ISOH INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF OLYMPIC HISTORIANS

The international character of early British Olympism Don Anthony

voyage of l50 years leading to the London 2012 Ol- his gymnasium was French (Durbec) and he attended Aympic Games in London ; the third in the city – but the foundation meeting. At school Hulley’s P.E.teacher the first in a modern megalopolis. was also French. The Chairman of his management com- Even some of the best historians insert the word “Brit- mittee at Liverpool was Charles Melly. Melly’s fami- ish” before the National Olympian Association (NOA) ly worked in the Egyptian cotton trade and hailed origi- and its National Olympian Games (NOG). This is a pity nally from Switzerland ; Charles was sent to the famous because it obscures the truly international spirit of these Rugby School – where Coubertin said he “had his vi- early Olympian pioneers. The NOA was established in sion”. Before building his new Gymnasium at Liverpool Liverpool in l865 by “Three Wise Men” (the title of an Hulley researched the best gymnasia in Europe. He was exhibition standing at the Turnhalle (Gymnasium) at St. well travelled throughout his life and died in Algeria. At Pancras Station London - September 2007). one of his” Olympic Festivals” in the 1860’s press re- The Chairman of this foundation meeting was John ports claimed that athletes from Paris and Marseilles took Hulley, the Director of the Gymnasium at Liverpool. part. From the outset the constitution of the NOA stated Hulley insisted on the title “Gymnasiarch!” (Greek for it was “open to all comers”; at the l874 “renewal” meet- teacher of physical education). The fencing master at ing the Chairman, the Earl of Bradford, reiterated that

Jo u r n a l o f Ol y m p i c Hi s t o r y 16(Ma r c h 2008)Nu m b e r 1 57 ISOH INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF OLYMPIC HISTORIANS

