1ST INTERNATIONAL GRADUATE CONFERENCE OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT & SURVEYING (GBES 2019)

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (VOLUME 3)

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Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying Postgraduate Student Society (PGSS-FABU), Universiti Teknologi , 81310, Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. Email: [email protected] Website: builtsurvey.utm.my/gbes2019

Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying (FBES), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, , Johor, MALAYSIA. Tel: +6 07 5557351 (Office) Email: [email protected] Website: builtsurvey.utm.my

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Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying (FBES), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. Tel: +6 07 5557351 (Office) Email: [email protected] Website: builtsurvey.utm.my

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1st International Graduate Conference of Built Environment and Surveying (GBES 2019) Conference Proceedings (Volume 3)

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Prof. Ts. Dr. Mohd Hamdan bin Haji Ahmad Nur Shahirah binti Rusman (Head of Venue) Mohamad Fadhli bin Rashid (Head of Activity) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zulkepli bin Majid Muhammad Nur Syollehin bin Abdul Rahim Igwe Uchenna Sampson Mohamad Zahierruden Ismail Assoc. Prof. Dr Razali bin Adul Hamid Khoirun Nisha binti Umar Nur Fatimah Abdul Rahman Fitriyah Razali Razlin Mansor Prof. Dr Ismail bin Said Siti Nabila Mokhtar Toh Ka Bean

Naqiyatul Amirah binti Mohd Said

Muhammad Zulfadhli bin Mohd Zin (Head of Mohamad Farhan Hazman bin Abdul Hamid Publicity)

Aimi Sara Ismail (Head of Communications) Ida Shaheera binti Bakhtiar Fatin Nabihah Syahira binti Ridzuan Angya Ushahemba Steven Nurzariyatul Syahirah binti Masrol (Vice) Auwal Garba Abubakar

Nur Azzlin binti Mangsor Siti Farahaneza Mohd Misron (Vice) Mohd Jamsyeer Khan bin Jalaludin Khan (Head)

Hanafi bin Ab. Haris Nurzafirah binti Dan Muhammad Yusuf bin Nordin Rohana binti Mohd Firdaus Eidayu binti Rosli

Sarah Alia binti Norazlan (Head) Rozana Mohamed Salleh Suzanna binti Noor Azmy Nurul Azreena Nabila binti Khairul Anuar Anis Nabilah binti Mahadzir Nurul Aliah binti Mohd Isa

Encik Abd. Haris bin Ismail Encik Azizul bin Hj. Sulan

Assoc. Prof. Dr Zuhaili Mohamad Ramly Encik Mohd. Faizal bin Hj. Abdul Jalal Puan Mahani binti Abdul Rahman

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Dr. Lee Yoke Lai

Prof. Madya Dr. Mahmud bin Mohd. Jusan

Prof. Madya Sr Dr. Wan Yusoff bin Wan Mahmud

TPr. Dr. Siti Hajar binti Misnan

Dr Shahabudin Bin Abdullah

Dr Low Sheau Thing

Dr Abdul Halim Bin Hamzah

Dr. Nurul Hawani binti Idris

Prof. Madya Dr. Tajul Ariffin bin Musa

Dr. Alvin Lau Meng Shin

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ID TITLE PAGE

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE L

102 ASSESSING RESILIENCE OF FARMER COMMUNITIES IN 1-20 FROM RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF Joharudin Samion, Ismail Said, Lee Yoke Lai

178 LAND USE LAND COVER CHANGE FFECTS ON ACTIVE AND INDEPENDENT 21-29 MOBILITY OF CHILDREN IN THE MILITARY BARRACK OF NIGERIA Daodu Tosin, Said Ismail

237 PREFERENCE ON LANDSCAPE VISUAL AESTHETICS IN HIGH COST HOUSING 30-38 DEVELOPMENT Aikah Sarifudin, Lee Yoke Lai, Abdul Rahim Bin Abdul Hamid

238 RIVER MANAGEMENT PERCEPTION BY DID TOWARD RIVER SUSTAINABILITY 39-46 Rohana Mohd Firdaus, Mohd Hisyam Rasidi, Ismail Said, Muhammad Farid Azizul Azizul, Azmiah Abd Ghafar, Sarah Alia Norazlan

240 PERSEKITARAN PEMBELAJARAN LUAR DALAM PEMBANGUNAN MA’AHAD 47-68 TAHFIZ ISLAM Maziana Mazlan, Prof. Dr.Hasanuddin Lamit, Dr. Norliza Mohd Isa

241 STRUCTURAL BIODIVERSITY ELEMENTS GENERATING CULTURAL PRACTICES 69-80 IN MALAYSIA URBAN FOREST Amalina Mohd Fauzi, Ismail Said, Azmiah Abd Ghafar

252 SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND LANDSCAPE PATTERN OF DENGUE INCIDENCE 81-87 Nuramalina binti Mohamad, Wan Yusryzal bin Wan Ibrahim. Ahmad Nazri M. Ludin

259 METHOD TO MEASURE LEAF AREA INDEX USING IMAGE J IN MODULAR LIVING 88-93 WALL Azmiah Abd Ghafar, Kabiru Haruna Abdulkarim, Amalina Mohd Fauzi, Rohana Mohd Firdaus, Sarah Alia Norazlan, Ismail Said

261 PARADOXICAL ROLE OF URBAN PARKS AS CARBON SINK MEDIUM IN 94-102 MALAYSIA Nurzuliza binti Jamirsah, Ismail bin Said

263 PLACE ATTACHMENT CONCEPT AND ELDERLY’S LIFE SATISFACTION IN 103-110 MALAYSIA URBAN PUBLIC PARK Kavitha a/p Meganathan, Hassanudin bin Lamit, Muhammad Farid Azizul bin Azizui

271 EMBEDDING OUTDOOR LEARNING THROUGH CHILDREN’S VISUAL 111-116 PERCEPTION OF BIOPHILIA ON NATURE Mega Suria Hashim, Sarah Alia Norazlan, Ismail Said

280 AFFORDANCES OF TERRESTRIAL AREA AT FISHERMEN VILLAGE IN SHAPING 117-128 CHILDREN’S PLAY Janatun Naim Yusof, Ismail Said

312 SIGNIFICANCE OF ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY THEORY TOWARDS ABUNDANCE, 129-141 RICHNESS AND DIVERSITY OF BIRDS IN FRAGMENTED CITY PARKS Hazlinda A. Aziz, Mohd Hisyam B. Rasidi

315 INDIGENOUS STORMWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM BY HIGHLAND 142-149 COMMUNITIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Eidayu Rosli, Sapura Mohamad, Hamidah Ahmad

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319 THE IMPACT OF PROPERTIES AND ATTRIBUTES OF OPEN SPACES ON ITS 150-157 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESTORATIVE EFFECT ON THE HEALTH OF OBESE ADULTS IN SAUDI ARABIA Amr Mohamad Alabbasi, Ismail Said 321 CHILDREN’S ECOLOGICAL LITERACY IN THEIR EVERYDAY LANDSCAPE 158-166 TOWARDS NATURAL LEARNING Sarah Alia Norazlan, Mega Suria Hashim, Azmiah Abd Ghafar, Rohana Mohd Firdaus, Ismail Said

324 A REVIEW OF SOCIO-CULTURAL PREFERENCES TOWARD RURAL LANDSCAPE 167-174 N. Nazran, S. Mohamad, N. S. Mahasan

325 IMPACT OF GREEN SCHOOL GROUND ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE: A 175-183 REVIEW N. S. Mahasan, M. H. Rasidi, N. Nazran

384 THE INTERVENING FACTORS INFLUENCING LEVEL OF ADAPTATION OF THE 184-192 ISLAMIC GARDEN IN MALAYSIA Haza Hanurhaza Md Jani

385 DETERMINANTS OF OCCUPANCIES AND PATTERNS OF THE MULTICULTURAL 193-199 SOCIETIES AT THE URBAN MOSQUE OPEN SPACES IN KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA Norhanis Diyana Nizarudin

387 GREEN CERTIFICATION CRITERIA FOR MALAYSIAN LANDSCAPE 200-207 ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICES Kameelia Noor Haja Mohideen, LAr. Dr Sapura Mohamad, Dr Abdul Rahim bin Abdul Hamid, Dr Siti Rahmah Omar

398 FRIENDLINESS OF ROUTE ALONG HOME-SCHOOL JOURNEY FOR LESS 208-215 PRIVILEGED CHILDREN IN OLD-CITY ZONE OF MAKASSAR Arti Manikam Asrun, Ismail Said, Noradilla Rusli

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RESILIENCE OF FARMER COMMUNITIES IN PONTIAN DISTRICT FROM RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF ISKANDAR MALAYSIA

Joharudin Samion*1, Ismail Said1,2 and Lee Yoke Lai2

1 Greenovation Research Group, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]) 2 Department of Landscape Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

The issues of community resilience arise from the need to develop an understanding of how people would respond to internal and external disturbances. In-depth discussion towards the impact of a city to a neighboring district has little been discussed. The District of Pontian is located west of Iskandar Malaysia. It has received an unprecedented level of infrastructural development to boost the economy of Iskandar Malaysia. This study examines the land use pattern change of Pontian District impacted by Iskandar Malaysia. Additionally, the study aims to assess the social, economic and environmental capital resilience of farmer communities in Pontian. Build-up area for each period using Google earth satellite imagery from the year 2005 to 2015, was classified by using ENVI and ArcGIS software to analyze the change of build-up area. Next, IDRISI software is used to predict change of land use. To measure farmer’s resilience, the method used was adopted from EU-funded LEDDRA project. The results indicate that rapid development of Iskandar Malaysia gives an impact to agricultural land and changed the land use pattern of Pontian. The result shows that the farmer community were resilient enough to adapt to the change.

Keywords : Community resilience; Iskandar Malaysia; Farmer community

(SJER), will be developed to become a 1.0 INTRODUCTION sustainable metropolis with a vision to be After twelve years of its existence, known at international level. Since 2006, Iskandar Malaysia has grown into a when Iskandar Malaysia was adopted as region now recognized as a global brand. one of the economic corridors in It started under 9th Malaysian Plan when Malaysia, Iskandar Malaysia has brought southern Johor was identified as national in more focused in the area of economic development center and in 2005, and infrastructure investments to an was given already established urban conurbation responsibility to provide a blueprint to which is strategically located at the ensure that these areas which were then southernmost tip of Peninsular Malaysia. known as South Johor Economic Region The region is now moving into its third phase of growth, whereby Iskandar

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Malaysia has progressed rapidly and has demand, the more natural resource managed to draw in a large number of such as forest lands is traded with investments from both domestic and plantation, infrastructure, and housing to international investors. Hence, Iskandar accommodate the excessive growth in Malaysia encompasses five local human population and industrial authorities, namely Johor Bahru City development. Unrestrained Council, Johor Bahru Tengah Municipal development and urbanization have Council, Municipal Council, appeared to further environmental Municipal Council and part of degradation. This adverse phenomenon Pontian District Council. These local is happening in most of the developing authorities fall under the jurisdiction of the countries, and one of it is Malaysia in three districts of Johor Bahru, Kulai and the tropical region (Foo & Hashim, Pontian. Since Iskandar Malaysia was 2014). Seemingly without surprising, recognised as the Iskandar Development urbanization impact on land use change Region in 2006, it has contributed has now manifested in Pontian district significantly to the economy of the state documented in National Policy on the of Johor. At the state level, it contributes Environment (NPE) in Malaysia. nearly three-quarters of the state gross Moreover, the issue of land use domestic product and about 47 percent of alterations in Pontian for the last ten the employment of Johor (Authority, years threatened the communities. Comprehensive Development Plan ii, 2014). The key reason might be at the moment Rapid urbanization has induced the vague guidelines is being tailored in the change of ecological functions and policy thereby the implementation by processes of the natural resources thus practitioners and developers seem to be effecting reduction of cultivated fields unwieldy. Wherein, NPE is not seriously and natural amenities (Shreshta, York, accentuating the importance of Boone, & Zhang, 2012). Overpopulation development that benefits people and being a challenged have conveyed communities in term of environmental, undesired environmental and social economic and sociocultural aspects. problem for example deficiency of all The degree of this aspect as explained resources, climate changes, war and by (Costanza, et al., 1997; Costanza, et social conflict, habitat fragmentation, al., 2014) when the nature contributing limited space and overcrowding (IPS, significantly to human welfare, it is the 2014). As development escalates with major contributor to the real economy.

Figure 1 Map of Pontian Source: Pontian District Council Local Plan 2030

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So, natural capital that benefits human concentrated in Pontian region wellbeing should be given adequate (Authority, Comprehensive weight as well in decision making Development Plan i, 2006) where most process. This indicates that each land banks in this area are agriculture decision makes on development; the land and mangrove forest. As such, the concern should be given to social large tract of its land is purchased by welfare rather than only looking at how developers and turned into industrial, eminent to boost the economy. In this residential and commercial uses. In case, the researcher suggests rectifying short, most of the developments in this the sustainable concept and instilling district fail to confront Pontian Local community resilience land use map Plan (2002-2015) and the trend of no strategies into sustainable policy confirmation is accelerating to this date. particularly in Pontian. Besides, urbanization threats had to change the social, economic and The study aim is to examine the land environmental structure of Pontian use pattern change of Pontian district communities where most of the impacting by Iskandar Malaysia on its communities in the nearby area are social, economic and environmental farmers and fisherman. attributes. Assessing the land use changes pattern in Pontian, it will Figure 2 and 3 shows the comparison of provide the opportunity to evaluate the land use in the year of 2010 and the fast-growing urbanization process which land use projected in the year of 2015 eventually can assist in developing a base on the changes made in 2010 to Community Resilience Land Use Map the Pontian district council local plan for farming communities in Pontian. 2002-2015. The table indicates the Pontian district was chosen because of drastic increased in the housing, the acceleration of economic business, industrial, institution and development and infrastructure public infrastructure. An increase of expansion commencing from Iskandar 345% from 2,552.6 hectares to 8,805.42 Malaysia development. Certainly, the hectares at the expense of agricultural prominent economic sectors are land use. industry and trade based activities

Figure 2 Comparison of land use 2010 and 2015 Source: Pontian District Council Local Plan 2002-2015 (revised 2010)

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Figure 3 Comparison of Land Use 2010 and 2015 Source: Pontian District Council Local Plan 2002-2015 (revised 2010)

Accordingly, the purpose of this community resilience arise from the need research is to evaluate land use pattern to develop understanding on how people change in Pontian district and its would respond to internal and external relationship to social, economic and disturbances. Although much study has environmental attributes applied to been done on environmental and social community resilience. This research will resilience, the study on community become a guide for sustainable land resilience has received little attention and use planning and predict the future little work exists on the possible development direction of Pontian district interlinkages. (Folke, 2006). (Folke, 2006) which is to reduce the chronic stress argued that the understanding of social- imposed on the community. ecological resilience system is still in exploratory stage and there is opportunity 2.0 THEORETICAL for different angle of research and BACKGROUND creative approach and perspective. However lately, community resilience

begins to emerge definitions that are Literally, debate on resilience notion is more measured and more practical and found since 1973. Holling, (1973) has realistic. built on concepts established in research on the resilience of ecosystem. Resilience has been a popular term Gunderson & Holling, (2002) than Folke, parallel with sustainability particularly in (2006) establish the understanding of the field of urban planning. Indeed, a resilience processes in the interlinked conception of resilience in urban social-ecological system. However, the planning and urban design perspective discussion on urban planning only been borrowed from how ecological system studied in the last two decades, when the studies can cope with the uncertainties risk of disasters in urban area becomes triggered by the external factors and more eminent. Resilience is a new stresses (David & Welsh, 2004). Most concept which lately has been rapidly resilience studies focus on how each gaining ground in the societal and city can withstand or adapt from any development process, where this concept potential threat to society, economy, is in parallel to the idea of sustainable and environment. As well as elucidation development (Kamarudin, Ngah, Razak, of resilience mainly on communities Ibrahim, & Harun, 2014); (Wilson G. , respond and react towards acute 2012). In general, research on community shocks, an abrupt natural catastrophe resilience is still new. The issues of

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(e.g.: hurricane, earthquake or volcanic (Bodin & Crona, 2008)). It becomes a eruption) and very few study discussed benchmark for the ills of modern society in depth on rapid development impact (Bryant, 2005). Economic is the other against the neighboring district of a city notion of capital which means material which potentially imposed chronic property (Bourdieu, 1987). stresses (affordable housing, inequity, crime, land use, unemployment etc.) to Sociologist and geographers, in the communities. Hence it is essential to particular, have extended on Bourdieu’s investigate how communities adapt and notions of economic capital as the prolonged living to the economy, social monetary value of the built environment in and physical development alterations. the community, which in a sense economic capital can also be converted There are few factors either it internal or to social capital and vice versa. And the external forces found in various literatures notion of environmental capital has been can influence the community resilience, primarily used by biologist, ecologist, such as threats, shocks, perturbation, anthropologist and human geographer to disasters, hazards, disruption, and conceptualize human environment disturbances (Folke, 2006; Forbes, et al., interaction linked to the sustainable use 2009; Magis, 2010). Rockefeller of natural resources for human foundation (2014) defined it as acute consumption such as soil, water quality, shock and chronic stresses. Acute shock and availability of forest resources for is referring to an unexpected event such community ((Costanza, 1992); (Harte, as the hurricane, flooding, terrorism, 1995); (Thampapillai & Uhlin, 1997); disease outbreak, and chronic stresses (Forbes, et al., 2009)). Interrelation referring to poverty, inequity, safety, among three significant components of transportation network, affordable community development, according to housing, land use, environmental (Wilson G., 2010) has the potential to degradation, and so on. create different classification of resilience or vulnerability (refer Figure 4). The study on community resilience will be based on the understanding of the equal Wilson G. (2010) designates the centre value interlink concept brought by Wilson core (or core are), where there is (2012). The vulnerability of the balanced interception of economy, social, community measured by three interlink and environmental capitals of the capitals and the concept of capital link communities. As for communities with resilience theory to economic, social and any two capitals which are well developed ecology (environment or natural) (Abel, are considered as moderately resilient or Cumming, & Anderies, 2006). Social vulnerable communities, while for capitals include political and cultural communities with only one developed ((Adger, 2000); (Western, Stimson, capital (or none) categorized as weakly Baum, & Van Gellecum, Measuring resilient or highly vulnerable communities. community strength and social capital, On the other hand, (Costanza, et al., 2005) (Kinzig, et al., 2006); (Magis, 1997; Costanza, et al., 2014) standpoint 2010)). The definition extended to include to disclose a different weightage where no monetized attributes at the social natural capital (environmental capital) that network, the interconnection of people, benefited human being have more trust, institutional and cultural that bonds weightage followed by social and communities together ((Fine, 2001) economic capitals.

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Circle 1: Strongly Economic resilient communities Capital

Social Environmen Capital tal Capital

Circle 2: Moderately Circle 3: Weakly resilient or Resilient/vulnerable communities highly vulnerable communities

Figure 4 Community resilient and vulnerability measure using economic social and environmental capitals. Source: Wilson G. (2010).

The community resilience would be without a challenge. Therefore, it is achieved through a community’s efforts in necessary for this research to understand striking balance focuses and actions in all the characteristic of a community, in term three development components. A simple of the level of resilience and vulnerability example can be used to clarify the (refer Table 1). Table 1 indicates the mentioned statement: for a week resilient characteristic to differentiate between a or highly vulnerable community, an issue strong and a week community based on might prolong if the community only the understanding from environment, focuses on one component, for example social, and economic capitals of the focusing on the local economic community. Environmental capital gives development but neglecting the more emphasis on issues of pollutions environmental component. Acceleration and poor management of natural of economic activities might increase the resources. In contrast, social capitals income and improve the financial highlight the need for self-development standing of the certain group of people in among the members of the communities the community, but in return, they might through training and education, for pose threats towards the environmental example by acquiring appropriate skills resources and quality. A similar situation and knowledge for the current situation could happen if the community heavily and needs. The social capital of a emphasizes on protecting the community also encourages the environment by limiting agriculture maintenance of the relationship among activities and local industries using local the members of the community through natural resources, which in turn might participation in decision making increase economic vulnerability and processes, leadership, and organizational weaken the financial capability of the structures as well as empowerment of community. minority (or female) group. Also, finally economic capital of a community Aforementioned, a resilient community generally stresses the importance of can be described as a community which maintaining the community’s financial can create and maintain the balance stability through a provision of jobs with needs in environmental, social, and more stable income, and diversification of economic capitals. Balancing the needs economic activities. of three components, however, is not

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Table 1 Characteristic of Strong and Weak Capitals Source: Kamarudin and Ngah, 2007; Ekins et al., 2003; Lebel et al., 2006; Smit & Wandel, 2006; Parnwell, 2007; Chaskin, 2008; Cutter, et al., 2008; Ostrom, 2009; Magis, 2010; Oudenhoven, Mijatovic, & Eyzaguirre, 2010 in Wilson G. (2012)

Capital Characteristics of a strong Characteristics of a weak capitals capitals Economic Capital  Good economic wellbeing  Living in poverty / debt ridden  Diversified income stream (e.g.  Over- dependency on balance in primary, secondary, and agricultural or primary tertiary sectors) production  Low dependency on external funds  Poor infrastructure (e.g. subsidies, community aid  High dependency on external programs, etc ) funding  Diversified businesses  Communities as net importers  Integration into the wider capitalist of food, good, etc system Social capital  Close interactions among people (i.e  Migration of young people ( i.e established relationship among ‘greying ‘ of rural communities) neighbour, tight-knit communities  Service desert etc.)  Lack of leadership  Ability to rely on neighbours at times  Distrust among neighbours of crisis  Lack of control over the  Availability of skills training and destiny of the community education  High death rates and low life  Good health and sanitation expectancy  Availability of multiple services  Poor communication among  Low levels of corruption stakeholder group  Good communication and  High levels of corruption interaction among stakeholder  Female over-dependency; lack groups of self- determination through  Female/religious minorities gender, ethnicity, or religion empowerment  Weak land ownership patterns  Open minded communities (i.e (i.e high level of tenancy and ready to accept change) dependents farmers)  Good and transparent land  General dissatisfaction with ownership regulations and control community’s pathways over means of production  Poor public space  Stakeholders in control of management development trajectories  Weak governance  Strong governance structure at multiple geographical scales (i.e demographic participation etc ) Environmental capital  High levels of biodiversity  Soil degradation  Good water quality and availability  Desertification  Sustainable soil management  Salinization  Predictable agricultural yields  Poor water quality and  Sustainable management of availability environmental resources in rural  Uncertainty over agricultural community yields  Localized energy supplies  Peak oil and the inability of  Low carbon footprint community to source energy  Multifunctional environmental locally resources  High carbon footprint

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These factors, in turn, are expected to analysis. improve the economic wellbeing of the people within the community. The This study involves the collection of understanding of these weak and robust satelite imagery for three different years capitals will become a guide to formulate (i.e. 2005, 2010, and 2015). All the the questionnaire to suite with farmer images were downloaded from the USGS community that will be measured. Earth Explorer and Google Earth images. By referring to the boundary data in 3.0 METHOD shapefile (*.shp) format acquired from PLANMalaysia@Johor, the study area There are two steps of analysis. The first has been delineated. USGS Earth step of this research is to investigate the Explorer images were provided by land use pattern change of Pontian from Landsat satelite while most of the Google the year 2005 to 2015 and second step is Earth images captured by DigitalGlobe. to evaluate how the land uses pattern Both images were used to obtain impact farmer communities, complete images for three different years economically, socially and as mentioned before. The different step of environmentally. image pre-processing required for these two types of images. The procedure of 3.1 Analyzing Land use pattern image pre-processing for Landsat image change adapted from (Bruce, Caroline, & Hilbert, 2004) where consists of several types of At present, the field of geographical correction include geometric correction, information system (GIS) and remote noise correction, and atmospheric sensing has turned out to be exciting and correction. For Google Earth images, well-known with rapidly expanding Google Earth software was used for opportunities. The integration of GIS and image downloading. This software remote sensing considered as powerful provides time-series images and can use tool for land use/ land cover (LULC) after applying geometric correction using mapping ((Jaiswal, Kumar, & Mukherjee, ERDAS Imagine and ArcGIS software. 1999); (Yagoub & Giridhar, 2006); (Misra, Ankita, R, & Vethamony, 2015); The pre-processed images are then (Mengistu, Daniel, & Salami, 2008); (Butt, classified by unsupervised and et al., 2015)). The primary data acquired supervised classification method using from PLANMalaysia@Johor and Google ERDAS Imagine software. Unsupervised Earth images. The spatial data will be classification can be defined as the gathered and analyzed by using method by which the computer searches Geographical Information System (GIS). for natural groupings of similar pixels This spatial analysis will evaluate the land called clusters. It usually requires only a use change pattern and characteristics. minimal amount of initial input from the analyst. In ERDAS Imagine software, Land use or land cover (LULC) change Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis has become an important component for Technique (ISODATA) used for this type environmental changes management and of classification. In the supervised monitoring (Sundrakumar, 2012; classification, the image classified based Satiprasad, 2013; Raziq, Abdur, Xu, Li, & on the training sets (signatures) from field Zhao, 2016). In this study, the method knowledge then processed by a used for LULC change detection adapted maximum likely hood algorithm. The from (Rizk, Ibrahim, Mosbeh, & Rashed, classification finally gives the land use/ 2015) comprises of several steps land cover image of the study area in includes; (i) image preprocessing, (ii) raster data format. classification of images (land use and land cover), and (iii) change detection

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Figure 5 Land use Land cover (LULC) change detection workflow, an adaptation from Rizk and Rashed (2015)

The data then converted into vector data is to measure community resilience format also known as feature based on the level of vulnerability and vectorization which used for GIS interrelated between economic, social database development. Besides that, and environmental capital. In brief, a total land use/ land cover extraction also of 30 questions to measure resilience conducted by applying manual addressing economic, social and interpretation from Google earth images. environmental capitals will be used. The With the help of PLANMalaysia@Johor, question will focus on variables that help archived GIS land use/ land cover data identify key resilience issues of continuity, was obtained to enhance the quality of sources of innovation, threats, and the results. opportunities. As mention (Alliance, 2007), most of the questions should be 3.2 To evaluate the impact of land applicable in any research context use change on Farmers in Pontian assessing each community resilience and vulnerability in the context of Pontian For the primary stage, by adopting a farmers. For the data analysis section, method uses by EU-funded LEDDRA involving the quantification of resilience project (2010-2014) to measure the for farmer community based on a ranking resiliency of farmer in Pontian as well as score from 0 which will be shown as the through the understanding of theoretical indication of high vulnerability, to 10 viewpoint elucidated by (Wilson G., 2010) which will indicate of strong resilience.

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Community A Community B Resilience/Vulnerability score = 7.7 Resilience/Vulnerability score = 4.0

Figure 6 Hypothetical example of two case study communities with high and low resilience scores based on the quantification of social, economic and environmental capital Source: LEDDRA (2011)

The same approach has also been used Primary data were based on the by Gahin, Veleva, & Hart (2003), standardized questionnaire collected from (Western, Stimson, Baum, & Van 5 sub-districts in Pontian within Iskandar Gellecum, 2005), (Thomalla & Klocker Malaysia. Primary data were gathered Larsen, 2010), and (Nurul Islam, Yew, using quantitative (via questionnaire Abdullah, & Viswanathan, 2011). The guided survey). The survey questionnaire specific average scores which then be was formulated based on the list of calculated for each of the three capitals in indicator proposed in Table 2, and divided farmer community to establish an overall into three capitals. Economic capital with average for the economic, social and 9 indicators, followed by social capital environmental capital (refer Figure 6). with 13 indicators and environmental The quantitative approach is based on capital with 8 indicators which make up the three capitals themselves are equal 30 question in total. 72 respondents have although they are likely to be based on agreed to participate in the question- different sets and numbers of questions guided survey which was conducted at and may operate on different temporal Kompleks Penghulu multipurpose hall. and special scale (Wilson G., 2012). During the questionnaire guided survey, These quantitative research approaches each respondent was asked to give a for farmer community ensured that the score of 1 to 10. 1 for not agree and 10 if quantitative community resilience scores agree with the statement ask. enough to get the levels of resiliency in the community.

