Bronze Age Dating of Timber from the Salt-Mine at Hallstatt, Austria Michael Grabnera,Ã, Andrea Kleina, Daniela Geihofera, Hans Reschreiterb, Fritz E

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68 www.elsevier.de/dendro ORIGINAL ARTICLE Bronze age dating of timber from the salt-mine at Hallstatt, Austria Michael Grabnera,Ã, Andrea Kleina, Daniela Geihofera, Hans Reschreiterb, Fritz E. Barthb, Trivun Sormazc, Rupert Wimmera aBOKU – University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna. Peter Jordan Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria bNatural History Museum Vienna, Prehistoric Department, Burgring 7, A-1010 Vienna, Austria cLabor fu¨r Dendrochronologie, Amt fu¨r Sta¨dtebau, Denkmalpﬂege und Archa¨ologie, Seefeldstrasse 317, 8008 Zu¨rich, Switzerland

Received 10 December 2005; accepted 3 April 2006

Abstract

The prehistoric salt mine of Hallstatt together with its burial ground is one of the most prominent archaeological sites in Austria, which has also given name for the ‘‘Hallstatt period’’ of human civilisation (800–400 BC). Due to the perfect conservation in rock salt a great number of organic materials have been found, among mostly wooden artefacts. Currently, the major archaeological focus is on the Bronze Age salt mining activities with excavations taking place at the historic Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen mine. Chronology building started at the Dachstein plateau, in the vicinity of Hallstatt, where tree-trunks were discovered in an alpine lake (Schwarzer See) and after recovery a spruce-larch chronology was compiled that dates back to 1475 BC. In addition, at the bog Karmoos, very close to the mining place of Hallstatt, preserved trees were intensively sampled resulting in a spruce chronology reaching even 1523 BC. Over 500 samples were taken at the Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen. They also included samples from the recently discovered world’s oldest wooden staircase. The spectrum of wooden species encompassed Norway spruce, Silver fir, beech, European larch and maple. We were able to synchronize 128 samples, ending in a 282-year long floating chronology. While the staircase dated back to 1344 BC, the end year of the floating chronology dated even to 1245 BC. Tree felling dates showed clusters within the chronology, providing evidence for archaeologists to find construction phases and usage periods. The Dachstein–Hallstatt spruce chronology currently holds 840 synchronized series, and includes samples from the lake at the Dachstein, from the Karmoos bog at Hallstatt, from the prehistoric Hallstatt salt mine, and from historical buildings, as well as living trees. The chronology covers the period between 1523 BC through 2004 AD. r 2006 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Historical dating; Dendrochronology; Hallstatt; Bronze age; Salt mine

Introduction ological sites in Austria, which has given also name for the ‘‘Hallstatt period’’ (800–400 BC). Currently, the The prehistoric salt mine Hallstatt together with its major archaeological focus lays at the Bronze Age salt burial ground is one of the most prominent archae- mining activities. Intensive excavations have taken place for the past 14 years at the Christian von Tusch-Werk, ÃCorresponding author. Tel.: +43 1 47654 4268; Alter Grubenoffen discovered during mining activities in fax: +43 1 47654 4295. 18th century. Due to the perfect preservation in rock E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Grabner). salt, materials and human artefacts of organic origin like

1125-7865/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.dendro.2006.10.008 ARTICLE IN PRESS 62 M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68 leather, fur, textiles, ropes made of lime-bast fibres, and numerous wooden artefacts have been found (Barth and Lobisser, 2002). Wooden findings refer to mining timbers, illumination chips, tool handles, bowls and cups and partially buildings at the surface. First dendrochronological activities at Hallstatt go back to Hollstein (1974). He took four samples from the Hallstatt period mining place Kilb-Werk. It was possible to synchronize two fir samples (Abies alba Mill.) with the Villingen fir chronology (Hollstein, 1973), presenting the end date of 682 BC. Another spruce sample (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) ended at 686 BC, while an ash wood sample (Fraxinus excelsior L.) did not crossdate. Six years later Hollstein corrected the ending dates of his fir samples to 656 BC (Hollstein, 1980). Twenty years later Ruoff and Sormaz (1998, 2000) continued sampling. Fig. 1. Map of Austria and the region of Hallstatt, indicating the two main sites: Dachstein–Schwarzer See and Hallstatt. They took 189 samples across all available periods (Bronze Age, Hallstatt period and Late` ne period) and came up with crossdatings against the Villingen–Mag- dalenenberg chronology (Billamboz and Neyses, 1999) at 724 and 695 BC. Also, a number of floating chronologies were established. The forest sites around Hallstatt built the source for all wood-logs used in prehistoric salt mining and they are located between 900 and 1500 m asl. Most currently existing Bronze Age chronologies were established either at lower elevations, e.g. at lake settlements (Becker et al., 1985; Ma¨der and Sormaz, 2000; Billamboz, 2003); or at much higher elevations (Nicolussi and Lumassegger, 1998; Bu¨ntgen et al., 2004; Dellinger et al., 2004). The most promising already available reference chronology for dating timber of the salt mine originate from the Dachstein plateau (Grabner et al., 2001), close to Hallstatt, and this composite chronology, which dates back to 1474 BC, includes spruce and larch (Larix decidua Mill.) series that are highly climate-sensitive. This paper is dealing with setting up a Dachs- tein–Hallstatt chronology and the dating of wooden samples that originate from the Christian von Tusch- Werk, Alter Grubenoffen Bronze Age salt mines at Hallstatt. The chronology building is shown in chron- ological order by presenting data from the major sampling sites.

