Melilla con aPoYo lentíty Where rpology, Stockholm 7 ujer ilable Hope and Disillusion t20t0l09l24l The Representations of Europe in Algerian and Tunisian tmmìssion on British cultural Productions about undocumented Migration

\ Comparative View Farida Souiah, Monika Salzbrunn and Simon Mastrangelo rces øndWølls: Støte

L. Chrisman ,-111, Borders between North Africa and Europe are increasingly difficult to cross because of the imprementation of restrictive migration policies (souiah 2012). Røcø, Durham, Despite these restrictions, migrants and refugees attempt to leave their home country without passports or visas, often on boats, and usually at a great risk qainìng Coercive to their lives. The Mediterranean Sea has become the deadliest migration route 'ress. in the (IoM, world Missing Migrants project 20r6a).In the rgust. Available Maghrebi dialects, those who leave without documentation are ca\ed .those minary-election- hørraga, liteãily who burn'l the borders. This name reflects the fact that they dã not ..rp.ct the man_ datory steps for legal departure. tíscourses Meøn, Also, they figuratively 'burn' their papers to avoid deportation once in Europe. This form of migration 7 FebruarY. - hargø (the burning) - is a source of inspiration for r por criticar el many artists (Peraldi et ar.2014). songs (Salzbrunn et al.2llla;souiah 20[), films and many forms of art have depicted ha,aga(Souiah 2014), From popular music by non-professional artists to art pieces exposed in selective galleries in I Experiences of North Africa and Europe, the cond.itions of production ,uity and Excellent in of these artworks and their potential audience is very diverse. However, despite a few exceptions such as Merzak Allouache's movie Harraga and some art pieces that were exposed in Europe as well as in North Africa, the audience is overwhermingry North African. Music is the principal art form that deals with undocumented mobil_ tty and the lyrics are in Arabic and or in Berber dialects. In terms of musical genre, this phenomenon is mainly seen in Algerian raT2 and Tunisian mizwed,3 while both countries have a tradition of politicized rap. surprisingly for such a diverse corpus' there are no significant differences in the ways in which Europe is depicted. The discourse about migration and borders in art stands in contrast 156 F' Souiøh, M' Sølzbrunn ønd S' Mastrøngelo

Karoui 2013; it focuses on the narratives of to political and media discourse mainly because 2008; Salazar 20 themselves (Canut and Sow 2014)' the migrants 2012;Yigh200g) not only in artworks but also in This chapter analyses the depiction ofEurope motivations to thedigitalspacefocusingonsocialnetworks,Indeed,someharragøpostcontent to the capacityof and their 'adventures' (Bachelet online that is related to ih.i, migratory desires they create lives' (Salazar 201 2008; Gaibazzi2Ol5; Timera 2012)' For example' 2016; Bredeloup Analysing where they also post and comment pages dedicated to this topic on Facebook' They also share nial migratory shot during thåi, across the Mediterranean. on footage ¡o.r.n.y beyond songs they find on the web (Salzbrunn the videos they create using i-ug"s and on those pages have not phy. That struggle Mastrangelo 2014)' Those who follow and Post and and cannons but Undocumented migration seems to be always tried to cross the Mediterranean' (Said 1993: 7). Algerians and Tunisians who nurse area of special interest for many young an images of Europe of social networks' those who pro- desire to migrate to Europe' In the case the However, this the same' the content and those who consume it are duce how they perceive Inthischapter,wepurposelychoosenottodistinguishbetween.highart' the imaginative .low .u,t .non-art,. Therefore we will invoke the notion and art, or betwe"n and videos' collages and cally at the oftultural productions' to refer to songs' books' paintings' which are both digi- This chapter posts about hørga.Thesecultural productions, Facebook comparative talandnon-digital'areusedasgatewaytoimaginariesofmigration(Martin tion in Algeria 1989;2003)'Wewillconfrontthoserepresentationswiththeharrøgødiscourse Europe are fieldwork and interviews in Tunisia which we gathered through ethnographic tress and a imaginaries' land and Algeria in order to further analyse migrants' hargø also evoke Theseimaginariesaretulturallysharedandsociallytransmittedrepre- personal imaginings and one can succeed sentational assemblages that interact with people's Europe, while areasused",-.uning-makingdevicesandworld-shapingdevices,(Salazar a double sense: they exist by appears as the 124). Moreover, '[t]hey are imaginary in 2014t one even when they acquire can, for of representation or implicit understandings, virtue Iand ofhope but immenseinstitutionalforce;andtheyarethemeansbywhichindividualsunder- sometimes (Gaonkar 2002. 4), A focus on stand their identities and their place in the world the other side approaches have dominated of mechanistic economic visions and macro-political they face, as well thestudyofmigration(WihtoldeWenden2002).Thestudyofimaginariesas much quite recent and remains rare to reach. As important factor in the decision to migrate is an the art form despitethepioneeringworkdonebyAbdelmalekSayad(1975).Inhisarticle present describes the mythification chapter .El Ghorba: From original Sin to Collective Liel he "Kabylia of the migration and rural and notably the collective misrecognition of migration in employed various social scientists have to migrants, life as workers in France (Sayad 2000). migrate their social imaginaries in relation to the decision to subsequentþ anaþsed context. (BarrèreandMartuccelli200T;Bredeloup2008;Camacho2008;Friese2014; Hope andDisillusion r57 ønd S' Mastrøngelo 156 F' Souiøh' M' Sølzbrunn Karoui 2013; Lacroix 2010; Mbodji 2008; o'Reilly 2014; Poulet 20i4; Ragaru on the narratives of mainly because it focuses Timera to political and media discourse 200g; Salazar 20lQa,b;2014; salzbrunn and Friese 2013; souiah 2011; Sow 2014)' themselves (Canut and 2012; Vigh 2009). Following Salazar, this chapter builds on the observation, 'The the migrants but also in of Europe not only in artworks This chapter anaþses Àe depiction motivations to cross boundaries are usually multiple, but they are largely linked Indeed' someharragøpost content digital ,pu.. fot"'i"g on to the capacity of migrants and their social networks to imagine other places and the '*'tnetworks' 'adventures' (Bachelet migratory desires and their that is related toîf'"i' lives' (Salazar 20lL: 577) ' online example' they create Timera 2012)' For a postcolo- 2016; Bredeloup 2008; Gaibazzi2Ol5; Analysing images and representations is even more crucial in where they also post and comment to this i"ftt Facebook' context. As Edward Said argues, 'fust as none of us is outside or pages dedicated share nial migratory "t the Mediterranean' They also during *åi aüoss none ofus is completely free from the struggle over geogra- on footage shot ¡ou"tt' (Salzbrunn beyond geography, songs they find on the web create u'i"g i-ugt' and is complex and interesting because it is not only about soldiers the videos they have not phy. That struggle and post on those pages 2014)' fÃo" *tto follow about ideas, about forms, about images and imaginings' and Mastrangelo to be and cannons but also Undocumented migration seems tried to .'o" t* Mediterranean' (Said 1993: 7). Inspired by said's concept of imaginative geograph¡ we study the always Tunisians who nurse many young Algerians and area of special in*"u for images of Europe in Algeria and Tunisia as rooted in a specific power relation. an those who pro- In the case of social networks' and the desire to migrate to Europe' However, this chapter breaks with a focus on the images of the dominant who consume it are the same' it focuses on duce the content and those how they perceive and construct the'otherd and btherness'. Rathet Inthischapter,wepurposeþchoosenottodistinguishbetween'highart' the imaginative geography of those who are sociall¡ politically and geographi- ,non-art'. Therefore we will invoke the notion .low nrt anã the subaltern. and art, or betweå and cally at the margins: books' paintings' videos' collages productions' to refer to songs' This chapter also treats Algeria and Tunisia together rather than employing a oftultural which are both digi- ø ørga'Iihesetultu'ul productions' Europe in cultural produc- Facebook po,t' (Martin comparative perspective, since the representations of "Uot't gateway to imaginaries of migration tal and non-digital, are used as tion in Algeria and Tunisia contain similar themes.n In both cases' the images of neither homogeneous nor consistent. Europe first appears as a for- 19s9;2003)'Wewillconfrontthoserepresentationswiththeharragadiscoursein Tunisia Europe are ethnographic fieldwork and interviews which we gathered ;r*r tress and a land that is especially hard to reach. The cultural productions about analyse migrants' imaginaries' where and Algeria in order to further harga also evoke Europe as the land where everything is possible: a land and socially transmitted repre- are 'culturally shared be accomplished. Some of these works depict a picturesque These imaginaries and one can succeed and with people's personal imaginings assemblages that interact Europe, while others focus on material gain such as money and cars. Europe also sentational devicesr (Salazar devices anà world-shaping are as used as meaning-making appears as the land where one can free oneselffrom social pressure and where in a double sensel they exist by 124).Moreover' '[tlhey are imaginary one can, for example, drink and flirt openly. However, Europe is not only the 20I4t they acquire understandings, even when of representation år implicit land of hope but also the land of disillusion. Cultural productions aboutharga virtue individuals under- unå ,h"y are the means by which immense institutional for.., sometimes portray the loneliness of migrants or the racism they experience on 2002t 4)' A focus on place in the world (Gaonkar stand their identities and their the other side of the Mediterranean. They also speak of the economic hardships as as the fear of being expelled from this land that they risked so mechanisticeconomicvisionsandmacro-politicalapproacheshavedominated as they face, well 2002)' The study of imaginaries of migration (Wihtol de Wenden much to reach. As mentioned previously, this heterogeneity does not depend on the study remains rare to migrate is quite recent and an important factor in the decision the art form considered nor reflects a specificity of the digital space. Finall¡ the despitett'.pion".,ing*o,kdon.byAbdelmal.ksuyud(tszs).Inhisarticle present chapter provides a constructive alternative to mechanistic approaches in .ElGhorba:FromoriginalsintoCollectivetie',hedescribesthemythification migration studies. We will analyse the different artistic strategies of the and diaspora the collective misrecognition in and notably employed the agency of the hørraga, which is rooted in the force of of migration have to express ""J?"Uylia (Sayad 2000)' Various social scientists migrants' life as worke" in F'untt their imagination, but also draws on a specific political, social and economic subsequentþanalysedsocialimaginariesinrelationtothedecisiontomigrate context. (BarrèreandMartuccelli200T;Bredeloup2008;Camacho2008;Friese2014; 158 F. Souiah, M. Salzbrunn and S, Møstrangelo

