Trans.Inst.Indian Geographers ISSN 0970-9851 culture in South Maidan, ,

Hema Thakur, Bangalore

Abstract The neolithic period may be regarded as a major stepping stone in the progress of man from pre-history towards proto-history and history. It was during Neolithic period that there was a noticeable shift in subsistence patterns and a marked improvement in technology as reflected by tool types, making of varied types of pottery, ornaments particularly beads, terracotta, etc. The present paper contextualizes the neolithic culture as it existed in South Maidan with respect to the local environmental conditions. An effort has been made to understand the manner in which the neolithic communities utilized the immediately available sources to meet their requirements. Also, the establishment of exchange networks has been taken into account to understand their contribution to the sustenance of neolithic settlements.

Keywords: archaeological assemblage, minerals, animal remains.

Introduction In Karnataka there is a fundamental division- Chitradurga, in the extreme east near Kolar recognised in both traditional and official and around Srirangapatam. The region is very nomenclature- between the forested Malnad rich in mineral deposits, particularly in iron in the west and the more open country of the ore, manganese, gold, etc. (Singh, 1971:817, Maidan in the east: the transition is in places 819). The availability of resources, river remarkably abrupt (Spate and Learmonth, systems and suitable climatic conditions has 1984:701). Karnataka plateau with its Malnad encouraged human habitation in this region rim and Maidan character is diversified by through the millennia. The evidence for the the Krishna and Cauvery river systems, neolithic period can be found almost all over rainfall variability resulting in varying Karnataka with some areas such as North patterns of land use and settlements. The vast Maidan being extremely rich in the typical Maidan, so named after its relatively low archaeological remains. However, South and subdued relief, is divided into north and south, largely owing to cultural differences, Maidan may not be as rich but it does have the former is mostly drained by the Krishna remains of neolithic culture (Fig.1). It has and the latter by the Cauvery system. South been hospitable for human occupation from Maidan (Chitradurga, Tumkur, Bangalore, the prehistoric, through the proto-historic and ), is a plateau region studded with historic period. Neolithic culture appears to bare granitic boulders and hills. The region have commenced in parts of Karnataka by has a relatively moderate climate with greater the middle of the third millennium B.C. and variability of rainfall, the drier parts lie around continued till about 1200-1100 BC.

Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 | 235 Fig.1. Neolithic Settlements in South Maidan (based on Google Earth Image)

Aim Methodology The aim of the paper is to understand the The primary source used to prepare the neolithic culture as it flourished in the region historical narrative is the archaeological of South Maidan and try and contextualize remains that have been recovered in the it with respect to the availability of sources course of excavations and explorations. and prevailing environmental conditions. The details of settlements including the Neolithic settlements have been found on the find spots, immediate surroundings and description of archaeological artefacts are terraces of hills as well as close to the rivers given in the excavation reports and reviews or on the river banks. Did these settlements which have been extensively used. Further, derive their sustenance completely from the information about the local geographical the immediately available sources? Did the conditions is given in the District Gazetteers Neolithic communities develop any exchange and it has been incorporated in the paper. network to fulfill their requirements or did they have some kind of interaction with The Geographical Setting other communities? Was there a beginning of The state of Karnataka occupies a position vocational specialization even if it was only physically well defined, in the south of India; nascent? These are some of the issues which and has been termed a rocky triangle- a not the author has tried to investigate. inapt description. It is a table-land, situated