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Table 2 List of specific resilient community indicator Source: Kamarudin and Ngah, 2007; Ekins et al., 2003; Lebel et al., 2006; Smit & Wandel, 2006; Parnwell, 2007; Chaskin, 2008; Cutter, et al., 2008; Ostrom, 2009; Magis, 2010; Oudenhoven, Mijatovic, & Eyzaguirre, 2010 in Wilson G. (2012)

Community’s Resilient Proposed Specific Questionnaire Issues Economic Capital a. Your income has increased compared to the last 10 years. b. You have more stable income now as farmers. c. You and family depend on money from relatives living and working outside the community. d. There is no need for you and your family household to develop multiple sources of income. e. The locally produced goods product only sold locally. f. The government give enough financial aids, funds, subsidize and welfare of the community. g. You have been involved in making decisions within the community on matters of economic activities. h. There are opportunities for new business and potential economic development in your communities. i. You and local community can get additional income due to the development of Iskandar Malaysia. Social capital a. You feel happy with the current situation compared to last 10 years. b. You feel proud to be part of the community. c. You intend to live and continue to stay with the community, d. You know/trust your neighbor. e. You got involved in new developing opportunities/projects in the community. f. You always agreed and obey the decision made by local leader and committee members in the community. g. Young people get involved in decision making process. h. Several agencies and relevant authorities effectively performing their tasks. i. Various types of new skill training and knowledge available in the community. j. The local knowledge and skills passed on from the older to the younger generation. k. You can adapt the changes and the development of Iskandar Malaysia. l. Social problem reduced due to the new development of Iskandar Malaysia. Environmental capital a. Natural resources still in good condition. b. Natural resources were improved and manage well by relevant government agencies. c. Basic infrastructure such as electricity, access to clean water, road was improved. d. Natural disaster such as flood was reduced in your community. e. The cultural issue such as “pollution” is not an issue in the community. f. Everyone involved in planning and the use of natural resources in the community. g. New policy and laws well implemented by relevant government authorities really help the local community. h. The government through relevant agencies help solved the issue raised by the local community in relation to environmental issues.

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4.0 RESULTS AND FINDINGS result then combined with IDRISI software. MARKOV chain technique is 4.1 Land use Change Detection then used to predict the land use built up Analysis and Projection area by 2030 and 2050.

The outcome of the transformation The result in Figure 7 shows that from pattern land use in Pontian for the last 15 three districts within Iskandar Malaysia, years and the investigation of land use namely Johor Bahru, Kulai and Pontian, change pattern in Pontian district. Google district of Pontian mostly affected of earth satellite imagery for the year of percentage of build up areas. The result 2005, 2010 and 2015 was used to shows that there is an increase of 263.2% generate graphs and maps of the land of build-up area from the year 2005 to use change, including gains and losses, 2015 for the district of Pontian, 180.3% net change, persistence and specific increased for the district of Kulai and transitions. Each period was classified by 133.2% increased for the district of Johor using ENVI and ArcGIS software. The Bahru.

Build up area 2005 Build up area 2010 Build up area 2015 Pontian 781.89 Hectares Pontian 965.02 Hectares Pontian 2,058.30 Hectares Kulai 2,423.57 Hectares Kulai ,065.31 Hectares Kulai 4,370.78 Hectares Johor Bahru 13,810.46 Hectares Johor Bahru 14,973.81 Hectares Johor Bahru 18,392.18 Hectares

Figure 7 Land use/ land covers 2005, 2010, 2015 generated by using ArcGIS software

Predicted build up area 2030 Predicted build up area 2050 2,406.80 Hectares 9,957.45 Hectares

Figure 8 Predicted Land use or land covers 2030 and 2050 generated by using IDRISI software

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Pontian District is predicted increased to Iskandar Malaysia. For the year of 2001 2,406.80 Hectares of build-up area by the to 2005, there are only 51 applications for year 2030 and 9,957.45 Hectares by Planning Permission were submitted, 144 2050 (refer Figure 8). The prediction is in applications between the year of 2006 to consistency with the data collected from 2010, an increase of 282% and 319 Pontian Land Office which shows the applications for the year 2011 to 2015, an application for land conversion has increase of 625% for the interval period of increased from 307 applications for the five years (refer Figure 10). The statistics year 2006 to 2010 to 731 applications for suggest that the rapid and massive the year 2011 to 2015, An increase of development of Iskandar Malaysia could 138% for the interval period of five years give the early indication an impact to the (refer Figure 9). pattern of land use and have altered the social, economic and environmental Data obtained from Pontian District attributes of community in Pontian. Due to Council shows that there was a drastic the rapid economic growth and urban increased in the numbers of application of development of , its the planning permission after the population is expected to increase rapidly announcement of the development of by the year 2025 (MDP, 2016).

Land Conversion 2006-2015 99 89 100 83 86 80 74

60 43 38 37 39 40 33 33 32 21 22 21 17 19 18 13 16 16 16 13 13 12 11 11 8 20 7 4 6 4 6 6 5 5 5 4 5 2 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 3 0 3 2 1 2 2 1 3 0 1 3 0 3 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year

Building to building Nil to building Agriculture to building Industrial to Industrial Building to Industrial None to Industrial Agriculture to Industrial Agriculture to Agriculture

Figure 9 Land conversion 2006-2015 Source: Pontian land office

Applications for Planning Permission 2006-2015 500 460 405 400 357 280 300 219 200 141 Total 98 78 61 77 Big total 100 60 38 43 48 55 5 17 12 0 43 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year

Figure 10 Applications for Planning Permission 2006-2015 Source: Pontian District Council

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4.2 Measuring resilience level of relevant skills provided by government farmers in Pontian agencies such as the bee farming course, food packaging, tourist guiding and 4.2.1 Economic capital sewing (especially for female villagers). However, the positive attitude towards There are nine questions representing such training is overshadowed by the lack nine indicators tested in this category, of follow-up or monitoring after the and the results from the data analysis are training by related government agencies. presented in Table 3. The result The follow-up process by related illustrated in Table 3 indicate that majority agencies is required to assess which of farmers agreed that their income had skills and new knowledge is given to the increased and stable compared to the last farmers has empowered and improved 10 years with a mean score of 8.31 and their socio-economic standings. They 7.61 respectively but they also still need also positive together with the young for the household to develop other people not only pass down their sources of income and monetary help knowledge but also get to know new from other family member. They believe knowledge and to be able to get involved that the development in Iskandar in developing new opportunities and Malaysia increased the demand for their project in the community. agricultural production and they satisfied with the help from government agencies 4.2.3 Environmental capital in giving financial aids, funds and subsidies to farmer communities. they There are eight questions representing also positive about the future prospects in eight indicators in this category and the new forms of economic activities (agro results are presented in Table 5. based tourism related initiatives) initiated by on the data analysis, the communities’ local leaders and government agencies environmental capital can be classified as with the involvement of local weak compared with the other two communities. capitals (economic and social). However, the mean score indicates that it is still 4.2.2 Social capital satisfactory. The farmers acknowledged the efforts made by the government in There are thirteen questions representing providing basic infrastructures such as thirteen indicators in this category and the roads, electricity, access to clean water result from data analysis are presented in and other related necessity (refer Q25,26 Table 4. the result shows that almost all and Q30). With continuous commitment indicators presented here indicated a high from the government, the farmer level of social capital score, hence communities were able to withstand the indicated a strong community social possibility of occurring natural disasters capital. Except for Q22 where the majority such as flood, landslide, soil erosion and of them believed that the development of casualties. The finding from data analysis Iskandar Malaysia does increase the presented at Table 6 are then compared social related problem to the local to the concept of community resilience as community. The social bonding among presented in Figure 6, and the resilience the farmer community is at the highest level of farmer communities of in Pontian. score (refer Q10-Q13) where a majority of As shown in Figure 11, all have well them feel happy, have trust to each other balance developed capitals which were and proud to be part of the community indicated with the resilience score for and intend to live and continue to stay social capital at 7.11 followed by with the community. majority of the economic capital at 6.76 and respondents have received training in environmental capital at 6.47.

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Table 3 Economic resilience mean score Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 N Valid 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 8.31 7.61 4.15 5.13 8.79 6.79 6.21 6.92 6.96 Std. Deviation 1.851 2.205 3.116 3.184 1.363 2.264 2.420 1.813 1.772

Table 4 Social resilience mean score Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19 Q20 Q21 Q22 N Valid 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 8.31 8.21 8.82 8.65 6.64 7.25 6.69 6.85 6.88 6.69 6.06 7.24 4.15 Std. 2.107 1.711 1.202 1.235 1.916 1.829 2.243 1.836 1.776 2.430 2.572 1.842 2.532 Deviation

Table 5 Environmental resilience mean score Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Q27 Q28 Q29 Q30 N Valid 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 6.29 6.11 7.58 7.51 5.50 6.10 5.36 7.31 Std. Deviation 2.619 2.587 2.174 2.883 3.099 2.913 2.692 1.881

Table 6 Economic capital, Social capital and Environmental capital resilience score Economic Social Environmental N Valid 72 72 72 Missing 0 0 0 Mean 6.7623 7.1100 6.4705 Std. Deviation 1.05497 1.00518 .82396

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Economic Capital = 6.76 Social Capital = 7.11 Environmental Capital = 6.47

Figure 11 Community resilience level presented by economic, social and Environmental capital

From the quantitative analysis, there are undeniably creates a huge demand of interesting findings which relate to product from farming activities. farmers specifically in Pontian. The finding is slightly at variance with the The improvement level of education research hypothesis which made them among the farmers and family members difference from other developed nation, not only improve the way they manage whereas many critical rural literature has the farm by using new technology, but highlighted. (Marsden, 2003; Robinson, also give an extra advantage and 2008) highlighted that many farming opportunity for them to find a job close to communities are relatively conservative in their community and helps improve the way they address the need for economic capital at the community level change and innovation. These findings by reducing dependency on farming are related to respondents and farming activities. These opposed to the farmers community own experience with their that many literatures always highlighted. past. The ability to adapt to a different (Wilson, 2007), farmers tend to stick to type of government farming program is what they know best about how their the factors that enhance the adaptability. parents and grandparents farmed and to The development of Iskandar Malaysia how things have always done.

Figure 12 The contribution of agricultural (GDP) and share of employment Source: Department of Statistic, Labour Force Survey (2014)

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Malaysian has experienced tremendous increased in term of percentage economic growth since independence in compared with the other two districts 1957. The current economic development within Wilayah Iskandar, district of Kulai in the country has transformed Malaysia and district of Johor Bahru. The total from an agricultural nation to an industrial builds up area of Pontian was 781.90 country and is moving well along the path Hectares in 2005 increased to 2058.30 of modern economic (Subramaniam, hectares in 2015 an increase of 263.2% 2008). As a result, the agricultural sector in ten years and projected to increase to share in a total gross domestic product 9,957.45 hectares in 2050. Based on the (GDP) and the share of employment in result, the farmer communities in Pontian the sector have declined steadily. tends to have the ability to adapt to the rapid development at Iskandar Malaysia. At the national level the share of employment in agriculture has declined Data collected from Johor Agricultural from 53.5% which contribute 23.5% of department under Ministry of agriculture, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1970 tend to agree that the farmer communities to 12.2% share of employment which in Pontian have the ability to adapt and contribute 9.1% GDP in 2014 due to able to change to different type of farming economic structural changes. The activity to suite with the land use change contribution of Agricultural to employment and current market demand. This is tends to decrease 1.3 percent every year because most of the farmer is the owner while the contribution of agriculture to of their own farmland and the majority of GDP tends to decrease 0.6 by percent them own considerably smallholders (2 every year (refer Figure 12). hectares – 5 hectares), which make them easy to change to other more At the state level, 8.6% from Johor economically sound crop. Historically, the population involve in the agricultural major agricultural product of Pontian in sector in the year of 2016. Rapid early 1960s was dominated by industrial development and industrialization have crop, followed by rubber tree, pineapple, taken more agricultural land spaces to a cocoa in 1970s, then the domination of housing project or industrial site. The role palm oil in early 1980s until now. The of the agricultural sector as the main data presented in Table 7 shows that contribution to GDP has been taken over since 2006 to 2016 there is a major drop by industrial sector since 1987 (Hassan & of fruit crop which was reduced to 52.36 Ayob, 1999). As shown from the land use percent followed by industrial crop minus result analysis, the built-up area for the 44.5 percent, rubber tree minus 48.99 district of Pontian experiencing the most percent.

Table 7 Pontian crop statistics 2006-2016 Source: Johor Agricultural Department (2006-2016) Industrial Cash Fruit Rubber Year Spices Herbs Vegetables Palm Oil Crops Crops Crops Tree 2006 7135.06 37.27 28.00 530.57 91.14 10164.90 7151.00 43377.29 2008 6154.00 38.00 31.00 539.00 96.00 8787.00 5935.00 45474.00 2010 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 2012 5313.80 8.20 1.00 891.00 107.83 6952.86 3648.00 42889.00 2014 4058.10 40.50 4.00 912.80 94.00 4979.10 N/A N/A 2016 3960.10 33.00 86.40 1185.80 210.52 4842.50 N/A N/A Percentage -44.50 -11.46 208.57 123.50 130.99 -52.36 -48.99 -1.13 (%)

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This might be because of the combination with those challenges. of the drop in market price and the labor force required managing those crops with This study will eventually result to an the minimum return. The data also have important understanding between the shown that the herbs, cash crop and development and the resilience level of vegetable increased more than 100 farmer communities measured by social, percent. Apart from the demand created economic and environmental capitals. by the new market in Iskandar Malaysia; The identification of land use change and this particular crop requires a small space the valuation of resiliency levels will lead of land to manage, quickly returned of to assist the stake holders in decision investment and suite to the young making process, particularly in land farmers in the community. management and policy innovation. It will become a guide for sustainable land use 5.0 CONCLUSION planning and predict the direction of future development in Pontian district This study’s primary contribution lies in thus early measure can be made to the ability to illuminate on how the farmer reduce the chronic stress imposed to the communities in Pontian district can community. withstand or adapt from a potential threat to social, economy and environment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Taking into account the massive development in Iskandar Malaysia for the The authors would like to express their past twelve years, this study contributes appreciation for the support of the to a deep and detailed understanding that sponsors from the Johor State the rapid and massive development of Government. Iskandar Malaysia not only indicates an impact to the pattern of land use, it is also REFERENCES altered the social, economic and Abel, N., Cumming, D., & Anderies, J. (2006). environmental capitals of community in 'Collapse and reorganization in social- Pontian. Moreover, setting Pontian district ecological system: question. some ideas, and in relation to Iskandar Malaysia as the policy implications'. Ecology and Society. object of this study also can expand the Adger, W. (2000). 'Social and ecological theory of resilience thinking study as an resilience: are they related?'. Progress in addition to the concept of sustainable Human Geography, 24, 347-364. development. Alliance, R. (2007). 'Assessing resilience in social- ecological system : a work-book for scientists'. The findings revealed the perspective of Retrieved from www.resilliance.org/3871.php individuals, community and system Authority, I. R. (2006). Comprehensive Development Plan i. Iskandar Malaysia: resilience capacity to survive. It was Khazanah Nasional. found that they were able to adapt and Authority, I. R. (2014). Comprehensive strive to various stresses. This indicates Development Plan ii. Iskandar Malaysia. that individuals and communities have the Bodin, O., & Crona, B. (2008). 'Management of capacity to be adaptive, absorptive, and natural resource at the community level: transformative. With this knowledge. The exploring the role of social capital and triple threat of urbanization, globalization leadership in a rural fishing community'. World and climate change can be better Development, 36. prepared of its current and future impact. Bourdieu, P. (1987). 'What makes a social class? The notion of resilience thinking and On the theoretical and practicalexistence of Groups'. Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 32, 20- practice will illustrate a systematic 28. perspective of those particular challenges Bruce, Caroline, M., & Hilbert, D. W. (2004). Pre- and how it impacts communities, people processing Methodology for Application to places. This will prepare them to think Landsat TM/ETM+. Imagery of the Wet differently and comprehensively for Tropics. possible solutions that is needed to face

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LAND USE LAND COVER CHANGE FFECTS ON ACTIVE AND INDEPENDENT MOBILITY OF CHILDREN IN THE MILITARY BARRACK OF NIGERIA

Daodu Tosin1 and Said Ismail2

1,2Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Department of Landscape Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Bahru, Malaysia (Email: [email protected],[email protected])

ABSTRACT Changes in Land Use Land Cover (LULC) is crucial to active and independent mobility of barrack children in Nigeria. Children required connection with natural environment to create opportunity for independent play outside home. Despite this benefit, little is known about LULC change that shape children’s active and independent mobility in military barracks. Hence, this research aimed at assessing LULC change in barracks as it affects active and independent mobility of barrack children. Sam Ethnan Air Force Barrack (SEAB) in Lagos and Nigerian Air Force Barrack (NAFB) in Kaduna were selected. The Landsat imagery for LULC between 2006 and 2018 sourced in March 2018 was used. ERDAS 14 was used to quantify the changes and the statistics was assessed in ArcGIS 10.3. The outcome showed that SEAB and NAFB contained three significant classes which are built-up area, bare ground as well as open spaces and green areas. Built up area for SEAB increased from 55% to 81% between 2006 to 2018. This led to reduction of the open space from 19% in 2006 to 11% in 2018. Consequently, green area reduced from 26% in 2006 to 8% in 2018. The NAFB has water body in addition to the three classes that made up the natural environment. The built-up area increased from 2% to 15% in 2018. Thus, the open space dropped from 90% to 43% in the residential built up area. Both barracks experienced significant change in the built up area, reduction in open space and green area as a result of housing development. There is less connection of barrack children to natural open space. Therefore, changes in barrack natural environment constituted mobility restriction and reduction in children’s opportunity to be independently mobile. Land use planning policy is required to curb reduction in natural environment that affects independent mobility of barrack children in Nigeria. Keywords : Land-use and Land Cover, Children’s independent mobility, Military barrack

and ecological networks. It constitutes 1.0 INTRODUCTION driving forces responsible for loss in open spaces (Zetterberg et al., 2010; The Land use and land change is an Bundesamt für Naturschutz, 2004; expression of morphology in a built Spangenberg, 2007; Reck et al., 2010). environment in terms of physical factors Moreover, LULC influences natural resources (Jones et al., 2009; Scharsich,

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2017) with consequences on children’s use development. The transition independent mobility. DeFries et al. connecting barrack to urban area is (2007) opined that the neighbourhood essential as opined in the study by Salvati infrastructure development to improve and Carlucci, (2014). The mixed land- children’s well-being is a societal use in planning refers to the mixture of concern. Therefore, assessment of several housing types designated for children’s independent mobility need to different uses in the layout itself. In incorporate LULC analysis as one of the barrack for instance, there are mixture of relevant indicator. To quantify the LULC residential buildings located nearby the and its effect on children’s independent office buildings, shops, schools, mammy mobility, remote sensing provided a market, and other socio-economic valuable source of data. In particular, it facilities. It is usually described as helps in the objective measurement of heterogynous pattern of land use in other indicators such as population geographically specified zones The density, destinations accessibility, home barrack mixed land-use is zoned. range, and travel time that affect Restricted area is for military equipment children’s independent mobility. Satellite storage in SEAB Lagos and training and images constitute the main tool to detect operation in NAFB Kaduna. The LULC in various context and landscapes. residential areas are zoned according to In barracks, the aim is to minimise the Rank and marital status. The office area effect of changes on the poor level of is zoned according to units under the children’s independent mobility. In order command and other co-located to detect the effect of changes for establishments. Therefore, the term generalisation of findings, two barracks mixed land-use in this paper refers to the were selected. The two barracks have mixture of different uses in the same similar socio-cultural, socio-economic, geographical military barrack space. It and uniform housing design and facilities. qualifies as mixed-use development as However, environmental conditions were long as it involved homes and other evaluated using the LULC. Assessment activities necessary for children’s daily of land area, built up area, open spaces life. Yet, the function of administrative and green was conducted. The method of offices, medical clinics and the other uses comparing images of 2006 and 2018 was undertaken by an individual within a short used to analyse change in surroundings distance on foot are not compromised. areas that hinders or promote children’s Utmost importance here is the children’s independent mobility. This study adopted direct attention, activities, and freedom of the method used by Wasiolka and Blaum, interaction with the surroundings. It is (2011) and Belgacem et al., (2013) for defined by activities undertaken that analysing Landsat imagery. It made use affects children’s ability to utilise their of supervised classification to identify natural environmental resources via spectrally similar pixels and change- exploiting the best potentials. Children vector analysis (Bovolo et al., 2012) to need land spaces for different life find pixels that remained unchanged over purposes and increasing housing on it time. Google Earth images was used to depending on planning either hinders or identify barrack boundaries and establish promote their independent mobility. This current LULC classes. Thereafter, research concentrates on changes in the Landsat image with higher resolution residential and non-residential area of classified unchanged pixels (Chen et al., barrack that allowed children’s 2012). This approach to analyse LULC independent mobility. Noting the fact that class changes in protected areas as land use mix has a goal of promoting the opined by Sieber et al., (2013) and well-being and quality of life through Gaveau et al., (2012), has rarely been independent mobility of children in the used in military barracks to evaluate its military barrack. It helps to create an effect on children’s independent mobility. increasingly better, more helpful, The LULC of barrack depict mixed land- convenient, efficient and attractive

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environment (Year Wood, 1973). rather most analysts are concerned with the way natural environment are Linking LULC with planning process, constituted through copious social and there is a framework for ordering the use cultural practices. Therefore, little or to which land is put. The spatial nothing has been mentioned on children organisation of various land use activities, and opportunity to harness independent allocating spaces for those activities mobility in military barracks community in using planning, and building standards is developing countries including Nigeria. In essential. However, this is not often this paper, land use change that occurred applied when planning barrack housing overtime and its assessment is expected due to the peculiar nature of not seeking to help in the planning policy of barrack. for planning approval for barrack development in Nigeria. Hence, barrack 1.1 Study areas often result in poor planning of infrastructure, open spaces, and other The SEAB in Lagos and NAFB in Kaduna socio-economic facilities. If barracks is to are highly populated and congested due give lasting satisfactory services and to concentrated residential development. promote children’s independent mobility, The service from 2006 to 2017 with three closest attention must be paid to land use additional commands established. Three change in barrack planning. Adequate commands that existed before 2011 were consideration must be given to land use Tactical Air Command (TAC) in Makurdi, analysis covering proposal level of project Training Command (TC) in Kaduna, and development, space allocation, and Logistics Command (LC) in Lagos. estimation of future development. Barrack Establishment the Mobility Command survey analysis to include comprehensive (MC) in 2011, Ground Training Command topographical survey of total land area (GTC), and Special Operations and density estimation in terms of Command (SOC) in 2017 increased the housing units per hectares and number of commands to six. This has affected the persons for projection of future barrack built environment, especially the development. On this note, an open space for children active and understanding of military barrack is independent play. SEAB in Lagos is essential. located between Longitudes 06°34’01” to 06°35’06” and Latitudes 03°19’48” to Military barracks is usually a protected 03°20’29” on the Geographical area built to separate and reduce coordinate’s plane. It shares boarders interference with the civil society. The with Public Works Department from the military geographies, conservation, North-East, Shogunle community from biodiversity and ecological services the East and Murtala Muhammed differs in many ways and usually International Airport from the West. The characterised by how military activities total land area of barrack is approximately and institutions are constituted 94 hectares or 0.941 km2. NAFB in geographically. It covers a wide scope Kaduna is located between Longitudes including analysis of military land use and 10°34’30” to 10°39’18” and Latitudes the environmental impacts of military 7°24’36” to 7°28’12” on the Geographical activities, explorations of representations coordinate’s plane. The Barrack shares and interpretation of military landscapes. boarders with Rigachikun village along It involves evaluating economic and the North-East, Kawo from the South- social relations of military capabilities and East, Mando community along the South- the lifestyle of military personnel. The West and the Nigerian Defence Academy military environmental discourses draw its permanent site from the West. The total inspiration from related literatures. This land area of barrack is approximately involves the cultural geography of space 2368 hectares or 23.682km. and place. However, it is not limited to entities existing outside of social practice, 1.2 Data collection and acquisition

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colour maps, and for this study, a The data utilized for this study is a composite of 7, 5 and 4; 5, 4 and 3. remotely sensed and population data of the SEAB in Lagos and the NAFB in Kaduna. It was used to process the end results of the LULC in the study. Landsat series imageries of two years in 12 years’ interval (2006 and 2018) acquired from the USGS Earth Explorer portal for the study areas. The imageries were carefully checked to ensure that the same season was selected for the two different periods. Data on land use and mapping information were derived and processed for spatial interpretation. Satellite images of SEAB in Lagos, and that of NAFB in Kaduna, dated March 2018 were acquired. Both were ensured to be Figure 3 Spectral profile for 2006 covering the total land extent of the barracks. Coordinates of point sparsely distributed across both barracks were obtained in order to be used for Geo- referencing the satellite images to ensure points, paths, lines distances and areas on the satellite image are as exact as they are on ground.