Europe as fortress young urban men almost impossible. Cultural productions abouthørga often depict restrictive migration policies and a 'security threati visa restrictions. Mobility constraints are notoriously more difficult for the citi- tions of Europe in zens of the global south, as all passports do not have the same 'power': they do To answer this q not grant the same rights to their holders. For instance, in 2016, German and tic production French passports allow their holders to visit 158 and 156 countries respectively' trate the ways in That is, their holders were allowed on foreign soil without a visa (or by getting a depicted. The first visa directly at the border), whereas an Algerian citizen can only visit 48 coun- graphic designer tries and a Tunisian 61 countries in similar conditions. The right to mobility the Graduate School is fragile and highly unequal (Barry and Goodin L992; Corradi 2009; Golash- with humour, In Boza and Menjívar 2012; Miaille 2009; Pécoud and Guchteneire 2006; Wihtol Algeria, notably de Wenden 2009;2013). While some are denied the right of entry in the global used on the street. north because they are perceived as potentially'undesirable' migrants (Agier to Immigrationi The 2008), borders are less constraining for other subjects - even if their passport kept out ofEurope. does not grant them the right to mobility - who have resources such as money, 'fisli into dialect. qualifi cations or networks. expression among Social scientists have documented the closing of borders and the restric- by worms.s This tive migration policies that comprise the basis of unequal mobiliry noting that to die trying to leave, migration policies shifted in the 1970s (Massey et al. 2005). This 'historical work has been moment' marked the entry in a'new migration world where migration policies Algiers and at the were primarily understood as tools of control (Guiraudon and foppke 2001)' Marseille. It was also Indeed, since the 1970s, migration has been perceived mainly as a problem since Zineddine BessaT migratory flows are generally unplanned (Cvajner and Sciortino 2010). This because his visa was negative perception of migration directly impacted the mobility regime. Those people who master who claim to stay for a short period of time are now suspected of presenting ing that despite false motives and secretly harbouring a desire for a more Permanent migration. audience in mind According to Paolo Cuttitta, the imposition of visas is the primary instrument Map 7.1 is of migration control policies (Cuttitta 2007). Moreover, individuals are system- world that represents atically suspected if they belong to a country of emigration or that is politically key is written in ( French. unstable, As Didier Bigo notes, this suspicion makes 'the granting of a visa ' . ') The French an exception to the exclusion and bbeys a logic of rarity' 'in the minds of those lect. In addition to who deliver them (Bigo 20IU254). hanagø. The work, Due to the restrictive and unequal nature of migration policies' cultural pro- supplemented by a duction on harga predominantly represents Europe as a land that is hard to the centralitF ofthe extensively reach or even as a fortress. Seen from theharragapoint ofview, Europe is a place with the of rejection and exclusion, where one is deemed unworthy of a visa. Hørragø ln 'H-out,' the body of application are on the'wrong' side of both the geographical and social divide; being mainly form - 159 HoPe and Disillusion

Mastøngelo Sølzbrunn and S' F. Souiøh' M' getting vlsa for Europe IS 158 men without professional qualifications' young urban risk if not consulates' th.y are 'migratorY impossible' For the European as fortress almost the repre senta EuroPe this system of (im)mobility shape a 'securitY threat'. How does and cultural productions ? migration policies ofEurope ln Tunisian and Algerian depict restrictive tions and at the artis- abouthargaoften for the citi- looked at several pieces of art Cultural productions more difficult To answer this question, we ur. nororiously a few to illus- thev do Facebook pages. We cho se restrictions. Mobiliiy-conslraints the same 'Power'r production published on various visa do,'ot hu* tic to mobilitY IS vlsa system and the unequal access zens of the grouol trate the ways ln which the 'outh];'î;;;;;t by Zineddine Bessai, a respectively. cultural productions 1S a work notgrantthesame"+t""-tft'rholdtrs'tt;;;';;''tt'in2016'Germanandrssu"¿ 156 countries depicted' The first of these to visit a ln 198 5 He graduated from (or by getting a visual artist born 1n Algiers French PassPorts soil without a visa graphic designer and "n"J;;;;i;",, on foreign and his work 1S often tinged holders *t" visit 48 coun- 1ne Arts ln Algiers ln 20 l0 That is, their "ff"*t¿ citizen can only the Graduate School of F an Algerian urban environment of to mobility takes inspiration from the visa directly ut tt" uo'åt';;i";;"' The right humour' In this piece, he in sim ru, Jonãn'ons' with and the language eî"""".,i., Golash- life ln popular neighbourhoods Úies and a Tunisian tn"'corradi 2009; Algeria, notably from daily .H tn1:; ls entitled Out: The Guide and highly t"tot i"" 'n 2'006; wihtol One of his pieces about hargø is fragile p¿touä cotrttt"eire used on the street. are global .H, and the title implies that hørraga and Meniívar #;Ï;"i" "ná of entrv in the The stands for høtøgø Boza ''oo'' right to Immigrationl of the word *'.d"i;;;; (Agier ,Hûf ls transliteration of the plural de wenden zoos; zoölü;i;;' 'undlsirabld migrants out of Europe. Moreover' u, pot.nt'i^u-ily kept ^ to a popular ui.'p.r..w.a passPort allows the artist to reference north because they even if their 'fisti into dialect. This Play on words - be eaten by fish than such as money' who say they would rather 2008), borde" "tt'i''*ui"tshave resources expression among the hanagø "" to - who individuals are ready themät'i'îå""î;;;;";i"' -áuu'y emphasizes the facl that these d.oes not grant by worms' This expression 'i'" to rotting ln Algeria. BessaTs and the restric- see this fate AS preferable *t:Ïlt:Ïïi"Ji::ocumented,thl"o""* or borders to die trying to leave, and Art ln noting that of Modern and ContemPorarY mobilitv' has been exhibited at the Museum b;;;inequal work Civilizations ln p"r'ä'nJt Jo*p'i" 'historical of European and Mediterranean tive migratîo" 'ht (*;;;;" 2005)'.This Algiers and at the Museum 1e70s Éouse gallery ln Manchester Ironicaþ migration policies ffi;ffie It was also shown at Corner Marseille. the exhibition England for the oPenmg of moment'marked;";;t;'ina'new-i';;;"rldwheremigrationpolicies Bessai could not go to Zineddine to note that only since (Sheerin 20 1 1 It IS interesting as a problem his VISA was denied wereprimar","tåt'*"laastools"r"o^äiãot*o¿onandJoppke200l)'h¿'bee" -itiY because the map, confirm- ft*t*td 2010)' This can perceive all the nuances of Indeed, since the -n'*ion and sciortino people who master the dialect ")'ot tnpr"nnt¿'ic""it* Bessai had mainlY an Algerian n"*' ;;;;'îÇ rhose being exposed internationalþ migratory än*trv tipJi'¿ tt" mobilitv'regime' ing that despite of presenting his art. negative perceptiJ;iä'*; now suspected audience ln mind while making IS maP of the period migration. pieces. One of the two pieces claim to Lî;';;;;t "f*;;:;'" permanent 7 1 IS composed of two who a desire for a more Map The maps "t imagination of young Algerians. motives ,..;o,,;""*uring is ttre primary instrument represents the migratorY false "'u world that and 1n trt" imn"11i" dialect (using the Latin alphabet) According to n""äîïtint"' "i"o* key ls written ln both the Algerian ro translations of dia- ,., r.**" iili:fi; offers more-or less accurate of mi gration .*ffi y;;:lïlîl.îï ,ii French. The French verslon belong to a counu*l vnu -"'Þlnt ln which the artist depicts three suspected if they g'anting of a visa(' ' ') to this map, there ts a collage lect. In addition .H IS "in"ít Bigo notes' *]' *'n]iili. of those -outl The Guide of Immigrationl ¡loidi"' -".ti"'ion 'în the Linds The work, with the full title of >eys a logic of rarity hørraga. including ""ii*. and "ì'"rJ:t" the artist explains his approach, an exception t" ;;; supplemented by a leaflet ln which Unsurprisingl¡ perhaps, Bessai deals of the popular expressions. ;:Íj;*:llii:1iiÍ',,i:alnatureormigrationn:tl'1.''curturalpro- the centralitY policy to harga. is hard to He links the restrictive vlsa u' a land that extensivelY with the topic of vlsas. ;"'Jpt short stay vrsa is a place 1S made of a Schengen on hørgapredominantly of uit*' Eorope .H body of the three hørraga duction ";;;;' In -outl the or which Seen from út'n'i"'s'påi"t that often lead to a vlsa refusal reach or tt"t "";'l'i*ss' application form those applications ofrejectionunJ"*"lusion'where"tti;;";;"åu"*otthyofavisa'Hafiagødividel being mainly side of both tn" '"tt* are on the'wrong '""'*ffi"* 160 F. Souioh, M, Salzbrunn ond S. Mnstratryelo