Material and methods

Dachstein–Schwarzer See

The Dachstein group is a triassic limestone formation Fig. 2. Sampling at Dachstein–Schwarzer See (Sws; A) and of the northern rim of the alps, with strong karst Hallstatt Karmoos (Hkm, B). topology, high elevations (highest peak 2995 m a.s.l.) and plateau characteristics. The distance to Hallstatt is about 15 km. The small crater-like lake Schwarzer See have dropped-off and slid downwards into the water of (47N31, 13E49; 1450 m a.s.l.; see Fig. 1) is surrounded the lake where they became instantly preserved. During by steep rocky slopes and cliffs. Dead and broken trees a 2 weeks campaign in summer 1999 a team of ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68 63 professional divers recruited through the Austrian military and dendrochronologists were lifting trees (Fig. 2A) from underwater to cut off disks, and return the trees back into the water after sampling. In total, 211 trees were successfully lifted and sampled. The disks were dried carefully afterwards. In addition, 80 living trees (two cores per tree, spruce and larch) were cored at breast height.

Hallstatt–Karmoos

Hallstatt is located within the northern limestone-alps (Fig. 1), which are characterized by heavy rainfalls and cold temperatures (Bo¨hm, 1992; Auer, 1993). Due to the forest ecotype in the montane region (900–1400 m a.s.l.) at Hallstatt the dominating species are spruce, fir and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) (Kilian et al., 1994). The subalpine region (above 1400 m a.s.l.) is dominated by spruce with patches of larch. In summer 2004 eight small cavities (1 2 m, down to the clay level) were dug (Fig. 2B) at the Karmoos bog (47N33, 13E38; 1390 m a.s.l.). The bog is bordered by steep slopes, which ensured that trees broken down by wind or snow did fall into the bog. The trunks became instantly preserved in the humid milieu. It was possible to extract more than 300 logs from different soil depths, with diameters ranging between 5 Fig. 3. The oldest wooden staircase located at the Christian and 50 cm. Disks were cut off and immersed in a rock- von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen at Hallstatt, Austria. salt (NaCl) saturated solution for five weeks. After- wards, the disks were slowly dried. Fifteen living spruce Hallstatt-recent living trees (Rec) trees were also sampled by taking two cores per tree at breast height. Living trees of the species spruce, fir and beech were sampled at four different sites by taking two cores per Hallstatt–Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter tree at breast height, with at least 13 trees per site. These Grubenoffen (Tusch) four sites were located between 900 and 1450 m a.s.l.

The Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen site Hallstatt-historical samples (His) is situated within the plane of the main tunnel Kaiserin Christina Stollen with the access entrance at 930 m a.s.l. More than 200 wood samples from historic buildings The prehistoric salt mining site can be reached by and mines were taken around the salt mining sites at walking 600 m horizontally into this tunnel. The Hallstatt. Since it was not possible to access this site archaeological excavations that have been taking place, through roads or ox-paths prior the 1960s, all large- about 100 m below the actual surface, started in the year sized prehistoric and historic timbers originate from 1992. More than 500 cores from mining timbers were closeby forest sites. taken by using a regular dry-wood-corer and a power- drilling machine. The wet cores were glued onto wooden sticks and dried carefully. Measurements and data treatment Most of the timbers used in the mines have broken into pieces as soon – in prehistoric time – Dry disks and mounted cores were sanded until surface material, i.e. mostly clay, has filled up the individual tracheids became visible. Wood species mine. However, a recent discovery (Reschreiter were identified by microscopic analysis (Wagenfu¨hr, and Barth, 2005) has revealed a complete wooden 1989) and the tree-rings were measured to the nearest staircase that is according to current knowledge 0.01 mm using the LINTAB measuring device supposed to be the world’s oldest wooden staircase (www.rinntech.de). All ring-width series of living trees (see Fig. 3). were cross-dated (Stokes and Smiley, 1996; Swetnam ARTICLE IN PRESS 64 M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68 et al., 1985) and checked for dating and measurement errors using COFECHA (Holmes, 1983), and by visual spruce, ufigkeit, ¨