it was “open to the world”. Hulley “dressed in Turkish Dr. had been working away clothes” at the lst National Olympian Games in London at the Olympian coal face for fifteen years by l865, His to “represent the East”. He wrote essays on Olympism, Wenlock Olympian Society, established as a “class” be- one of which was presented at what can only be called came a full-blown society in l860. It is claimed that he early Cultural Olympiads – at the Liverpool Theatre. Had could work in the three biblical languages, Greek, Lat- he not died at the early age of 42 – Olympic history could in, and Hebrew. He studied medicine in London, Par- have been different! Hulley made it clear that physical is, and Padua. His writings showed his global aware- education was not mainly to produce Olympic champi- ness of sport and physical education, especially in the ons- he hoped the Festivals would promote mass physi- USA,France,Prussia and Russia. The first two Honorary cal education. He also introduced classes for ladies many Members of his Society were Velisarius (winner of the years before the “Swedish invasion”, much to the cha- long foot race in the Zappas Games of l859) and Gen- grin of many Victorians who followed the creed – “Hors- nadius (the Greek Charges d’Affaires in London at that es sweat. men perspire,ladies glow”. American Mrs. time). Hulley also became an honorary member. Then,in Bloomer and her “ladies cycling clothes” – replacing the l891, three others joined as Hon.Members - Lord Charles ankle length skirt - were another enabling device which Beresford – a famous admiral. Beresford had been the helped in the fight for female emancipation in sport. This President of the Annual Wenlock Olympian Games in fight is continuous to this day ,with appeals for “mixed l888 and l889. His family were honoured with the con- relays” in swimming and athletics being ridiculed out of struction of the Beresford Gates in Greenwich – one site court!! All this might be recognised in 2008 when Liver- of the London 2012 . Beresford himself pool celebrates it status as European City of Culture. In- was an M.P. for Woolwich(Greenwich). There was also ternational Director of this Liverpool 2008 event is Sir the Earl of Meath – who steered the first bill for physical Bob Scott who masterminded Manchester’s two bidding education in state schools through Parliament Then came campaigns for the Olympic Games in recent years .It is Baron ! Coubertin had met Meath also nice that a recent appointment at Liverpool Hope when they shared a platform at the U.S. Boston Con- University is Stephan Wassong of Sporthochschule, Co- ference on Physical Training in l889 . In the same year logne, and ISOH repute. Coubertin had received, for his Paris International Con- Ernst George Ravenstein, Honorary Director of the gress on Physical Exercises He conducted a postal survey German Gymnastics Society in London (GGS) ,was of the role of sport in education throughout the English born in Germany. His father , August.was a follower of speaking countries in the world .Amongst the replies was F.L.Jahn the “father of German gymnastics” clubs devel- a parcel of papers, including an article on the lst National oped throughout the German city states and within Ger- Olympian Games in London, by Brookes. So taken was man communities abroad. The global movement was the Coubertin, by this, that he set off to Wenlock in l890 and “Turnvereine” following the maxim “Frei- Frisch-fröh- a special Olympian Games was organized in his honour. lich-fromm (free-healthy-happy-sincere). Their head- At the speeches during the dinner to welcome Coubertin, quarters in London, the Turnhalle (now restored as the at the Raven Hotel, it was claimed that France should be Gymnasium) illustrated the international nature of the encouraged to take part in the tilting (equestrian) events society. Within just a few years of its formation the larg- and do as “Alicante had done” that year! We are still un- est group of members was British (mainly English but able to trace this Spanish victor!! An oak tree was also with 30 Scots and some Irish) totalling nearly 600. There planted and acorns from this were planted in 2005 to cel- were 250 Germans, 10 French, 7 Russian, 5 Dutch, 5 Ru- ebrate the winning Olympic Bid by London 2012; they manian, 3 each from Italy, Spain, Hungary, Perus, and are being reared at the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew Brasil; 2 Belgians and one each from Norway, Denmark, in London and hopefully will be utilised by the designers Cuba, Poland, Canada, Greece ,and the Channel Isles! At of the Olympic Park planned for the 2012 event. From the first NOG the winner of the “all round title” was one 1891 to l895 Brookes and Coubertin conducted a reg- Hugo Landsberger. Ravestein was by profession a geog- ular correspondence on sports and physical education rapher who came to London as a young man to study and before his death Brookes wrote that Coubertin’s idea cartography. He became an eminent Fellow of the Roy- to take the Olympic Games from city to city was splen- al Geographical Society (FRGS) and his theories on im- did; it was better than his own which was s to revive the migration patterns are still, I am told, respected today. He Games but always in . Brookes said he wished he wrote a book with Hulley on gymnastics and it was in the was well enough to attend the l896 Athens Games as the foreword to this book that I noticed “FRGS”. Until then “able lieutenant” of Coubertin. In his l895 obituary to we were unsure of his background but the rich obituaries Brookes Coubertin said that the idea of reviving the mod- alone, in the RGS Library, demonstrated his intellectual ern Olympic Games was “not due to a Greek” but to Dr. powers. He was also a member of the exclusive London Brookes of Wenlock in England. Thus three years before Club, the Athaneum. At the end of his life he returned to he organized the 1894 Foundation meeting of the IOC, Germany for a health holiday and, sadly, died at a spa re- Coubertin was already in membership of the Wenlock sort in the hills near Mainz. Olympian Society. One of Brookes’s “favourite reads”