are nevel. even completed ting a visa is impossible. In this depiction, the a; heart would be. 'Ihis pictc irritating. In BessaT,s worl visa. It is also present in th 'Ihis map represents space is called'schengen Orop.r- white crosses on a recl bacl can travel to the cor.rntry v altist also chooses to phys wire that cuts the rnap in h cler ruus to the south of tl Yet in order to inclicate th¿ opposition to the lirnits pl

at various points near the I words, o crossed. O Another bocly cì of work th ,He literature. In hìs novel ì o d lishecl in 2004, ! Roshcl Djigc òo in a very subtle manuer.. T ::E tor, Adel, is an Algerian ålt .ú lecoul.rts his boredoln, his u q) ! leave Algeria. The a novel oper öo q) is travelling through Algerir € J months of the life of o Omarol E (howna) of Algiers. Adel clrr

that get- would-be migrants who are convinced are never even completedby the ting a visa is imPossible' cross in the place where the harragø this depiction, the artist has drawn a In or indicates something that is harmful heart would be. This pictogram usualþ a is associated with the need to obtain irritating, In Bessaï's work, this image H-out1 comPoses'The Immigration Guide visa. It is also present in the map that by harraga' For example' Europe This map represents space as it is experienced and North America' there are numerous is called'schengen Oropal In Europe Algerians The green places - indicating that white crosses on a red background. on this map' The a visa application - are rare can travel to the country wr;tnoot the boundaries by a double barbed artist also chooses to physically represent wirethatcutsthe,""p'n'føf*dseparatesthesouthfromthenorth'Thebor- derrunstothesouthoftheUnitedstates'Spain'France'ItaþandAustralia' remains porous' and to express his yet in order to indicate that the boundary oppositiontothelimitsplacedonmobility,theartistdrawspairsofscissors atvariouspointsnearthebordertoindicatethatitcouldbetutoff',inother words, crossed. AnotherbodyofworkthatdealswithhargaisfoundinAlgerianandTunisian Mercy on Us' (11 awa pitié de nous)'plub- literature. In his novel 'He Will Have lishedin2004'RoshdDjigouadievokesthevisaissueandmobilityconstraints the earþ 2000s' The hero narra- subtle manner' The story is set in in a very jobs' on crimes and small He tot Adel, is an Algeria n hittiste| who lives Petty recountshisboredom,hisunhappiness'hissexualfrustrationandhisdesiretowho meets Omarou' a Malian migrant Algeria. The novel op""' *ht" Adel leave few to reach Europe' The reader follows a is travelling through Algeria to try his friends in a popular neighbourhood months of the life of orriarou, Adel and but does not take any action to (houma)of Algiers. Adel dreams of migrating' mainly doing construction work to leave Algeria, while Omarou works hard' es he was born a few Years is able to use the mobilitY in line at the French con- to take ho are applying for a visa in order

hisplaceinline.WhenoneofhisfriendsasksAdelwhyheneverbotherstoask.I am a visits to the consulate he answers: for a visa himself despite his frequent me' of saþ water is not going to bother free mani I dont n."å uiru. A little bit " comments' the narrator (Djigouadi 2004: 31)' However' despite these flippant comparesEuropetoafortressandtheMediterraneanSeatoacemetery'Here, heexpressedavisionofEuropesimilartothatfoundinBessai.swork.Yetthe t62 F. Souiah, M. Salzbrunn and S, Mastrøngelo

ofbor- leave Tunisia in notable difference is that Adel clearly decides to reject the reconstruction inhuman. He derlines and the introduction of visa'7 both qualþ:'Explain Algerian (souiah 2011) and Tunisian (Salzbrunn et al. 2015a) music raPper You are French invoke the theme of constraints on mobility. For example, the Algerian Belkheir withonlyyourlD Lotfi Double Kanon describes a world where borders are closed, cheb street lan- ter than me? sings that he is tired of 'regrets' and begs for 'schengen'. In Algerian of politeness 'We Howareyou guage 'regrets' refer to visa denials (in reference to the formula visa common to conceive me' regret to inform you ,..') while 'schengeri refers to the short-stay neither a frequently to the Schengen area. Abdelkader Boukabouss rePeats that he has Pass- of ther- and the port nor visa. He accuses European countries (that he does not name) if young Mobility is a ishing' visas while harraga risk their lives. For the singer Reda Taliani, cannot the Global North Algerians risk their lives while trying to reach Europe, it is because they where those who get a visa to travel legallY' Facebook obtaining a visa. The representation ofpassports and visas are a recurring theme on EU ders and pages about harga. t:ne administrators and the members post pictures of The admin- to international passports, often with euros' highlighting the resources they embody' it is writ- a way to escape istrator posted a picture of two passports lying on coins. on the image, 'Give a visa and leave encounter new ten in dialect, using a mix of Arabic and Latin alphabet, me of several images me'. A few weeks later, the administrator posted a collage made with among which many refer to the mobility constraints, notably passports the inscription 'denied in French, Arabic and English and migrants in deten- only on the tion centres. It is interesting to note that this colløge does not focus the exist- Media and Mediterranean but evokes the Mexican-US border case - testifying to The road to migration, often ence of a global space where people endure similar circumstances. bility and belief in .Paradisd or to 'Italy' is also a common image used by artists on Facebook, even ary lost city with though the authors are aware of the fact that the living conditions are extremely sixteenth to diffrcult on the other shore of the Mediterranean Sea' the Eldorado is a Cultural productions and Facebook pages about harga reflect the frustration of migra- notably in a of those who are marginalized by the visa system. They are a reflection it own imaginaries tory imaginaries even while they also influence these expectations. Therefore, that (IOM) set up a is not surprising that we found a very similar discourse among the hørraga Maghreb and the were interviewed and observed as part of our fieldwork. For example, sofiane that was (IOM 2016b).lhe was 30 years old in 2011, when he tried to leave Algeria on a small boat said: 'I rnigrants in arrested at the Spanish shores, near Almeria. When asked about visas he people and film did not ask for a visa. They will not give me a visa. They give visas to Cultural with money, merchants and businessmen. They give visas to old people, married would place that is bver people and retired people' They dont give visas to people like me' Why to North Africans I bother asking for a visa?' (sofiane, 30 years old, oran, 2011). Ali, who tried Hope and Disillusion 163 t62 F. Souiah, M. Salzbrunn and S' Mastrangelo