1.3. Layer stacking process and composite formation

Layer stacking process is a process in remote sensing where imageries are combined in multiple bands (see Fig 3 and 4). For this study, bands 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Figure 4 Spectral profile for 2018 and 7 are used. A combined multispectral layer of three bands produces an image 1.4. Sub-setting and classification clearly representing distinct features analysis within an imagery. It also depends on specific bands selection. A composite The stacked and composite map was map of bands 1, 2 and 3 produces a clipped to the specific extent of interest. True-Colour map which represents Thereafter, atmospheric correction was features as they truly appear. Water body applied which enables easy processing of is represented as blue, vegetation as data. Haze correction was used to clear green and bare soil as beige or brown. the cloud cover under the radiometric For a good representation of features in menu in ERDAS. In classification, classification process, a map composite acquaintance with the area of interest of bands 5, 4 and 3 were selected from enabled easy sample selection and the stacked image. This often produced a accuracy in output image. The ground- good representation of features. All earth truth process required in the process of features are seen as they are on ground verifying. The integrity of the features on except for built up areas with purple the imagery as compared to its true colour. Similarly, bands 7, 5 and 4 has representation on ground was performed. the same characteristics. Hence, different In other words, field-check mapping band combination produces different accuracy was conducted (Ghilani & Wolf,

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2012). The bands wavelengths and their land use in 2006. This was evident as usefulness are showed in mapping. The showed in relation to the current increase decision rules for the supervised in built-up area in 2018. It’s a clear classification was specified as Non- indication that for expansion to take parametric rule (Parallel piped). For the place, available open spaces will reduce parametric rule, maximum likelihood or completely used up. The green area algorithm was selected. To this extent, 5 reduced from 26% in 2006 to 8% of the classes of each feature for vegetation, total land cover in 2018. The reduction built up, rock outcrop, water body and was also linked to the growth in barren soils were created as signatures population of about 20,000 in 2004 which were saved and later used as (Daodu, 2004) to over 30,000 in 2018 signature files. The statistics of each field work by Daodu, (2018) and physical classified file was assessed in the infrastructural development. The adverse attribute table of each classified image in effect of the reduced green area can lead the ArcGIS. to serious environmental problems and drastic reduction in the children’s 2.0 MAIN RESULTS, FINDINGS, independent mobility in barracks. The AND DISCUSSION increase in built up environment is mainly a response to expansion in the service The classification technique carried out to infrastructure requirements and derive the LULC changes for both the population increase which needed to be SEAB in Lagos and that of NAFB in planed and coordinated. Increased Kaduna is the supervised classification. It destination accessibility, road network is based on signature creation for each especially side walkways with planting of land cover type. For both barracks, the trees and maintenance of green areas classes were green area comprising are important built environment factors trees, gardens, and general green that promotes independent mobility of landscape. The bare ground and open children. The chart shown in Fig 9 spaces included free land spaces and showed the graphical changes in land play grounds. The dry farmlands and hill cover between 2006 and 2018 in the are present in the NAFB Kaduna. SEAB at Lagos which gives a better Similarly, the built-up areas are made up insight to the explanation. of houses, roads and other built structures and water body referring to On the other hand, the NAFB Kaduna open accumulated water and ponds. The classification consist of three main classification for SEAB Lagos contained classes mentioned earlier. These include three classes which are built-up area, built-up area, bare ground and open bare ground as well as open spaces and spaces, green area as well as water body green areas. There is no water body making the fourth class. The built-up area captured on the site. In 2006, Figure 5 as at 2006 was 2% of the total land use showed 595 counts for built-up area cover which later increased to 15% as at amounting to 55% of the total land use 2018, forcing the bare ground and open area. It rose to 793 counts in 2018 taking spaces to drop from 90% in 2006 to 43% up 81% of the total land use area of the in 2018. The change chart showed a barrack (see Fig 6). The figure 9 considerable decrease in water body. represent growth in the development Although in a very small percentage from which took place between the space of 12 1% to 0% between 2006 and 2018 years. Building of new houses and respectively. This may be due to several expansion of some infrastructure led to factors, but the obvious reason observed reduction in available open space and in figures 7 and 8 was shown in the map some green areas. In 2018, the bare of classified land covers of both 2006 and ground and open spaces reduced to 11% 2018 of the NAFB Kaduna. Expansion of of the total land use from 19% of the total built-up areas are seen towards the water body in 2018 as well as population

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increase in the barracks which was not close destination accessibility as seen in the case as of 2006. Despite the large the study by Saelens and Handy, (2008); size of unbuilt space in the barrack, Ewing and Carvero, (2010) and Helbich development is seen concentrated in the et al., (2016). It affects trip distances as residential area. This is now responsible demonstrated in the study by Van Loon for high population of persons living in the and Frank, (2011). Neighbourhood like barrack. Although its only explainable that barrack with pronounced land use a large expanse of land is deliberately left diversity make trip active travel more for military training and future expansion. convenient as opined by Salens and Contrary to this, is the fact that the Air Handy, (2008). This study is also Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) consistent with findings in past studies located within the barrack has been involving Pont et al., (2009); Panter et al., approved and commenced operation as a (2010); Wong., (2011); Sallis et al., full-fledged university that will require lots (2015) and Helbich et al., (2016). There is of space. similarity in the composition of LULC classes between the SEAB and NAFB. Furthermore, the decrease in water body Nevertheless, NAFB Kaduna has water can be interrelated to the decrease in body which has been depleted due to green area from 38% to 20% between population increase. Land use pattern 2006 and 2018, where the available water with a high density of diverse body to keep the green area lush and infrastructural facilities notably attracts healthy is being reduced. Although the children population. Open spaces, natural major cause remains certain that the environment and green area in SEAB is increase in population which led to almost at the verge of extinction. The increase in the use and demand for water establishment of additional three within the barrack substantially led to this additional commands between 2011 to decrease in water body. Also, the recent 2017 has tremendous impact on barrack development of fish farming activities in housing developments. The increase in ponds within the barrack utilized the built up area and resultant decrease in water gotten from the mini dam. It was open space and green area is partly due channelled to create ponds which to the fact that residential houses in gradually reduces the volume of the officers’ quarter are predominantly available water. Consequently, the bungalows. Many office blocks are decrease in water body is attributable to bungalows that lacks physical planning this activity. The changes may seem development control. They can be re- small but the effect might be tremendous planned in phases to have storied in future if the population keeps growing apartments. Similarly, the storied and the water keeps depleting. apartment in airmen quarters can be re- planned for condominium housing to The study revealed that the Nigerian Air create room for open spaces. In NAFB Force Barrack in Kaduna is far larger than Kaduna, open spaces within the that of the Sam Ethnan air Force Barrack residential area has also been built up. in Lagos. However, land use changes Except the area designated for farmland, have occurred significantly through the 12 a large portion of the land area is years under consideration in both restricted for training purposes in the barracks. This study found that both barrack. The presence of natural and barracks are mixed land use with barracks environmental determinants like development over concentrated in the open spaces for children’s independent residential zone. Consequently, the LULC play, built up areas of home and schools change has relationship with other are found as significant variables of LULC measurable indicators of independent indicator of children’s independent mobility of children in the two barracks. mobility in barracks. These include high population density,

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SEAB LAGOS

1000 793 595 285

500 76 207 105 Count 0 Green Area Built-Up Area Bare Ground/ Open Spaces

Green Area Built-Up Area Bare Ground/ Open Spaces 2006 285 595 207 2018 76 793 105

Figure 9 Bar chart representing changes in LULC for SEAB Lagos (2006 and 2018)

NAF BARRACK KADUNA

150000

100000

50000 COUNT 0 Green Area Built-Up Area Bare Ground/ Water Body Open Spaces 2006 14423 586 140509 1318 2018 2803 25542 21886 153 2019

Figure 10 Bar chart representing changes in LULC between 2006 & 2018

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3.0 CONCLUSION changes in multitemporal images. IEEE Trans. Geoscience. Remote Sense. 50 (6), 2196–221 In this study, the classification of LULC change over the 12 years showed that Daodu, o, 2004. Implementation of sustainable the built up area in SEAB Lagos housing: policy and strategies towards increased by 26%. between 2006 to operational effectiveness in the Nigerian 2018. On the other hand, NAFB Kaduna Air Force. increased by 13% from 2006 to 2018. DeFries, R., Hansen, A., Turner, B., Reid, R., Liu, There is reduction in open spaces by 8% J., 2007. Land use change around and green area by 18% in SEAB protected areas: management to compared with 47% reduction in open balance human needs and ecological space and 18% in green space found in function. Ecol. Appl. 17 (4), 1031– NAFB Kaduna between 2006 to 2018. 1038. Consequently, the increase in the built up Ewing, R., et al., 2004. School location and area of SEAB Lagos and the NAFB student travel: analysis of factors Kaduna resulted in high population affecting mode choice. Transp. Res. density of 34,399 per / km2 and 910.143 Rec. 1895, 55–63. per / km2 respectively. The increase in Ewing, R., Cervero, R., 2010. Travel and the built built up area and consequent reduction in environment. A meta-analysis. J. Am. open spaces as well as green areas have Plan. Assoc. 76, 265–294. negative impact on independent mobility of children in barracks. From the change Gaveau, D.L.A., Curran, L.M., Paoli, G.D., chart, it can be concluded that LULC Carlson, K.M., Wells, P., Besse- Rimba, A., Ratnasari, D., Leader- within 12 years’ interval for both barracks Williams, N., 2012. Examining showed drastic change. This is mainly protected area effectiveness in due to expansion for housing Sumatra: importance of regulations development. Thus, the concern that governing unprotected lands. children’s playground is not planned Conservation. Lett. 5 (2), 142–148 hinders independent mobility of children Helbich et al, 2016. Natural and built in the barrack. These findings are environmental exposures on children's significant for decision makers to active school travel: A Dutch global positively influence children’s positioning system-based cross- independent mobility in barracks. In doing sectional study this, it is advisable to consider LULC Jones, D.A., Hansen, A.J., Bly, K., Doherty, K., change criteria consisting of built up area Verschuyl, J.P., Paugh, J.I., Carle, R., and open space as one of the children Story, S.J., 2009. Monitoring land use mobility indicators in barrack. The degree and cover around parks: a conceptual at which the LULC changes influences approach. Remote Sens. Environ. 113 independent mobility of children in the (7), 1346–1356. Monitoring Protected Areas. barracks can be predicted in future research. Saelens, B., Handy, S., 2008. Built environment correlates of walking: a review. Med. REFERENCES Sci. Sport Exerc. 40, 550–56 Sallis, J., et al., 2015. Co-benefits of designing Belgacem, A.O., Tarhouni, M., Louhaichi, M., communities for active living: an 2013. Effect of protection on plant exploration of literature. Int. J. Behav. community dynamics in the Nutr. Phys. Act. 12, 30. Mediterranean arid zone of Southern Tunisia: a case study from Bou Hedma Salvati and Carlucci, (2014) Urban Growth and National Park. Land Degrad. Dev. 24 Land-use structure in two (1), 57–62. Mediterranean Region: An Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis, SAGE Open Bovolo, F., Marchesi, S., Bruzzone, L., 2012. A 4(4) 1-13 framework for automatic and unsupervised detection of multiple

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Seiber, A., Kuemmerle, T., Prishchepov, A.V., Wendland, K.J., Baumann, M., Radeloff, V.C., Baskin, L.M., Hostert, P., 2013. Landsat-based mapping of post-Soviet land-use change to assess the effectiveness of the Oksky and Mordovsky protected areas in European Russia. Remote Sens. Environ. 133, 38–51

Scharsich, 2017. Analysing land cover and land use change in the Matobo National Park and surroundings in Zimbabwe

Panter, J., et al., 2010. Neighbourhood, route, and school. Environments and children's active commuting. Am. J. Prev. Med. 38, 268–278.

Pont, K., et al., 2009. Environmental correlates of children's active transportation: a systematic literature review. Health Place 15, 849–862

Wasiolka, B., Blaum, N., 2011. Comparing biodiversity between protected savannah and adjacent non-protected farmland in the southern Kalahari. J. Arid Environ. 75 (9), 836–841

Wong, B., et al., 2011a. GIS measured environmental correlates of active school transport: a systematic review of 14 studies. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 8, 39.

Wong, B., et al., 2011b. Mode shifting in school travel mode: examining the pre- valence and correlates of active school transport in Ontario, Canada. BMC Public Health 11, 618.

Van Loon, J., Frank, L., 2011. Urban form relationships with youth physical activity: implications for research and practice. J. Plan. Lit. 26, 280–308.

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PREFERENCE ON LANDSCAPE VISUAL AESTHETICS IN HIGH COST HOUSING DEVELOPMENT

Atikah Sarifudin 1, Lee Yoke Lai 2 and Abdul Rahim Bin Abdul Hamid3

1 Landscape Architecture (Program), Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru,Johor, MALAYSIA. (Email: [email protected]) 2 Landscape Architecture Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru,Johor, MALAYSIA. ( Email: [email protected]) 3 Landscape Architecture Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru,Johor, MALAYSIA. (Email: [email protected])

ABSTRACT Landscape aesthetics has long been an important component of environmental planning and management. Aesthetic factors are also believed to be of basic importance in the history of land protection. Landscape aesthetics in landscape planning and design in the housing development can be define as the greenery conservation as well as developments of community parks and other recreational areas. Hence, the landscape provides open space with greenery affording social, environment and economy values though optimal utilization of green area of the housing community especially for high cost housing. This study focus on the high cost housing to ensure that no limitations in evaluating the indicators. As most of established housing developer believed that landscape elements increased property value. This study explores the resident’s preference in landscape visual aesthetic for high cost housing development. Three major method that used are identifying significant landscape area that offers best visual aesthetic in high cost housing area, investigating perception of residents, experts and buyers towards the landscape visual around their reside area and exploring the significance of landscape visual aesthetics towards the social, environment and economic value the housing development. At the end of this study, it may proves that landscape visual aesthetics in high cost housing may contribute to social and environment benefit for residents and improves experts' economy value.

Keywords : Housing landscape, Visual aesthetic, Preference

1.0 INTRODUCTION land. This study will examine the perception of residents in high cost Based on Rancangan Struktur Negeri housing area because high cost type of Johor 2030, housing become the second housing is the most preferences type in largest land consumption after Malaysia’s township area ( Kuala Lumpur transportation in Johor’ s built up area Structure Plan 2020 ).This study focus on with 2.52% from 9.93% total of built up

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the high cost housing to ensure that no backgrounds, problem statement, limitations in evaluating the indicators. research gap, objectives and questions, and significant of the study. Previous studies on the housing development criteria of Malaysia have Second stage is determine the focused on basic facilities, building information and previous study’s theory character and design, locational and that related to the scope of study which environmental quality on the general type consist of four; landscape visual of housing. However, little attention has aesthetic, landscape visual preference, given to landscape aesthetics aspect landscape visual aesthetic in housing especially on visual parameter. Hence area. this study explores the resident’s preference in landscape visual aesthetic Third stage will be data collection stage for high cost housing development thru which applies two categories of data three objectives. collection which are primary data are collected through a questionnaire survey First objective in this study is identifying and oral interviews with the related significant landscape area that offers best parties and secondary data is data that visual aesthetic in high cost housing area. created for individuals or institutions that Second objective is investigation typically seek to strengthen the primary perception of residents, experts and data. buyers towards the landscape visual around their reside area thru interview Forth stages will be data analysis. The and questionaires with related parties. collected data from the third stage which Third objectives is exploring the is analysis on residents’ preference and significance of landscape visual expertise theory will be extracted into aesthetics towards the social, tabulation or graphical to produce environment and economic value the accurate data analysis. housing development. Final stage will be finding and discussion Below chart shows the methodological on collected data, it will define the finding framework that used in this study. There on landscape visual preferences and are five stages of overall study discuss on the precision of early framework. hypothesis and actual collected data. First stage will identify research

Figure 1 Framework

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1.2 The importance of landscape in housing Development 2.1 Landscape for housing development The landscape design and element are very important in housing development in Landscape can be described as a basis order to support community needs on on well-being and inspired living. landscape space. The important of Landscape, which includes all the visible landscape in housing development can features of an area of land, often be clearly derives into four aspects which considered in terms of their aesthetic are social, aesthetics, climatic and appeal, topography, water bodies, plants ecological, physical and economic. and the most visual needs of human. They become human-nature interactions In the aspect of social benefit, landscape lead human to have a contrasting design and element provide the green preference on the surrounding landscape space and recreational area that can because the pleasing environment can generate social interactions among give mental and physical benefits towards community. It also can improve physical community. and mental health of community In relating to landscape design and surrounds. A part of that, green area also property development, Smith et al (1998) enhance the surrounding by beautifying suggested that housing is and activity that the appearance of hardscape and deeply connected to sustainable structural elements. Plants also screen environment. The connections as follow: the unwanted or unpleasant view then create the perfect views of surrounding i. Housing is a basic human need area of community housing. The plants’ and its quality; price and character helps the housing community in availability are crucially important term of climate and ecological. The to a quality of life. shaded plants give thermal comfort ii. The location, planning, layout and towards the community environment. The landscape design of the house abundant of plants also protect the make an important contribution to wildlife, habitat protection of soil erosion the community spirit. and microclimate control through shade iii. The siting of the houses and the and windbreak and reduce the pollution. materials from which they are Moreover, the physical of hard structure made, and the uses their in urban area was softening by the green occupants make of such area and plant. The landscape design resources as energy and water, and element in community housing area all have major environmental give positive impact towards the implications. economic aspect. The higher price of landscape element contributes to 2.1.1 Landscape area in time of housing becoming the selling point for the house. development 2.1.3 The landscape element for The property market has consistently housing development shown that people are willing to pay more for properties located in areas with quality Basically, a balance landscape space landscape, normally close to parks and must consist of three major landscape open space. These areas will get the elements which are softscape, hardscape benefit of appreciation in capital value. and water feature in their design (Lisa H The high value for this property means T, 2018).Combination of softscape and that the owners pay higher property hardscape in design can create a taxes. In fact, the parks will increase the sentimental value and contribute to property value. creating images and character of the landscape space. The softscape

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elements such a various type of plants, they prefer a space and facilities that they herbs, aquatic plants and o in their yard can supervise and spend their time with and open space that has different children. Besides, the elderly and character can offer the best visual impact disabled needs the space that comfort, towards the community (David B, 2018. safety and security and easy access so In the other hand, hardscape also plays a they can do their exercise and relax. role in the landscape setting as attractive components that balance the natural 2.2 Landscape Visual Aesthetic environment. Among the hard landscape elements that commonly used in the According to Nasar’s (1989), landscape landscape in a housing area including aesthetic is synonym of formal aesthetics, gazebo as a place to meet, pergola, which refer to physical landscape concrete pots, water features, fountains, component like trees, water, mountains or swings and benches. Furthermore, the sky, or the attributes of physical use of these elements will increase the landscape like from, line, color, and benefit and value to the house property. texture. Basically the character of Besides, the element used must be landscape aesthetic was defined using different based on the culture and ethnics Kaplan and Kaplan’s (1989) data which of the community itself. For example in are complexity, mystery, coherence and Malaysia, normally for Malay culture legibility. Landscape aesthetic has long prefers to have ornamental and been component of landscape decorative style of landscape. Besides, environment and design. Shafer and Malay usually plants the native and exotic Mietz (1969) recognized that the physical plants as the softscape element in their aesthetic was the core of “wilderness- house. For Chinese culture in landscape recreation value.” Landscape aesthetic is based on believed to bring good research was highlighted on human fortune or ‘feng shui’ for their community, reaction to the physical landscape and the red colours becomes the most has been based largely on biological or significant in most of their element in the evolutionary explanations for people’s house. Therefore, they prefer to have preference on certain characteristics in a plant materials chosen from species with landscape scenic beauty, e.g., habitat red colors and artificial plants like ‘bonsai’ theory (Appleton, 1996), information- in their garden. A part of that, in Indian processing theory (Kaplan & Kaplan, culture, they believed in sacred thing and 1989), or psychological explanations, prefer to have gardens with sacred plant e.g., arousal theory (Wohlwill & Kohn, species together with ornamental flower 1976), as well as the schema discrepancy plants for religious ceremonies. model (Purcell, 1986). Living theory recommend that humans have inherent In other hands, the demographic factors preferences for environments that provide in each development also influence the good natural element like water and low, landscape element and design in branching trees (Appleton, 1996). landscape community spaces. A specific Previous researches also enlisted this design based on the demographic factor opinion, conclude that elements such as needs to be considered in landscape trees, water are among the most design in a community area. Focusing on preferred landscape component (Kaplan, age and group of people, there are 1984; Kaplan & Austin, 2003; Schroeder, several types of people that identified 1991; Schroeder & Anderson, 1984). using landscape facilities which are children, teenagers, adults, elderly and Information-processing theory is one of disabled. For example for children, they the most significant and well-studied prefer the space that they can play theories in landscape visual preference around with the other friends, for those research (Bourassa, 1991; Stamps, reasons, most of the community space is 2004). The model suggests that often provide a playground. For adults, preference for a scene is dependent upon

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two basic human responses to an “landscape preference” (Abello & environment: the need to understand and Bernaldez, 1986; Buhyoff, Wellman, a desire to explore (Kaplan & Kaplan, Koch, Gauthier, & Hultman, 1983; Kaplan 1989). These two dimensions (human & Kaplan, 1989; Kaplan, Kaplan, & needs and information availability) were Brown, 1989; Kreimer, 1977; Purcell, used by Kaplan and Kaplan to compose a Lamb, Peron, & Falchero, 1994; Tips & preference matrix which has four key Savasdisara, 1986a), they have focused information variables: complexity, on the physical or what is usually called coherence, mystery, and legibility. Kaplan the official parts of a scene, i.e., and Kaplan (1989, p.53) defined landscape aesthetics. In this topic, complexity as “the number of different previous researches has come with visual elements in a scene: how intricate differences principles such landscape the scene is; its richness.” Coherence architecture, geography, forestry, outdoor refers to order and organization, “the recreation, and pscychology (Zube, Sell, patterns of brightness, size, and texture” & taylor, 1982). A lot of research on in the scene. Mystery relates to a scene’s landscape visual preferences anderived depth and the hidden qualities that may the term differently , for example ”scenic draw one closer in an effort to explore quality” (Brunson & Shelby, 1992; Craik, and gain more information. The scene 1983; Daniel et al., 1973; Zube, 1974), “invites one to a distant, but new vantage “aesthetic quality” (Cook, 1972; Pepper, point.” Legibility helps people to 1970), “aestheticpreference” (Daniel, understand an environment and “to 2001a), “aesthetic perception” (Ribe, comprehend and to function effectively” 2005), “visual attractiveness”(Pitt, 1989), when the environment provides cues and “visual quality” (Eben Saleh, 2001; Hull & landmarks that assist, for example, with McCarthy, 1988; Lien &Buhyoff, 1986; way finding. These four variables are Manning, Lime, Freimund, & Pitt, 1996; sometimes called “information variables” Sheppard & Picard, 2006;Sullivan& and have been suggested as predictors Lovell, 2006), scenic perception (Oku & of the landscape’s aesthetic (Bell, 1999; Fukamachi, 2006), and “landscapevisual Gifford, 2002; Kaplan, Kaplan, & Ryan, preference” (Abello & Bernaldez, 1986; 1998; Stamps, 2004). Buhyoff et al., 1983; Kreimer, 1977;Purcell et al., 1994; Tips & They are believed to natural landscape Savasdisara, 1986b), “visual preference” environment preference they show (Im, 1984; Nasar &Hong, 1999), and information in the living environment that “scenic beauty” (Daniel & Boster, 1976; people have been interpreting for quite Daniel, Brown, King,Richards, & Stewart, some time to survive. The living 1989; Li, Rudis, & Herrick, 2004; Ribe, survivalist are based on ability to explore 2002). the land. This research only focused on visual 2.3 Landscape Visual Preferences perception in landscape element in residential area, the term of “landscape Landscape visual preferences can be visual preference” was used to this study defined as person’s degree of like or to differentiate the preferences from the dislike for the visual appearances of a other sense (e.g., sound, small, touch). place (China KC, 2007). Visual According to Zube et al. (1982) , preference research on landscapes has landscape perception is defined as a emphasized the physical aspects often function of the interaction between people overlooking the complete range of factors and environment by proposing three that may explain landscape visual elements of landscape perception: preference (Chia K C. 2007). Eventhough human, landscape and interaction (Figure a lot of researchers used the term 5).

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Figure 5 Landscape Perception Process (Zube et al, 1982)

Based on Chia K C (2007), Aesthetics are variety type of residential such, high end define as combination of physical bungalow, double storey terrace house, attributes that appeals to an innate sense cluster house, apartment and shop house of good or bad. Hence, there are some that may come out with balance result of characteristic in landscape that will be collected data. The most important is their mostly preferred or not by people. In complexity of green landscape and the other words, the landscape aesthetics visual landscape character of this value subject to individual observer. The township will contribute to resident aesthetic itself are not totally dependent satisfaction. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show on quality of object, but based on an the Key Plan and Master Plan of Taman interpretation defined by individual with , . variety of learned information, personal feel and past history of the place.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research area at Taman Setia Tropika Township, Johor

This research will be conducted at one of S P Setia housing product which is Taman Setia Tropika at Johor Bahru, Malaysia. This research area covers one Figure 6 Key Plan Setia Tropika of the Setia Tropika township (Google Map) development at Johor Bahru, which situated in Kempas district.This township can be reached through North south highway by exiting 3023, Setia Tropika. This site was chosen because it fulfills the research requirement in term of the

Figure 7 Master Plan of Setia Tropika Development (S P Setia’s Web, 2019)

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Figure 7 Method of Data Collection

There are five stages of overall study collection. The data collections process framework. The First stage will identify will be divided into two types which is research backgrounds, problem primary and secondary data collection. statement, research gap, objectives and Below figure describe the methodology questions, and significant of the study. on data collection that used on this study. The Second stage is to determine the information and previous study’s theory 3.3 Level of Data Collection that related to the scope of study which consists of four; landscape visual Accordance to Ahmad et al., (2015), aesthetic, landscape visual preference, primary data are collected through a landscape visual aesthetic in housing questionnaire survey and oral interview area. The Third stage will be data with the related parties. For secondary collection stage which applies two data, it is a data that gathered from the categories of data collection which are previous study, book, references’, and primary data are collected through a journal reports, articles and other questionnaire survey and expert resources. The purposes of secondary interviews with the related parties and data collection are to tally up the collected secondary data is data that created for primary data with the fact or theories. individuals or institutions that typically seek to strengthen the primary data. The process of primary data collection will be done by using two methods, which are The Forth stages will be data analysis. through the distribution of questionnaires The collected data from the third stage and interview with community of Taman which is analysis on residents’ preference Setia Tropika, and the professional party and expertise theory will be extracted into from the owner and developer which is S tabulation or graphical to produce P Setia Berhad. accurate data analysis. For the Final stage will be finding and discussion on 3.3.1 Data Collection through collected data, it will define the finding on questionnaires landscape visual preferences and discuss on the precision of early hypothesis and The questionnaire will be designed to actual collected data. collect community preferences on their needs toward landscape on their living 3.2 Methodology and Data area. A brief conversation during the Collection distribution of questionnaires are needed to ensure that the correspondent The main method used for this research understand the study intention. The is the qualitative method of data questionnaires may consist two sections

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which first section will ask about the 5.0 CONCLUSION community background and demographic info and second section will ask about This study explores the resident’s their opinion and preferences. preference in landscape visual aesthetic in their reside area then that might come 3.3.2 Data Collection through interview out with a model of landscape visual preference. The model should improve The purpose of the interview is to obtain current resource planning and design by specific information from the professional identifying important landscape parties towards the community characteristics that are essential for place preferences and also the developer point meaning and attachment; it should also of view towards the landscape role in help to reduce the conflict between term of value added and market point on development and conservation. the Development. Future work, concerning on preference on Interviews are survey technique of landscape visual aesthetic for different gathering interactive data among two or type of house development also needed more group of peoples (Silverman 1993). in order to improve living lifestyle in In order to have better in-depth Malaysia. knowledge on residential landscape to strengthen the collected data and theory, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT there is a need to conduct an interview as a technique of collecting data Thanks to Almighty Allah for giving me strenght and abillity to learn and complete The people to be engaged in the this report. I would like to thank to my interview will include the professional study supervisor Dr. Lee Yoke Lai, experts from various disciplines housing Senior Lecturer of the Faculty of Built developer especially in the landscape and Environment and Surveying, Universiti planning department (S P Setia Berhad, Teknologi Malaysia, and my co- resident, and property investor. Finally, supervisor Dr. Abdul Rahim Hamid, the community who are the inhabitants of Lecturer of the Faculty of Built the Setia tropika that will surely convey Environment and Surveying, Universiti their preferences of landscape visual Teknologi Malaysia. The door to their aesthetic on their living area. Lastly for office was always open whenever I ran this study, the semi-structured interview into a trouble spot or had a question will be adopted, where the questions are about my research or writing and always predetermined, however, the information consistently steered me in the right the can be modified, where during the direction. interview, questions can be skipped or added (Robson, 2002). Most importantly, none of this could have happened without my family. My husband 4.0 MAIN RESULTS who allowed me to further my master, has always been kind and supportive to me Based on the collected data, this study over the last several years. should proves that landscape visual aesthetics in high cost housing may affect REFERENCES residents preference on the living area Kuala Lumpur Structure Plan 2020 (KLSP 2020), where as it contribute to social and (online). Available at: environment benefit for residents and at http://www.dbkl.gov.my/pskl2020/english/index. the same time improves experts' htm. economy value. National Landscape Policy. (2011). National Landscape Department, Ministry of Housing and Local Government.

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Rahmandari, A V., Gunawan, A V., And Mugnisjah, W Q. An Evaluation of Visual Aesthetic Quality of Pedestrian Pathway Based on Ecological Network Corridor Within Campus Landscape (2017).

Reza, K., Amin, H., And Hamidreza, S. aesthetic Preferences on Visual Qualityof Urban Landscape in Derak High-Rise Building (2017).

Williams, J.D. And Tilt. K. (2006). Residential Landscape Design. [Online] Alabama Cooperative Extension System. Available from: ANR-813. www.aces.edu.

Zheng, B., Zhang, Y., And Chen, J. Preference To Home Landscape: Wildness or Neatness? Landscape and Urban Planning (2011), 1-8.

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RIVER MANAGEMENT PERCEPTION BY DID TOWARD RIVER SUSTAINABILITY

Rohana Mohd Firdaus*1, Mohd Hisyam Rasidi1, Ismail Said1, Muhammad Farid

Azizul Azizui1, Azmiah Abd Ghafar1 and Sarah Alia Norazlan1

1 Greenovation Research Group, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

River management within Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) is seldom encompassing community especially in urban neighbourhood whereby the residents are the river users. The community becomes the main key to ensure the river water quality is at its best and clean. Despite this, there is disconnection between rivers and human that goes greatly unnoticed by DID and community in urban neighbourhood. It is due to the different approaches and priority toward river management by DID. The overlapping and fragmentation within DID has resulted confusion towards river management. This study explored the components that bind DID perception with the community toward river management. It incorporated expert’s opinion from DID in Nusajaya, Larkin, and Kulai to participate in interview. The interview elicited the experts’ opinions on current river management in Malaysia, including river landscapes, community programs, public reaction to programs, and status of river in Malaysia, particularly in Skudai River, Kulai, Johor. Using Nvivo12, it was found the community decision making contributes to the river pollution. The result reveals that the responsibility to reduce river pollution is not solely on DID. Community participation should be included to ensure the river management is successful. It suggests that discrepancy between community and DID resulted to river pollution. Thus, this study presents the components that merge the perception of community and DID into collaborative approaches to secure the long-term provision of river development.