synchronization. ¼ Ring series were standardized to remove low-fre-

quency variability that included age-related trends, Gleichla ¼ stand development and local disturbances (Cook et al., M. Europe Oak 1990). A cubic smoothing spline with 50% cut-off at 30- year wavelength was applied to each series and the original measured values divided by the fitted curve overlap, Glk r Denkmalpflege Hemmenhofen, values (Cook and Peters, 1981). ¨ ¼ Tree-ring series of the prehistoric samples were dated average mean sensitivity, S. Germany Villingen Fir using t-values and the Gleichlaüfigkeit computed by the ¼ TSAP software (www.rinntech.de), supplemented by Landesamt fu gy (Sws, Hkm, Tusch, His, Rec). (PA

visual checking of the plots. The ﬁrst step was to r crossdate the unknown samples against each other, following Baillie (1995). These ﬂoating series were checked against existing chronologies (East-Austrian r

fir, -spruce and -larch chronologies BOKU Vienna Dating with S. Germany Fir Ovl Glk TvH Ovl Glk TvH Ovl Glk TvH (Wimmer and Grabner, 1998; Grabner and Wimmer, 2006); Southern Germany fir chronology (820–1985 r AD) University Stuttgart Hohenheim; Villingen- av. m. sens. Magdalenenberg fir chronology (811–593 BC) r Land-

esamt fu¨r Denkmalpﬂege Hemmenhofen (Billamboz (Tusch), composite chronology of Sws and Hkm; composite chronology of Sws, mean series intercorrelation, av. m. sens. rich and University Stuttgart Hohenheim; Ovl

and Neyses, 1999); and the middle European oak ¨ ¼ chronology (5100 BC–1996 AD) r Labor fu¨r Dendro- m. series intercorr. Villingen ﬁr chronology (811–593 BC) chronologie Zu¨rich and University Stuttgart Hohen- ¼ heim (Becker et al., 1985).

Chronologies were compiled by calculating mean m. segm. length values of dated and indexed tree-ring series, and compared then with existing chronologies using TSAP No. of series

(www.rinntech.de). Dating quality was also checked by r Dendrochronologie Zu ¨ running the COFECHA software (Holmes, 1983). Time span Labor fu

Results and discussion r 1245 282 128 62 0.460 0.227 0 — — 0 — — 282 — — Last year Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen mean segment length, m. series intercorr.

Dachstein–Schwarzer See ¼ 15231526 20041523 3528 2004 3531 2004 697 1051 3528 159 840 140 134 0.515 0.471 0.508 0.201 0.198 1166 1166 — 0.184 52 — 1166 60 4.5 219 219 60 9.8 60 219 5.5 62 5.5 3520 3523 — 5.7 53 3520 — 53 4.3 4.5 14751523 20031526 3479 2004 3528 395 302 202 103 0.570 0.511 0.201 0.203 1166 — 1166 58 — 5.3 219 57 219 — 5.7 — 3472 54 3520 — 3.8 — year In total, 211 trees were successfully lifted and University Stuttgart Hohenheim, Villingen Fir

sampled. In the samples, 66% of them were spruce, r 21% larch and 13% belonged to stone pine (Pinus cembra L.), which reﬂects approximately the today’s composition of species in that area (Kilian et al., 1994).

Due to poor crossdating stone pine had to be removed maple; m. segm. length from further consideration. It was possible to crossdate ¼ most of the spruce and larch samples resulting into a composite chronology dating back to 1475 BC (Table 1).