of bor- leave Tunisia in 20ll when he was 17 years old, considers visa constraints to be notable difference is that Adel clearly decides to reject the reconstruction inhuman. He implicitly evokes mobility as a right and denounces this regime ine- derlines and the introduction of visa'7 both quality: 'Explain something to me. You are a human being and I am a human being. Algerian (souiah 2011) and Tunisian (Salzbrunn et al' 2015a) music rapPer You are French and I am Tunisian. You can come here and a have a coffee with me invoke the theme of constraints on mobility. For example, the Algerian Belkheir withonlyyourlD card (...). whydo I needavisaifl wantto visityou? Areyoubet- Lotfi Double Kanon describes a world where borders are closed. cheb street lan- ter than me? Why can you come to my country and visit it with your ID card? (...) sings that he is tired of 'regrets' and begs for 'schengen'. In Algerian How are you better than me? It took 9 months to conceive you and it took 9 months guage'regrets'refer to visa denials (in reference to the formula of politeness'We common to conceive me' (Ali, 21 years, Tunis, 2015). The argument of social (in) justice is regret to inform you ...') while 'schengerÌ refers to the short-stay visa neither a pass- frequently expressed by Tunisians who desire equal treatment between themselves to the Schengen area. Abdelkader Boukabouss repeats that he has of ther- and the Europeans who visit their country (Mastrangelo 2017). port nor visa. He accuses European countries (that he does not name) if young Mobility is a discriminating factor both at an international level (between Lhirrg' visas while hanaga risk their lives. For the singer Reda Taliani, they cannot the Global North and the Global South) as well as within Algeria and runisia Algerians risk their lives while trying to reach Europe, it is because where those who have economic and cultural resources have facilitated access to get a visa to travel legallY' Facebook obtaining a visa. In cultural productions and online forums 'Burning' the bor- The representation ofpassports and visas are a recurring theme on EU ders and discrediting the visa system is a form ofresistance to the unequal access pages about hargø. the administrators and the members post pictures of The admin- to international mobility. It is a form of agency, Especially since migration is also passports, often with euros, highlighting the resources they embody. it is writ- a way to escape the hardship of daily life and experience a land where one may istrator posted a picture of two passports lying on coins. On the image, a visa and leave encounter new opportunities. ten in dialect, using a mix of Arabic and Latin alphabet' 'Give me of several images me'. A few weeks later, the administrator posted a collage made passports with among which many refer to the mobility constraints, notably in deten- Europe as a land of opportunity the inscription denied' in French, Arabic and English and migrants on the tion centres. It is interesting to note that this collage does not focus only to the exist- Media and political discourses about migration, especially undocumented Mediterranean but evokes the Mexican-US border case - testifying The road to migration, often emphasize the naïveté of the migrants, pointing to their gulli- ence of a global space where people endure similar circumstances' bility and belief in an 'Eldoradoi originally, this expression referred to a legend- 'Paradisd or to 'Italy' is also a common image used by artists on Facebook, even extremely ary lost city with abundant wealth, and it has been a persistent myth since the though the authors are aware of the fact that the living conditions are sixteenth to seventeenth century and the conquest of the New world. Toda¡ difficult on the other shore of the Mediterranean Sea' the Eldorado is a metaphor for a place where one can become wealthy quickl¡ cultural productions and Facebook pages aboutharga reflect the frustration of migra- notably in a migratory context. The belief that migrants are misled by their of those who are marginalized by the visa system. They are a reflection it own imaginaries is so strong that the International organization for Migration tory imaginaries even while they also influence these expectations. Therefore, tJrlat (IOM) set up a programme named Salemm (Solidarity with Children of the is not surprising that we found a very similar discourse among the hartøga Maghreb and the Mashreq) in Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt on this interviewed and observed as of our fieldwork. For example, Sofiane assumption were Part (IoM boat that was 2016b). The goal of the programme is to depict the lives of undocumented was 30 years old in 2011, when he tried to leave Algeria on a small he said: 'I migrants in Europe. The IoM finances cultural activities, notably plays, music arrested at the Spanish shores, near Almeria. When asked about visas people and film workshops to try to contradict the depiction of Europe as an Eldorado. did not ask for a visa. They will not give me a visa. They give visas to married cultural productions about hargø often evoke Europe as an abstraction, a with money, merchants and businessmen. They give visas to old people' place that is bver therel or a region that is beyond the Mediterranean sea. some people and retired people. They dont give visas to people like me' Why would tried to North Africans also use colloquial expressions such'Bled el-ghir' which means I bother asking for a visa?' (Sofiane, 30 years old, oran, 2011). Ali, who 164 F. Souiah, M, Salzbrunn and S, Mastrangelo the country of the others, or'Bled el-gaouri' and'Bled el-roum'(Western coun- are distorted. For try) to refer to European countries. The places that are the most depicted in Spain and Italy ( cultural production by Algerians and Tunisias are France (especiaþ Paris), Itaþ Germany, the (either as a country, in terms of specific cities such Milan and Rome, or islands nently.In such as Lampedusa), and Spain (particularly Barcelona, Malaga and Almeria). elements: first, Artists depict these locations as picturesque, invoking monuments, landmarks, currencies, The sunrises and sunsets. As Noel Salazar has argued (2011), the use of these sym- correspond to bols suggests a link between touristic imaginaries and migratory imaginaries. blondes' in the One of the few differences between Algerian and Tunisian cultural production is animal, which also the countries the artists choose to invoke. While France is a common reference size her beauty and in both bodies of work, Tunisian cultural production tends to focus mainly on monetary signs Italy, whereas Algerian representations often look to Spain' This point can be which literally easily explained by an analysis of the migratory flows. Algerian and Tunisian the artist chooses migrations are postcolonial migrations (Nair 2013) and France remains the main roughly equivalent country of residence for the Algerians and Tunisians living abroad (MPC Team case, Bessaï's 2013). Italy and Spain have become coveted destinations - largely but not exclu- place where one sively - for undocumented migrants. For obvious geographical reasons these The focus on countries are also transit countries for migrants who come by boat' Migrants Gender norms in leaving from the western Algerian shores go to Spain, whereas migrants leaving Davis and Paul from East Algeria and Tunisia tend to have Italy as their destination, or at least ence the decision to as a transit countr¡ in their migratory journey, The other European locations Social norms that are often depicted though less as a destination than a space oftransit - is - dering migration Lampedusa. This island features most prominently in Tunisian cultural produc- and foments male 'Harka', a young man tion. In his song Mr Mustapha describes the itinerary of likeþ to resist the who wants to leave Tunisia. He sings, their wives and 2001: 10) He has only one thing on his mind, itt the sea His brain is tired, He wants to rest The predominance He has only one way on his mind, it's Lampedusa's way. cles women face in Lampedusa is seen as the door to Europe. Many Facebook page names mention obtain information the island in their title and many collages and photographs explicitþ mention another (and with Lampedusa. In his very stimulating work on Lampedusa, Paolo Cuttita docu- the small proportion ments the'borderization of the island and defines it as the'theatre of the border from an isolated play' (Cuttitta2007). posed of men. In The notion of Eldorado is omnipresent in Bessai"s artwork (MaP 7.1) discussed it is often difficult earlier. Map 7.1 is an anamorphic map or a cartogram; in other words, it is not the social stigma of an accurate depiction ofgeographical space, but rather corresponds to the imagi- In cultural nary cartographies ofthe harragø. As such, the size and location ofthe countries the two symbolic Hope and Disillusion 165 t64 F. Souiøh, M, Salzbrunn and S' Møstrøngelo