236 | Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 in the angle where the Eastern and Western District:12-13). Minerals found in South Ghat ranges converge into the group of the Maidan are asbestos, antimony ore, bauxite, Nilgiri hills. West, south and east, therefore it corundum, copper, chromite, calcite, gold, is enclosed by chains of mountains, on whose iron, limestone, lead, manganese, pyrites, shoulders the plateau which constitutes the white quartz, construction material like clay, country rests. The general elevation rises from granites, silver sand, feldspar, garnet, and about 2,000 feet above the sea level along the soapstone (Gazetteer of India Chitradurga northern and southern frontiers to about 3000 District:13-18; Gazetteer of India Tumkur feet along the central water-parting, which District:14-16). Karnataka along with these separates the basin of the Krishna from that resources has had a very sound agricultural of the and divides the country into two base due to the availability of fertile soils, nearly equal parts. The face of the country adequate water for irrigation and conducive is everywhere undulating, much broken up climatic conditions. The Maidan consists in by lines of rocky hills or lofty mountains general of a rolling plateau rising in the east and scored in all parts by deep ravines. The (between Tumkur and Kolar) into disjointed region of Karnataka extends from the Deccan granitic hills of irregular plan and elevation lavas on the north to the Moyar in the south, (Spate and Learmonth, 1984:702). The level the western limit is the Ghats crests and to plains with fertile soils are highly suitable for the south-east, the border hills and scraps agriculture, with the result that agriculture of the Mysore plateau provide a fairly sharp is an extremely important occupation. boundary between the Moyar and the Palar. Karnataka is well endowed with natural In general, the region corresponds with the resources of various types but the distribution area in which or Kanarese speech of these natural resources is not uniform, is dominant. However, the lower levels of with some areas being rich in forest and the Raichur Doab and Anantapur district go faunal wealth (Malnad) while others being more naturally with Telangana. There is a more suitable for agriculture (Maidan). The belt of cultural conflict with Maharashtra. abundance and unbalanced distribution of Karnataka covers 74,210 miles2 (1,92,204 these resources have influenced the course of historical development. km2) and is nearly two and a half times as large as the old princely state, incorporating Archaeological assemblage Coorg; South Kanara and Bellary from The evidence for neolithic culture has been Madras; North Kanara, Belgaum, Bijapur and located at various settlements in South Dharwar districts from old Bombay; Raichur, Maidan. Some of the notable excavated Gulbarga and Bidar from Hyderabad (Spate settlements are Brahmagiri, T. Narasipur, and Learmonth, 1984:700-701). Hemmige, Muttalavadi, Chandravalli, Rock types that predominate in South Banahalli which have been discussed in this Maidan include Crystalline Schists, Granite section and the archaeological assemblage Gneisses, Granites, Closepet Granites, recovered is mentioned in the tables. Dharwars, Gneissic Complex, Dolerite Dykes Brahmagiri is a granite outcrop, rising and Laterites (Gazetteer of India Chitradurga some 600 ft. above the plain, within the District:11-13; Gazetteer of India Tumkur Molkalmuru taluk of District Chitradurga.

Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 | 237 R.E.M. Wheeler excavated the site in 1947 tools of jasper, chert such as scrapers and and established a sequence of three cultures- assigned them to pre 1-A phase of Wheeler. The Brahmagiri Stone Axe culture (phase I - An important site to give information sub-natural surface); The Megalithic culture about neolithic-chalcolithic culture as it (phase II- extending to a height of 3-4 ft.); The flourished in South Karnataka is T. Narasipur, Andhra culture (phase III - 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 ft. district Mysore (I.A.R., 1958-59; I.A.R., thick). The stone axe culture has been divided 1959-60; I.A.R., 1961-62; I.A.R., 1964-65). into two phases- phase IA and phases IB (see The excavation was conducted at the site by Table 1). In 1956 the site of Brahmagiri was M. Seshadri in the late fifties and sixties (see re-explored by Seshadri who collected flake Table 2).