58 Jo u r n a l o f Ol y m p i c Hi s t o r y 16(Ma r c h 2008)Nu m b e r 1 ISOH INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF OLYMPIC HISTORIANS was the illustrated “Sports and Pastimes of the People concurrently Director of the Athens, American School of of England”(1801) by engraver Joseph Strutt. Born in Classical Studies, and Slade Professor of Arts at Cam- Chelmsford and working in London’s Hatton Garden, bridge University. Coubertin and Waldstein kept in touch. Strutt described how the Greeks, Romans, Norsemen, In Athens in l896 Waldstein was the “fixer” between Cou- Saxons, Normans, and others had influenced the devel- bertin and the Royal Family in Greece. He also nourished opment of British sport. It also described the “Cotswold Coubertin with his deep knowledge of the ancient games Olimpicks” of Robert Dover which began about 1612 – and the arts in Olympism – whilst still finding time to at Chipping Campden. These included a festival of po- represent the USA in pistol shooting! etry. In the early Wenlock Games there was also such a Princeton’s Professor William Sloane was second only mixture and it was an “ode” from a Wenlock Games, set to Coubertin in the organizing triumvirate of the 1894 to music, which inspired Gennadius to make enquiries of Congress, with Herbert, Secretary of the AAA, making Brookes regarding Olympic revival. Dover studied Law up the three. Sloane was born of Scottish parents and, ac- at Cambridge but also at Grays Inn ,in London, before cording to historian Ian Buchanan, had his children all “emigrating” to the Cotswolds. The Cotswold Olimpicks born and baptised in London! Like the NOA ,the AAA was revived by Dr. Francis Burns some fifty years ago (Amateur Athletics Association), was open to the world. and still thrives. So too was the Lawn Tennis Association. In those days The NOA was superseded in l886 by the Nation- when global mass travel was unknown a cosmopolitan al Physical Recreation Society (NPRS) which also used city like London “invented” world events. Olympia in the NOA motto! Brookes was coopted immediately on to London hosted great shows to enable thousands to enjoy the Executive Committee. The Patron was the Prince of exhibitions on China, India, Venice, and so on. Indeed Wales – to be King Edward VII. Two eminent Vice Pres- Imre Kiralfy was a Hungarian born impresario who not idents were the Earl of Meath and Lord Charles Beres- only designed the l908 Olympic Games stadium at the ford. The Treasurer was Lord Kinnaird – who for many White City, but “managed” the Games also. His house is years was the President of the Football Association. An- now part of the London Academy of Dramatic Art. When other Vice President was the Headmaster of Eton Col- the Victorians began to travel world – wide, it was Tho- lege. E. Warre – who might even have taught Lord Amp- mas Cook who gained the travel franchise from the IOC thill! President of the NPRS was Herbert Gladstone M.P... for the first and later Games. Herbert was the son of famous Prime Minister, Wiliiam Hungarian Dr. Roth persuaded the London Schools Ewart Gladstone (WEG) . Both Brookes and Coubertin Board in the l880’s to invite two Swedish trained gym- consulted WEG on matters of sport development,, WEG nasts to educate school physical education teachers . One was also an expert Hellenist. Brookes referred to him in of them Madame Bergman-Osterberg stayed to devel- the papers which he sent to Coubertin in l889. Further- op the first College of Physical Education for ladies in more in his valedictory speech on being appointed rector Britain. In the early years some assistance was give her of Edinburgh University in l865. WEG produced a mam- by Herr Oberholzer from the German Gymnastic Socie- moth speech of fifty printed pages – nine of which men- ty! The NPRS was still in membership of the British Ol- tioned Olympic matters. In l893 WEG was awarded an ympic Association, itself founded in l905,well into the Hon. D. Litt degree by St. Andrews University in Scot- l920’s. A judge in the l908 Games was Sir George Rob- land. At the same time so was one Demetrius Vikelas for ertson who had competed in the l896 but found real fame his translations of Shakespeare and Robbie Burns (the there by presenting two Pindaric Odes. He had written Scottish National poet) into Greek. One year later Vike- as an Oxford classics Don, to the King of Greece at the las was President of the first IOC. Opening Ceremony !Another interesting coincidence In l902 in “Revue Olympique” Coubertin was already was the arrival in London after 1896 of the champion referring to the Comite Brittanique. He included in its German gymnast from the Athens Games – in London. membership the three IOC members at that time (Her- He joined the Turnhalle. bert, Laffan, and Vincent) plus Herbert Gladstone and My essay on the international thinking of our modern Kinnaird. Two years later although Kinnaird did not at- Olympic founders ends with a tribute to the outstanding tend the Sorbonne IOC foundation meeting, the London – Philip Noel-Baker. Philip was born in l889 – trained by Polytechnic Club, which he founded – did appear. The his Quaker father to be an internationalist with a year in name of the Prince of Wales was listed under Honor- both France and Germany prior to one more in the USA ary Membership. During the visit of the IOC to London – before his degree at Cambridge followed by Professo- (their “first outing” according to Coubertin) they were in- rial experience at Oxford and work in the League of Na- vited to tea at Eton and were no doubt hosted by Warre. tions. Philip told me he had met every President of the Kinnaird was also host a similar event in Henley. IOC – and this would include Jacques Rogge I think. He Coubertin in his research visits to British schools spectated in l908 – competed in 1912 (where he was cap- which began in the early l880’s had met Ampthill at Eton tivated by de Courcy Laffan’s sermon “Pax Olimpica”). it is thought – who was then captain of rowing. He def- He competed again in 1920 where he won a silver medal initely met Charles Waldstein (later Walston) who was in l500 metres {athletics} . Government Minister respon-