are distorted. For example, sub-Saharan Africa is conspicuousþ absent while el-roum' (Western coun- country of the others , or 'Bled el-gaouri' and'Bled the Italy (especially Sardinia and Sicily) occupy most of the map. France, the most depicted in Spain and try) to refer to European countries. The places that are (especially Paris), Itaþ Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States also appear promi- production by Algerians and Tunisias are France cultural nently. In addition, this map evokes the notion of an Eldorado through two main (eitherasacountrfintermsofspecificcitiessuchMilanandRome,orislands elements: first, images of woment silhouettes; second, the inscription of Western Barcelona' Malaga and Almeria)' such as Lampedusa), and Spain þarticularly currencies. The legend of the map indicates that the silhouettes of young women monuments' landmarks' depict these locations as picturesque' invoking Artists 'E'zels/Blondates', the artist translates as 'Western beauty/ (2011)' the use of these sym- correspond to which sunrises and sunsets' As Noel Salazar has argued blondes' in the French version of the map key. 'E zels' actually means the and migratory imaginaries' þazellei bols suggests a link between touristic imaginaries animal, which also designates a woman in Arabic dialect and is used to empha- Tunisian cultural production is one of the few differences between Algerian and size her beauty and her grace. According to the map key in the dialect version, the thecountriestheartistschoosetoinvoke'WhileFranceisacommonreference monetary signs (dollars, euros and pounds) correspond to 'El Khedma wdevizi tends to focus mainly on in both bodies of work, Tunisian cultural production which literally means 'Work and foreign currencies.' In the map key in French, Spain' This point can be whereas Algerian representations often look to Ital¡ chooses to translate this as 'Zone de puissance économique', which is Algerian and Tunisian the artist explained by an anaþsis of the migratory flows' easily roughly equivalent to the English phrase, 'Zone of Economic Influence'. In any (Nair and France remains the main migrations are postcolonial migrations 2013) Bessafs imagined geography reflects image of the western Eldorado, a abroad (MPC Team case, the of residence for the Algerians and runisians living .o,in,ry place where one can meet women and earn money. 2013)'Italyandspainhavebecomecoveteddestinations-largelybutnotexclu. reasons these The focus on women is related to the fact that most harraga are young men.8 for undocumented migrants' For obvious geographical sively - Gender norms in their home country also play a role. As argued by Benjamin come by boat' Migrants countries are also transit countries for migrants who Davis and Paul Winters in the case of Mexico, social and cultural norms influ- leavingfromthewesternAlgerianshoresgotoSpain'whereasmigrantsleaving ence the decision to migrate: as their destination, or at least from East Algeria and Tunisia tend to have Italy journey' The other European locations as a transit country, in their migratory Social norms regarding gender roles play an important role in promoting or hin- thatareoftendepicted-thoughlessasadestinationthanaspaceoftransit-is dering migration by females and males. The patriarchal family system accepts Lampedusa.ThisislandfeaturesmostprominentþinTunisianculturalproduc- and foments male migration, but hinders female migration. Fathers are more likely to resist the migration of daughters, and husbands the accompaniment of tion.Inhissong.Harka,MrMustaphadescribestheitineraryofayoungman their wives and children, even years after first leaving home. (Davis and Winters who wants to leave Tunisia. He sings' 2001:10) He has only one thing on his mind, it's the sea His brain is tired, He wants to rest The predominance ofyoung men amongharraga is also due to the specific obsta- ay' He has only one way on his mind' it's Lampedusa's cles women face in embarking for Europe. The ways in which potential harraga meet one Facebook page names mention obtain information on migratory strategies and the fact that they with Lampedusa is seen as the door to Europe' Many photographs explicitþ mention another (and with smugglers) in places of specifically male sociality also explain the island in their title and many collages and Lampedusa' Paolo Cuttita docu- the small proportion of females. Women also face specific risks when departing Lampedusa. In his very stimulating work on from isolated of the is mostþ it as the'theatre of the border an beach, in the middle night, in a group that com- ments the'borderization of the island and defines posed of men. In addition, if their attempt at crossing the Mediterranean fails, play (Cuttitta2007). artwork (Map 7.1) discussed it is often difficult for them to go back and live under the family roof because of The notion of Eldorado is omnipresent in Bessais in other words' it is not the social stigma of female undocumented migrants.e earlier, Map 7.1 is an anamorphic map or a cartogram; In is represented rather corresponds to the imagi- cultural productions aboutharga,femininity mainly through an accurate depiction of geographical space, but the two symbolic figures of the mother and the Western woman. In Merzak narycartographiesofthehørrøga.Assuch,thesizeandlocationofthecountries 166 F. Souiah, M, Salzbrunn and S. Mastrangelo

Allouache's frlm Harrøga.s (2009), the expectations of migrants are closely asso- and ciated with freedom and women. while their boat is drifting, Rachid, one of the pages main characters, has a vision and sees a parry that is taking place on a yacht. and almost At the back of the boat, looking at Rachid, is a beautiful young woman who or'disdaini is wearing an evening dress and raises her glass. Later on, when they arrive in creates spain, Rachid calls one of his friends to inform him that they made it and asks feeling him to tell Agnès - whom the spectator of the film has not yet met - that he that offers arrived and to put a beer in the fridge for him. pictures of women soccer fans are sentations often posted on the Facebook pages about harga, oneofthe posts we analysed Africa, illustrates very well the way western women can incarnate migratory desires.r. through In the picture, we see the colours of the Italian flag in the background. In the the hardships foreground is a collage of women supporters and three sentences written in dif- One of the ferent ,I languages. In the Tunisian dialect, one can read, will leave and not come hargastages a back. sailor do a good deed', referring directly to hargø,In French, the phrase ten on the seems addressed to a loved one: 'you are my life. I will cross the sea just to spend allharraga. my life with you.' The last sentence, ltalian, in is a message of love directed at a youngman European country: 'I love you ltaly., ters, is written, It is important, however, to put these pictures of women posted on Facebook and Maghrebi in perspective. It is probable that other pages where mainly young men post - Weimagine even if they have different interests and origins will also - have their fair share of vidual and pictures of attractive young women. popular music, western women are more rarely mentioned in the songs about harga where boat) by these individuals are often portrayed as chasing after material success. This points I sit by the to the second feature of Europe indicated in Bessai s map (,El Khedma wdevil) since Lost in my being able to afford a car is a reoccurring theme. In their song 'Mchaou' (They I look at the Are Gone), the Tunisian rapper Balti says: The image of He wanted to tryhis luck The posture He wanted to bring back [money] as the others did of dream He wanted to make his mother happy of He wanted to stuffhis pockets. The beliefin novel He WiIl ultimatel¡ material success is not only about being able to afford things such as his two friends, a house or a car. It is also to be able to help the family you left behind. To bet- rres are not ter understand the representations of Europe, one must also study how these Ali tells his two cultural productions portray the countries from which migrants are d.eparting. him, However These texts and songs deal with the daily live s of harrøgain Tunisia and Algeria, and they focus on hardships rather than the possibility of finding an Eldorado. In this respect Tunisia and Algeria, despite their different political itineraries cohrpares these Hope øndDisillusion 166 F. Souiah, M. Sølzbrunn and S. Mastrangelo r67

closely asso- and economies, are depicted in a similar fashion. youTube Allouache's frlm Harraga.ç (2009), the expectations of migrants are videos and Facebook Rachid, one of the pages portray Algeria and runisia as countries ciated with freedom and women. while their boat is drifting, wherc hogra is highly present place on a yacht. and almost overwhelming. In dialect, the word 'hogrø' main characters, has a vision and sees a Patly that is taking literally means tontempt' or disdaini It also has a Atthebackoftheboat,lookingatRachid,isabeautifulyoungwomanwho broader meaning, designating an abuse of power that they arrive in creates frustration and the feeling of being powerless. is wearing an evening dress and raises her glass' Later on' when Hanaga are portrayed as made it and asks feeling trapped at the margins of a corrupt and Spain, Rachid calls one of his friends to inform him that they unequal socio-economic system that he that offers them no prospects of improvement. him to tell Agnès - whom the spectator of the film has not yet met - Therefore, the positive repre- women soccer fans are sentations of Europe often serve as a foil to Tunisia and arrived and to put a beer in the fridge for him. Pictures of Algeria; unlike North posts we anaþed Africa, Europe appears as a place where possible often posted on the Facebook pages about harga' One of the it is to achieve one's dreams desires'l0 through work and resilience. Fantasizing illustrates very well the way Western women can incarnate migratory about Europe is also a way to escape In the the hardships of their daily lives. In the picture, we see the colours of the Italian flag in the background. in dif- one of the most recurring images in music videos foreground is a collage of women suPPorters and three sentences written and Facebook posts about and not come hørga stages a young man who is looking away at the ferent languages. In the Tunisian dialect, one can read, 'I will leave sea. A sentence is often writ- French' the phrase ten on the picture in order to explain the hopes of the back. Sailor do a good deed', referring directþ to hørga' In young man who embodies sea just to spend allharrøga. For example, in one of the pictures we analysed,r seems addressed to a loved one: 'You are my life. I will cross the there was a shirtless love directed at a young man wearing a cap who looks at the sea. my life with youi The last sentence, in ltalian, is a message of over the image, in red capital let- ters, is written,'Ihvenir ray mor Lebhoori This sentence, which is a mix European countrY: 'I love You Italy' of French on Facebook and Maghrebi Arabic dialect, means: 'The future It is important, however, to put these pictures of women posted is only behind the seal men post we imagine that he is dreaming of economic in perspective. It is probable that other pages where mainly young - accomplishments, but also indi- fair share of vidual and emotional freedom. The same representation even if they have different interests and origins - will also have their can also be found in popular music, always linked to this state of pictures of attractive young women' waiting. In the song'ya babor'(oh where boat) by Liberta, the singer who embodies western women are more rarely mentioned in the songs aboutharga a migrant says: material success' This these individuals are often portrayed as chasing after I sit by the sea. ('El Khedma points to the second feature of Europe indicated in Bessais map Lost in my thoughts. their song wdeviz)) since being able to afford a car is a reoccurring theme. In I look at the boats. 'Mchaou' (They Are Gone), the Tunisian raPPer Balti says: The image of Paris comes to me, (x3)