Table 1 Brahmagiri

Structures Pottery Stone Objects Ornaments Burials

Surface Polished Other Fabrics and Treatment and Stone Microliths Stone shapes Decoration Axes Objects Post- Coarse The painted One Nine A Bead Burials holes grey decoration is complete microliths saddle agate-one were of two indicated ware applied after axe; the quern of kinds. that the Painted firing. three double- granite; Infant houses ware. The broken edged three burials. had Incised pigment is axes, blade rubbers; Two other been mostly ware. ochre with a many without a stone inhumation of Painted predominantly chips retouch; ball burials timber, ware - brownish-purple double- were found occasionally The colour. The edged supplemented painted patterns blade by basic lines sherds executed without or low walls have included curved retouch; of rough alternatively lines possibly simple granite a red or a representing serrated blocks buff slip. in some cases blade; Those with a summary point; a red slip and highly chisel are urnished conventionalized ended and seem plant pattern. blade to have been salt glazed. The incised Those with decoration a buff slip consisted of are neither elementary burnished herring-bone nor glazed or criss-cross patterns

Source: Wheeler R.E.M., 1948

238 | Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 Table 2 T. Narasipur Metal References Pottery Stone Objects Burials objects I.A.R. 1958-59, p.33 Thick burnished grey Polished stone axes; ware. Few burnished pounders; fluted core sherds in orange-red and brown. Some of the orange-red ones had curved lines in violet and some of the grey ones incised ornamentation. A clay object, neck rest, was found I.A.R., 1959-60, P.38 Burnished grey pottery. Coarse grey thick ware. Coarse grey ware had simple incised designs like crossed straight or oblique lines or herringbone I.A.R., 1961-62 pp. The skeleton lay 35-36 in an east-west direction with its hands placed over each other on the abdomen part. Besides the head were found two pots of the handmade cream-coloured ware together with a shallow bowl with channel-spout. A neck-rest was found placed by the right side of the head I.A.R., 1964-65 p.32 Burnished and A quartz blade flake unburnished wares with a prominent bulb of percussion and radial lines I.A.R. 1959-60, p.38 Fragment of Jorwe (Chalcolithic remains) ware I.A.R. 1964-65, p.32 Sherds of black- A biconical (Chalcolithic remains) painted red ware copper bead

Source: Indian Archaeology – A Review, 1958-59, 1959-60, 1961-62, 1964-65

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Metal Animal Structures Pottery Stone objects Ornaments objects remains Pecked and Surface Ground Flake Blade Fabrics treatment and Stone industry industry Decoration industry Area A Area A - Area A Area B Area B – Area B Area B Area B - Area B -Possibly Eighteen -Burnishing; – Thirty Discoidal – fluted – One Bead – A few rectangular pots were painting with implements. scraper; core; small - terracotta heaps of houses recovered red ochre. axes; side parallel- somewhat bones built of pise red ware; Area B – hammer scraper; sided twisted walls. burnished Burnishing; stones; a convex blade flat piece Area B – buff ware Post-firing fragment of scraper; of copper Few post- Area B – 1 ochre a spherical flake measuring holes with burnished smearing rubber; blade; 2 x 1/2 cm no tangible grey ware; hammer core- cum- plan in their burnished stone or hammer; location buff ware; pounder; core burnished grinding red ware. stone; Head-rest quern Source: Rao M.H. and S. Nagaraju, 1974 Hemmige is a small village in the Talkad Chandravalli lies in a triangular valley Hobli of T. Narasipur Taluk, District Mysore. of the same name formed by three hills, It is located on the right bank of the river the Chitradurga, the Kirakanakallu and the Kaveri, 12 km. east of T. Narasipur. In 1964, Cholagudda in district Chitradurga. The the site was excavated by M. II. Rao and S. site was excavated on four occasions, by Nagaraju. The excavation was undertaken at L. Narasimhachar, M.H. Krishna, R.E.M, two sites, Area A (the site near the village) and Wheeler and V. Mishra. The excavations Area B (the site on the Adiyantittu island) established a threefold culture sequence– (see Table 3). the neolithic, the megalithic and the early historical (see Table 5). Muttalavadi is located on the left bank of the river Kaveri, in district Mysore. The Banahalli is located in district Kolar. It site was excavated by the Department of lies in the upper reaches of the Palar basin. It Archaeology and Museums, Government of was excavated over three seasons. On the first Karnataka (see Table 4). occasion, it was excavated by LK Srinivasan