Jo u r n a l o f Ol y m p i c Hi s t o r y 16(Ma r c h 2008)Nu m b e r 1 59 ISOH INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF OLYMPIC HISTORIANS

sible for the l948 Games in London; still commandant of to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize if they could tru- the British team in Helsinki l952. President of Unesco’s ly bring sport for all to the whole world – especially the Sports Council (ICSPE) from l960 to l972 – when the developing world. A call from a man who had himself IOC did little to foster Olympic education. At the offi- been Nobel Peace Laureate, for work on disarmament, cial founding meeting of the ICSPE in Rome he astound- in l959. The son of a Canadian father, a Scottish moth- ed the audience by speaking in Italian - a language he had er, and an Irish grandfather whose wife had a home in learnt as a member of the Friends Ambulance Unit dur- Greece!. A true internationalist who would have applaud- ing the first world war; indeed he gained the silver med- ed London as an exciting global – city to host the 2012 al for bravery from the Italian government. In 1963 in- Olympic Games. deed the centenary of Coubertin’s birth was celebrated Let it not be said then that international Olympic in UNESCO House, Paris. Philip was a powerful voice thinking began in l894. It began much earlier, The inven- in favour of Olympism when the idea was under grave tion of the IOC however was the “engine” – an imagina- attack in l980. One who called, in his last major speech tive device which turned aspiration into actuality – for us at the IOC Congress in Baden-Baden (l981) for the IOC all to enjoy today. ■

The 1984 London Games: An investigation into political and economic post-war reconstruction and the Olympics Daphné Bolz he pros and cons of ny, insisted on guaranties in the event of the creation of a Tthe reconstruction new German state. years following the Sec- The “German question” remained a central prob- ond World War have been lem. Was it acceptable for Germany to reclaim its polit- studied and debated by ical sovereignty after Nazism? The question was reflect- many historians, including ed in the international sports world: Should Germany the actual impact of the Marshall Plan. However that may be invited to the Olympic Games in London? The neg- be, when compared to the aftermath of the First World ative response by the British authorities showed the in- War, reconstruction was a success. During the twenty decision of a country confronted with the prospect of a years after the end of the hostilities in 1945, the average united Europe that included Germany. On the one hand, annual increase in national incomes of Western Europe- former Prime Minister Winston Churchill, out of pow- an countries reached 4.05%. New investments, techno- er since 1945, made a moving appeal on 19 September logical progress and the increase in income that resulted 1946 in favour of a “United States of Europe” in his Zu- compensated for war damages. The launch of Europe- rich speech. Great Britain and its Empire, put on the same an reconstruction with the Schuman Declaration on 9 level as the Soviet Union and the USA, was given the po- May 1950 lies in the context of these political transfor- sition of protector of the future united Europe. On the mations. other hand, it was subjected to the realities of the Cold It seems curious to me then that research into the his- War. Great Britain was economically dependent upon the tory of post-war diplomatic relations as it relates to the USA and had lost the jewel of its Empire – India. It had history of sport should have so little to say about the 1948 not managed to find a coherent European strategy, even London Olympic Games. This article explains how I will though it signed the Brussels Treaty on 17 March 1948. organize my research on these “Games of Austerity”, as At home, the British people dreamed of a new society, they were known, that crystallized all the major diplo- symbolised by the National Health Service that came into matic issues of that period. force in 1948, whilst many goods were still rationed and The year 1948 marked the beginning of a long-term the country was on the verge of bankruptcy. period of the worldwide Cold War. After the communist coup d’État in the Czech Republic (February 1948) and The 1948 London Olympic Games the Berlin blockade, it became evident that Western Eu- The XIVth Olympic Games were celebrated in Lon- rope had to unite in order to counter communism. The don from 29 July to 14 August 1948. The opening and creation of a West-German state, to which many impor- closing ceremonies as well as the main competitions tant powers would be given, was the main issue at that were held at Wembley Stadium. Two major concerns moment. The USA was in favour of this idea, but did were dominant during the reconstruction period in Eu- not propose any concrete solutions to deal with its con- rope and they also apply to the British attitude towards sequences. Stalin was totally opposed. And France, af- the 1948 Games. Politics: the British Olympic Associa- ter claiming to be in favour of the dismantling of Germa- tion (BOA) and the bid for the 1948 Games in the context

60 Jo u r n a l o f Ol y m p i c Hi s t o r y 16(Ma r c h 2008)Nu m b e r 1