He wanted to trY his luck The posture of this young man, sitting in front of the sea, allowing himself to others did He wanted to bring back [money] as the dream of emigration resonates with one of the images mentioned earlier. haPPY He wanted to make his mother The belief in an Eldorado represents the possibility of dreaming as Djigouadi's He wanted to stuffhis Pockets. novel .Fre will Have Mercy on [Js (Il aura pitié de nous) also illustrates. Adel and such as his two friends, Kamel and Ali, tell stories Ultimately, material success is not only about being able to afford things about emigrants. Although those sto- To bet- ries are not plausible, the three young men allow themselves a house or a car. It is also to be able to help the famiþ you left behind. to believe in them. how these Ali tells his two friends a story so implausible ter understand the representations of Europe, one must also study that they initially do not believe departing' him. However, Adel and Kamel end up being ,But, cultural productions portray the countries from which migrants are carried away by the story: and Algeria' without daring to confess to each other, one wants These texts and songs deal with the daily live s or haffaga in Tunisia to believe in it; we end up Eldorado' believing. It is such a pleasant "hope of elsewhere"' (Djigouadi and they focus on hardships rather than the possibility of finding an 2004: 109). Adel itineraries compares these tales to a kind of addiction. In this respect Tunisia and Algeria, despite their different political S, Møstrangelo 168 F. Souiah, M. Sølzbrunn ønd

with the discourses of the hanaga who we to strike the Europe about his perspectives in Europe, Ali' whom highlights ere in Europe, you can find a job' Their lives ours' (Ali, 21 years' tries. In his are better than ours. I sweat their lives are better than myth of the is close to Greece, turist situation of situation of life in Europe, he rePlied: Algeria. One Icannottellyou.Iwillseewhenlgetthere'Itisnoteasythereeither.Itthard this caricature butlhavefriends,hørrøga,whomadeit,theyareaccomplishednow:theyare emblematic they have a car married, they have kids, they are no longer undocumented' ' " The island leave' (Mohammed' They are doing well and they left by boat' I have seen them ous or even Mostaganem, 2011) Lampedusa, of Europe as an Mohammed,s position allows us to nuance the representation El-Amri possible to succeed in Eldorado. while he communicated his belief that it was Lampedusa, Consequentl¡ he Europe, he clearly did not want to apPear naive or gullible' that the island that it might be distanced himself from the myth of Eldorado and acknowledged Facebook hard to make it on the other side of the Mediterranean' collages but the lives of Cultural productions about harga, especially songs' deal with most behind in North Africa, those who want to migrate and what they hope to leave French TV of prospects, rather than such as their marginality, their boredom and their lack minute extract 2011)' focusing on what Europe has to offer (Salzbrunn et aI.2015a; Souiah living to be in opposition Even when they do evoke the European Eldorado it seems than in the of actors who seek to their country, Cultural production in North Africa is full an interview their social to transcend borders in order to physically or psychologically escape sucks.'The condition. point: 'Yesl 'reception

Lampedusa has A land of tragedY and disillusion In Algerian written from or at least loved one not Along with these positive representations of Europe as an Eldorado negative repre- young people as a place where one can become accomplished, there are also Many of that they will sentations of Europe that circulate in cultural production abotÍharga. undocumented order to sleep these works highlight the economic diffrculties and racism that seerns ernbodies an migrants may face in Europe, giving them a dark tone. The disillusion Hope ønd Disillusion t69 Møstrangelo 168 F' Souiøh' M' Salzbrunn ønd S' Europe or even earlier, when we to strike the migrants as soon as they step foot in the discourses of the harraga who representations resonate with cartoons about hørga, Dilem These Ali' whom Europe remains a distant hope. In his political about his perspectives in Europe' our fieldwork' Talking of some European coun- met during lives highlights humorously the difficult economic situation in Europe' you can find a job' Their met earlier, argued that'Out there A New Destination for Harraga'he goes against the we (Ali' 21 years' tries. In his cartoon'Greece: their lives are better than ours' are better than ours' I swear' m¡h of the Eldorado. The drawing represents a group of harraga on a boat that jailed in Europe is better than He goes so far as to say that being Tunis, 2015). from is close to reaching its destination. On the horizon, the migrants can already see Mohamm ed' a23-year-old Algerian being free in Tunisia. We interviewed Greece, including an archaeological site and a sign that reads 'ruins'. The carica- Mostaganemwhoworkedasastreetvendor'in2011'Atthattime'hehadalready turist associates Greecet archaeological sites the ruins with the catastrophic first time'12 he - - Although he did not succeed the tried to leave Algeria it O"* situation of Greek economy. Moreover, confronted with the social and economic he imagined his When we asked him about how was still determined to *igtutt' situation of Greece, the hørraga are under the impression that they never left life in EuroPe, he rePlied: Algeria. One of them says, 'Damn ... We went back to Algerial Humorousl¡ this caricature deals with the economic crises that shook Europe through the Icannottellyou'Iwillseewhenlgetthere'Itisnoteasythereeither'It'shardnow: they are it, they are accomprished of Greece. but I have friends, h*rogo,who -ãde emblematic example undocumented' they have a car "' they have kids, they are no longer The island of Lampedusa serves as a gateway to Europe that portends ambigu- married, (Mohammed' by boat' I have seen them leave' are doing well left ous or even tragic consequences. In his song 'El-harga, DI Danger asks: 'Oh They ""Otnty Mostaganem, 201l) Lampedusa, are you the problem or the solution?' In his mizwed song Ahmed as an to nuance the representation of Europe El-Amri blames the island directly as he sings, 'I was not expecting that, oh Mohammed's position allows us Lampedusa, you made us wanderers and you made our mothers cryi He says Eldorado.Whilehecommunicatedhisbeliefthatitwaspossibletosucceedin naive or gullible' Consequentl¡ he that the island turned them into a spectacle, a sinister joke for the ltalians. On he clearþ did not want to appear Europe, it might be of Eldorado and acknowledged that Facebook pages about harga,Internet users share not only music videos and distanced himself from the myth Mediterranean' collages but also documentaries or television coverage of the issue of hørga.l1ire to make it on the other side of the hard the lives of harga, especially songs' deal with most frequently shared video is an extract of a report broadcast in 2011 on the North Africa' The what they hope to leave behind in French TV channel France 2 from the show called Envoyé spécial.t3 ten- rather than migrants' boredom and their lack ofprospects' minute extract (taken from a longer 45-minute report) deals with the living conditions in Lampedusa. It shows that some prefer to sleep outside rather focusingonwhatEuropehastooffer(Salzbrunnetal'2015a;Souiah2011)' than in the crowded facilities that are supposed to welcome the migrants. In Evenwhentheydo.uok.th.EuropeanEldoradoitseemstobeinopposition an interview with a reporter, one of the young man simply says 'Lampadusa totheircountry.CulturalproductioninNorthAfricaisfullofactorswhoseektheir social physically or psychologically escape sucksl The reporter asks him: Are you disappointed?' His answer is again to the to transcend borders in orã., to poin! 'Yes.' The images of migrants trapped in poorly managed and crowded condition' 'reception centres have durably marked the imaginaries of migration. Indeed, Lampedusa has become the symbol of Europe's failed migration policy. In Algerian popular music, songs depicting Europe negatively are mainly and disillusion A land of tragedY written from the perspective of a parent or someone who tries to persuade a loved one not to leave. For example, the raï singer El Hindi tries to dissuade of.Europe as an Eldorado or at least Along with these positive representations young people from migrating by boat, insisting on the economic precariousness asaplacewhereonetunb"to-"accomplished'therearealsonegativerepre- that they will find in Europe. He warns the harrøg*'You pay 150,000 dinars in sentationsofEuropethatcirculateinculturalproductionabolthargø.Manyof order to sleep on card boxes in the streetl In the same vein, Houari Benchenet difficulties and racism that undocumented these works highlight the economic embodies an undocumented migrant who bitterly regrets leaving Algeria' He them a dark tone' The disillusion seems migrants may face in Europe' giving t70 F, Souiah, M. Sølzbrunn ønd S, Mastrangelo