Table 4 Muttalvadi Pottery Stone Objects Ornaments Burnished grey ware Ground Stone axes; Shell bead axe-hammers Source: Indian Archaeology – A Review, 1974-75

240 | Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 Table 5 Chandravalli

Excavation at Chandravalli Excavation by V. Mishra and K. Venkateswara Rao Indian – M.H. Krishna Archaeology 1977-78 – A Review Stone objects Structures Pottery Stone objects Remains of huts with Burnished grey Number of ground circular flooring and ware with coarse stones axes with Celts and pounders post-holes at regular core lenticular section and intervals sharp cutting edge and B.S. Nayal. The excavation established are 1495 ± 110 B.C. and 1805 ± 110B.C. a fourfold culture sequence- neolithic-period At Hemmige, district Mysore, the neolithic- I, neolithic-megalithic-period II, megalithic chalcolithic culture has been dated around the period III, early historic-period IV. On the middle of the second millennium B.C. The second occasion, the site was excavated by B. dating of these various sites points towards Narasinihaiah. The culture sequence revealed the spread of neolithic-chalcolithic culture was chalcolithic- megalithic; megalithic; from the north towards south. early historic. The third excavation was under Neolithic culture flourished in South the direction of B. Narasimhaiah. The culture Maidan but from the available evidence, it sequence which came to light was neolithic seems that certain parts such as Kolar and period IA; neolithic-chalcolithic period lB; upper Kaveri valley were particularly rich chalcolithic-early Iron Age period II, Iron Age period III; early historical-period IV (see in the vestiges of the neolithic culture. The Table 6). major excavated settlements of this region were generally located on or very near the Discussion rivers, as for instance Hemmige on the right Excavations and explorations have proved bank of Kaveri, T. Narasipur on the left bank beyond doubt that neolithic culture existed of Kaveri (at the confluence of Kaveri and nearly all over Karnataka. A closer scrutiny of Kapini), Muttalavadi on the left bank of the available evidence however reveals that Kaveri, Banahalli in the upper reaches of the there was no uniformity in the chronological Palar and Brahmagiri close to Chinnahagari. and spatial distribution of the neolithic Some of the explored sites were also located culture. Neolithic culture appears to have on river banks like Shivakalli on the right unfolded itself in parts of Karnataka by the bank of the river Suvarnavati, Booditittu middle of the third millennium B.C. This on the right bank of the river Suvarnavati, early phase is known from sites of the ash- Hosahalli on the left bank of the river mound type, such as the one at Kodekal, Suvarnavati, Booditittu on both sides of a district Gulbarga. A C-14 date of 2335 B.C. small stream known as Gundla which joins was obtained from Kodekal. At T. Narasipur the river Suvarnavati and Yechagalli on the of district Mysore, neolithic culture has left bank of the river Kapini (Krishnamurty been assigned a date between the beginning 1971:6-7). Proximity to the rivers must of the second millennium B.C. to 800 B.C. have fulfilled not only the basic needs of The C-14 dates available for T. Narasipur subsistence including agriculture but would

Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 | 241 urn burials Burials Vertical Vertical Animal Remains Small and big bones of a quadruped representing an animal. Large quantities of charred bones with cut marks tools Bone Bone objects Points made of bone A parer Metal copper objects Other stone objects Saddle querns of granite Microliths Microliths Two cores of Two quartz Microlithic Industry Blades; lunates; flakes; fluted cores of quartz and chert Stone Objects Pecked and Ground Stone Industry Axes; adzes; dabbers; rubbers; burnishers of basalt and granite Table 6: Banahalli Table Pottery