Keywords : River management, Community, Expert’s opinion

1.0 INTRODUCTION (Johnson, Bell, & Leahy, 2018) and particularly in Malaysia, it was said River is one of the natural resources that without the river, Malaysia would not have have been polluted since the industry era. glory in history (Md. Yassin, Eves, & River is also included as one of the McDonagh, 2010). Unfortunately, river heavily managed landscapes worldwide pollution is one of the common river (Verbrugge & van den Born, 2018). River issues and persistent up until now. is one of the natural resources that Agency and community play important possess many benefits to human role in solving the problem whereby the

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agency play role as the one that inform stress to river whereby the river need to the community while community is the be change its form in order to support the common denominator in river human built up area (Md. Yassin et al., management. Due to the river pollution, 2010). Urban river is also being diverted many agencies from different background to increase the area for domestic have shifted their attention to maintain the purposes (Åberg & Tapsell, 2013; Khalid river functions (Angriani, Sumarmi, Ruja, et al., 2018). Despite the essential & Bachri, 2018). However, the function of river in engineering aspect, overlapping and fragmentation of priority landscape touch is equally needed to within agencies have results confusion in ensure the riparian system serve at its society especially community in urban best in urban. The community neighbourhood. This is due to the lack of participation in urban neighbourhood is jurisdiction in the agencies regarding river highly potential when the river landscapes management, particularly in Malaysia provide recreational area. Sadly, the (Khalid, Mokhtar, Jalil, Rahman, & Spray, counterbalance between engineering and 2018). Department of Irrigation and landscape approach is the biggest Drainage (DID) is an agency that challenge to achieve river sustainability. manages water bodies including river, The bias in river development is highly coastal, flood mitigation, drainage and tends to prioritize the engineering aspect irrigation. Its main purpose is to ensure because of the demands to support the water quality index (WQI) is at best and built up area. This shows the increasing enough water supply. Nevertheless, demand for urban development needs without the community participation, DID serious attention to ensure the river effort in river management have failed degradation is reduced. Nowadays, the because of the river users are the rapid urbanization as world context has community. The community will be the draws the attention to social aspect into one that ensure the river management water resource management sustainability through their familiarity in (Pradhananga & Davenport, 2017). The river management. The river changes that key player is not solely the agency, disturb the community familiarity in the community also play part to ensure the river environment results discontentment river management is successful. The role (Åberg & Tapsell, 2013). This lead to the of agency is make sure the community is river pollution whereby the river aware of the river importance (Khalid et management area is abandoned and al., 2018) as the community awareness eventually the awareness toward river is may alter the community perception reduced. Many studies have focused on toward river management (Wohl, 2014). the river and community aspect to ensure Community awareness becomes one of the river sustainability. However, the the factors that will shape outcome of agency perception is still lacking in river urban river, especially in urban management and frequently addressed neighbourhood environment. This is not highlighting the social aspect (Chan, because without the sense of awareness 2009, 2012; Verbrugge & van den Born, will result mismatch in the river 2018). Thus, this study explored the management (Parsons & Thoms, 2018). components that bind DID perception with The community awareness will give the community toward river management. impact to the successfulness in collaboration between agency and 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW community, particularly DID with community in urban neighbourhood. The 2.1 River Management and awareness shapes the community Challenges in Urban perception and creates the sense of appreciation toward the river Urban area is well known for the environment. Chan (2012) state the compacted area with built ups. This gives agency play vital role in managing the river and the community role in river

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management is equally important. toward the river environment as they are Ironically, up until now, river pollution is the one that will suffered the most in still due to human disturbance (Kumar, regards to river issues. This study looks Masago, Mishra, & Fukushi, 2018). at how DID collaborate with the Exacerbating this situation, the community in urban neighbourhood to community has been apathetic to the river understand how both able to manage whereby it result continuance river usage their river environment. Thus there is a as sewer (Chan, 2012). It is proved as the need to achieve successful collaboration river pollution is still one of the major between agency and community. issues in urban neighbourhood. This shows that an area with the nearest river 2.2 DID Concern on Community River community results the most severe river Environment pollution. Thus, the river community is the root to the river sustainability that needs River management in Malaysia is serious attention in river management. frequently associates with DID and The river pollution is because of the Department of Environment (DOE) when persistent lack of awareness among the it comes to river pollution. This study communities and not realizing that they highlights on DID as this research more are the river users and the river focus on the river development than river sustainability is depends on them. This is ecology. There is lacking in consideration because there is different scale of of agency perception in river awareness between agency and management towards river development. community. The lack of cooperation by DID is an agency that majorly manage community have been ongoing more than the water resources in Malaysia ensuring a decade (Chan, 2005; Chan, Abdullah, the Water Quality Index (WQI) is at its Ibrahim, & Ghazali, 2003; Opstal & Hugé, best and clean, and enough water supply. 2012; Verbrugge & van den Born, 2018; It highlights only on the technical aspect Wohl, 2014). Study by Parsons and of water body such as its fluvial Thoms (2018) state that without the geomorphology, flood risk, and river bank sense of awareness in both key players, it treatment. Thus, there are studies that will result mismatch in achieving the claimed there is lack of social aspect in resilient river. This urges the social river management (Angriani et al., 2018; aspect to be included in river Chan, 2009; Chan et al., 2003; Elfithri, management, particularly in urban Toriman, Mokhtar, & Juahir, 2011; neighbourhood for the community that Shafaghat, Mir Ghasemi, Keyvanfar, live nearest to the river. According to Lamit, & Ferwati, 2017) including DID. Chiang (2018), the nearest community to the river has the highest perception

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Figure 1 Evolution of Department of Irrigation and Drainage since 1932 is due to the needs at the time of years

The scope of work in DID is mainly development, or any management was managing water resources whereby it focusing on modern infrastructures. This consists of 18 division of units, including shows that evolution of DID is changing the river basin management. Based on based on the needs at that time. Figure 1, the timeline show the evolution Consecutively, agency in river of DID that begins with only watering the management need stewardship crops during industrial era in Malaysia. cooperated with community to ensure the Unfortunately, due to severe flood in river in urban neighbourhood is 1970s, DID was urged to include flood sustainable. This is because the mitigation into its scope and eventually community awareness may as well alter expanded into coastal including river, the perception in river management irrigation and drainage. However, those (Wohl, 2014) and gives impact to the years were focused only on technical successfulness in collaboration between aspect of river such as river bank DID and community. Therefore, this study treatment, river sedimentation and examine the DID perception that can erosion, river water quality and flood enhance the river management through mitigation. DID attention only shifted to community participation. community in 1993 whereby they sensed the need for community awareness 3.0 METHOD AND RESULTS toward river importance. In addition, the overall worldview shows that the attention This study carried out through expert toward community is lacking in comparing interview method with professionals from the technical aspect (Johnson et al., Department of Irrigation and Drainage 2018). Between years 1932 to 1993, the (DID) in Nusajaya, Larkin, and Kulai to needs for engineering proficiency is more participate in interview. The total of four needed than community aspect because DID officers were interviewed at different at that time, the trend in river session; one officer from DID Nusajaya,

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one DID officer from, Larkin and two ignore their effort. officers from DID Kulai. The first officer DID was from Nusajaya approached The officer from DID Nusajaya described through emails. The email address was that the community lack of awareness is collected from DID website directory, because of the community immunity particularly Johor state. From the toward the river issue, especially in their interview session, DID officers from neighbourhood. It means that the Larkin and Kulai were introduced by DID community is apathetic to the river officer from Nusajaya. All four of the DID environment as it has been happening for officers have involved in river a very long time, especially the river management, specifically in Skudai River, community that live the nearest to the where the study area was selected based river. In some situation, DID has warned on the site context that complement the the community to put stop on their definition of urban neighbourhood. All of irresponsible act but after a period of the officers were interviewed on river time, the community repeats it again. It management and their perception toward was admitted by all officers that the community participation based on their community mentality sometimes hinder experiences. The interview includes the the river management and resulting the experts’ opinions on current river persisting river pollution. Thus, the similar management in Malaysia, including river vision and understanding between landscapes, community programs, public agency and community is essential in reaction to programs, and status of river river management. Despite the scope of in Malaysia, particularly in Skudai River, work, all DID interviewed actually Kulai, Johor. The interviews were welcome for other parties or agencies to recorded in audio and transcribed using collaborate for river programme that helps MS Word and imported into Nvivo12. in increasing community awareness. DID Using the Nvivo12, the transcriptions has approached the community by were coded based on 52 nodes that conducting river programmes and all supported by sub nodes. Word frequency three DID state that they receives good and cluster analysis were used to explain feedback, especially from urban river the relationship between all nodes. community. The officers from DID Kulai agreed that community may become the 4.0 RESULTS key to success and failure in river management. It depends on the Based on the expert interview, it was community situation whether to concern found that community aspect was not part about the river or treat it as disposal of river management in DID; its priority pathway. According officers in DID Kulai focuses on the physical river attributes that work closely with river community, such as widening river bank and they do not outlaw the community deepening the river depth. It is because tendency to beautify the river edge using DID concern on the flood mitigation and local plants but the usage of fertilizers the scope of work DID is truly on contributes to the river pollution is strictly technical aspect of river such as river not allowed. This would force DID Kulai to edge treatment, and river water quality. remove the community treatment at river DID role in managing the water resources edge. However, the community was well is to ensure the water is at its best and aware that DID have the right to do it. On clean, and enough water supply. the other hand, according to the officer However, DID officer from Larkin state from DID Nusajaya, he admitted that that in any management, community is maintenance wise is also troublesome for always considered in the planning and river because for river landscape, it according to her, the initiative to increase consist of three layers; river bank, river community awareness toward the river reserved, and landscaping (land). This sustainability in DID was carried out. indicates that the community must be Unfortunately, the community decides to responsible to river environment to

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ensure the river management is effective.

Figure 2 Community is associated with landscape and still part of the river management despite its major is the river itself activities. One of the officers from DID Figure 2 shows the Words Frequency in Kulai state that the visibility of the river Nvivo12, the study reveals that the beautification is important to ensure the priority in river management is the river community knows that the river water resources. Despite that, community landscape is accessible in their programme is still handled by DID to neighbourhood. According to the officers clean and increase the river management from DID Kulai, river beautification does awareness. The community involvement not only invite the community to come to in river management is needed because the area but also invite the risk of river the source of river pollution is the human pollution whereby the presence of itself. The community river programme by community gives them opportunity to DID gives the opportunity for community throw rubbish into the river. This reveals to nurture their understanding and that the responsibility to reduce river develop the sense of awareness toward pollution is not solely on DID. Community the river environment, especially in their participation and their sense of neighbourhood. The understanding and awareness help to ensure the river sense of awareness in community scale management is successful in urban is nurtured not just through programme neighbourhood. Therefore, DID needs to but also recreational activity. understand community’s need in river beautification to ensure the river Concreted river is commonly found in management is successful. urban area but based on the interview, DID actually against it. However, if there 5.0 DISCUSSIONS is a need for concreted river, DID would refer Manual Saliran Mesra Alam (MSMA) Based on the result elicited through as guidance in river development. MSMA expert interview, the rapport between helps to reduce the intrusion to the river agency and community is essential in ecology. In most urban neighbourhood, ensuring the river management succeed river beautification is attempted to create and sustainable. This is because the sense of belonging within community. although there are many experts in river It is to inspire the community to management, they still have no power on appreciate the river landscape in their pollution control as the river is used by neighbourhood through recreational

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the community. The community are the best WQI for river. one that interact with the river the most and thus, they have the opportunity either For urban neighbourhood, DID tend to do to care about river or treat the river as river beautification for the river community drainage. The agency role toward to increase landscape aesthetic value. community is to provide the needs for the This increases the river community community river environment but the awareness toward the river environment. sustainability of the river environment Ironically, the community is the cause to depend on the community. This finding river pollution in most river community parallel to study by Khalid et al. (2018) on neighbourhood. The lack of awareness in the decision making by agency in water community, particularly urban resources framework. This shows that the neighbourhood, has been threating the community play role in complement the river landscape. It has been one of the river management and controlling the persistent river issues that need river pollution as the closest river user is community participation as the solution. the community in urban neighbourhood. However, when agency creates a culture Chiang (2018) state that the nearest of learning in river management, the community to river is exposed to the river challenges with community leads to river risk, such as pollution, and thus has the issue solution. strongest perception toward their risk. Thus, the most suitable river community 6.0 CONCLUSION programme is focused on the community that live the nearest to the river itself. This study discussed the mismatch The DID evolution in its scope of work perception between DID and community also affect the experts’ understanding and toward river management. It is to identify perception toward community the component and how it can be merge participation in river management. This is into collaborative approaches to secure because DID evolution since 1932 has the long-term provision of river prioritize the technical aspect of water management. The component that needs resources. Therefore, the experts have to to be included in river management that follow the scope of work in river secure the community cooperation is the management. DID role is focussing on importance of aesthetic river value, using water resource more than community and bottom up approach, and visibility of river this shapes the experts’ experiences in landscape. Therefore, the study suggests river management. Commonly, for further research in establishing the management in agency is top bottom common understanding between approach but in it is no longer practical agencies and community in river because the need for community management to strengthen the rapport participation is a must. This finding is between both parties. related study by Dubey (2019) that community must be trusted. DID strong REFERENCES understanding and perception toward the technical aspect of river is influenced by Åberg, E. U., & Tapsell, S. (2013). Revisiting the the top bottom approach that has been River Skerne: The long-term social practicing since 1932 until 1993. This benefits of river rehabilitation. Landscape and Urban Planning, 113, 94-103. doi: finding associated to study by (Wilson https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013 (2012)) shows that evolution in .01.009 management is a transition that often results difficult overturn to bottom up Angriani, P., Sumarmi, Ruja, I. N., & Bachri, S. approach. In relation to the cooperation (2018). River management: The importance of the roles of the public between DID and community, this study sector and community in river suggests that discrepancy between preservation in Banjarmasin (A case community and DID negatively affect the study of the Kuin River, Banjarmasin, river management by DID to achieve the South Kalimantan – Indonesia).

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Chan, N. W. (2005). Sustainable management of Md. Yassin, A., Eves, C., & McDonagh, J. (2010). rivers in Malaysia: Involving all An evolution of waterfront development in stakeholders. International Journal of Malaysia. River Basin Management, 3(3), 147-162. doi: 10.1080/15715124.2005.9635254 Opstal, M., & Hugé, J. (2012). Knowledge for sustainable development: A worldviews Chan, N. W. (2009). Issues and challenges in perspective (Vol. 15). water governance in Malaysia (Vol. 6). Parsons, M., & Thoms, M. C. (2018). From Chan, N. W. (2012). Managing Urban Rivers and academic to applied: Operationalising Water Quality in Malaysia for Sustainable resilience in river systems. Water Resources. International Journal of Geomorphology, 305, 242-251. doi: Water Resources Development, 28(2), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.0 343-354. doi: 8.040 10.1080/07900627.2012.668643 Pradhananga, A. K., & Davenport, M. A. (2017). Chan, N. W., Abdullah, A. L., Ibrahim, A. L., & Community attachment, beliefs and Ghazali, S. (2003). River pollution and residents’ civic engagement in stormwater restoration towards sustainable water management. Landscape and Urban resources management in Malaysia. Planning, 168, 1-8. doi: Paper presented at the Society, Space & https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017 Environment in a Globalised World: .10.001 Challenges and Prospects, Penang, Malaysia. Shafaghat, A., Mir Ghasemi, M., Keyvanfar, A., Lamit, H., & Ferwati, M. S. (2017). Chiang, Y.-C. (2018). Exploring community risk Sustainable riverscape preservation perceptions of climate change - A case strategy framework using goal-oriented study of a flood-prone urban area of method: Case of historical heritage cities Taiwan. Cities, 74, 42-51. doi: in Malaysia. International Journal of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.11.00 Sustainable Built Environment, 6(1), 143- 1 159. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2017.03.003 Elfithri, R., Toriman, M., Mokhtar, M., & Juahir, H. (2011). Perspectives and Initiatives on Verbrugge, L., & van den Born, R. (2018). The Integrated River Basin Management in role of place attachment in public Malaysia: A Review (Vol. 6). perceptions of a re-landscaping intervention in the river Waal (The Johnson, E. S., Bell, K. P., & Leahy, J. E. (2018). Netherlands). Landscape and Urban Disamenity to amenity: Spatial and Planning, 177, 241-250. doi: temporal patterns of social response to https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018 river restoration progress. Landscape and .05.011 Urban Planning, 169, 208-219. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017 Wohl, E. (2014). Time and the rivers flowing: .09.008 Fluvial geomorphology since 1960. Geomorphology, 216, 263-282. doi: Khalid, R. M., Mokhtar, M. B., Jalil, F., Rahman, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.0 S. A., & Spray, C. (2018). Legal framing 4.012 for achieving ‘good ecological status’ for Malaysian rivers: Are there lessons to be learned from the EU Water Framework Directive? Ecosystem Services, 29, 251- 259. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.06.0 15

Kumar, P., Masago, Y., Mishra, B. K., & Fukushi, K. (2018). Evaluating future stress due to combined effect of climate change and rapid urbanization for Pasig-Marikina River, Manila. Groundwater for

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PERSEKITARAN PEMBELAJARAN LUAR DALAM PEMBANGUNAN MA’AHAD TAHFIZ ISLAM

Maziana Mazlan¹, Prof. Dr. Hasanuddin Lamit², Dr. Norliza Mohd Isa³

1, 2 Landscape Architecture (Program), Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (Email: [email protected], [email protected]) 3 Landscape Architecture Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (Email: [email protected])

ABSTRAK

Pendidikan luar adalah satu kaedah pengalaman pembelajaran persekitaran lanskap di luar dengan menggunakan semua deria. Ia mengambil tempat utama, tetapi tidak secara eksklusif melalui pendedahan kepada alam semula jadi dalam pembelajaran luar, yang menekankan di atas hubungan manusia dan alam semulajadi. Institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz boleh ditakrifkan sebagai "sebuah institusi khusus untuk pendidikan Islam” yang berlandaskan al-Quran dan al-sunnah. Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk meneroka keutamaan pendekatan pembelajaran luar dan mengenal pasti keberkesannya dikalangan pelajar dewasa Ma'ahad Tahfiz ke arah menghafal dan mudah mengingati (Hafazan) melalui persekitaran lanskap pembelajaran luar. Kajian ini menggunakan metodologi berasaskan penyelidikan kualitatif dengan dua teknik (1) Kaedah struktur soalan-soalan temu ramah untuk pengumpulan data utama (Primer) dan (2) Analisis Kandungan Media. Kajian ini memenuhi tujuan dan objektif penyelidikan dengan mendapatkan keutamaan definisi Institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz dan lanskap taman Islam yang merangkumi hubungan ruang, tempat, keperluan pengguna, suasana Islam dalam membentuk pendekatan pembelajaran (pedogody) dan kaedah ingatan atau hafalan (hafazan).

Kata Kunci: Pembelajaran Luar, Institusi Islam, Persekitaran Taman Islam

1.0 PENGENALAN Luaran dari segi 'Definisi Psikososial' merujuk kepada penggunaan deria Terdapat banyak definisi tentang seperti pendengaran (audio), penglihatan pembelajaran luar atau pendidikan luar (visual), rasa, sentuhan dan bau - untuk dan dalam penulisan Nangkula Utaberta, pemerhatian dan persepsi. Definisi dari Akmal Goh Abdullah and Nor Haslina segi 'Definisi Alam Sekitar' pula Jaafar (2014), menerangkan bahawa pembelajaran luar adalah cara definisi pembelajaran luar dikelaskan pembelajaran dengan aktiviti yang kepada dua kategori iaitu 'Definisi dilakukan melalui pendedahan keluar dari Psikososial ' dan 'Definisi Alam Sekitar'. ruang tertutup (out-of-door). Definasi Menurut CA Lewis (1975), Pembelajaran menurut Priests (1988), kaedah

L 47 pembelajaran atau pendidikan luar yang dibina; dan mungkin memerlukan adalah dengan pengalaman kontekstual tanah yang luas, air dan / atau udara; dan yang dialami atau yang telah berlaku mungkin memerlukan kawasan landskap terutamanya melalui pendedahan luar semulajadi yang tidak diubahsuai untuk pintu (out-of-door). Penekanan subjek mewujudkan ruang aktiviti. pembelajaran luar diletakkan pada hubungan terhadap manusia dan sumber Abdul Salam Yussof (2015), alam semula jadi. Menurut Husamah menerangkan dalam penulisannya (2013), pembelajaran luar merupakan bahawa proses pembelajaran menurut al- aktiviti-aktiviti di luar sekolah yang Ghazali dalam bukunya berjudul al- dipenuhi dengan kegiatan di luar kelas Munqidh min al-Dhalal diperolehi dari tiga melalui alam bebas (Alam semulajadi) proses iaitu Ulum al-Hissiyah, iaitu ilmu dengan bermain di kawasan sekolah, yang diperolehi oleh manusia melalui taman, perkampungan pertanian/nelayan, pancaindera, Ulum al-Aqliyah iaitu berkemah, dan kegiatan yang memberi melalui proses berfikir melalui akal dan pengalaman, serta pengembangan Ulum al-Laduni iaitu ilmu yang diperolehi pengetahuan yang relevan. Pembelajaran secara langsung melalui hati berbentuk luar diterapkan kepada pelajar untuk ilham dari Allah SWT. Pembelajaran menghindari kebosanan dan memberi memerlukan gabungan antara tiga proses minat untuk mendalami pelajaran. Dalam ini yang saling berkait untuk penulisan Adelia Vera (2012:17), mendapatkan kekuatan dan matlamat menyatakan bahawa pembelajaran luar pendidikan. Al-Ghazali menganggap merupakan suatu kegiatan untuk ketiga-tiga proses ini amat penting bagi menyampaikan pelajaran yang melahirkan dan membentuk berlangsung di luar kelas, iaitu kegiatan kesempurnaan pelajar. Ini dapat difahami yang melibatkan alam semulajadi sebagai melalui kenyataan Saidina Omar: “Ajarlah sumber belajar secara langsung. anak-anakmu berenang, menunggang Pembelajaran luar merupakan cara kuda, cerita-cerita dan contoh-contoh pembelajaran yang menggunakan semua yang baik, dan juga syair yang indah” deria manusia. Ia mengambil tempat (Tajul Arifin 1993). Daripada ayat ini utama, tetapi tidak semata-mata, melalui dapat diteliti bahawa proses pendedahan kepada persekitaran alam pembelajaran bukan sahaja melalui semula jadi. Dalam pendidikan luar, pemikiran tetapi juga aktiviti tenaga dapat penekanan subjek pembelajaran membentuk intelektual dan spiritual. Al- diletakkan pada hubungan berkaitan Ghazali memandang proses manusia dan sumber alam semulajadi pembelajaran mempunyai dua hala iaitu (Lund, 2002). Pembelajaran luar pula jasad (aktiviti) dan rohani kedua-duanya merupakan aktiviti-aktiviti yang dilakukan saling memberi kesan dan pengaruh di luar bilik darjah agar pembelajaran dalam kehidupan. lebih menarik dan menyeronokkan yang boleh dilakukan di mana-mana sahaja Dalam penulisan Nangkula Utaberta, melalui penekanan proses belajar Akmal Goh Abdullah and Nor Haslina berdasarkan fakta-fakta nyata, dan Jaafar (2014), menerangkan bahawa sistem pengalaman secara langsung definisi pembelajaran luar dikelaskan melalui kegiatan yang dilakukan agar ia kepada dua kategori iaitu 'Definisi menjadi satu yang bermakna atau Psikososial' Menurut C.A Lewis (1975), memberi kesan ingatan (memori) yang mendalam kepada pelajar. Pembelajaran Pembelajaran Luar merujuk kepada luar telah ditakrifkan sebagai aktiviti- penggunaan deria seperti audio, visual, aktiviti yang dijalankan di luar batas-batas rasa, sentuhan dan bau - untuk bangunan (di luar atau di luar dinding); pemerhatian dan persepsi. 'Definisi Alam dan boleh dilakukan tanpa kewujudan Sekitar' adalah cara belajar pembelajaran sebarang kemudahan atau infrastruktur dengan melakukan aktiviti, yang berlaku

L 48 terutamanya melalui pendedahan kepada maklumat. Dengan pembelajaran luar kawasan luar pintu. Priest, S. (1988) juga dapat menerapkan nilai-nilai murni menerangkan bahawa pembelajaran luar kepada pelajar secara langsung dan juga adalah hubungan dalam subjek tidak langsung. KPM juga telah menjana pembelajaran antara manusia dan Garis Panduan Pembelajaran luar bilik sumber semula jadi. darjah (PLBD) dalam rancangan Malaysia ke-9 (RMK-9), Pelan Induk Menurut Sidek Baba (2017), Ilmu Pembangunan Pendidikan 2006 – 2010, Pendidikan bukan hanya di perolehi hasil Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan dari pemikiran semata-mata, ilmu juga Malaysia 2013 - 2025, matlamat PLBD melalui pemerhatian dan ujikaji tetapi adalah memberi tumpuan mengenai sumber ilham dari Allah S.W.T dan perkembangan keberkesanan pelajar nikmat yang diberi menjadikan ilmu secara menyeluruh dari segi aspek tentang yang nyata (alam sekitar) dan jasmani, rohani, emosi dan intelek. (KPM, yang ghaib saling berhubung kait. Pada 2013). Ini bersesuaian dengan kewujudan alam sekitar seperti langit dan transformasi pendidikan di Malaysia, bumi, gunung-ganang dan lautan dimana pelbagai pendekatan telah terdapat petunjuk tentang kebesaran dan diambil untuk memastikan pelajar kewujudan Allah S.W.T untuk dikaji. dibekalkan dengan kemahiran, Pembelajaran luar diperkenalkan oleh pengetahuan dan nilai yang sesuai dalam Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (KPM) keperluan semasa melalui Kemahiran pada tahun 2000. Kementerian Pelajaran Berfikir Aras Tinggi (KBAT) dimana Malaysia (2005), memberi pengertian pembelajaran dianalisis, sintesis dan Pembelajaran Luar Bilik Darjah (PLBD) menilai fakta secara kreatif. ialah suatu perancangan atau kegiatan luar dari bilik darjah yang terancang dan Pembelajaran luar merupakan hubungan berstruktur. Objektif yang ditekankan pengamal pelajar dewasa dalam pelbagai dalam pembelajaran luar ialah cara yang bertindak sebagai fasilitator, menyediakan pelajar untuk belajar dan mengguna pelbagai pendekatan deria mempelajari sesuatu tajuk atau konsep, dan pengalaman. Ini menggalakkan atau sebagai satu proses mempelajari. pelajar dewasa dalam menanggani Tujuan utama pembelajaran luar terdiri emosi, fizikal, estatik, rohani dan daripada tiga iaitu pengetahuan, sikap pengalaman kognitif sebahagian daripada dan kemahiran. Selain itu, ia juga dapat proses pembelajaran. Tempat atau mengukuhkan kefahaman pelajar konteks di mana pembelajaran berlaku terhadap konsep yang dipelajari di dalam merupakan bahagian penting dalam kelas, memberikan pengalaman proses pembelajaran, seperti yang pembelajaran dalam situasi yang digambarkan dalam Rajah 1. Hubungan sebenar, bermakna dan menyeronokkan. antara manusia, aktiviti-aktiviti yang Kemudian, ia juga membolehkan pelajar terlibat dan tempat dimana proses dewasa berfikir dan menguasai ilmu pembelajaran itu berlaku dalam jangka pengetahuan melalui pengalaman masa tertentu mewujudkan peluang kontekstual, meningkatkan minat dan pembelajaran. sikap pelajar untuk belajar, mengembangkan kemahiran mengumpul, memproses, dan menganalisis data serta