The mean age of the trees was 202 years; the maximum beech, AS number of tree-rings was 528 in spruce and 718 in larch. ¼ The composite chronology was then compared and ﬁr, FS middle European oak chronology (5100 BC–1996 AD)

cross-correlated with regional standards for larch and ¼ ¼ stone pine of Tyrol and the Swiss Alps (Nicolussi and

Lumassegger, 1998), which resulted in a 3474-year long Main statistics of the chronologies -value according to Hollstein). spruce/larch chronology (Table 1, Fig. 4). Statistics t larch, AA southern Germany ﬁr chronology (820–1985 AD) ¼ ¼ for the Dachstein–Schwarzer See (Sws) chronology ¼ Fir LD Table 1. Dachstein–Schwarzer See (Sws), Hallstatt–Karmoos (Hkm), Hallstatt– Chronology Species First Hkm, Tusch (excluding beech and maple), Hallstatt-historical samples (His) and Hallstatt-living trees (Rec); and the monospeciﬁc spruce chronolo TvH Sws, Hkm, Tusch, His,Sws, Rec Hkm, Tusch, His, PA, Rec AA, LD PA Sws, Hkm PA, AA, LD SwsHkmTusch PA, LD PA, LD PA, AA, LD, FS, AS (Table 1) show that the spruce and larch trees correlate M. Europe Oak ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68 65

Dachstein-Schwarzer See (Sws) high series intercorrelations and average mean sensitiv- 60 ity (Table 1).

20 The stem accumulation varied over time (Fig. 4): several phases had much higher numbers of samples, i.e. 30 Hallstatt-Karmoos (Hkm) 900–750 BC, 250–480 AD, 800–1050 AD and 1180–1280 AD. For most of these periods showing higher sample 10 depth in the bog of Hkm, sample depth was also higher at Sws (i.e. 250–480, 800–1050 and 1180–1280 AD), 40 Hallstatt-Tuschwerk (Tusch) which suggests that common reasons like heavy snow falls or higher storm frequencies might be behind this 20

coincidence. number of series of number 80 Sws + Hkm

40 Hallstatt–Christian von Tuschwerk–Alter Grubenoffen (Tusch) 200 Sws + Hkm + Tusch + His + Rec Sampling activities have yielded so far cores from 100 over 500 mining timbers, including the world’s oldest wooden staircase (Fig. 3). The spectrum of the wooden –1600–1100 –600 –100 400 900 1400 1900 species comprises 47% spruce, 43% fir, 8% beech and 1% for larch and maple (Acer spp.) each. The main Fig. 4. Number of series for each chronology: Dachstein– wood species used in recent mining are spruce and fir Schwarzer See (Sws) including larch and spruce samples; (Sell, 1989; Bosshard, 1974). Fewer samples were found Hallstatt–Karmoos (Hkm) including spruce and larch samples; for the species beech, maple and larch. When compared Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen (Tusch) including spruce, fir, larch, beech and maple samples; composite of Sws with the forest ecotype (Kilian et al., 1994) suggested for and Hkm; composite of Sws, Hkm, Tusch (without beech and that time, a far high proportion of beech-wood could be maple), Hallstatt-historical samples (His) and Hallstatt-living expected. However, we hypothesize that beech wood trees (Rec). (spruce ¼ light grey; larch ¼ dark grey; fir ¼ was mostly used as fire wood. The small number of larch black; beech and maple ¼ white). found in the mine indicates that most larches were used for housing constructions, as supported by the few well (mean series intercorrelation ¼ 0.57) both exhibit- findings of buildings (Blockbauten, Barth and Lobisser, ing a high mean sensitivity (0.201) which is due to the 2002). strong influence of summer temperatures on tree growth It was possible to compile a 282-year long floating (Gindl et al., 1998). Sample depth in segments before 70 chronology by synchronizing 128 samples, including the AD of this chronology was poor (Fig. 4), and dominated cores from the wooden staircase. This floating chronol- by larch wood. ogy includes spruce, fir, larch, beech and maple samples. The clustering of mining timbers with the same felling date is an important source of information for archae- Hallstatt–Karmoos ologists about construction phases and time-spans of using the mining cavities. Statistics for the floating It was possible to extract 313 tree trunks out of the chronology showed good overall synchronization (mean bog. The variation of wood-species was dominated by series intercorrelation ¼ 0.46), even though the mean spruce (94%), followed by fir (3%) and larch (3%). The segment length was short (62 tree-rings) with five wood tree-ring series indicate impacts coming from forest species included (Table 1). stand development and competition. Successful syn- The mine timber floating chronology (Tusch; Table 1, chronization was possible by detrending tree-ring series, Fig. 4) was crossdated in various ways. The crossdating poor correlations were found on the raw data. Cross- with the Sws chronology led to the ending date of 1245 dating was done by internal synchronization and by BC. The key figures for this dating were (computed by checking the dates against the Sws chronology. In total, TSAP): Overlap ¼ 232 years; Gleichlaüfigkeit ¼ 63%; 302 tree-ring series were synchronized and with inclu- t-value (Hollstein) ¼ 4.8; t-value (Bailie–Pilcher) ¼ 4.7. sion of the living trees a chronology reaching back to According to Eckstein and Bauch (1969) due to the 1523 BC resulted (Table1, Fig. 4). Statistics of the length of the series (overlap is 232 years) the dating is Hallstatt–Karmoos (Hkm) chronology show good highly significant with po0.001. Billamboz (2005) synchronization (Table 1). After adding Sws and Hkm mentioned three quality classes of dating (A, B and C) data, possible dating errors were checked with COFE- and the Tusch chronology would comply with class A. CHA, resulting in a 3528 year long chronology with At this stage it was not possible to synchronize the ARTICLE IN PRESS 66 M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68