by his employer' with Abdelmalek is homeless, works on the black market and is mistreated ask to see his papers' migrants (Sayad Moreover, he lives in constant fear that the authorities will the myth of the Eldorado migration, this is A second song by Houari Benchenet aims to destroy wants to dissuade young back home, where and is written from the perspective of someone who mented migrants peoplefromleavingbyboat.Thenarratorrecounts:'Rome'London'Parisand songs but can of migration in Malaga are not a paradisel This theme is not limited to Algerian undocumented youl also be found in Tunisian music' as Muslims. The Sabrina,theonlyfemalerapperwestudied'rawritessongsfromtheperspec- nl explains that she left full migrants fro- ..o.sj tive of someone who migrated and then returned. She other side of the Mediterranean evaluate of hope but did not find anything positive on the Open your eyes' It's not deter migrations by Sea. She raps: 'It's not true. Ghorba is not a good life' novel' He will Have of migration even paradise. Lose your illusionsl some passages in Djigouadi's project can be MercyonUs(Itøurapitiédenous),alsorefutetheEldoradomyth.Hepointsout Adel's passivity ship of undocume to the racism that the hørragaconfront. when omarou attacks Algeria, Adel responds and the fact that he does not do anything to try to leave 'You're annoying me Omarou' by mocking the young Malian's desire for Europe: married here, I will live I am already fed up with you. If God is willing, I will get society to here, and i will die here. I leave this shitty west and its consumerist Mocking omarout themlrs For him, the west is contemptuous and unreachable. for you with a cof- This chapter has expectations, he asks, 'Do you think that they will be waiting only economic hard- digital images fee and a residence permit?' Migrants potentially face not their families and migrants who ship but also the loneliness that results from the absence of their moth- appears as the their friends. Thus, many works evoke those left behind, especially the songs written rial security (which ers, and how they have suffered due to their soris absence. In address behind). Yet Europe from the perspective or the harraga who left, the singers often directþ them' røga realize that their mothers, apologizing and telling them how much they miss their European States Migrants who have not yet left North Africa' such as Brahim' express job and that newcom- The spectre ofbad awareness that it can be very difficult to find a in Europe 'There is misery' There is Nevertheless, ers can face precarious living conditions' He says: oran, 2011)' their emigration despair. You can end up sleeping outside' (Brahim, twenty-four, face: 'I would examples of actors Malek even mentions racism as a violence that he is ready to not only The ways in which rather be called "filthy Arabl' I would rather live abroad, anywhere, (Malek, underscores their in France and I will let them insult me: "frlthy AraU" twenty-three' jokes and Friese 2013) oran, 2011)' Hadj, another young man that we interviewed, sarcastically because a vision of that undocumented migrants are a godsend for European employers This mechanistic models they accept low salaries free of charge (Hadj, twenty-six, oran,2011). resonates narrow form of last representation of Europe as a place of suffering and loneliness Hope øndDisillusion 17T Mastrangelo l7O F. Souiøh, M' Sølzbrunn ønd S'

by his employer. with Abdelmalek Sayad's work, which nevertheless recognizes the agency of works on the black market and is mistreated is homeless, migrants (Sayad 2004). Indeed, if they are ready to endure the hardships of will ask to see his Papers' he lives in constant fear that the authorities Moreover, migration, this is because it still seems to be a better outcome than suffocating the myth of the Eldorado by Houari Benchenet aims to destroy A second song home, no prospects. The focus to dissuade young back where there are on the hardships undocu- from the perspective of someone who wants and is written mented face Europe reflects 'Rome' London' Paris and migrants in the power structure and the rejection leaving by boat' The narrator recounts: people from of migration in Europe. This rejection is even stronger when the migrants are to Algerian songs but can are not a paradisel This theme is not limited i*"I"g" undocumented young men without a university degree, and who are perceived found in Tunisian music' also be as Muslims. The negative representations of Europe thus do not dissuade Sabrina,theonlyfemalerapperwestudied,lawritessongsfromthePerspec- migrants from crossing the Mediterranean. This should perhaps lead us to re- tiveofSomeonewhomigratedandthenreturned'Sheexplainsthatsheleftfull evaluate programmes such as IOM's Salemm, as well as policies that aim to ofhopebutdidnotûndanythingpositiveontheothersideoftheMediterranean eyes' It's not deter migrations by reducing so-called incentives and making the conditions ,Its not true. Ghorba is not a good life. open your Sea. she rapsr The novel' He Will Have of migration even more difficult.ló imaginaries that influence migration yo.r, illusionsl Some passages in Djigouadi's .MercyonIJs(Ilaurapitiédenous),alsorefutetheEldoradomyth'Hepointsoutparadise' Lor. project can be ambiguous and cultural productions already portray the hard- ship of undocumented migration. omarou attacks Adel's passivity to the racism that the hafføgøconfront. when andthefactthathedoesnotdoanythingtotrytoleaveAlgeria,Adelresponds Omarou' desire for Europe: 'You're annoying me by mocking the young Malian's Conclusion: Europe at the crossroads of hope Iamalreadyfedupwithyou'IfGodiswilling,Iwillgetmarriedhere,Iwilllive and disillusion here'andlwilldiehere.IleavethisshittyWestanditsconsumeristsocietyto unreachable' Mocking Omarou's For him, the West is contemptuous and themlrs This chapter has analysed the varied representations of Europe in the art and they will be waiting for you with a cof- expectations, he asks, 'Do you think that digital images relating to harraga. Indeed, these works point to the agency of feeandaresidencepermit?'Migrantspotentiallyfacenotonlyeconomichard- migrants who continue to search for Eldorado or a land of opportunities. Europe shipbutalsothelonelinessthatresultsfromtheabsenceoftheirfamiliesand as promise for a normal life mate- behind, especially their moth- appears the with employment, marriage and friends. Thus, many works evoke those left their rial security (which would allow for the migrant to help family members left ers,andhowtheyhavesufferedduetotheirson'sabsence.Inthesongswritten behind). Yet Europe is also depicted as a destructive destination since the åar- fromtheperspectiveoltheharragawholeft,thesingersoftendirectlyaddress raga realize that they may pay a high price and risk their lives only reach much they miss them' to mothers, apologizing and telling them how their European States which are increasingly hostile to undocumented migration. Migrants*hohuv.,'o-tyetleftNorthAfrica,suchasBrahim,expresstheir The spectre of bad living conditions, loneliness and racism are always present. find a job in Europe and that newcom- awareness that it can be very dificult to Nevertheless harragø who are aware of these possible consequences still pursue He says: 'There is misery' There is , ers can face precarious living conditions' their emigration plans so that cultural production in North Africa is replete with despair.Youcanendup'lttpi"goutside'(Brahim'twenty-four'Oran'2011)' examples of actors who cross borders and seek to escape their social conditions. Malekevenmentio""utis-asaviolencethatheisreadytoface:'Iwould The ways in which individuals navigate the tension between hope and disillusion ratherbecalled..filthyArab],Iwouldratherliveabroad'anywhere,notonly underscores 'good (Salzbrunn AraU" (Malek' twenty-three' their agency and their capacity to search for a life' France and I will iet them insult me: "filtþ in and Friese 2013). Thus, focusing on the representations by individuals offered us oran,2011)'Hadj,anotheryoungmanthatweinterviewed,sarcasticallyjokes a vision of undocumented migration that is considerably more nuanced than the thatundocumentedmigrantsareagodsendforEuropeanemployersbecause mechanistic (Hadj' twenty-six' Oran' 2011)' This models which are based on the figure of homo oeconomicus and a accept low salaries free of charge they narrow form of economic determinism. suffering and loneliness resonates last representation of Europe as a place of 172 F. Souiah, M. Salzbrunn and S. Mastrangelo

Notes 9 During ou4 and I The verb to burn in .run Arabic can mean 'to free ridel 'to jump a queue' or to a on a boat. lightl were Rai (the 2 word literally means bpinion in North African dialects) is an Algerian popular musical genre that originally arose in the city of oran (virolle-soubiès them, but 1993). Because of its topics - among which feature alcohol, love and sex - and the 10 Facebook music scene out of which it emerged - cabarets, rai contains a subversive dimension. Rai is also known internationally as part of the'word music,genre (Nooshin 2016). 1l Facebook Mizwed'is 3 a type of popular "folli'song which takes its name from the main instrument used to accompany the singing, a type of bagpip. (...). Mizwid is a music 5 which looks to rural, 'þopular" song types for its roots, yet developed in Tunisia,s 12 Two small capital city. Thus it is an urban 'þopular" music, which uses rural instruments, in Mo rh¡hms and musical modes, in comprete contrast to its 'dassical" counterpart, skills to do (stapley 2006: 244). This genre of music has long been associated with marginarized few years. groups. boat This chapter 4 is based on data collected for a PhD thesis about harga and.contestation but one of in Algeria (souiah 2014) andon data colrected as part ofa project directed by prof. migrants on Monika Salzbrunn and funded by the swiss National science Foundation entitled convicted 'undocumented ,Arab Mobility and Digital-cultural Resources after the Spring,,.. I 75bis), for Simon Mastrangelo phD. is completing his as part of this project and Farida souiah of60,000, is a postdo her disser ewed thirty 13 'Les harraga an in oran à Argerian 14 Songs about artistic 'nalysed pro movies, n ical cartoons, 15 'Tu .undocumented etc. during eight months of fieldwork in 2011. The results of the je vivrai ici et de 16 For example, of free meals to come. 5 Yakûlni el-hût wa ma yakûlnich ad-dûd. 'untranslatable 6 term, a mix of French and Arabic, connotes the young Algerians who hang out, leaning ,,task" against the walls (heit), whose is to support the walls. Because schools are overcrowded and unemployment runs high, many young Algerians are forced into the street, (Abd al_Haq et al, 1995: l4). Abd al-Haq, M. 7 The introduction of visa was not foreseen in the French-Algerian Evian treaty of Here" A 1962 and which was introduced in 19g6 by the French government, Agier, M. (2008), Even 8 though the current share of women in theworld's internøtional migrant humanìtaire, population is close to one-half (GEMMA Gender and Migration, European Bachelet, S. (2016), commission, FP7), some types of migration remain predominantly masculine and Uncertainty others feminine. Science, Hope andDísillusíon t73 172 F. Souiøh, M, Salzbrunn and S' Mastrøngelo