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Rajah 1 Proses pembelajaran (Higgins, P, 1995)

dewasa di institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz bagi Tempat dan tempoh (masa) dimana mengenal pasti pendekatan manusia berlajar juga membantu mereka pembelajaran luar dan keberkesanannya berhubung dengan pengalaman dan faedah-faedah dikalangan pelajar dewasa konteks yang bermakna dengan dunia Ma'ahad Tahfiz ke arah menghafal dan sekeliling. Pembelajaran luar mudah mengingati (Hafazan). Kajian ini menyediakan kepelbagaian sumber dan juga meneliti kaedah-kaedah hafalan (a hubungan ruang-ruang dalam ḥifẓ), bacaan (tilawah), kesempurnaan mewujudkan aktiviti pembelajaran luar (tajwid), pengkajian penterjamahan yang berkesan melalui putaran masa (tafsir) dan hukum-hukum serta amalan kehidupan. Dalam hal ini, pembelajaran (tabii) melalui pembelajaran luar. luar memberi peluang untuk Kebiasaan teknik pembelajaran yang membangunkan kemahiran untuk belajar, digunakan dalam pengajaran dan kehidupan dan alam pekerjaan. pembelajaran Ma'ahad tahfiz adalah Pembelajaran luar mengambil tempat teknik yang menggunakan pelbagai deria untuk belajar mengenai pengalaman di seperti mendengar, melihat, membaca luar. dan menulis untuk menghafal dengan melalui kaedah pengajaran (Talqin), Kajian ini memenuhi tujuan dan objektif latihan (Takrar), cinta kepada al-Quran penyelidikan dengan mendapatkan (Al-Mel) dan pemahaman (Al-Fahm) yang keutamaan definisi pembelajaran luar memerlukan kemahiran sentuhan alam melalui institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz dan semulajadi sebagai pemangkin dan factor taman Islam yang merangkumi hubungan terbentuknya dan mempengaruhi daya ruang, tempat, keperluan pengguna, kaedah ingatan dan hafalan (hafazan). suasana Islam dalam membentuk pendekatan pembelajaran (pedogody) Menurut Anderson (2002); Brookhart dan kaedah ingatan atau hafalan (2012) menyatakan bahawa (hafazan). Untuk mengilhamkan kaedah pembelajaran perlu menerusi asas ingatan hafalan (hafazan) merekabentuk kemahiran berfikir untuk membolehkan taman Islam yang diilhamkan dari manusia melihat pelbagai perspektif tumbuh-tumbuhan yang dipilih dengan untuk menyelesaikan masalah di dalam cermat untuk memenuhi persekitaran sesuatu situasi tertentu. Menurut tempatan adalah dengan cara menarik pandangan al-Qabisi (1955) berfikir ialah balik paradigma al-Quran. fungsi akal yang memerhatikan semua tenaga supaya otak manusia dapat Tesis ini mengkaji keseluruhan faedah- bekerja dan beroperasi dengan faedah pembelajaran luar persekitaran alam semulajadi untuk pelajar-pelajar

L 50 sebaiknya untuk proses pembelajaran. Pendidikan institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz (Mohd Syaubari Bin Othman, 2018) hanya boleh ditakrifkan sebagai "sebuah institusi khusus untuk pendidikan Islam Pendidikan mempunyai pendekatan yang yang berlandaskan al-Quran dan al- berbeza untuk pembelajaran. Pelajar sunnah Kebanyakan institusi-institusi dewasa akan belajar dengan baik apabila Ma’ahad Tahfiz sekarang ini tidak tumpuan pembelajaran diberi kepada mempunyai kawasan yang cukup bagi mereka, bukan pada guru. Ini dipanggil pelajar untuk kemudah sampaian (akses) andragogy, iaitu satu proses membantu untuk ke ruang terbuka, persekitaran pelajar belajar. Menurut Malcolm Knowles semulajadi dan alam hijau. Institusi (1984:12), seorang perintis dalam Ma’ahad tahfiz pada hari ini banyak andragogy pembelajaran pelajar dewasa, terletak dibandar-bandar besar dengan mendapati bahawa pelajar boleh belajar kawasan yang terhad yang dikelilingi dengan baik apabila: hutan batu buatan manusia berbanding alam semulajadi. Pelajar-pelajar juga 1. Memahami melihat alam semulajadi hanya dikaca televisyen dan bahan-bahan bacaan 2. Kebebasan untuk belajar dengan seperti buku-buku sahaja. Pada zaman cara mereka sendiri. modern hari ini, pelajar-pelajar banyak 3. Pembelajaran melalui pengalaman menghabiskan masa yang besar di sekolah dan institusi pendidikan, dimana 4. Masa yang tepat untuk belajar. mereka banyak berada di dalam kelas dan hanya mempunyai masa yang agak 5. Dorongan Proses positif dan singkat untuk membuat aktiviti-aktiviti menggalakkan. luar. Adalah agak mustahil, pelajar diberi peluang mengalami pengalaman alam Sistem pembelajaran sekolah dan semulajadi dengan keadaan kawasan institusi yang telah digunakan di Malaysia institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz yang terhad dan hari ini adalah berdasarkan kepada terbatas pada hari ini. Ini merupakan sistem pembelajaran tertutup yang perkara penting bagi institusi dalam berasaskan nilai (jumlah markah, gred) kawasan bandar untuk menyediakan dan "kedudukan atau pencapaian" di kawasan hijau seperti taman-taman atau dalam kelas. Ia membawa kepada kolam-kolam, kawasan rehat dan kemerosotan nilai asas menghafal, tidak kawasan aktiviti untuk pelajar menerokai menghargai pelajaran, tidak memahami, pembelajaran luar. dan tidak merasa apa itu pendidikan sebenar. Semua Institusi pendidikan dan 2.0 KAJIAN LITERASI sekolah hanya mengikut piawai kurikulum yang disediakan oleh Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (KPM) di Malaysia 2.1 Pertikaian Tanggapan Konsep yang kebanyakannya menggunakan Pembelajaran Islam kaedah pembelajaran dalaman sahaja dengan menunjukkan visual video, Pendidikan dan pembelajaran Islam gambar-gambar dan menggunakan bermula dari turunnya wahyu yang imaginasi (Trianto, 2010). pertama kepada Nabi Muhammad SAW Institusi "menerangkan tentang kualiti di Gua Hira’ iaitu Surah Al-Alaq yang kehidupan akademik, serta peranannya mempunyai lima ayat yang pendek yang sebagai masyarakat warganegara di bermaksud: mana ia berada" (Dober, 1996, p.47).

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"Bacalah (wahai Muhammad) dengan sebagai motivasi buat manusia untuk nama Tuhanmu yang menciptakan menimba ilmu dan bermulanya (sekalian makhluk). DIA menciptakan pembelajaran Islam. manusia dari sebuku darah beku. Bacalah, dan Tuhanmu Yang Maha Dalam metodologi pembelajaran, Pemurah, yang mengajar manusia hafazan merupakan kemahiran penting melalui pena dan tulisan. Dia ditahap awal dalam pendidikan Islam mengajarkan manusia apa yang tidak yang menggunakan sumber Al-Quran. diketahuinya." (Surah Al-‘Alaq, Ayat: 1- (Sidek Baba, 2017). 5). “Wahai umat manusia! Sesungguhnya Dari sini bermulalah pembelajaran Islam telah datang kepada kamu Al-Quran yang memberi ilmu dan pendidikan yang yang menjadi penasihat pengajaran dari bermaksud “belajar”. Aisyah r.a Tuhan kamu, dan yang menjadi meriwayatkan bahawa Nabi Muhammad penawar bagi penyakit-penyakit batin SAW pada 17 Ramadan tahun 610 yang ada dalam dada kamu, dan juga Masihi, Allah mengutus malaikat Jibril menjadi hidayah petunjuk untuk a.s untuk menyampaikan wahyu keselamatan, serta membawa rahmat pertama kepada Nabi Muhammad di bagi orang-orang beriman.” (Al-Quran: gua terpencil tersebut. Malaikat Jibril Surah Yunus: 10:57) meminta Nabi Muhammad SAW “Iqra” (bacalah). baginda kemudian menjawab Huraian ayat-ayat di atas menjelaskan “Aku tidak tahu membaca”. Jibril bahawa Allah S.W.T memberi tahu kemudian memeluk nabi dengan sangat bahawa banyak pelajaran yang perlu erat sehingga baginda terasa lemas. dipelajari agar manusia dapat berfikir Dipeluknya Rasulullah sebanyak 3 kali tentang kewujudannya dan taat dan mengajar baginda membaca kalam kepadanya. Pendidikan juga sebagai Allah tersebut sehingga fasih. Pada lima penyembuhan penyakit rohani dan ayat pertama ini juga Allah mengulangi fizikal seperti penyakit kejahilan, perkataan ilmu sebanyak 3 kali dan juga penyakit kebimbangan dan penyakit menyentuh tentang penggunaan pena pernafasan. Pendidikan juga boleh iaitu penulisan yang menjadi medium membersihkan minda seorang muslim berguna dalam penyampaian ilmu. Hal untuk memahami dunia dan gembira ini menunjukkan betapa Allah untuk persediaan kehidupan di akhirat. menekankan tuntutan ilmu buat Metodologi dalam pembelajaran Islam manusia. Ilmu pengetahuan mampu adalah berterusan, tanpa henti melalui menjadi cahaya penyuluh untuk sifat manusia yang belajar dari lahir membimbing manusia keluar dari sehingga nafas terakhirnya. Dalam kehinaan jahiliah ke arah kehidupan pendidikan Islam terdiri daripada satu yang lebih bertamadun. Ayat ini set konsep dan berkaitan dengan sifat diturunkan kepada Nabi Muhammad manusia, kepercayaan, akal, dan sikap, SAW untuk manusia tentang tuntutan bersama-sama dengan nilai rohani dan membaca dan tuntutan ilmu padahal fizikal, semuanya terperangkap dalam baginda sendiri tidak tahu menulis dan rangka persepsi padu bergantung membaca ketika itu. Dari sini dapat sepenuhnya dalam asas dan moral dilihat bahawa pelajaran adalah lebih berpandukan Al-Quran dan al-Sunnah. berkesan bagi membina peradaban Melalui pendidikan Islam, individu manusia dan sekaligus membangunkan dididik dan berbudaya mengikut kaedah umat. Allah juga menurunkan ayat ini yang merangkumi semua aspek yang disebutkan dalam al-Quran dan al-

L 52 sunnah. (Langgulung, 1989 dan Che yang mencapai penyerahan dan Noraini Hashim ,2014). kepercayaan sepenuhnya kepada Allah SWT. Ia adalah proses di mana Konsep dan maksud pendididikan Islam seseorang yang mempunyai bakat adalah:- istimewa mengarahkan proses pembelajaran individu lain, 1. Memupuk semua aspek menggunakan bahan pendidikan khusus intelektual, emosi, fizikal dan sosial dan teknik pembangunan yang sesuai. keperibadian; berdasarkan ajaran dan nilai-nilai Islam, dengan matlamat untuk mencapai matlamat yang optimum untuk mengetengahkan hidup bermaruah yang tersangkut dengan rasa keagamaan. Terjemahan : Dan Ia telah mengajarkan 2. Menyediakan individu-individu Nabi Adam, akan segala nama benda- Muslim dengan proses penyediaan yang benda dan gunanya, kemudian merangkumi semua aspek ditunjukkannya kepada malaikat lalu Ia keperibadiannya yang berterusan berfirman: "Terangkanlah kepadaKu sepanjang fasa-fasa yang berkembang nama benda-benda ini semuanya jika untuk dapat mengendalikan kehidupan kamu golongan yang benar". (Al-Quran: duniawi dan yang lain, berdasarkan Al-Baqarah, 2:31) ajaran dan nilai-nilai Islam, dan selaras dengan metodologi pendidikan yang Dari maksud penterjemahan ayat ini ditentukan oleh pakar pendidikan. menerangkan bahawa Allah SWT mengajar Nabi Adam segala nama 3. Konsep Islam yang saling benda yang terdapat di dunia ini untuk berkaitan dalam satu rangka kerja pengetahuan dan kemudahan Baginda rasional menggariskan beberapa serta keturunannya. Selain pengajaran kaedah prosedur dan teknik praktikal yang digambarkan dalam ayat tersebut yang membuktikan kecekapan yang Allah SWT juga menerangkan sudut besar dalam menapis dan memupuk ilmu dan pendidikan dalam bentuk tingkah laku manusia yang memenuhi usaha dalam perbuatan. Ini dan mencerminkan semangat menunjukkan bahawa ilmu bukan saja kepercayaan Islam. dating dari akliah (Akal) tetapi ilmu juga datang dengan segala pengalaman 4. Aktiviti individu dan sosial yang perbuatan di alam sekitar. (Mohd bertujuan untuk memupuk individu Hairudin Amin, kamarul Azmi Jasmin, secara intelektual, doktrin, rohani, 2012) sosial, fizikal, akademik, dan beretika, dengan itu memberi mereka Dalam hadis Nabi Muhammad SAW pengetahuan, pendekatan, etika dan yang di riwayatkan oleh (Al-Tarmizi, profesion yang diperlukan untuk 1994:238; Ibn Majah, t.thn:940/2; pertumbuhan yang baik yang dapat Ahmad, 1994:119-110/6, 124/6; al- memberikan perkhidmatan terbaik dan Darini.t.thn.:204-205/2) Baginda kehidupan rohani. membezakan maksud pengajaran dengan pendidikan tetapi dua-dua 5. kesucian Syariah Islam adalah penting untuk manusia. Nabi berusaha memupuk semua aspek Muhammad SAW juga merujuk kepada keperibadian manusia dengan cara perkataan melatih yang boleh

L 53 disimpulkan sebagai usaha untuk menyendiri dan sentiasa bertafakur meningkatkan kemahiran dalam memikirkan kebesaran Allah SWT pendidikan adalah dengan latihan. sehinggalah malaikat Jibril datang dan (Mohd Hairudin Amin, kamarul Azmi mengajar solat kepada baginda dan Jasmin, 2012). kemudian beliau mengajar keluarganya sehinggalah pada suatu hari, Ali bin Abi Istilah "pendidikan Islam" bermaksud Talib, sepupu baginda melihat cara penerangan pendidikan Islam itu baginda beribadat bersama keluarganya sendiri, yang berakar pada ajaran Al- dan kemudian disampaikan kepada Zaid Quran. Pendidikan Islam mempunyai bin Harithah, iaitu hamba Nabi SAW. integrasi epistemologi yang diasaskan Dari situ bermulalah institusi pertama pada Tawhid - Keesaan atau iaitu di rumah Nabi SAW dalam ketuhanan. Institusi pendidikan Islam pembelajaran Islam. Dengan Islamnya, biasanya merujuk kepada madrasah. sahabat-sahabat Nabi SAW yang lain Pendidikan khas ma’ahad biasanya maka terbentuklah rumah-rumah menawarkan dua kursus pengajian: sahabat pula sebagai Institusi kursus ḥifẓ mengajar hafalan Al-Qur'an pembelajaran Islam. (orang yang menghafal seluruh Alquran dipanggil ḥāfiẓ); dan kursus'lim yang Sebelum Kedatangan Islam tidak ramai memimpin pelajar menjadi ulama yang orang Arab yang pandai membaca dan diterima dalam masyarakat. Kurikulum menulis, orang Makkah yang pertama tetap termasuk kursus dalam bahasa yang pandai membaca dan menulis Arab, tafsir, tafsir, sharī'ah (hukum ialah Sufyan bin Umaiyah dan Abu Qais Islam), hadis (ucapan dan perbuatan bin Abd Manaf dimana mereka telah Nabi Muhammad), mantiq (logik), dan belajar membaca dan menulis dengan sejarah Islam. Di Empayar seorang peniaga beragama Nasrani di Uthmaniyyah, Süleyman I Anbar iaitu Bishr bin Abd al-Malik. memperkenalkan kajian hadis, Setelah kedatangan Islam terdapat Bergantung pada tuntutan pendidikan, seramai 17 orang Arab Makkah yang beberapa madaris juga menawarkan pandai membaca dan menulis dan kursus lanjutan tambahan dalam menjadi penulis wahyu, antaranya Umar kesusasteraan bahasa Arab, Bahasa bin al-khatab, Uthman bin Affan, Ali bin Inggeris dan bahasa asing lain, serta Abi Talib, Abu Ubaidah bin Al-Jarah dan sains dan sejarah dunia. Madaris lain-lain. Penduduk Makkah pertama Ottoman bersama-sama dengan ajaran yang mengajar dan membuka Institusi agama juga mengajar "gaya penulisan, pembelajaran Islam (Kuttab) ialah gramatika, sintaksis, puisi, komposisi, penduduk Wadi al-Qura’ dan semenjak sains semula jadi, sains politik, dan itulah ramai orang Arab yang boleh etika." membaca dan menulis. (Muhammad Yusof Ahmad, 2015). 2.2 Meneroka Tafsiran Institusi Keperluan Pembelajaran Islam semakin Ma’ahad Tahfiz Islam jelas setelah kedatangan Islam dan sejak itu Nabi Muhammad SAW Institusi Ma’ahad terbentuk dan bermula menyampaikan pembelajaran Islam dari turunnya wahyu pertama kepada kepada pengikut-pengikutnya dan Nabi Muhammad SAW iaitu di Gua dibantu oleh para sahabat dalam Hira’. Dengan kedatangan wahyu penulisan wahyu selama lebih kurang pertama ini Gua Hira’ menjadi tempat 10 tahun di Makkah kemudian institusi ini berkembang ke Madinah walaupun pendidikan Islam yang pertama. Setelah sebelum Hijrah. Setelah NAbi menerima wahyu, baginda terus

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Muhammad SAW berhijrah ke Madinah Afrika, Masjid Ahmad bin Tulun di pada tahun 610M, mereka telah Mesir, Masjid al-Azhar di Kaherah dan mendirikan Masjid Quba dan Masjid Al- bertukar kepada Universiti al-Azhar Nabawi yang merupakan Institusi yang pada 1380-1381H / 1961-1962M, Masjid pertama di Madinah sebagai institusi di Andalusa dan kemudiannya ma’ahad tahfiz pembelajaran Islam di dikembangkan peranannya dengan Masjid. Ia menjadi Institusi terbesar lebih meluas sebagai institusi yang pertama pada zaman itu pendidikan Islam. sehinggalah pada zaman Khalifah Uthman bin Affan Al-Quran disusun dan Shalaby (1945), Muhd Yusof Ahmad dijilid naskhah kemudian dihantar (2015) dan Sidek Baba (2017), kebandar-bandar besar, seperti Basrah, menerangkan pada awalnya Masjid Yaman dan Kufah. Dari sejarah sirah merupakan tempat ibadah yang inilah bermulanya institusi-institusi ini memerlukan suasana yang tenang dan berkembang pada zaman para sahabat sunyi. Apabila fungsi tempat dan selepasnya. Berdasarkan pesanan pembelajaran telah bertambah dengan Umar bin al-Khatab supaya mengajar aktiviti dan bilangan penuntutnya anak-anak di beri pendidikan dan semakin ramai maka masjid menjadi pelajaran selaras dengan aktiviti seperti satu kawasan tempat perbahasan ilmiah berenang dan menunggang kuda, dan menjadi agak riuh dan bising serta memanah, dan syair maka lebih menghilangkan suasana ketenangan berkembanglah institusi-institusi yang untuk beribadah. Dari sini terbinalah lebih besar peranannya diseluruh dunia institusi khas di luar kawasan masjid sehingga hari ini. Banyak masjid-masjid yang dipanggil Kuffah dan Kutab terbina pada zaman pemerintahan kemudian berkembang membangun khalifah Umar al-Khatab yang menjadi madrasah atau ma’ahad tahfiz. berperanan sebagai Institusi ma’ahad Madrasah atau ma’ahad tahfiz pertama tahfiz seperti masjid Jami’ al-Mnsur di yang dibina dalam sejarah Islam Baghdad, Masjid Basrah, Masjid Kuffah didirikan oleh Nizam al-Mulk di Naisabur di Iraq, Masjid Jami’ al-Umawi di pada tahun 1065 dan kemudian Damsyik, Masjid Jami’ Amr bin al-‘As di berkembang ke seluruh negara.

Rajah 2 Pembentukanan Ma’ahad seiring dengan Pendidikan Islam

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2.3 Ma’ahad Tahfiz Islam Di Malaysia menyebabkan rumah guru-guru menjadi sesak maka terbinalah surau dan Ma’ahad Tahfiz di Malaysia terbentuk Madrasah. Kemudian banyak rumah- dengan kedatangan Islam ditanah rumah pondok di bina dengan tujuan Melayu yang berkait rapat untuk belajar berhampirannya. perkembangan Islam di Nusantara. Ia Terbentuklah pondok-pondok pengajian bermula dengan aktiviti berdagang oleh Islam yang terbentuk seluruh tanah orang-orang Arab dan Farsi kerana Melayu sehingga hari ini. (Muhd Yusof Nusantara terletak di tengah-tengah Ahmad, 2015). perjalanan jalan laut di antara Asia Barat dan berpegang pada fakta sejarah Kedatangan British dan pendakwah mengatakan bahawa Islam telah Kristian pada abad ke-19 telah berkembang di Nusantara pada Kurun menjejaskan pendidikan Islam di tanah ke 13M. Dalam catatan sejarah Dinasti Melayu dengan mewujudkan pendidikan Yuan di China mengatakan bahawa barat dan mengeluarkan pelajaran Islam pernah datang politik Melayu ke China dalam bidang pendidikan dan digantikan yang diketuai oleh dua orang Islam. Ini dengan perkebunan dan anyaman. di perkuatkan lagi dengan catatan British telah memecah belahkan Marco Polo seorang pengembara dari pendidikan Islam di Kedah, Perak dan Venice pada tahun 1292. Pulau Penang dengan menerapkan aliran Bahasa Inggeris dan mengagung- Dari deretan sejarah mengikut al-Hadad agungkan pendidikan gereja. Tokoh- (2001), menunjukkan Islam telah tokoh agama telah menyuarakan sampai ke Kedah pada kurun ke-9M permasalahan ini dan telah menyusun dengan Islamnya Maharaja Debar 11 sistem pembelajaran Islam dengan lebih oleh Syeikh Abdullah bin Syeikh Ahmad tersusun. Negeri pertama yang al-Quamiri pada tahun 531H (1111 M) di menyusun, mempunyai sistem Istana Bukit Meriam, Kota Kuala Muda. pendidikan Islam yang seragam dan Dalam catatan sejarah, Melaka telah modern adalah Negeri Johor dimana menerima Islam pada tahun 1414M asalnya dibawah pemerintahan yang dikembangkan oleh Sayid Abdul keturunan kesultanan Melaka yang Aziz, seorang pedagang Arab dari tinggal di Teluk Belanga dan dengan ini Jeddah. Oleh kerana Melaka pendidikan Islam di Negeri johor di merupakan tempat pelabuhan maka bawah kuasa istana. Johor juga ramailah pedagang-pedagang Islam merupakan negeri pertama yang yang datang untuk berdakwah dan menggunakan tulisan Jawi dalam surat- istana menjadi pusat utama pengajian surat rasmi. Ma’ahad pertama dibina dan pusat dakwah selain rumah-rumah ialah Sekolah Quran Sri kopi dan guru. Setelah kedatangan penjajah Sekolah Agama di Pontian dan pendakwahan masih berjalan di rumah- kemudian terbentuk Ma’ahad Johor. rumah guru sehingga apabila ramai (Mohd Hairudin Amin, 2011). yang datang untuk belajar

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Rajah 3 Pembentukan Ma’ahad dan pendidikan Islam di Malaysia

Institusi Ma'ahad adalah sebuah 2.2.1 Pembangunan Pembelajaran institusi untuk mempelajari agama Islam Ma’ahad Tahfiz Di Malaysia dan pendidikan Ma'ahad yang tidak hanya memusatkan orientasi akhirat Melihat masalah lensa pembelajaran atau pengajaran pendidikan yang luar di Malaysia, banyak institusi berkaitan dengan agama saja, tetapi Ma'ahad Tahfiz masih menggunakan juga bidang akademik seperti ahli kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran matematika dan ahli sains geologi dan lama untuk pembelajaran dalaman. lain-lain. Sukatan pelajaran dan buku Institusi Ma'ahad masih kurang pelajaran yang digunakan juga mengikut mendalam dan berpengetahuan serta susun atur dan diselaraskan mengikut kurang pendedahan kepada landskap kategori pelajar. Perkara asas yang pembelajaran luar yang juga merupakan diajar tatabahasa dan Balaghah Soraf. Mata pelajaran lain seperti Sharia, sebahagian daripada pelajaran kepada Tajweed, Tawheed, Biografi Nabi, Tafsir pelajar. Hadith, Fiqh, Usul Tafsir, Ulum Hadith, falsafah dan lain-lain. Aktiviti-aktiviti Menurut CA Lewis (1975), pembelajaran Sunnah dalam persekitaran luaran adalah dalam istilah 'definisi pembelajaran luar juga di titik beratkan phychosocial' merujuk kepada yang dilihat dapat meningkatkan 'penggunaan deria -audio, visual, rasa, pengetahuan asas pendidikan, sentuhan dan bau yang bererti dari mengembangkan strategi pemecahan aspek ingatan manusia dan menghargai masalah, cabaran, risiko dan membuat lebih cepat menghafal dan ingat perkara keputusan, perolehan kemahiran baru, yang berlaku daripada membaca dan pakar dan berkemahiran, komunikasi, belajar sahaja. Pembelajaran luar waktu untuk bersantai dan membiarkan adalah aktiviti di luar bilik darjah untuk fokusnya berkembang imaginasi dan menjadikan pendidikan menarik dan memperkayakan pembelajaran kreatif menyeronokkan, dapat dilakukan di dalam mengingati dan merenungkan kebesaran pencipta Allah SWT. (Mohd mana saja dengan penekanan pada Hairudin Amin, 2012). proses pembelajaran berdasarkan fakta- fakta nyata, pembelajaran yang

L 57 langsung dialami melalui kegiatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran Ma'ahad belajar secara langsung dengan tahfiz adalah teknik yang menggunakan harapan agar pelajar dapat makna lebih pelbagai deria seperti mendengar, baik atau kesan dalam ingatan. melihat, membaca dan menulis selain (Nangkula Utaberta, Akmal Goh kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran, Abdullah and Nor Haslina Jaafar ,2014). menghafal kaedah talqin (pengajaran), Takrar (latihan), al-mel (cinta kepada Al-Qabisi (1955); dan Azmil Hashim Quran) dan al-Fahm (pemahaman). (2013) juga menjelaskan bahawa teknik- teknik yang digunakan dalam

Rajah 4 Diubah-suai dari Teori adaptasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran, menghafal Al- Qur'an al-Qabisi (1955). (Azmil Hashim, 2013)

Bagi pelajar dewasa ingatan yang dihasilkan daripada aktiviti-aktiviti memerlukan masa, aktiviti di yang dihasilkan dari pembelajaran luar. pembelajaran luar dapat membantu Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas mereka menghafal al-Quran dan mata (1991); dan Hashim Musa (2013) pula pelajaran lain. Kaedah pembelajaran mengatakan dalam istilah Ma'ahad juga Luar "keluar" dari bilik kelas dan pembelajaran pelajar dewasa di luar melakukan beberapa aktiviti seperti dapat membantu pelajar memahami berkebun, sukan, menanam pokok, dengan lebih baik kewujudan Tuhan, memancing dan memanah juga boleh mempelajari kebaikan yang diberikan melonggarkan minda, mengaktifkan dan kebesaran Tuhan secara tidak jantung dan mata. Sesetengah langsung membimbing para pelajar penyelidikan menerangkan kepentingan untuk memikirkan pemikiran luar kotak pembelajaran luar untuk semua iaitu dengan ilmu fardu `ain oleh setiap peringkat umur. Ia juga boleh digunakan orang dan ilmu fardu kifayah pula untuk setiap individu dengan individu dengan menggunkan berbakat dan lain dan menghasilkan komunikasi di berkeupayaan dalam bidang-bidang antara mereka dengan aktiviti tertentu. masing-masing. Eaton (1998); dan Esther Tan (2018) mengemukakan bahawa membuat pembelajaran yang lebih berkesan secara automatik ialah melalui aktiviti

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2.2.2 Perspektif Pembelajaran Islam Di bumi. Ma'ahad di Malaysia Malaysia menggunakan pendidikan Al-Attas "menanamkan dan menekankan adab Di Malaysia, institusi-institusi Islam pada manusia"; adap pada asasnya memainkan peranan utama dalam menunjukkan penentuan minda dan pembangunan kajian al-Quran jiwa, pemerolehan sifat-sifat baik minda terutamanya dalam menghafaz Al- dan jiwa, prestasi yang betul dari yang Quran dan qira'at. Penubuhan institusi salah dan benar terhadap tindakan yang Islam di Malaysia adalah untuk salah, dan pemeliharaan dari kehinaan. merealisasikan falsafah pendidikan (Muhaidi, Mohd Al'Ikhsan & Siti Salwa, dengan cara yang bersepadu selain 2015) menghasilkan huffaz yang mempunyai kemahiran dalam semua pendidikan. Ia Bermula dari turunnya Al-Quran and Al- juga bertujuan untuk menghasilkan Hadith, proses pengajaran Ma'ahad huffaz yang mahir dengan kandungan secara beransur-ansur diperluas untuk al-Quran, berpengetahuan, praktikal, merangkumi cabang ilmu pengetahuan setia, dan efisien terhadap kandungan Al-Quran dan Al-Hadith seperti tawhid Al-Quran serta menyedari pengetahuan (ilmu ketuhanan), figh (perundangan), mereka dalam masyarakat. Menurut tassawwuf (sufisme atau kerohanian), Syed Muhammad Al-Naquib Al-Attas tafsir (penterjemahan Quran), mustalah (1979), Pendidikan Islam di Ma'ahad di al-hadith (metodologi hadis), tajwid Malaysia merujuk kepada proses (bacaan al-Quran), dan pelbagai aspek bersepadu untuk menyampaikan tatabahasa Arab seperti nahu, saraf dan pengetahuan Islam supaya balaghah. Subjek ini membentuk ilmu- penerimanya dilengkapi secara rohani, ilmu agama Islam tradisional, dengan intelektual dan fizikal untuk tawhid, figh dan tasawwuf membentuk melaksanakan peranan mereka sebagai silabus fardu ain. hamba-hamba-Nya dan khalifah di