Tusch chronology with other major standard chronologies such as the middle European oak chronology. The dating with the Hkm chronology showed no significant result, while dating with the composite chronology of Sws and Hkm presented weak results for 1245 BC. To confirm the ending date of the Tusch chronology, the data sets of Sws were pooled with Hkm, Tusch (with exclusion of beech and maple samples), the historical samples and the living trees from Hallstatt (His and Rec). The dates of the Tusch samples were confirmed by COFECHA (Table 1). There were no exclusions of mining timbers due to wrong dating, or due to weak series intercorrelations. The Dachstein–Hallstatt chronology (in total 1051 series) that has mainly spruce samples and small numbers of larch and fir series included showed good interseries correlation (0.471) at a mean segment length of 140 tree-rings. The chronology is 3531 years long, is spanning from 1526 BC through 2004 AD, and connects with the southern German fir chronology (Glk ¼ 52; TvH ¼ 4.5), the Villingen Fir chronology (Glk ¼ 60; TvH ¼ 5.5), as well as the middle European oak chronology (Glk ¼ 53; TvH ¼ 4.3) (Table 1). The monospecific spruce chronology (1523 BC to 2004 AD) showed better internal statistics (interseries correlation ¼ 0.508) and higher correlations to the southern German fir chronology (Glk ¼ 60; TvH ¼ 9.8), the Villingen Fir chronology (Glk ¼ 62; TvH ¼ 5.7), as well as the middle European oak chronology (Glk ¼ 53; TvH ¼ 4.5) than the composite chronology (Table 1). The dating of the 128 samples from the Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen resulted in a variety of end dates between 1458 and 1245 BC (Fig. 5). There were several phases with many samples dating to the same year: 1382, 1366, 1344 and 1343, 1277 and 1245 BC. These phases might be attributed to intensive prehistoric salt-mining. All samples dated to 1344 and 1343 BC belonged to the well preserved world’s oldest wooden staircase (Mielke, 1993; Reschreiter and Barth, 2005; Figs. 3 and 5). The staircase is split into two parts; the lower part built 1343 BC, and upper one in 1344 BC. All wood components of the staircase presented waney edges dating to the same year, making it clear that the staircase was manufactured at once. This staircase is a masterpiece of prehistoric handicraft (Reschreiter and Barth, 2005). The steps itself can be adjusted to the slope of the whole staircase by a simple turning and fixing process. Steps and inlay-boards are alternating mounted in the groove at the stringers. Due to the rectangular tenon at both ends of the steps, the angle between the stringer and the step can be adjusted. The orientation of the step is fixed by the following inlay-board. The stringers are fixed together by small tree trunks acting as a bolt. The steps and the boards in between are split of Fig. 5. Grid graphs of all 128 synchronized samples from the small tree trunks (spruce and fir). Also the stringers and Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen (Tusch); the world’s the bolt were made of spruce and fir wood, only one oldest wooden staircase is indicated. (spruce ¼ light grey; larch ¼ dark grey; fir ¼ black; beech and maple ¼ white). ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68 67

fixing element is of maple. The staircase was probably Barth, F.E., Lobisser, W., 2002. Das Eu-Projekt Archaeolive pre-produced outside and assembled according to the und das archaölogische Erbe von Hallstatt. Naturhistor- current situation in the mine, i.e. adjusting the slope isches Museum Wien, 83pp. (Reschreiter and Barth, 2005). Becker, B., Billamboz, A., Egger, H., Gassmann, P., Orcel, A., Orcel, C., Ruoff, U., 1985. Dendrochronologie in der Ur- und Fru¨hgeschichte. Die absolute Datierung von Pfahlbau- Conclusions and future perspective siedlungen no¨rdlich der Alpen im Jahrringkalendar Mitte- leuropas. Antiqua 11, 1–68. Billamboz, A., 2003. Dendroarchaeology from a palaeoden- Intensive sampling of living trees, prehistoric and droecological perspective: The case of bronze and iron age historic wooden constructions took place in the region pile dwellings in Southwest Germany. In: Schleser, G., of Hallstatt. 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