9 During our fieldwork in Algeria and Tunisia, it was very challenging to identify Notes and contact female hørragø. There were rumors about Mrs So-and-so having left on a boat. However, this data was always very difficult to verify and female hørraga 'to Arabic can mean'to free ride" 'to jump a queue' or to'run a I The verb burn in were impossible to meet. Analysing the obstacles we faced during fieldwork is lighti informative: It is hard to contact female harraga not only because there are fewer of means bpinion' in North African dialects) is an Algerian 2 RaT (the word literally them, but also because they encounter specific obstacles and social stigma. that originally arose in the city of Oran (Virolle-Soubiès popular musical genre l0 Facebook page'7ar9ì, posted on 10 December 2014. Available at: htþs://www. of its topics among which feature alcohol, love and sex - and the 1gg3). Because - facebook.com l7ar9a-1736677127332331. Accessed on l8 fuly 2017. dimension' music scene out of which it emerged - cabarets, raï contains a subversive l1 Facebook Page'7ar9aa-- ; ¿Ê ðrø harraga', February 2014. Available at: https://www internationally as part of the'word music' genre (Nooshin 2016)' Rai is also known facebook.com 1380209058790455/photos/a.3802 16 I 88789742.10737 41829.3802090 the main Mizwed'is a type of popular "folk" song which takes its name from 3 587 9 0 455 I 39 4257 4307 189 5 l/ ?type= 3&theater. Accessed on 1 8 July 20 1 7. the singing, a type of bagpipt ("')' Mizwid is a music instrument used to accompany 12 Two small boats left that day full of young men from the same neighbourhood "popular" song t)?es for its roots, yet developed in Tunisia's which looks to rural, in Mostaganem. Mohammed was manoeuvring one of the two boats. He had the urban "popular" music' which uses rural instruments, skills to do so because his father was a flsherman and he had worked with him for a odes, in complete contrast to its'tlassical' counterpart' few years. The other boat was steered by one of his neighbours, Hicham, Hicham's s genre of music has long been associated with marginalized boat overturned and the Algerian coast guard intervened and rescued the hanaga, grouPs. but one of them died. During this rescue mission, the coast guards arrested the data collected for a PhD thesis about hørga and contestation 4 This chapter is based on migrants on Mohammed's boat and the survivors on Hichamì boat. They were (souiah 20 14) and on data collected as part of a Project directed by Prof. in Algeria convicted for attempting to 'exit the country illegally (Algerian Penal Code, Article funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation entitled Monika Salzbrunn and l75bis), for which they were dealt a six-month suspended prison terms and a fine .undocumented Digital-cultural Resources after the'Arab spring"'. Mobility and of60,000. is completing his PhD. as part of this project and Farida souiah simon Mastrangelo 13 'Les naufragés de la révolutioi, Entoyé spéciøl (2011), France 2, [TV programme]. fellow. As part of her dissertation, Souiah interviewed thirty is a postdoctoral 14 Songs about undocumented migration are mainly written and sung by men' members in oran and Mostaganem. she anaþed Algerian harrøgøand their family 15 'Tu m'emmerdes Omarou, tu me fatigues d'avance. Si Dieu veut, je me marierai ici, artistic productions such as songs, movies, novels, paintings, political cartoons, je vivrai ici et je crèverai ici. Je leur laisse leur Occident de merde avec leur société of fieldwork in 2011, The results of the 'undocumented etc. during eight months de consommation (...)J on and Digital-cultural Resources after the'Arab Spring"'project are based Mobility 16 For example, in March 2017 , the mayor of Calais in France forbade the distribution fieldwork in Tunisia, Europe and in the digital space: we three years of ethnographic of free meals in his cily because he thought that it was an incentive for migrants as a corpus of ûfty-four Tunisian songs and twenty public Pages notably analysed to come. well as private Pages on Facebook, 5 Yakûlni el-hût wa ma yakûlnich ad-dûd' Algerians 6 'Untranslatable term, a mix of French and Arabic, connotes the young walls' Bibliography who hang out, leaning against the walls (heit), whose "task" is to support the young Because schools are overcrowded and unemployment runs high' many Abd al-Haq, M. Verges and ]. 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North Africa and the Making of Europe

Edited by Muriam Haleh Davis fr Thomas Serres

rì I () () M S B I R Y BloomsburY Academic Publishing Plc An imprint of Bloomsbury

1385 BroadwaY 50 Bedford Square New York London NY 10018 WCl B 3DP Introduction: E. USA UK Effect' Mut

www.bloomsburY'com Part I Colonial BLooMsBURYandtheDianalogoaretrademarksofBloomsburyPublishingPlc I The Role of I First 2018 Publìshed the French l Serres and Contrìbutors' 2018 @ Muriam Haleh Davis'Thomas 2 North MuriamHalehDavlsandThomasSerreshaveassertedtheirfightsundertheCopyright,work to be identified as Edìtors of thrs Pact to Designs uno ptttnà Åtì' tôee' or part of this publlcation may be reproduced All rìghts reserved No 3 means',electronic or mechantcal' transmìtted it ttv iàtrn lr- oy any storage or retrieval pnototopylng' å*tãtn' or any tnformation including pubìishers permission in writing from the system, witnout piior 4 North or organìzation acting on for loss caused to any individual Power and No responsibility publication a result of the material in this or ref raining from action as Darcie or the editors' can be accepted by Bloomsbury Data Part 2 Europe British Library Cataloguing'in-Publication it available from the British Library' A catalogue ir'l' ¡ook "to'Jiot 5 Europe and ISBN: HB: 978-1-3500-2182-2 Sociology ePDF: 978-1-3500-21 B3-9 eBook: 978-1-3500-2 1 84-6 6 Nativism,

Data North Library of Gongress Cataloging-¡n'Publication Congress to"f"Jbook is available from the Library of A catalog "to'¿ Hope and Bedmar / lberfoto and Cover image @ Mary Evans / J Migration Ltd chennai' rndìa rypeset *'"ffiål::î;:ffi:'å:JJt '

www bloomsbury com about our authors and books visit To find out more events interviews' details of forthcoming Here you wiìl find author "*i'uto' our newsletters and the option to sign up for Contents

Introduction: Europe and North Africa beyond the 'Boomerang Effect Muriam Haleh Davis and Thomas Serres

Part I Colonialism and Institutions rg Plc The Role of Algeria in Debates over Post-War Europe within the French Resistance Luc-André Brunet 23

and the Common Agricultural Policy: From Colonial ryright' 2 North Africa Pact to European Integration Muriøm Høleh Davis 43

3 (Post)Colonial Migrations between States and Companies: Moroccan Workers in Europe Anton Perdoncin 67

4 North African Decolonization and the shifting Nexus of christian )n Power and Social Thought in Europe and North Africa Darcie Fontaine 91

Part 2 Europe Defined: Imaginaries and Practices

5 Europe and North Africa in facque Berque's Historical Sociology Timothy Scott Johnson 113

6 Nativism, Gendered Islamophobia and Muslim Activism in Spanish North Africa Aitanø Guiø 133

7 Hope and Disillusion: The Representations of Europe in Algerian and Tunisian Cultural Production about Undocumented Migration Føridø Souiah, Monika Sølzbrunn and Simon Møstrangelo 155

I Practices of Imperial Identity: Patterns and Paradoxes in EU Trade i com and Energy Policies towards the Maghreb Region Simone Tholens 179 events Contents v1

and Exception Part 3 States ofCrisis and in Algeria: Human Rights 9 A European Delegation 203 of Civil Wat Thomas Serres Democracy in the Midst Europds Response the Mediterranean Spacer Europ e and 10 Conflict and Peace in 223 Costantini to the Libyan Ct\sis Irene B 11 Muriam ;1:;'-Ïli:lîî'1":iffii:ï' 243 laars

Critical Theory Toward a Feminist Decolonial Conclusion: #Eurostop: 26s Lilith Mahmud of EuroPe In fanuary 2017, the 285 gathered to present their Index summit'. In the lead-up decide the future of the and Matteo Salvini - themes marked their nature ofthe European U Nord, portrayed as ously opposed any described as a risk for tural identity, These views have ied political platforms Islamophobia (Druxes and programs of Wilders and fears on which their the existing European proposes the rejection of misleading to see has not receded in the EU. Moreover, rise of overtly to the at xenophobic to the