Source: Indian Archaeology – A Review, 1973-74, 1983-84, 1986-87 Review, A Archaeology – Source: Indian Burnished grey ware Burnished and unburnished grey ware; tan red ware Burnished buff ware; red Burnished buff ware; grey back-on- red red ware; thick buff ware Grey ware has the post- firing ochre colour painting on the rim portion design of cross hatched A segment and triangles is found on black-and-red ware kiln was found potter’s A existing Structures m in diameter where the large where the large previous period was circular house of the Small circular houses were built in clusters, of approximately 2.50 Period I A - House A Period I plans as indicated by the post holes throughout remained The to be circular. hearths were located outside the hut A portion of circular A house plan with an approximate diameter of 320 m was exposed IAR traits) 12-44 but with Neolithic Reference chalcolithic (Essentially 1986-87, pp. 1973-74, p. 17 1986-87, pp. 42-44 1983-84, pp. 42-45

242 | Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 have facilitated traffic as well. However, the the land they were cultivating and this bonding discovery of rock shelters at Chandravalli and grew steadily and over a period of time land West hill of French Rocks indicated that the became an asset for the farming groups. In neolithic group also inhabited hills. the subsequent proto-historic and historic period land became an important variable for These settlements appear to have been class constructs and social formations. reasonably well-populated as can be inferred from a large amount of pottery found. It seems The subsistence economy was further that like North Maidan, South Maidan also reinforced by various kinds of crafts. The enjoyed a sound economic base that helped in abundant pottery found indicates that pot sustaining various neolithic settlements. The making might have been an important craft. remains of cattle, sheep, goats and buffalo The evidence for the use of gold at T. Narasipur indicate that people practised a pastoral showed that neolithic man exploited the economy. The bones of cattle, sheep and locally available minerals. Gold is found in goats often bear chopping marks. Many of Mysore and Kolar gold mines. Among other them were charred suggesting that they were important crafts were tool making, ornament roasted. Thus, the flesh of these animals was making particularly of beads and terracotta. devoured by the neolithic people. Certain Along with essential articles such as pottery tools like axes, points and stone balls showed and tools there is evidence for ornaments that man continued to practice hunting. and terracotta. These give insights into the Blades mounted together in a composite haft aesthetic aspect of neolithic people. Beads of wood or bone in a gummy matrix could found were made of agate, magnesite, have been used for scraping the hides and terracotta and shell. The finer instinct of man skins. The available evidence points towards was reflected not only by ornaments but also agriculture as one of the vocations of neolithic by various types of terracotta. The availability man particularly in the region of Kaveri of these various crafts points towards the valley. The alluvial plains on the banks of beginning of the division of labour and river Kaveri and its tributaries Hamavathi, perhaps nascent specialization. Lokapavani, Shimsha on the north and Some kind of elementary exchange Lakshmana Tirtha, Kabbini (Kapila) and probably took place in the region of South Suvarnavathi (Honnuhole) to the south Maidan as well. The location of many of the constitute one of the most fertile areas in sites on or near the rivers must have aided Karnataka, encouraging agriculture (Rao and this exchange. At T. Narasipur, Muttalavadi, Nagaraju, 1974:3). Further, the identification Hemmige, Telnur, Shivakalli, Booditittu, of two ossified hock joints at T. Narasipur is Hosahalli and Yechagalli varieties of pecked highly suggestive of the fact that cattle were and ground stone implements made of possibly used for heavy draft purposes (Sahu trap rock have been found. However, in 1988:196). Tools such as querns, rubbers, the area where these sites are situated i.e. blades and grinding stone indicated the use Mysore, trap rock is not available. Only of grain. There was now growing reliance on finished implements were recovered with agriculture which resulted in new patterns of no waste flakes or rejects. Hence, there is land use. The communities began to rely on a probability that finished polished stone

Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 | 243 implements were imported to this area from Africa, there is ample modern ethnographic elsewhere. This possibility is substantiated evidence for the use of head-rests. The tribes by the occurrence of a few crudely made of Maszana and Makabanga of southern implements on granite imitating the trap ones Rhodesia and Balubas of Congo use wooden (Krishnamurty 1971:10). Furthermore, a head-rests (Nagaraja Rao 1985:144). This factory site was reported from Gangasandra. evidence tends to suggest possible contacts There is a possibility that tools from this between South India and Egypt which need site were sent across to settlements where to be explored. they might have been in demand. A tentative Conclusion indication of external contact comes from T. Narasipur, Hemmige and Piklihal (on the South Maidan was endowed with natural rock face above site VIII) and Hallur (the resources including fertile land and minerals latter two sites are located in North Maidan). thereby attracting settlements that have An interesting artefact recorded at sites such been located both on the river banks and as T. Narasipur, Piklihal (on the rock face hills. Agriculture, though on a limited scale above site VIII), Hemmige and Hallur is the along with the domestication of animals and neck-rest. Almost all the pottery specimens hunting constituted the base of the economy. were made of burnished grey ware. They Craft making was known during this period. were sometimes painted with red ochre The endowment of natural resources was after they were fired. They had a carefully perhaps the factor responsible for the burnished concave top and a hollow stand. continued occupation of South Maidan in the On the basis, of radiocarbon dates for both megalithic and early historic period when the T. Narasipur and Hallur, the neck-rest or the settlements were more in number and clearly head-rest can safely be assigned to a period gave evidence for varied archaeological beginning from 1800 B.C. At T. Narasispur, remains hinting at a progressively more a complete specimen was found near the complex culture. right side of the skull in the burial pit. On this References basis the sepulchral use of these objects was Gazetteer of India (1981). Mysore State, established. Their geographical distribution , Tumkur District. is confined only to neolithic Karnataka. Director of Print., Stationery and Publications Interestingly head-rests made of various at the Government Press. materials such as ivory, lapis-lazuli; wood Ghosh, A. (Ed.). (1989). An encyclopaedia and occasionally pottery have been found in of Indian archaeology. Volume 1 and 2, Egypt from pre-Dynastic times down to the Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Roman period. One of the most common Delhi. types is almost similar to the examples from Indian Archaeology –1958-59, 1959-60, 1961-62, neolithic sites of Karnataka. In Egypt head- 1964-65, 1973-74, 1974-75, 1977-78, 1983- rests invariably formed part of the burial 84, 1986-87 - A Review.. Archaeological appendage (Nagaraja Rao 1985:144). In Survey of India, New Delhi.

244 | Transactions | Vol. 42, No. 2, 2020 Krishna, M. H. (1931). Excavations at Art and Culture, Shri K.R. Srinivasan Chandravalli. Supplement, Annual Report Felicitation Volume, New Era Publication, of the Mysore Archaeological Survey for the Madras, pp. 11-16. Year 1929. Spate, O. H. K., & Learmonth, A. T. A. (2017). Krishnamurty, C. (1971). The Neolithic Cultural India and Pakistan 1984: A general and Remains in the Kaveri Valley, Mysore regional geography. South Asia Books, New District. Studies in Indian history and culture: Delhi. volume presented to Dr. PB Desai... on the Singh, R. L. (1971). India; a regional geography. occasion of his completing sixty years, 4. India; a regional geography. National Rao, M. N. (1985). Significance of Pottery Head Geographical Society of India,Varanasi. - Rests. Studies in Indian Archaeology: Wheeler, S. R. E. M. (1947). Brahmagiri and Professor HD Sankalia Felicitation Volume, Chandravalli 1947: megalithic and other 141. cultures in the Chitaldrug District, Mysore Rao, M. H., & Nagaraju, S. (1974). Excavations at State. in Ancient India, no.4, Archaeological Hemmige, 1964. Directorate of Archaeology Survey of India, pp. 180-310. & Museums in Karnataka. Sahu, B. P. (1988). From hunters to breeders: faunal background of early India. Anamika Hema Thakur Pub & Distributors. Independent Researcher Bangalore Soundara R. K. V. (1983). Pre-Iron Culture Spectrum in Karnataka : An Appraisal, in Srinidhi, Perspectives in Indian Archaeology,

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