Rajah 5 Subjek Pelajaran di Ma’ahad

Hassan Langgulung (d. 2008); dan Che aqliyyah' tassawwuf, perubatan, Noraini Hashim (2014), menegaskan pertanian dan disiplin lain. bahawa pendidikan Islam yang berlandaskan Ibn Khaldun termasuk ilmu kalam (theology), figh, Quran dan Hadith sebagai 'ulum naqliyyah', 'ulum

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2.3 Meneroka Terbentuknya Taman lancar dan mengingatinya. Maka Islam terbentuklah tema taman- taman Islam tradisional dalam kawasan teduh dan Mengapa Penurunan Wahyu pertama berair, kerana Islam berasal dan Nabi Muhammad SAW di Gua Hira’? umumnya tersebar dalam iklim panas melihat sejarah nabi-nabi seramai dan gersang. Dalam pandangan taman 124,000 dan 313 rasul tidak ada sejarah Islam adalah bertujuan untuk berehat mengatakan bahawa menerima wahyu dan renungan. Kebiasaan pertama di Masjid atau rumah. Nabi pemandangan taman Islam biasanya Musa menerima wahyu pertama di termasuk tempat untuk duduk, santai Gunung Sinai merupakan Gunung dan tenang. Yang unik mengenai tertinggi di Mesir yang menerima 10 prinsip-prinsip taman Islam ialah perintah dari Allah SWT (Al-Quran: berdasarkan prinsip ideologi dalam Surah Al-Araf: 7:143). Nabi Isa pula kepercayaan Islam dan penghayatan menerima wahyu ketika masih dalam syurga yang dirumuskan dari al-Quran. buaian di dalam sebuah gua Bathelem Al-Quran menggambarkan tentang di Yuressalam. (Al-Quran: surah Mariam Syurga seperti Kebun-kebun indah 19:30) dan Nabi Muhammad di Gua seperti pokok, air, padang rumput dan Hira’ diatas Bukit Jabbar Nur di Makkah aroma. di malam hari antara malam dan subuh dalam keadaan sunyi dan tenang. Secara tradisinya, pemandangan taman Secara asalnya fitrah manusia gemar adalah tempat rehat dan pantulan yang kepada alam semulajadi dan sejuk, dan peringatan syurga. Didalam ketenangan. Melihat sejarah nabi-nabi Al-Qur'an mempunyai banyak rujukan suka menyendiri di alam semester untuk kepada taman-taman, dan taman ini memberi ketenangan dan merenung digunakan sebagai analogi bumi untuk kebesaran Allah SWT. Wahyu pertama kehidupan di syurga yang dijanjikan Nabi Muhammad SAW merupakan kepada orang-orang yang beriman: suruhan “Belajar” yang dikelilingi alam semulajadi yang mewujudkan suasana " Allah menjanjikan orang-orang yang tenang dan mudah menghafal. (Ustaz beriman, lelaki dan perempuan, (akan Miftah el-Banjari, 2016). beroleh) Syurga-syurga yang mengalir di bawahnya beberapa sungai; mereka kekal di dalamnya dan beroleh tempat- tempat yang baik di dalam "Syurga Adn" serta keredaan dari Allah yang lebih besar kemuliaannya; (balasan) yang demikian itulah kejayaan yang besar."(Al-Qur'an: Surah At-Taubah 9:72). Gambar 1 Pemandangan Gua Hira’ di Bukit Jabal Al Noor Dahulu, taman Islam direka sebagai (Sumber: https://www.Muslim.Or.Id) simbol syurga duniawi. Istilah taman Islam pertama kali diakui semasa Dapat dilihat disini, tema umum taman penubuhan taman Parsi pada abad adalah memberi ketenangan bermula ketujuh (Haaga, 2005). Dalam salah dari peristiwa ilmu yang disampaikan di satu ayat Al-Quran yang mana umat Gua Hira’ iaitu merupakan taman Islam memperoleh kedudukan yang pertama yang wujud bagi memudahkan teladan untuk memilih taman-taman dan Nabi Muhammad membaca dengan syurga, iaitu:

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“Dan bandingan orang-orang yang terdapat di dalam Al-Qur'an, terdapat membelanjakan hartanya kerana 164 ayat melalui 4 bab yang mencari keredaan Allah dan kerana menerangkan tentang warna-warna (Al- meneguhkan (iman dan perasaan Quran: Surah Al-Hijr: 26,28,33, Surah ikhlas) yang timbul dari jiwa mereka, Ar-Rum : 22, Surah 'Abasa: 41), bunyi, adalah seperti sebuah kebun di tempat bau, unsur-unsur spatial, mikroklimat, yang tinggi, yang ditimpa hujan lebat, pokok-pokok, bunga dan air Syurga (52 lalu mengeluarkan hasilnya dua kali ayat). Inspirasi dan idea-idea di Taman ganda. Kalau ia tidak ditimpa hujan Islam berasal dari menekankan pola lebat maka hujan renyai-renyai pun geometrik yang unik, ciri-ciri air yang (cukup untuk menyiraminya). Dan rumit, dan skim penanaman berwarna- (ingatlah), Allah sentiasa Melihat akan warni berikutan dimensi sejarah, apa yang kamu lakukan”. (Al-Quran : falsafah, metafizik, dan puitis dari SurahAl-Baqarah 2: 265). "syurga duniawi." Taman Islam adalah landskap yang direka mengikut prinsip Umat Islam menyedari petunjuk ayat- ideologi tertentu, menggunakan elemen ayat ini menjelaskan bahawa ketinggian fizikal tertentu, dan memberi tumpuan adalah tempat yang optimum untuk kepada niat tertentu. Artikulasi unsur- kebun dan dusun kerana mereka unsur dan niat ini sangat berakar pada menghalang akar pokok dari bertemu ajaran kepercayaan Islam dan dalam dengan air bawah tanah yang budaya umat Islam. mempengaruhi pertumbuhan mereka, dan membantu dalam kualiti saliran dan Reka bentuk taman Islam yang pelupusan air yang berlebihan. menonjolkan ciri-ciri Islam dari segi pembinaannya oleh geografi dan Tempat-tempat institut Ma’ahad selepas budaya umat Islam di dalam negara, Gua Hira’ adalah rumah nabi dan ialah melalui taman-taman Mesir. rumah-rumah sahabat dan masjid- Sebelumnya dibentuk dengan masjid di bina disekelilingi dengan persekitaran asalnya panas dan kering, pokok-pokok buah-buahan. Masjid dan kekurangan air seperti Timur Quba di kelilingi oleh kebun-kebun Tengah di pelbagai tamadun purba: kurma dan terdapat ruang untuk Mesir Kuno, Babelion, Mesopotamia, pendidikan begitu juga dengan Masjid Persia, Yunani Kuno, Empayar Roma, Al-Nabawi terletak di tanah yang subur dan lain-lain. Penghargaan, falsafah dan dikelilingi pohon-pohon kurma serta dan inspirasi oleh Al-Quran untuk mempunyai pintu yang banyak lebar menggambarkan taman-taman syurga dan luas. Ini menunjukkan bahawa dengan unsur air, bunyi, warna, bau, pendidikan dan alam sekitar memain rasa, bunga, pokok, unsur spatial dan peranan yang sama penting untuk mikroklimat mencipta idea-idea era memberi rasa keselesaan dalam proses untuk membentuk dan bakat hortikultur pembelajaran. yang menggabungkan Persia, kemahiran pertanian Mesir, dan 2.3.1 Pembentukan Taman Islam pengalaman dalam pengairan pertanian dan pembersihan Bedouin Arab dan Penciptaan taman Islam mewujudkan Afrika Utara. Seperti dalam (Jadual 1.1) hubungan yang lebih interaktif dan menggambarkan elemen-elemen reka kehendak yang baik di kalangan bentuk syurga mengikut keterangan di pengguna dan kegiatan manusia. Model dalam Al-Quran dan Hadis dimana utama untuk taman-taman Islam adalah semua elemen ini menjadi sumber asas di Timur Tengah yang bersejarah

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Jadual 1 Elemen- elemen reka bentuk Syurga dan keterangan mereka mengikut Al- Quran dan Hadis. (Source: Ali, A.Y. (2000) (1)(2); Zainab Abdul Latiff (2016).)

Clark (2011) dan Zainab Abdul Latif bangunan bangunan. Ini adalah sebagai (2016) menerangkan elemen halangan pelindung dan penghalang rekabentuk kedua yang berpengaruh iklim, suhu, angin dan badai pasir yang adalah persekitaran padang pasir yang melanda kawasan tersebut. memberi kesan kepada setiap aspek kehidupan. Iklim di rantau ini dicirikan Ini mencetuskan gagasan tentang oleh suhu purata yang tinggi, kesan konsep persendirian yang dijelaskan solar yang tinggi, angin kencang, dan dalam Al-Qur'an. Komposisi ini juga ribut pasir yang sengit. Akhirnya, menunjukkan tafsiran dengan cara yang kekurangan air adalah faktor pembatas berbeza oleh pengkaji yang berbeza: dalam reka bentuk. Daripada konsep sebagai usaha untuk mengasingkan asal ini, mereka mengehadkan dan manusia dari kekacauan pandangan mengumpulkan sumber-sumber di sekitar padang pasir, untuk melindungi kawasan syurga sebagai sekatan penghuni taman dari persekitaran kepada sumber-sumber yang padang pasir berhabuk pasir dan debu. dikekalkan secara tidak langsung dapat Ia juga sebagai penghadang dipelihara dan digunakan sebagai penglihatan antara ruang dengan sumber penyelesaian bagi menekankan kerahsiaan ahli keluarga pembentukan taman. Dari alam sekitar, dan wanita khususnya. dapat dilihat banyak kebun-kebun Islam tradisional yang dikelilingi oleh pokok- Creswell (1968); Newton (1971).; Lesiuk pokok yang tinggi, berdinding dan (1980); Hanachi, P., Eshrati, P., Eshrati, D. (2011) melihat kluster dinding,

L 62 bangunan, dan pokok yang tinggi syurga. Oleh itu pereka mempunyai sebagai pra-syarat untuk privasi yang versi menarik tentang syurga ini ke mewujudkan sifat-sifat semangat yang dalam kawasan penglihatan yang tersembunyi. Meletakkan dinding dan dikepung. Orang-orang Islam mewarisi bangunan di taman duniawi merupakan perbendaharaan kata pokok, semak- isyarat metafora yang mengingatkan semak, dan bunga dari tamadun- semula tentang gerbang; padang pasir tamadun yang mendahului mereka. di sekelilingnya mewakili pemusnahan Pokok-pokok yang tinggi tirus dan dan kematian, sementara di dalamnya pokok Cypress memberikan adalah bunga, buah-buahan, naungan, perlindungan iklim. Pokok-pokok Elm, air dan kehidupan. Secara keseluruhan, pokok-pokok willow, dan pokok oak terdapat persetujuan bahawa, memberikan naungan pada musim disebabkan oleh iklim yang keras di panas dan membiarkan matahari kebanyakan negara Islam dan bersinar di musim sejuk. Dalam usaha penekanan moral yang tinggi terhadap untuk mengurangkan masalah privasi keluarga, taman tertutup menjadi pergolakan yang disebabkan oleh komponen khas untuk ruangan rumah di dinding, pokok tinggi-berdaun-tirus Timur Tengah digunakan untuk menapis habuk dan untuk mengurangkan kelajuan angin di ElAraby, (1972); Al-Asad (2006) dan dalam taman. Pokok-pokok jenis ini Wafirah Ilmiah Mufidah (2015) ditanam di seluruh bahagian timur dan menjelaskan elemen terpenting dalam barat digunkan untuk memberi bayang- rekabentuk taman sejarah di Timur bayang di seluruh taman sepanjang Tengah adalah berpunca dari air. Di hari. Pokok Pines digunakan sebagai Alhambra, penggunaan air telah di kontras berskala besar. Haiwan, yang inovatif kemudian ditiru dan diperkaya diperkenalkan untuk memberi animasi oleh kebanyakan pereka Eropah di ke taman, termasuk angsa, merpati, itik seluruh dunia Barat Sumber air dan nyanyian burung. memainkan banyak peranan dalam rekabentuk taman, menekankan unsur- Pokok-pokok limau dan pokok-pokok unsur seni bina, penebat bunyi luaran, berbunga sangat diminati dalam taman mewujudkan bunyi yang Islam kerana mempunyai bau-bauan menyenangkan, mengairi tanaman, aromatic dan wangi. Pokok buah- pelembab dan penyejukan bagi iklim buahan juga mempunyai keutamaan yang panas dan kering, angin berdebu, dalam rekabentuk keseluruhan taman- dan menyediakan sumber untuk taman Islam, bukan sahaja untuk pembersihan sebelum beribadah. sumber makanan dan warna tetapi Kecekapan pereka taman Islam pokok-pokok ini juga digunakan sebagai membangunkan kaedah pengairan dari kanopi di siang hari dan menjadikan ia kekurangan air dan kesukaran untuk sebagai halaman pada waktu malam. membawanya ke taman yang dianggap Kanopi ini dapat mengurangkan radiasi sebagai elemen penting dalam kepanasan di bawahnya dan kehidupan dilihat terbaik. menjadikan kawasan lindungan kanopi tersebut berudara sejuk. Pereka Satu lagi elemen reka bentuk penting di tradisional menyebarkan udara sejuk ini taman Islam adalah tumbuhan. dari taman melalui rumah, dengan itu Terdapat 13 bab di dalam Al-Quran mencipta sistem penyejukan semulajadi. yang menggambarkan tumbuhan, salah (Clark, 2011 dan Zainab Abdul Latif, satunya yang menerangkan sumber 2016). makanan pertanian dan tumbuhan di

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Pada masa ini taman digunakan sebagai sumber alam sekitar dan sebagai tempat peristiwa penting dalam elemen syurga yang diambil sebagai kehidupan penduduk, mengikut tema rujukan dalam taman-taman Islam. dan gaya Al-Quran, yang mengandungi interaksi yang berterusan antara Llewellyn, (1983); Vrieze (1999); sebenar dan ideal, praktikal dan fantasi, Wafirah Ilmi Mufidah (2015) fizikal dan metafizik, penting dan menyatakan bahawa persekitaran Islam simbolik, dan alam dan bandar. Dalam yang tipikal adalah oasis yang kebanyakan bentuk seni Islam, pereka mengekalkan kehidupan, memberi akan mendapati perpaduan sains dan manfaat kepada manusia, burung, dan seni, cahaya dan bayang-bayang, dan haiwan. Ia adalah kebun dan dusun, ruang tanpa had jelas kepada imaginasi buah-buahan dan tumbuh-tumbuhan dan kebebasan jiwa. Rekabentuk yang beraromatik untuk kegunaan kekayaan, dan kepelbagaian manusia. Tumbuh-tumbuhannya kesederhanaan asas. Berbeza dengan merupakan pengeluar makanan, air, kebun moden Barat, yang biasanya dan tempat berehat untuk haiwan, dan merupakan tempat untuk menunjukkan sarang-sarang burung. Ia membekal kawasan yang kawasan yang tenang dan sebagai pengumpul sumber air dan hanya untuk melihat kecantikannya, untuk semua jenis makhluk. Ini ia lebih sebagai latihan mental dan menerangkan bahawa taman amat rohani sahaja. berguna dan ia juga sumber produktif kerana kecantikkannya. Elemen Islam Beberapa pemilihan tumbuhan adalah bukan sahaja menghuraikan tentang penarikan balik paradigma Al-Qur'an. syurga bahkan melalui arca, seni bina Tumbuhan ini boleh dimakan dan dan juga menggambarkan keindahan mempunyai tujuan perubatan. Menurut syurga dengan pelbagai warna seperti Ibnu Al-Awwam di dalam Muqaddima, hijau, kuning, biru, emas dan perak. Ia beliau memuji pendidikan dan mengejar perlu diterapkan kepada seni taman pertanian yang dia katakan untuk Islam untuk menarik dan kebaikan dalam kehidupan sekarang menyenangkan pandangan deria panca dan juga akhirat. (Jadual 1.2) indera. menerangkan bentuk-bentuk syurga

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Jadual 2 Contoh Simulasi Taman dalam ayat Al-Quran yang berasal dari Surah Al- Waqiah (Sumber: Sayyid Qutb, 2012)

3.0 METODOLOGI taman Islam dan pembangunan lanskap Institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz. Bahagian ini merangkumi kaedah Tahap ketiga adalah peringkat peringkat pengumpulan data (metodologi) pengumpulan data (metodologi) yang yang akan digunakan di mana ia terdiri menggunakan teknik kualitatif data utama daripada kaedah kualitatif, untuk melalui pemerhatian tapak-tapak yang menyelesaikan penyelidikan ini. dipilih, kaji selidik soalan-soalan dan Beberapa maklumat yang diperoleh temu ramah secara lisan dengan pihak daripada bahan-bahan dokumen seperti yang berkaitan dan data sekunder yang buku, majalah, laporan tesis, jurnal, diambil dari individu atau institusi, journal, artikel dan lain-lain untuk mengukuhkan buku-buku dan media untuk data utama. Di bawah menunjukkan mengukuhkan data utama. Tahap Rajah 1.6 Kaedah Pengumpulan Data keempat adalah analisis data yang rangka kerja metodologi yang digunakan dikumpulkan dari peringkat ketiga yang dalam kajian ini. merupakan analisis utama dalam garis

panduan dan teori kepakaran yang akan Terdapat lima peringkat rangka kerja diekstrak ke dalam penjadualan atau keseluruhan kajian ini. Peringkat pertama dalam bentuk grafik untuk menghasilkan pertama akan mengenal pasti latar data yang tepat. Peringkat akhir akan belakang kajian, pernyataan masalah, mencari dan perbincangan mengenai jurang kajian, objektif, soalan, dan data yang dikumpulkan, ia akan kepentingan kajian. Tahap kedua ialah menentukan hasil ketepatan hipotesis menentukan maklumat dan teori kajian awal dan data. terdahulu berkaitan dengan skop kajian yang terdiri daripada tiga; persekitan lanskap pembelajaran luar, lanskap

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Rajah 6 Kaedah Pengumpulan Data

4.0 KESIMPULAN di kasihi Hjh. Hasnah Binti Mohd Tahir dan suami yang sangat dicintai dan anak- Kajian ini mengenal pasti ciri-ciri anak yang sayangi. persekitaran pembelajaran luar dengan menekankan keadaan pembelajaran Terima kasih yang tidak terhingga kepada yang kondusif untuk perkembangan penyelia penyelidikan saya Prof. Dr. mental di kalangan pelajar bagi Hasanuddin Lamit dan Dr. Norliza Mohd menangani masalah menghafal dimasa Isa Pensyarah Fakulti Alam Bina dan akan datang. Oleh itu, semua saranan Ukur, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. dan garis panduan kaedah kajian ini akan dipertimbangkan sebagai rujukan kepada rekabentuk persekitaran pembelajaran RUJUKAN luar. Penemuan kajian ini diharapkan dapat memberi manfaat kepada institusi- (Al-muqaddimah, 2015; Armijo, 2006; Azmil, Abd. institusi Ma’ahad Tahfiz, sekolah-sekolah Halim, & Misnan, 2013)Al-muqaddimah, J. (2015). Journal al-muqaddimah, 3(3), 66–75. dan kerajaan bagi mewujudkan serta melahirkan institusi yang menghasilkan Abdul Salam Yussof (2015), Idea-idea Pendidikan kaedah pengajaran (Pedagogy) tersusun Berkesan Al-Ghazali & Konfusius. Penerbitan : dan moden melalui persekitaran lanskap Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi. pembelajaran luar yang dapat Ali, A.Y.,2000. The Holly Qur'an: Original Arabic mewujudkan keseimbangan dan penanda Text with English Translation & Commentary. aras yang piawai bagi pelajar dewasa Saba Islamic Media. untuk mencapai lanskap ruang lingkup ingatan (memori) mudah hafalan Armijo, J. (2006). Islamic Education in China. (hafazan). Harvard Asia Quarterly (Vol. 10).

Azmil, H., Abd. Halim, T., & Misnan, J. (2013). PENGHARGAAN Latar Belakang Guru Tahfiz Dan Amalan Kaedah. Journal Of Islamic Education, 1(1), 28–39. Alhamdulillah kerana telah diberikan kekuatan dan keteguhan dalam Bobbi De Porter & Mike Hernacki (2002) : meneruskan pengajian dan dapat Quantum Learning Book menyiapkan tesis ini. Penghargaan khas buat Almarhum Ayahanda yang tercinta Hj. Mazlan Bin Lamat, Bonda yang amat

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Che Noraini Hashim (2014), Issues in Values- based education in Malaysia. Penerbitan : Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2013). Pelan Universiti Islam Malaysia (IIUM) Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia (PPM) Clark, Emma. 2004. The Art of The Islamic 2013-2025. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Garden. Malborough: The Crowood Press. Pendidikan Malaysia.

Clark,E. (1996), Underneath which of The Rives Knowles, M. (1984). The Adult Learner: A Flow The Symbolism of The Islamic Neglected Species (3rd Ed.). Houston, TX: Garden,London : The Prince of Wales’s Gulf Publishing. Institute of Architecture Hal 16-17 Latiff, Z. A., Yazid, M., & Yunus, M. (2016). The Dober, R. (1996). Campus Architecture: Building Islamic Garden Design Principles: Thoughts for in the Groves of Academe. NY, NY: McGraw- the 21 st Century. Research Journal Of Hill. Fisheries And Hydrobiology, 11(3), 175–178.

Eaton, D. (1998). Cognitive and affective learning Lesiuk, S.M. 1980. Landscape planning for energy in outdoor education.Doctoral dissertation. conservation in the Middle East. Ekistics Department of Curriculum, Teaching and January/February: 66-68. Learning. Toronto: University of Toronto. Lewis, C. A. (1975). The administration of outdoor Gaudion, K., & Mcginley, C. (2012). Green education programs. Dubuque, IA: Kendall- Spaces - Outdoor Environments for Adults Hunt with Autism, (January), 48. Retrieved from http://www.rca.ac.uk/documents/331/GreenSp Llewellyn, O.1983. Shariah values pertaining to acesX.pdf landscape planning and design. In Islamic architecture and urbanism, edited by A. Godbey, G., & Godbey, G. (2009). the Germen. Dammam (Saudi Arabia): King Fisal Relationship Understanding and Enhancing the University. Relationship, (May). Lund, M. (2002). Adventure education: Some Haaga, Elin. (2005). Paradise in The Garden : the semantics. influence of the Islamic Garden Today. West Looks East: The Influence of Traditional Arab Mohd Hairudin Amin, Kamarul Azmi Jasmin Design on contemporary Western Designers. (2012); Sekolah Agama di Malaysia; Sejarah, Retrieved from Isu & Cabaran. Penerbitan: Universiti teknologi http://www.mosaicfound.org/sc/cultural_media/ Malaysia (UTM) wle_Haaga_bio Nangkula Utaberta, Akmal Goh Abdullah and Nor Haaga, Elin. (2005). Paradise in The Garden: the Haslina Jaafar volume 7 (2014), influence of the Islamic Garden Today. West Reconstructing Green School In Malaysia: An Looks East: The Influence of Traditional Arab Outdoor Learning Experience Of Rainbow Design on contemporary Western Designers. Troop And Toto Chan. University Putra Malaysia. Hiemstra, D. a N., 2009. Transformational Learning and the Outdoor Environment : An Omer, S (2008). The Origins and Function of Experiential Education Approach By Table of Islamic Domestic Courtyards, Malaysia:IIUM Contents. , pp.1–41. Press.

Husamah. Pembelajaran Luar Kelas Outdoor Quran, A. L., & Hadits, D. A. N. (n.d.). Kajian Learning. Jakarta: Prestasi Pustaka. 2013 Konsep Taman Islam Berdasarkan, 17(1).

Hussein, H., Abidin, N. M. N. Z., & Omar, Z. Sawari, S. S. (2016). Descriptive Qualitative (2013). Engaging Research and Practice in Teaching Method of Memorization in The Creating for Outdoor Multi-sensory Institution of Tahfiz Al-Quran Wal Qiraat Pulai Environments: Facing Future Challenges. Condong and the Students’ Level of Academic Procedia - Social and Excellence Muhaidi Mustaffa Al Hafiz BehavioralSciences,105,536–546. Muhammad Fathi Yusof Mohd AI’ Ikhsan https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.057 Ghazali,7(1),79–85. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2016.v7n1s1p79 Hussein, H., Nik Zainal Abidin, N. M., & Omar, Z. (2016). Sensory Gardens: A multidisciplinary Syed Muhammad Al-Naquib Al-Attas, “Preliminary effort. Asian Journal of Behavioural Studies, Throughts on the Nature of Knowledge and the 1(1), 49–63. Definition and Aims of Education” in Syed https://doi.org/10.21834/ajbes.v1i1.18

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Tahfiz, D. I. P., Madya, P., Bin, A., Azhar, U., & Wafirah Ilmi Mufidah, aizan Ali @ mat Zin, Faizal Muhammad, B. I. N. (2003). Ustaz Abdul Hafiz @ Ahmad Faisal Abdul Hamid (2015), Konsep Bin Haji Abdullah. Seni Taman Islam: Kajian Literatur Barat dan Timur. Journal Al- Muqaddimah. Thacker, C. (1985). The History of Garden, London :Croom Helm. Wilkinson, R., & Wilkinson, R. (2013). Outdoor learning in the early years The benefits of The Holly Qur'an (Translation of text based on outdoor learning in a natural environment Text, Translation and Commentary by Abdullah Outdoor learning in the early years The Yusuf Ali) benefits of outdoor learning in a natural environment. Trianto and Pd, 2010 M.Pd : Trianto Model Pembelajaran Terpadu-Konsep Strategi, dan Years, E., Framework, L., & Standard, N. Q. Implimentasinya dalam Kurikulum Tingkat (2009). Rethinking outdoor learning Satuan Pendidikan. (KTSP). Kuala Lumpur: environments Part A : Provocations Kemetrian Pengajaran Malaysia (2010) Connecting with nature :, 1–4.

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STRUCTURAL BIODIVERSITY ELEMENTS GENERATING CULTURAL PRACTICES IN MALAYSIA URBAN FOREST

Amalina Mohd Fauzi*1, Ismail Said 2 and Azmiah Abd Ghafar 3

1, 2, 3 Greenovation Research Group, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected]*, [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

The use of urban green space has been determinants for urban inhabitant’s well- being. However, increasing in urbanisation makes the opportunity to get engaged with green space become lower because of higher demand for green space among urban inhabitants. This situation requires landscape planners to design an urban green space with maximum benefits that fulfil urban inhabitants’ needs for their well-being. Structural biodiversity is an essential element in generating the benefits which interpreted through the activities at the urban green space. This study presents the activities that promote cultural practices of two urban green spaces with different types of structural biodiversity. The activities were analysed using Multiple Response Analysis based on data from on-site questionnaire surveys that have completed by 253 visitors of two urban forests in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. The results show that there are differences between activities that visitors regularly do at both urban forest. A semi-open urban forest that has a mature and high density vegetation cover offer a better opportunity for visitors to get attach to the nature, and attract visitors to involve in passive activities. In contrast, an open moderate urban forest offers less natural value and attracts visitors to take part in active activities. This study suggests that the functions of each urban forest were influenced by structural biodiversity of both urban forest that results in cultural practices of playing and exercising.

