budget, 1972-73 to 1995-96. 2) Govt. of Manipur; Finance Department, Annual Financial Statement

Chapter: XII 138 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

Few Landscapes of Tamenglong district

Chapter: XII 139 Environment and Ecology Office Government. of Manipur State of Environment Report, Manipur

A Brief :- STATE OF ENVIRONMENT REPORT, MANIPUR (I) Why?

When fuller human development has been accepted as a major goal of development-planning, any attempt for the growth has to take into consideration the impacts of environment behaviour. The ecological input has acquired a critical significance as basic foundation of long term sustainable development. Temporary and short term “Gains” at the cost of long term “Contributions” are dangerous and self –defeating. The desirable future design of development and quality of life should be the basis of present planning. The present should take care for and cater not only to the present needs but also future requirements. Future should not be allowed to suffer. Deterioration in any aspect should not be allowed to multiply. But we can not imagine “Creation” (development) without some kind of “destruction”. However, wanton, indiscriminate and blind destruction of natural resources leads to a new hell of life. At one point of time we may become helpless. There is, therefore, a growing need for a careful intervention.

(II) Ecologically sustainable development

Ecological onslaughts are very tough, largely invisible, dangerous and have a powerful force to foil our exercises. We, therefore, have to go with emerging mandate of environment. A time has, perhaps, come for Manipur to evolve Environmental Strategy of its own, - for which we have to have proper idea about:-

(a) the nature of use of natural resources, (b) the conservation of natural resources, (c) the enhancement of natural resources.

The policy document should spell out the purpose and quality of use, the rationale of conservation and the necessity for enhancement. The core objective, - the integrity of ecosystems to be maintained through efficient management of natural resources, - should be kept in mind.

(III) STATE OF ENVIROMENT REPORTING MECHANISM:-

Now every state requires effective State of environment Reporting Mechanism to monitor the changing environmental behaviour and indicate the weak and grey areas like:-

- Land degradation, Soil erosion, - Air pollution - Water contamination - Destruction of bio-diversity - Heritage - Destruction - Alarming climatic patterns etc

Today Loktak Lake is getting threatened. Rivers are increasingly contaminated. Bio-diversity is endangered. Hills are becoming barren. Deforestation is on the rise. Solid wastes multiply. Imphal city is getting seized. Lamphel Pat is distorted and considerably damaged. Flood arrives any time. Unknown disease breaks out anywhere any time. The new crisis is visible. This is a grim manifestation of the CRISIS OF DEVELOPMENT. This is a warning. The Future is grim. Unless these visible and invisible forces of human enemy are contained, both the present and the future are in danger. Why should we allow the seeds of present crisis of development to destroy the foundation of future? It is really tough to manage the components of development and imperatives of change.

(IV) OPTIONS:- Before us there are three options:- - Prevention - Reduction - Elimination Prevention is much better than cure. But delay is very costly and amounts to heavy loss.

(V) PREPARATIONS OF STATE OF ENVIROMENT REPORT, MANIPUR:-

On the Initiative of the World Bank and with the Support of the Government of India, every state is required to prepare the State of Environment Report based on available data on various concerns. We prepare the State of Environment Report, Manipur with reference to DPSIR:- D = Driving forces (general causes) P = pressure (specific and immediate causes) S = State (present level and condition of natural resources and environment) I = Impact (consequences suffered by the people and other living beings) R = Responses (interventions, policies, programmes of Govt. and NGO’s etc., -key institutional rearrangements)

(VI) FEEDBACK AND INSTITUITONAL HELP FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT:-

Government is one of the stakeholders. The holistic and integrated approach demands a good linkage of mutual benefit with the departments of the government. We seek to be enlightened on the past and present programmes and practices of the departments which have bearing on the changing character of environment and ecology.

We are aware of data gap. As initial step we need the status of the environmental concerns stated in a plain form. This is a humble beginning for the formulation of Environmental Strategy of the State. A separate “State of Environment Policy" on each component with the principles and modality of governance of the environment has to be worked out (Action plans and Action points). Professor N. Mohendro Singh Resource Co-ordinator State of Environment Report-Manipur Chapter: XII 140