Keywords: Cultural practices, Structural biodiversity, Inhabitants’ needs, Urban green space, Urban forest

1.0 INTRODUCTION the year 2018, and 75.45% from the populations lived in the urban area. Maintaining well-being of urban inhabitant Increasing the rate of urbanisation have a is a critical aspect of ensuring quality of significant impact on green spaces (Aida life. Currently, most of the developed et al., 2016; Kabisch et al., 2015) where countries including Malaysia are having the number decreases while the demands rapid development because of the for green spaces increase in line with the increasing population that lives in the increasing number of population. urban area.Malaysia Department of Availability of green spaces in an urban Statistics (2019) stated that there are area is the platform for inhabitants to 32.4 million populations in Malaysia until improve their physical and mental well-

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being (Karuppannanet al., 2014; al., 2017) and habitat for wildlife (Jasmani Schipperijn et al., 2013; Schipperijn et al., et al., 2016; Mexia et al., 2018) in green 2010). Besides supplying spaces for space. These factors are related to physical activity, urban green space plays spatial elements and spatial patterns that a vital role in providing habitat for wildlife are affecting the functions of the green (Haaland & van den Bosch, 2015) which space and influencing inhabitants’ provides an opportunity for inhabitants to movement and activities. A beneficial engage with nature (O’Brien et al., 2017). green space does not depend only on the In a rapid development area, the spatial size of the place but needs to consider pattern of green space is influencing the benefits that inhabitants get from their way inhabitants perceived and used the visits (de la Barrera et al., 2016; Xu et al., place. Whether the inhabitants using the 2016). It is how landscape planners play green space with maximum benefits, or their roles in designing and affecting the they using it because they have no other structural biodiversity of green space. places for their physical activity. This study adapted from the cascade The central element that shapes the way model (Haines-Young & Potschin, 2010; inhabitants perceived and used green Potschin-Young et al., 2016; Small et al., space is structural biodiversity which 2017; Spangenberg et al., 2014) as defined as the composition and shown in Figure 1. Cascade model is a configuration of biotic entities (Lausch et framework that links the process in an al., 2016). Voigt et al. (2014) have ecosystem which starts from the included the diversity of biotic features, organisation of elements in the abiotic site conditions and infrastructure ecosystem until the benefits that people of urban parks in measuring inhabitants’ get from the ecosystem. There are two evaluation and activities. Biotic features main components in the model; supply are the only dimensions considered in and demand (Wei et al., 2017). The this study because of the dominant component of supply factors is a factors that affect the ecosystem biophysical type that includes the components and functions of green space structure and functions of an ecosystem (Giergiczny et al., 2015; Harrison et al., which influences green spaces to 2014; Van Renterghem, 2018). The provides ecosystem services to users. composition and configuration of biotic The component of demand factors is a features have shaped the spaces for beneficiary type which correlated to the inhabitants (Foo, 2016; Gunnarsson et supply factors.

Figure 1 The flow of cascade model of a green space

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The organisation of ecosystem elements achieved between supply and demand is crucial steps in the model that reflects factors have enabled the use of cultural the function and activities done by users. ecosystem services which define the It is about measuring the performance of cultural practice at the urban green green space in providing services that space. Church et al. (2014) have fulfil inhabitants demand while using the classified cultural practice into four place. The model shows the capacity of a categories of activity, 1. playing and green space ecosystem in providing exercising, 2. creating and expressing, 3. benefits to the inhabitants, and also to the producing and caring, and 4. gathering wildlife of the greenery that becomes one and consuming. Physical factors of the of the main contributors to deliver the accessed green space influence cultural benefits. practices derive from the place. It means that the structural biodiversity of a place Ecosystem services is a transition influences the contribution of cultural process in the cascade model (Figure 1) practice offered to inhabitants. Fish et al. that specifies whether a green space (2016) have relate the formation of supplies the services that match the cultural practices with the places, needs that inhabitants’ demands. It localities and landscape of an ecosystem, connects the structural biodiversity of an which shaped the identities, experiences ecosystem with the functions that give and capabilities of the ecosystem that benefits to inhabitants (Andersson-Sköld allow the cultural practices to happen. For et al., 2018; Potschin-Young et al., 2016). example, the configuration of fruit tree in Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, MEA an urban neighbourhood park attracts (2005) define ES as benefits that people inhabitant to experience the activity of obtain from ecosystems. Four types of fruit picking and eating which categorised ES commonly involved in this field: under the category of gathering and provisioning services, regulating services, consuming. On the other hand, the supporting services and cultural services composition of tree species in an urban (MEA, 2005). Currently, ES research green space has exposed inhabitants in trend focused on cultural ecosystem enjoying the sound of nature of the place services (CES) due to the lack of study which categorised under the activity of on the services especially in the urban playing and exercising. The physical area (La Rosa et al., 2016). CES surrounding of an ecosystem enables describes as an intangible or non-material cultural practices to happen. Identification ES (Xiao et al., 2017) that challenging to of cultural practice happened before measure because of the direct benefits acknowledging the cultural ecosystem offered to inhabitants that engage with services that inhabitants get from the green space which is subjective and ecosystem. Therefore, this study presents influenced by inhabitants’ onsite the activities that promote cultural experience (Ko & Son, 2018; Stålhammar practices of two urban green spaces with & Pedersen, 2017). It is a people-place, different types of structural biodiversity. and human-ecosystem relationship that The research questions that involved in directly affects inhabitants’ well-being this study were: includes stress relief and health promotion especially for urban inhabitants 1. Which cultural practices are the most (Ko & Son, 2018) that have limited choice happen in Malaysia urban green for green space. As urbanisation space? continuously increased, the quality of 2. How diversity of urban green space urban green space is a vital role in affect the cultural practices of the ensuring CES to meet the increasing place? demand from urban inhabitants due to decreasing in the quantity of green space. In the model, it shows that the balance

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2.0 METHODS between urban forest give different impact to visitors because the different 2.1 Study Area criteria and percentage of vegetation cover might influence the impact that The unit of analysis for this study is urban inhabitants get when access to the place inhabitants that use urban green space (Mexia et al., 2018). Figure 2 shows the for their well-being. This study was situatedness of the urban forest located in conducted at two urban forests located at the south of Malaysia and near to the second largest city in Malaysia, which Singapore which is one of the reasons is Johor Bahru. The city is a rapidly why the rate of urbanisation of the district urbanised area that increasingly is rapidly increasing. populated until this period. The increasing rate of development in Johor Bahru every 2.2 Data Collection year leads to the current number of population which is above 1.5 million 2.2.1 Site Survey on Structural inhabitants (Pelan Pertumbuhan Strategik Biodiversity Johor, 2018) and 0.8 from the numbers are live in the city (World Population The independent variables which are the Review, 2019). This scenario shows the primary data for this study consist of high percentage of urbanisation occurs elements that contribute to forming an which requires a larger area for ecosystem. Voigt et al. (2014) have listed development that causes decreasing in three significant categories of variables to the greenery of the city area. The two measure the influence on how inhabitants urban forests are Majlis Bandaraya Johor value and utilise urban green space. The Bahru Urban Forest (MBJBUF) and Majlis variables include biotic features, abiotic Perbandaran Johor Bahru Tengah Urban site conditions and infrastructures Forest (MPJBTUF). Both have different provided to visitors. In the context of this types of ecosystem distribution which study, the data collected consist of biotic influenced by the spatial distribution of features and water elements. Topography structural biodiversity of the green space. was not considered because the different These two urban forests are open to the levels of topography at the two urban public, attached to heavy vehicle road forests were not given significant impact and have differences in terms of site to the visitors’ activities and the other context, age, and the density of supporting factors such as wildlife activity, vegetation. Table 1 shows the criteria of temperature and type of vegetation. each urban forest. The differences

Table 1 The criteria of MBJBUF and MPJBTUF

Criteria Urban Forest MBJB MPJBT Type of urban forest Semi-open Open Location Located approximately 1.5 km Situated at , a from the city centre, Johor township in Skudai, one of Bahru well-developed Site context Government centre, educational Residential area, and centre, residential area and commercial centre graveyard (refer Map in Figure 4) (refer Map in Figure 3) Age Mature Moderate Vegetation density High Medium

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Figure 2 Location of the two study areas in Johor Bahru; (1) MBJBUF and (2) MPJBTUF

The data collection also not includes the tree species, a group of big trees and infrastructure of the urban forest because diverse water edge. The least used was the study focused on the roles of the area that not well maintained, structural biodiversity in providing benefits although has a high percentage of that influence cultural practices of the vegetation cover (see Figure 3, point G). urban forests. It highlighted the main contribution of the spatial design of In contrast, MPJBTUF has a medium vegetation in an ecosystem in shaping density of mixed vegetation cover which activities for visitors’ well-being. consisted of a high density of mature vegetation area (see Figure 4, point B), The site survey involved with drone to playground area (see Figure 4, point A), capture the current configuration of field (see Figure 4, point K), a group of vegetation at both urban forests (Table small tree (see Figure 4, point J), open 2). This method is adapted from the study lawn (see Figure 4, point D), a row of by Park & Ewing (2017). All of the trees (see Figure 4, point A,C,D,G,H and elements were retrieved from Voigt et al. I), and lake area (see Figure 4, point F (2014) and adapted with the site survey and G). The most utilized area was open results. Table 2 shows the differences of area around the lake and field, followed structural biodiversity elements for the by road for jogging track that lined with a two urban forests. row of trees. All of the areas in MPJBTUF were used but not all visitors attracted to The existing elements were linked with access to the high density natural-like Figures 3 and 4. Figure 3 is a map of area (see Figure 4, point B). MBJBUF that has a high density of mature vegetation cover. Besides the The composition and configuration of playground area (see Figure 3, point I) vegetation in MBJBUF and MPJBTUF that is fully used by children and their provided different function of each space. parents, the primary area of the urban For example, space that consists of a row forest that highly utilised by visitors was of big trees was contributed in providing around the man-made lake (see Figure 3, jogging lane to visitors of the urban forest. point A,B,C and D). The area around the Each structural biodiversity influence the lake has a high percentage of diversity of way visitors use the urban forest.

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Table 2 Operation framework and current structural biodiversity elements at both urban forests Criteria Descriptions Sources Presence MBJB MPJBT Diversity of tree More than 5 species /0.5ha Voigt et al. (2014) A, C, E, F, B, G species G, H Big solitary tree Mature single tree with more Jabatan Lanskap Negara B A, C, K than 5m height (1995) Small solitary tree Young or semi-mature single Jabatan Lanskap Negara - F, K tree with not more than 5m (1995) height Group of tree A small cluster of tree Identify on site D F, J Row of big tree A row of mature trees Identify on site A, E, G, H, A, C, G, I H, I, K Row of small tree A row of young or semi-mature Identify on site - D trees Shrub Tree with maximum height of 1m Jabatan Lanskap Negara B A, F, H (1995) Hedge Closely planted shrubs, trimmed Identify on site B, C E or untrimmed for beauty and safety purposes Natural-like aea Dense-wooded or low- Identify on site C, D, F, G B maintenance forest-like space with a group of mature trees Diverse water Trees at water edge, includes all . Identify on site C, F G edge trees and wetland plant . Jabatan Landskap Negara (2016) Field Lawn extensive . Identify on site - K . Voigt et al. (2014) Grassed área Small lawn space Identify on site B D Flowering plants Colorful flowering planting . Hoyle et al. (2017) - A . McGinlay et al. (2017)

Figure 3 Spaces with different type of structural biodiversity and activities at MBJBUF

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Figure 4 Spaces with different type of structural biodiversity and activities at MPJBTUF

2.2.2 Survey Questionnaire thirty-six respondents completed the questionnaires at MBJBUF and the rest The first phase of this stage is a semi- by visitors at MPJBTUF. The numbers of structured face-to-face interview to respondent were adequate to represent identify the regular activity of visitors the total population of urban inhabitants when visiting the urban forest. This phase that use the urban forest in two months. was also created to identify the most The minimum sample size was identified common words used in describing the using the equation by L.Grande (2016) as activities. Based on the gathered results, shown below with 95% of confidence the authors have revised back the level and 0.045 margin of error. questionnaire that was designed for the actual data collection.

It was a multiple answer questions that allowed visitors to choose more than one activity in the answer list because this study was to investigate the activity that 2.3 Data Analysis promoted cultural practices of the urban forest. The actual data collection was IBM SPSS Statistics 24 was the data involved with the distribution of survey editor used to compute all of data from questionnaires. It was conducted within the survey questionnaires. The question two months during weekend and involved in this study was designed to weekdays. Two hundred and fifty-three investigate the frequency of activities questionnaires were completed by the done in both urban forests. Multiple visitors which were randomly approached Response Analysis was used to analyse at different areas of the two urban forests. the differences of cultural practices at The respondents included all of visitors in MBJBUF and MPJBTUF based on the the age between 15 years and above, frequency. with diversity of ethnicities, occupations and levels of education. One hundred and

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3.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION attracted visitors through their aesthetic value from the dense vegetation cover 3.1 Structural Biodiversity and that encouraged them to do activity that Activities of a Mature High Density suited to the surrounding. This kind of Urban Forest urban forest motivated visitors to take part in passive activities including sitting As shown in Figure 5, the result reveals and enjoying nature and greenery. In line the regular activities that visitors do when with the study by Wang et al. (2017), visiting the two urban forests. There are semi-open urban forest that has a mature five frequent activities which were similar and high density vegetation cover offered but different in rank. The activities in better opportunity for visitors to attached MBJBUF were walking (14.3%), enjoying to the nature that provided them the nature and greenery (13.8%), sitting spaces and surrounding for their well- (12.6%), spending time with family being’s activities. (11.5%), and jogging (11.2%). The less frequent activities at MBJBUF were Besides, the differences between the picnicking (5.2%), playing sports (4.3%), frequencies of activity at MBJBUF and and cycling (1.8%). It means that a dense MPJBTUF showed the functions of the and mature vegetation cover provided urban forests were influenced by the natural-like surrounding that encouraged structural biodiversity. Figure 5 shows visitors to enjoy their recreational needs four activities at MBJBUF have higher from the greenery. MBJBUF has a dense- frequency than MPJBTUF, which were wooded area which provided a forest-like wildlife and bird watching, picnicking, ambience that attracted people to enjoy enjoying nature and greenery, and the nature and leisure activities at the spending time alone. urban forest. The result highlighted that high vegetation density urban forest

16.00%

14.00%

12.00%

10.00%

8.00%

6.00% Responses (%) Responses MBJB 4.00% MPJBT

2.00%

0.00%

Figure 5 Result from Multiple Response Analysis on the regular activities at the two urban forests

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This phenomenon was related to the nine corresponding to Gunnarsson et al. types of structural biodiversity at MBJBUF (2017) where medium density vegetation which dominated by diversity of tree covers provided a green space that has species, a group of trees, a row of big medium aesthetic attractions which trees, and natural-like area. The list include naturalness, species richness, followed by multi-layer vegetation lush and species variety. In relation to the including shrub, hedges, diverse water medium aesthetic attraction, wildlife edge, and grassed area. Instead of presence was also less. On the other providing variety scene of dense greenery hand, the open spatial design of the (Giergiczny et al., 2015), these types of structural biodiversity at MPJBTUF has structural biodiversity enlarged routes for provided the opportunity for visitors to wildlife in the urban forest to move. The involve in active activities. The tree-lined dense vegetation covers at the urban paths that were connecting the open and forest also provided enough shades for dense green spaces have enlarged the visitors and shelter for wildlife. In space for visitors’ activities. This result conjunction with the study by Guo et al. suggested that open moderate urban (2017), a semi-open urban forest with forest offered less natural value to the multi-layer structural biodiversity has visitors and attracted them to take part in higher level of vegetation and was able to active activities because of the large open attract wildlife because of the light spaces connected by medium density penetration, multiple resources of food, vegetation cover. and sufficient open spaces to forage. This result highlighted that the structural Moreover, there are five activities at biodiversity at MBJBUF fulfilled visitors MPJBTUF that most frequent than needs of shaded spaces and the MBJBUF, which were playing sports, presence of wildlife that have attracted jogging, cycling, meeting people, and them in enjoying the wildlife watching, sitting. In other words, most of the picnicking, enjoying nature and spending activities were active ones, followed by time alone in the greenery. one semi-active activity and one passive activity. This pattern of activities was In contrast, the most frequent activities at influenced by the medium structural MPJBTUF were walking (14.6%), jogging biodiversity of the urban forest. The most (14.0%), sitting (14.0%), enjoying nature dominant spaces at MPJBTUF were open and greenery (11.5%), and spending time spaces which were connected by a row of with family (10.8%). The least frequent dense big trees, diverse water edge, and activities at MPJBTUF were wildlife and a group of trees, which followed by a row birds watching (5.3%), cycling (4.1%), of small trees, hedges, shrubs and and picnicking (2.5%). Although flowering trees. The medium type of MPJBTUF has a space of dense-wooded structural biodiversity provided area, it was not primarily used by the continuous greenery that improved the visitors because of poorly maintained. biological diversity of the urban forest that The result showed that a moderate allowed people-nature engagement medium density urban forest has throughout the visit. There was also a provided a surrounding that encouraged field area that actively used by visitors. visitors enjoyed their active activities such Instead of providing open green spaces as walking and jogging more than for active activities, the setting enjoying the nature. These activities were encouraged visitors to socialised with influenced by the composition of medium other visitors through formal or informal vegetation density that spatially spread activities. This was another reason why and form an open canopy stand. Less dense-wooded area at MPJBTUF was density of structural biodiversity has less attractive than the open spaces with decreased the natural value of the urban medium vegetation density. In relation to forest that has lowered the engagement the study by Malek et al. (2012), good between visitors and nature. This is quality of open urban forest was the one

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Spangenberg, J. H., von Haaren, C., & Settele, J. (2014). The ecosystem service cascade: Further developing the metaphor. Integrating societal processes to accommodate social processes and planning, and the case of bioenergy. Ecological Economics, 104, 22– 32.

Stålhammar, S., & Pedersen, E. (2017). Recreational cultural ecosystem services: How do people describe the value? Ecosystem Services, 26, 1–9.

Van Renterghem, T. (2018). Towards explaining the positive effect of vegetation on the perception of environmental noise. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, (February), 1– 12.

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SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND LANDSCAPE PATTERN OF DENGUE INCIDENCE

Nuramalina binti Mohamad*1, Wan Yusryzal bin Wan Ibrahim2 and

Ahmad Nazri M. Ludin 3

1, 2 Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]) 3 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia., Skudai, Malaysia. (E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Dengue is the most common urban disease that prevalent in tropical areas. WHO 2009 stated that this diseases has grown a public health concern due to the risk of dengue infection that has increased dramatically between 50 and 100 million cases every year. This issue was very corresponded with landscape and environment changes. The objective of this paper is to discuss on how landscape pattern in relation to dengue incidence. Data of dengue cases were obtained from Unit Kesihatan Awam, Majlis Bandaraya Johor Bahru to locate the riskiest area for dengue fever incidence at township level. Geographic information system (GIS) was used to demonstrate the spatial patterns of all dengue cases within the region of City Council (MBIP) and geoprocessing was used to measure the boundary of risk according to the distribution of dengue outbreak. Spatial descriptive analysis shows non-strata housing, open space, road, planned commercial, strata housing and drainage system network is the most prevalence landscape pattern for dengue incidence in MBIP. The finding shows the common landscape composition that relate to dengue cases. In conclusion, the future development of land use should be considered on landscape pattern towards rapid urbanization.

Keywords : Spatial Analysis, Dengue Incidence, Landscape Pattern

1.0 INTRODUCTION of the serious vector borne disease in Asian region especially in Malaysia if Dengue fever is the most important there is no vector effective control and vector-borne disease (aedes mosquitoes) action are taken. These bad scenarios in tropical areas. The disease has grown are getting worse usually during monsoon a public health concern due to the risk of seasons where there was in the spell of dengue infection that has increased wet weather (Ee Leen Pang, Hwei-San dramatically between 50 and 100 million Loh, 2016) It has a complex relationship cases every year (WHO, 2009). It is with environmental factors that influence predictable that dengue cases can be one the transmission of dengue infections

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such as the environment, climate and proximate driver of risk particularly when weather, human behaviour and immunity considering vector- borne or zoonotic among the human population (Xiang et diseases (Messina et al., 2013). al., 2017 and Cheong et al., 2014). United Nation Development Programme, The transformation process of landscape 2018 goals is to achieve the target significantly related to the dengue whereby 2030, end the epidemics of incidences where the composition of land AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and use types and land covers are the factors neglected tropical diseases and combat associated with mosquito ecology. In hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other relation with scenario, this study shows communicable diseases. According to landscape pattern will affected dengue Duane Gubler, 2017 the risk of dengue is incidence that related with this 4 now higher due to the urbanization and important factors which is socio- globalization process. Instead increasing economic, environment, human the dengue immunity, decreasing the behaviour and land use and land cover mosquito population is very important. Mosquito population and habitat rely on 2.0 STUDY AREA the urban landscape pattern.

Cases study of this research was located The relationship between urban strategically at the southernmost tip in landscape and dengue incidences is peninsular Malaysia. The area under apparent where the landscape structure Iskandar Puteri City Council are consist of composition in urban areas prominently Skudai, , , influenced the dengue incidences , Iskandar Puteri and Ulu (Cheong et al., 2014). Colonization of Choh with total residents of 525,351 new habitat can be demolished by the people. process of land use changes. Land use changes can extend or reduce of the new The total area was 338.5 km2. By taking habitat. In fact, land use and landscape Iskandar Puteri Region as a study area changes can modify the composition of undergoing rapid urbanization process, the mosquitoes because vector species that will significantly change the future rely on their new habitat preferences landscape scenario. The final result will (Patz and Norris, 2004). determine the most risk land use and

factors for dengue cases based on the Land use and land cover change now condition of landscape composition and recognized as an important driver of land use type configuration in the disease. For emerging or re-emerging urbanization process of Johor Bahru.. infectious diseases, landscape change offers context and serves as a likely

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Figure Key Plan of Iskandar Region

Figure Map of Iskandar Puteri Region

Figure 1 Shows key plan and map Iskandar Puteri Region (website http://www.mbip.gov.my)

3.0 DATA AND METHOD

Several stages were involved in the study such as database development, database analysis and synthesis. Figure 2 shows the framework of the study that describes sequence of the process in this research.

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Chart 1 shows the sequence and method involve in this study

3.1 Data Based Development

The first stage of this research is clarifying the relationship of dengue incidence with landscape pattern through literature review. After that, dengue incidence data was collected from Unit Kesihatan Awam Majlis Bandaraya Johor Bahru. Dengue cases from 2016 until 2018.

After that longitude & latitude of the location were geocode by using ArcGIS. A pair of coordinates represents a points of dengue incidence. The location of the cases were plot to the map as well as the number of cases by using the method of Figure 2 shows Dengue Incidence for kernel density through ArcGIS 2016 application. After that, land use data for each year were layered to figure out the cluster area.

Graph 1 shows the trends of Dengue Incidence 2016 - 2018

Figure 3 shows Dengue Incidence for

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2017

Figure 6 shows density map of dengue

Figure 4 shows Dengue Incidence for incidence 2017 2018

3.0 ANALYSIS AND RESULT

By using Spatial Analyst method Kernel Density, dengue cases were classify into raster and intersect with Land Use map for each year.

Figure 7 shows density map of dengue incidence 2018

4.0 DISCUSSION

Spatial descriptive analysis shows non- strata housing, open space, road, planned commercial, strata housing and Figure 5 shows density map of dengue drainage system network. After calculate incidence 2016 and considering of all type of land use activity, there is 6 type of land use activity which is the most risk for dengue incidence in Iskandar Region, Johor Bahru.

1. Non strata housing

2. Open space

3. Road

4. Planned commercial

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5. Strata housing plantation also in brackish water. (Hyaden et al,. 2010 ; Vezzani et al., 2005, 6. Drainage system network Vanwambeke et al., 2007). Besides, open spaces at this context mostly are From all analysis year 2016-2018 the abundance and filled with lot of bushes. most commonness land use are non- This can support the aedes mosquitoes strata housing, open space, road, breeding activities because some of the planned commercial, strata housing and leaves can collect clean water and drainage system network. There are becomes a breeding site for them. This several similarities of characteristic from result was closely related with recent all zone whereby most of land use for all studies in Putrajaya where the residents zone are in urban context with high aware that the risk of the potential population density. According to Wu et breeding site at green space (Dickin et al, al., 2009 the rapid growth of environment 2014). These land use activity; open could lead to the increasing of dengue space did not correspond with the incidence. This is much related with this theories by (Tyrväinen et al, 2005) where area where most of the dengue cases are green space can improve the interaction happen in urban area. Housing is crucial and healthy lifestyle to the surrounds. area in this studies whereby the pattern of the housing and the outdoor environment Other than that, road is very significant in increased the possibilities of dengue urban planning design. According to transmission to other people. However, Hassan M.Khormi, Lalit Kumar, 2011. non-built up area such as open space, High qualities of neighbourhood which is road and drainage network is part of the have a wider street have a low risk of land use activity also acts as determinant dengue infection while low qualities of of dengue mosquitoes presence. All of neighbourhood which is have narrower this land use needs more attention for street more potential for dengue infection. future planning since this is the most risk Major roadways is part of determinants to land use activity in Iskandar Region. studies the existence of dengue (Mahabir Unplanned urbanization causes the et al, 2012). In contrast, the major development of breeding site and motorways may form major ‘barriers’ to increasing the potential of aedes the flying mosquitoes because the mosquitoes to disperse. volume of traffic is greater on these roads and especially during blood feeding Different context of housing have different periods for mosquitoes (early morning type of landscape composition. Most of and later evening) since these usually the houses tend to have their own green coincide with journeys to and from work space in front of their houses especially (Mahabir et al, 2012). for terrace house. These cultures are related with recent studies by Ismail, By 2020, the forecast number of 2010 whereby Malays prefers to have households increasing at a faster rate green element at their living spaces. than the growth of population. This Apart, well defined of landscape structure statement related with this site studies can boost the quality of neighbourhood where most of the cluster zone with context and provide a conducive living dengue cases are at low cost housing space in residential area (Fitrynadia et al., area (terrace and flat)., UN Habitat 2003 2010). However, this culture could lead to forecast where the number of people negative impact to the neighbourhood if living in this settlements is expected to they did not maintained well because increase to 2 billion by 2030. This fact most of the research has been prove that should synchronize to strategies on how aedes mosquitoes were trap at vegetated to improve living condition for poor and areas. Entomological studied prove that average people. UN Habitat, 2003 dengue vectors mostly found in vegetated revealed the attributes and the condition areas, such as orchards, rubber of low cost housing that relate with this

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research; lack of basic services, Urban Areas. APCBEE Procedia, 10, 311- substandard housing or illegal and 315 inadequate building structures, Ya-Hui Hsueha, Jay Leeb, Lisa Beltzd (2012). overcrowding and high density, unhealthy Spatio-temporal patterns of dengue fever living condition and hazardous locations cases in Kaoshiung City, Taiwan, 2003-2008, and poverty. Applied Geography 34, 587-594

However there are strong reason why flat/apartment type of house become one of risk type land use activity for dengue cases, this is because multi layer type of house lead increasing the shaded area of the context thus this could be a potential temperature for aedes mosquitoes breeding where the ideal temperature for aedes mosquitoes breeding is between 20-30 celcius (Tun et al., 2000). According to Nazri et al,. 2013 temperature and humidity of the environment are the core factors to influence the aedes mosquito’s performance; maturation, replication and their survival time. However, temperature can be one of the reasons for terrace house pattern. This is because from analyse of satellite image the house sizes are smaller and the houses are closer together. The closer of the house, the higher of shaded area.

Landscape composition of the context area will affect the rate of dengue incidence in certain area. In short, the main character of dengue cases in landscape composition is housing (low cost house), green and open space, drainage system network, commercial area and road. All of this land use needs more attention for future planning since this is the most risk land use activity in Iskandar Region.

REFERENCES

Hassan M. Khormi, Lalit Kumar (2011). Modelling dengue fever risk based on socio-economic parameters, nationality and age groups: GIS and remote sensing based case study. Science of the Total Environment, 409, 4713-4719.

Fitrynadia Mohd Shahli, Mohd Ramzi Mohd Hussain, Izawati Tukiman and Nurbazliah Zaidin (2014). The Importance Aspects of Landscape Design on Housing Development in

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METHOD TO MEASURE LEAF AREA INDEX USING IMAGE J IN MODULAR LIVING WALL

Azmiah Abd Ghafar*1, Kabiru Haruna Abdulkarim2 Amalina Mohd Fauzi3, Rohana , Mohd Firdaus4, Sarah Alia Norazlan5 and Ismail Said6

1,2,3,4,5,6 Greenovation Research Group, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA. 1Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, MALAYSIA. (Email: [email protected]*, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Modular living wall is currently one of the most promising ways to improve thermal performance in order to mitigate the urban heat island. The shadow effect given by plant plays an important component of modular living walls in contributing to temperature reduction. One way to characterize the potential shadow effect of greenery is to calculate the facade foliage density by means of the leaf area index (LAI). As LAI is commonly used in horizontal crops, their use in modular living wall has generated dispersion and uncertainty in previous studies both in terms of methodologies and results obtained. There is a lack of knowledge calculating the leaf area using the ImageJ at modular living wall studies. This study aims at establishing a common and easy way to measure LAI provided by plant materials from the experimental study. ImageJ used as image analysis tool to facilitate the most simple and quick procedure. Nephrolepis exaltata are selected based on their availability at the experimental study. The access to the application ImageJ is free, and flexible configuration which allows accurate measurements of LAI in a short time without the need to purchase expensive specialized hardware.

Keywords: Leaf Area Index, Image J, Leaf Area

1.0 INTRODUCTION method is also known as a destructive method in agriculture and ecological Leaf Area Index (LAI) is defined by studies by harvesting the plant leaves (Pérez, Coma, Sol, and Cabeza, 2017) as (Klingberg et al., 2017) in order to get the the total leaf area counted all leaves of leaf area. A common commercial Plant plant per unit ground surface area. There Canopy Analyser LAI-2200 (LI-COR B are two main categories of procedures to iosciences, Lincoln, USA) are an measure LAI: direct and indirect methods expensive tool and not available for (Jonckheere et al., 2004). Direct LAI student range. Hence, this study method has widely used for crops and substituted the measurement method in adapted for vegetation of small structure the further description below. The LAI has (Bréda, 2003; Pérez et al., 2017). This a direct influence on the foliage density,

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which is related to estimate the amount of purposes (Drienovsky, Nicolin, Rujescu, thermal reduction in VGS. Leaf density is and Sala, 2017; Stawarczyk et al., 2015) reliant on the typology of VGS, the This encourages researchers to utilize the climatic conditions as well as the type of ImageJ application for further generation. plant species. VGS can be addressed into two main systems which are green 2.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD façade system and living wall system (Azkorra et al., 2015). These two systems The objective of this study is to measure have different fundamental and planting leaf area using ImageJ software by materials. Based on previous research, specific plant species, thus obtained LAI living wall system has better thermal value. An example of leaves given was performance, rather than green façade Nephrolepis exaltata (Boston Fern) as system (Jaafar, Said, Reba, and Rasidi, shown in Figure 2 scanned by flat 2013; Safikhani and Baharvand, 2017). scanner Canon E410. According to Blanco and Folegatti (2003), the Since the middle of the twentieth century, mathematical equation used in this study the development of image analysis is the standard equation used in a small techniques has been practiced in many structure. For example in the research disciplines. ImageJ is one of the experimental study of modular living wall tools of scientific multidimensional by Charoenkit and Yiemwattana (2017), images, developed at the National each of experimental box was built 1.00 Institutes of Health and the Laboratory m long, 0.50 m wide, and 1.00 m high. (Schneider, Rasband, and Eliceiri, 2017) The flowchart in Figure 1 shows the for computational and optical method to measure LAI from the instrumentation. It is made accessible for harvesting process of leaves until the LAI public programming software, and free value obtained. operational tool for non-commercial

Scanned the leaves Harvested ten Calculated leaf area using printer Canon random of leaves using ImageJ E410

Calculated number of Measured the ground leaves per pot Leaf Area Index area (cm2)

Figure 1 Flowchart to measure leaf area index manually

2.1 Harvested leaves direct methods essentially involve the physical calculation, the individual leaves This study adapted the experimental were taken from a plant necessarily wet scale on 1m2 for each of plant species. and green in order to get an accurate The leaves were sampled in the first reading of leaf area (cm2). month of monitoring study. Samples were randomly harvested in the same high and size. The sampled plants were in good condition (no wilted leaves) with no disease. According to (Ong, 2003), the

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measures. A reference size is necessary given to ImageJ such as scale ruler image. The scale ruler image has to be imported besides the leaf surface to optimize the accuracy of the calibration. Enlarged the scale ruler image using the magnifying glass tool for an accurate result.

The straight line tool was used to draw a line between two points on the ruler image. As an example, draw a line over a 4 cm section of the ruler then click ‘Analyse’ and set scale. In Set Scale Figure 2 Ten random leaves harvested window. After that, enter the digit of 4 into from the site study the 'Known Distance' box and change the 'Unit of Measurement' box to cm, click 2.2 Flat image-using scanner 'Global' as shown in Figure 3. In the ‘Set In measurements’ window, make sure Ten random of leaves has been scanned ‘Area’ is selected. by A4 flat scanner (Stawarczyk et al., 2015) Canon E410 as results shown in A standard metric measure in ImageJ is Figure 2. The prepared samples were in cm ratio, however, it is available to set attached into a drawing block with and change it manually based on the double-sided adhesive tape. The Adobe regular unit used by the user. After Photoshop CS6 been used to combine all determining the measurement it is the leaves in one file. This subsequent to all image calculations. The accommodates user well to import the scale has to reset once the software is leaves file in ImageJ software afterward. reopened. The pixel must in the same quality to ensure the combining leaves at the same sizes. The usage of scale ruler next to the leaves or draw a linear segment during the scanning process help the scale calibration process.

2.3 ImageJ

Leaf area meters and Delta-T Image Analysis System (DIAS) (Pérez et al., 2017) are common instruments to measure leaf area. Alternatively, this study analyzed the leaf area using an image analyzer, ImageJ (Weerakkody, Figure 3 Scale calibration in set scale Dover, Mitchell, and Reiling, 2017) after the scanning procedure. window

2.3.1 Scale calibration by ImageJ 2.3.2 Analyse measurement of leaf area

In general, image measurements do not As a researcher, a variety of different contain any information about the image's software is often used to acquire and actual size. Scale calibration has to be analyze the data. Ten replicates of a flat carried out to convert the pixel-based image of Boston Fern been imported to based areas into the real quantitative analyze leaf area using ImageJ software. The area measurement process requires

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the image to be analyzed as a gray-scale or 8-bit image.

Figure 4 Grayscale image of the Boston Fern Figure 6(i) and 6 (ii) Before and after adjustment of the calculation area As Figure 4 shows, the converted scanned colour image of leaves to The automatic selection sometimes grayscale: ‘Image’ → ‘Type’ → ‘8-bit’. The uncovered the entire of the leaf. However, user is suggested to use a white ImageJ has a way to adjust the perimeter background for the sampling to facilitate of the leaf. This tool allows adjusting the the leaf area calculation. shape of an area selection using a circular ‘brush’. The image in Figure 6 (i), The threshold process represents turning is the irregular of the outer line (yellow the dark parts of the black image, and the colour) on a leaf sample. Click inside the light parts of the white image. Threshold image and drag along the border to the leaf image using the automated expand a selection. After that, click routine: ‘Process’ → ‘Binary’ → ‘Make outside and drag along the boundary to Binary’. A binary image shown in Figure minimize the image. The difference could 5 is a digital image with only used two be seen in Figure 6 (ii) which the yellow colours for a binary image, black and line had changed after alteration, forming white. the edge of the leaf.

Figure 5 Binary image of the Boston Fern

The calculation relies on the photograph pixels. Next, select the ‘Wand (tracing) tool’ from the ImageJ toolbar, and click on the leaves shape. It automatically highlights yellow outlined around the leaf. The yellow outline shown in Figure 6 is the outer edge that will be used in the Figure 7 Results of the leaves area area calculation. Figure 7 illustrates the results of ten leaves of Boston Fern (Figure 2.2) in leaf area (cm2) and mean (cm). The last column in number 11 shows the mean of leaf area for ten leaves.

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2.4 Number of leaves and ground LAI= Leaf area (cm2) x N area Ground Area (cm2)

The number of leaves (N), represent the The equation indicates from this study, leaves occupied in one potted área of the ‘leaf area’ for the mean of ten random plant. Figure 8 is a sample of one potted leaves area of the plant. Then it was plant been measured where N= 25. This analyzed using the ImageJ software. study took three potted plants to obtain Where N is the number of leaves per an average of N. plant. However, this study modified from Charoenkit and Yiemwattana (2017) to For vertical planting, the concept of the measure the ground area covered by a ground area measured as referred in canopy of the plant (cm2) not the plant Figure 8. The measurement was taken potted area. The mean LAI of three manually using a scale ruler. A samples extrapolated to 1.00 m2 was rectangular shape was the área of ground used as the LAI of each plant. área been measured. The concept is the light absorption is based on the density of 3.0 DISCUSSIONS the leaves covered the ground area which 2 plant grows. A represents the area (cm ) This study only specific on direct occupied by one plant in the cropped measurement of LAI. There were many area. This study took three potted plants methods proposed for direct LAI measure to obtain an average of a number of by using instruments, Licor Plant Canopy leaves and ground área. Analyzer (LAI 2200) (Jaafar, 2015) or by acquiring and processing leaf images through the process (Confalonieri et al., 2013). Due to the expensive instrument, this method been selected as economic, easy, and minimal operating conditions to analyze leaf área. Plant physiologists require leaf area (Pandey and Singh, 2011) and LAI measurements for studying planting growth, light interception, and photosynthesis. It became more important parameter when researchers from various disciplines such as built and environment, energy and

Figure 8 Ground-based area from the building, and atmospheric environment top view frequently used as the main parameter to correlate with the heat reduction and 2.5 Leaf Area Index (LAI) particulate accumulation.

In this study, LAI has been directly Hence, this application developed to evaluated from leaves harvest at Pasir study the leaves and its dimensional Gudang experimental study. This elements. The interest of researchers assessment is known as destructive analyzing plant leaves has increased over sampling on more appropriate for short- the years in characterization and stature ecosystems. The Leaf Area Index determination or in relation to different (LAI) was measured to estimate the total factors of influence. The used of ImageJ leaf area of the plants using the following application for this study determined the formula (Blanco and Folegatti, 2003; LAI value precisely. This application Charoenkit and Yiemwattana, 2017). provide simple, practical and accurate solutions to the study of plant leaves.

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4.0 CONCLUSION Malaysia. Thesis. Jaafar, B., Said, I., Reba, M. N. M., & Rasidi, M. Usage of the ImageJ application H. (2013). Impact of Vertical Greenery described above and the method of System on Internal Building Corridors in the assessing the value of LAI greatly Tropic. Procedia - Social and Behavioral accelerate the process of leaf area on Sciences, 105, 558–568. image scanning. It is a free and convenient application for speedy results. Jonckheere, I., Fleck, S., Nackaerts, K., Muys, B., Coppin, P., Weiss, M., & Baret, F. (2004). Review of methods for in situ leaf area index ACKNOWLEDGEMENT determination: Part I. Theories, sensors and hemispherical photography. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 121(1), 19–35. The authors would like to express their appreciation for the support of the Klingberg, J., Konarska, J., Lindberg, F., sponsors from the Universiti Putra Johansson, L., & Thorsson, S. (2017). Malaysia (UPM) and the Ministry of Mapping leaf area of urban greenery using Higher Education. aerial LiDAR and ground-based measurements in Gothenburg, Sweden. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 26, 31– REFERENCES 40.

Ong, B. L. (2003). Green plot ratio: an ecological Azkorra, Z., Pérez, G., Coma, J., Cabeza, L. F., measure for architecture and urban Bures, S., Álvaro, J. E., … Urrestarazu, M. planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, (2015). Evaluation of green walls as a 63(4), 197–211. passive acoustic insulation system for buildings. Applied Acoustics, 89, 46–56. Pandey, S. K., & Singh, H. (2011). A Simple, Cost-Effective Method for Leaf Area Blanco, F. F., & Folegatti, M. V. (2003). A new Estimation. Journal of Botany, 2011, 1–6. method for estimating the leaf area index of cucumber and tomato plants. Horticultura Pérez, G., Coma, J., Sol, S., & Cabeza, L. F. Brasileira, 21, 666–669. (2017). Green facade for energy savings in buildings: The influence of leaf area index Bréda, N. J. J. (2003). Ground-based and facade orientation on the shadow effect. measurements of leaf area index : a review Applied Energy, 187, 424–437. of methods , instruments and current controversies. Journal of Experimental Safikhani, T., & Baharvand, M. (2017). Evaluating Botany, 54(392), 2403–2417. the effective distance between living walls and wall surfaces. Energy and Buildings, Charoenkit, S., & Yiemwattana, S. (2017). Role of 150, 498–506. specific plant characteristics on thermal and carbon sequestration properties of living Schneider, C. A., Rasband, W. S., & Eliceiri, K. W. walls in tropical climate. Building and (2017). NIH Image to ImageJ : 25 years of Environment, 115, 67–79. Image Analysis. Nat Methods, 9(7), 671– 675. Confalonieri, R., Foi, M., Casa, R., Aquaro, S., Tona, E., Peterle, M., … Acutis, M. (2013). Stawarczyk, K., Programu, Z., Do, I., Uszkodze, Development of an app for estimating leaf O., & Przez, L. I. N. (2015). Use of the area index using a smartphone. Trueness ImageJ Program to Assess the Damage of and precision determination and comparison Plants by Snails. Chemistry Didactics with other indirect methods. Computers and Ecology Metrology, 20, 67–73. Electronics in Agriculture, 96, 67–74. Weerakkody, U., Dover, J. W., Mitchell, P., & Drienovsky, R., Nicolin, A. L., Rujescu, C., & Sala, Reiling, K. (2017). Particulate matter F. (2017). Scan Leaf Area-A Software pollution capture by leaves of seventeen Application Used in the Determination of the living wall species with special reference to Foliar Surface of Plants. Research Journal of rail-traffic at a metropolitan station. Urban Agricultural Science, 49(4). Forestry & Urban Greening, 27, 173–186.

Jaafar, B. (2015). Thermal Performance of Vertical Greenery System in the External Corridors of a Medium-Rise Building in

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PARADOXICAL ROLE OF URBAN PARKS AS CARBON SINK MEDIUM IN MALAYSIA

Nurzuliza binti Jamirsah*1 and Ismail bin Said2

1 Department of Landscape Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected]) 2 Department of Landscape Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Carbon emission in Malaysia is unabated due to the expanding of the construction industry. CO2 particles that were released into the atmosphere can intensify the current atmospheric CO2. Creating urban parks in cities is one of the widespread solutions for mitigating abundant atmospheric CO2. However, this study hypothesized that urban park provisions produced embodied carbon, the sum of CO2 emissions from the overall process of creating a project. It investigated the contradictory role of urban parks as a carbon source instead of a sink. A field investigation on urban park management was made to two selected urban parks, Taman Bandaran Kelana Jaya (TBKJ) and Taman Aman Petaling Jaya (TAPJ), at Petaling Jaya, Malaysia. It examined the amount of embodied carbon produced during the life cycle phases of the parks and the amount of carbon sequestrated by vegetation in the post-planting stage. As-built drawings were referred for the detail specifications and dimensions of the hardscape and softscape elements, to identify previous work breakdown structure of the urban parks. Work packages were generated base on the elements' structure types and dimension. Each urban park carbon emission values were estimated using eToolLCD software. Photogrammetry analysis was used to gather dendrometric parameters such as tree heights and diameter at breast height. These parameters were computed into the Chave allometric equation to derive carbon sequestration estimation on the selected urban parks. It is found that the net emissions of TBKJ and TAPJ were 19,468,943 kgCO2eq and 2,208,889 kgCO2eq, respectively. It means that urban parks failed to compensate for the amount of CO2 generated. The processes of renewing softscape and hardscape emitted additional embodied carbon compared to construction and maintenance phases. In conclusion, urban parks are a carbon source instead of carbon sequester.

Keywords : Urban park, Carbon Emissions, Embodied carbon, Carbon sequestration

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1.0 INTRODUCTION As urbanization becomes inevitable, many vacant green areas were Carbon emission is the act of releasing substituted to commercial areas. Such carbon dioxide (CO2), into the development produces its own embodied atmosphere over a period of time. CO2 is carbon on a large scale, due to the perceived as odourless, colourless and resources they imply is unsustainable. non-poisonous gas derived from vehicles, Evidently, embodied carbon of an urban anthropogenic activities. Embodied park is directly influenced by its design, carbon refers to the sum of carbon management and maintenance program emissions from the overall process of executed (Strohbach, Arnold, & Haase, creating a project. An abundance of 2012). Urban parks potentially become atmospheric CO2 not only affecting is the source of carbon if dead trees were resulting in warmer temperature but also replaced and replanted because the made oceans more acidic by 30% in actions demanded CO2 (Strohbach et which indirectly affecting sea organisms. al., 2012). Schwartz & Katz, (2016), posits the fact that if human being ceased their CO2 Table 2 List of parks under Malaysia local emission now, Earth still continues authorities’ supervision. warming for hundreds of years and executed the previous bad effect of the CO2 emitted. Malaysia experiencing a warming trend for the past decades with mean surface temperatures increased from 0.6°C - 1.2°C to 1.5°C - 2°C as of 2017 (Begum, 2017). In Germany and European countries, the recently reported construction rate is 2% (Lehmann, 2014). The reason was both countries are focusing mainly on retrofitting activities to existing buildings and optimizing their resources and energy flows. Developed countries have 50% refurbishments rate of the construction industry (Baharuddin et al., 2017). Comparing to Malaysia, it is categorized as a developing country and increasing urbanization activities. Table 1 shows the data from (The World Bank Source: Data.gov.my, 2019 Group, 2019), CO2 intensity for Malaysia is highest within neighbouring countries of Table 2 shows a total of 145 numbers of Southeast Asia. Despite Malaysia’s small parks supervised under local authorities land area (0.33 mil km2), compared to in Malaysia. However, the numbers may Thailand (0.51 mil km2) and Indonesia be higher due to other parks privately 1.905 mil km2), its CO2 intensity was owned by the property developer, and higher than the others. others. The fact that all parks required maintenance, CO2 emissions were Table 1 CO2 intensity kg/kg oil eq produced unnoticed. Hence, Malaysia needs to employ low carbon mitigation strategy by reducing embodied carbon embedded in the urban park project’s life cycles. Malaysia urban park provisions contribute to carbon emission Source: World Bank, 2019 instead as a medium to mitigate carbon emission. Few quantitative types of research studying urban parks

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embodied carbon produced in actual heights and Diameter at Breast Height project construction. Hence, this study (DBH). Other parameters such as trees aims to investigate the contradictory role species (to define wood density) and of urban parks as a carbon source quantities were gathered from as-built instead of the sink by using embodied drawings. The parameters were carbon measurement throughout the computed into the Chave allometric project life cycles phases. The equation to estimate aboveground objectives of this study are a) to biomass (AGB), estimate embodied carbon embedded within the selected urban parks’ life AGB = 0.0673 x ( x DBH2 x H), cycle phases; and b) to estimate carbon sequestration by vegetation post- Where, planting on selected urban parks in Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.  = wood density for each species, -3 g cm 2.0 METHODS DBH = Diameter at breast height, cm 2.1 Work packages analysis using H = Tree height, m eToolLCD software The following equation is to derive This study employs the experimental vegetation’s carbon sequestration research design where two urban parks’ estimation of the selected urban parks hardscape and softscape facilities were (Baharuddin et al., 2017)., examined. Based on the as-built drawings of the urban parks, work breakdown Carbon Sequestration value = AGB x structure (WBS) of hardscape and 0.47 softscape elements were regenerated Where, (refer Table 1) to identify work packages previously involved while constructing, AGB = Above ground biomass maintaining and renewing them (Latief, estimates, kg C Kusumaningtyas, & Supriadi, 2018). 0.47 = carbon factor Later, from the work packages listed, the data were input into eToolLCD software The estimated values were deducted to estimate embodied carbon. The from the total embodied carbon estimated software is a paid and validated software values to get the urban park’s net that was used in estimating the embodied embodied carbon. carbon of construction activities. 2.3 Study Sites 2.2 Photogrammetry analysis Taman Bandaran Kelana Jaya (TBKJ) Photogrammetry is the technique of was completed in year 1995 (Figure 1) making measurements from photographs. and Taman Aman Petaling Jaya in year The output of photogrammetry is maps 2001 (Figure 2). Both urban parks had and 3D model real-time measurements. existed 24 and 18 years ago. TBKJ To ensure the height measurement of the covers about 89 acres while TAPJ covers urban parks’ vegetation was current, this 20 acres. These two urban parks were study employs photogrammetry analysis selected due to their hardscape and (Schreyer, Tigges, Lakes, & Churkina, softscape composition were similar 2014). Several drone flights were throughout other urban parks in Malaysia. conducted on the selected urban parks to Urban parks were frequently maintained take multi-angle photographs. 3D models to ensure they are relevant for use by and Canopy Height Models (CHM) were users. Carbon sequestration by tree were generated to provide accurate dendrometric parameters such as tree

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calculated with assumption 75% tree mortality rate (US DOE EIA, 1998).

Landscape composition: Hardscape: 91 numbers of facility Softscape: 1348 numbers of tree

Hardscape, % = 10.27% Softscape, % = 89.72%

Figure 1 Aerial view of Taman Bandaran Kelana Jaya

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Landscape composition: Hardscape: 74 numbers of facility Softscape: 551 numbers of tree

Hardscape, % = 13.53% Softscape, % = 87.46%

Figure 2 Aerial view of Taman Aman Petaling Jaya

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3.0 MAIN RESULTS iii. Replanting works iv. Expansion works Experts in the landscape architecture field v. Planting addition works with work background as the local vi. Reconstruction works authority (project handler post- vii. Transplanting works completion), and property developer (project supervisors) verified that the It is deduced that the renewal works renewal phase existed post maintenance produced higher embodied carbon phase. Figure 3 shows the findings from comparing to construction and interviews with experts. Renewal phase maintenance phases due to its iterative consist of 7 work types: nature.

i. Replacement works ii. Renovation works

Figure 3 Extended Project life cycle of an urban park.

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Table 1 Embodied carbon estimation for construction works at TBKJ.

Limitation

Limitation

Limitation

Only several life cycle phases were embodied carbon can be estimated. scrutinized, namely construction, Table 1 shows the embodied carbon maintenance and renewal, due to estimation generated from eToolLCD exhaustive documentation to peruse and software from three main phases of urban scarce information. These phases were park life cycles. It is estimated that chosen due to the multitudinous level of renewal works of both urban parks work breakdown structures (WBS) produced embodied carbon of 27,313,149 compared to other phases. The work kgCO2eq and 10,380,835 kgCO2eq packages listed in Table 1 were the respectively. Renewal phases were the significant activities conducted to deliver highest carbon contributor compared to the deliverables with the assumption of construction and maintenance phases. more WBS work packages, the more

Table 2 Carbon sequestration estimates of TBKJ and TAPJ

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Table 3 Net emission of TBKJ and TAPJ.

Table 2 shows the summary of carbon REFERENCES sequestration produced by the vegetation of each urban parks. The investigation Baharuddin, Z. M., Sivam, A., Karuppannan, S., found that carbon sequestrations of TAPJ Daniels, C. B., Brown, M. A., Southworth, F., are higher 604,368 kgCO2eq compared to … McCall, M. K. (2017). The carbon footprint of urban green space-A life cycle approach. TBKJ 482,108 kg CO2eq despite the Landscape and Urban Planning, 3(1), 1–11. urban parks’ sizes. This is due to the tree https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.10 conditions difference between urban .013 parks. TAPJ have matured trees with an average height of 17.8m compared to Begum, A. (2017). Tackling Climate Change and TBKJ with 13.4m. Malaysia’s Emission Reduction Target (Vol. 2012).

Table 3 shows the net embodied carbon Latief, Y., Kusumaningtyas, G. R., & Supriadi, L. of TBKJ (19,468,943 kg CO2eq) and S. R. (2018). Work breakdown structure TAPJ (2,208,889 kgCO2eq). (WBS) dictionary development for the Furthermore, by examining carbon construction works of flyover projects. IOP emissions solely during the construction Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 195(1). phase of both urban parks, 19,951,051 https://doi.org/10.1088/1755- kgCO2eq and 2,772,925 kgCO2eq 1315/195/1/012003 respectively, atmospheric CO2 sequestration by vegetation aged 24 and Lehmann, S. (2014). Low carbon districts: 18 years planted in the urban park has Mitigating the urban heat island with green roof infrastructure. City, Culture and Society, failed to compensate the estimated 5(1), 1–8. values. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2014.02.002

4.0 CONCLUSION Schreyer, J., Tigges, J., Lakes, T., & Churkina, G. (2014). Using Airborne LiDAR and QuickBird Data for Modelling Urban Tree Carbon Vegetations in urban parks in tropical Storage and Its Distribution—A Case Study cities are the medium to sequester of Berlin, (November). atmospheric CO2. However, the actions https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61110636 caused by renewing the urban parks’ facilities (hardscape) and vegetation Schwartz, M., & Katz, E. (2016). Beyond Practice: Landscape Architects and the Global Eco- (softscape) contributes to the CO2 Crisis. In The New Landscape Declaration: A liberation back to the atmosphere. New Summit on Landscape Architecture and Therefore, this finding suggests that the Future Held in Philadelphia (p. 2016). landscaping activities are carbon emitter and outweigh carbon sequestration. It Strohbach, M. W., Arnold, E., & Haase, D. (2012). The carbon footprint of urban green space-A increases the embodied carbon of the life cycle approach. Landscape and Urban building structure previously emitted. Planning, 104(2), 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.10 .013

The World Bank Group. (2019). CO2 intensity (kg per kg of oil equivalent energy use).

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Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM. CO2E.EG.ZS?end=2014&locations=MY&sta rt=2014&view=map&year=2014

US DOE EIA. (1998). Method for Calculating Carbon Sequestration by Trees in Urban and Suburban Settings. Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases (Vol. April). Retrieved from http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/frntend.htm l

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PLACE ATTACHMENT CONCEPT AND ELDERLY’S LIFE SATISFACTION IN MALAYSIA URBAN PUBLIC PARK

Kavitha a/p Meganathan*1, Hassanudin bin Lamit2 and Muhammad Farid Azizul bin Azizui2

1 Postgraduate Student, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (Email: [email protected]) 2 Lecturer, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA.

ABSTRACT

Older adults are a growing segment of Malaysia's population, and the outdoor space is important for their physical and psychological health. Planners, designers and managers play an important role in providing urban public park that fits adult needs. The advantages and benefits of outdoor space are not fully explored for elderly. Despite the literature on place attachment in a number of disciplines, researchers are still unanimous about the dimension of place attachment, the different sources of place attachment, the main mechanism behind the development of place attachment, the impact on the attitude of elderly and behavioural intentions relating to physical environment design, planning and management. In addition, particularly outdoor environment settings, the elderly emotional attachment and life satisfaction to nearby open spaces in the context of urban public park is not studied. Based on the main components of the place attachment phenomenon and the connections between them, the aim of this study is to better understand the emotional relationship between the elderly and the place, and contributes to the theoretical discussion of relationships between people and environment. This study also examine how urban public park in Malaysia determines the level of elderly place attachment and to study the importance to determine the degree of elderly satisfaction with their lives. A conceptual framework of place attachment is proposed to investigate the multi-dimensional structure of the place attachment, the effects on the place attachment of the predictor variables of various place attachment domain and, in particular, the key mediatory mechanism of place identification which is the basis of the development of place attachment and the impact on place attachment - related attitudes and behavioral intentions.

Keywords : Elderly, Place attachment, Urban park, Outdoor environment, Life satisfaction

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1.0 INTRODUCTION their inhabitation, considering their own spatial and temporal salience. The importance of the environment as a factor affecting people's behavior and Despite the literature on place attachment satisfaction was emphasized by research in a number of disciplines, researchers carried out in the field. These theories are still unanimous about the dimension have guided research on environment of place attachment and lack of and aging by examining how individual clarification on its significance to elderly’s behavior and satisfaction are determined life satisfaction to outdoor environment. by the interaction between environmental This study is to better understand the characteristics and individual responses. emotional relationship between the What these theories emphasize is that elderly and the place, and contributes to there is a strong relationship between the the theoretical discussion of relationships elderly and their environment but there is between people and environment. This lack of clarification on its significance to study also examine the level of elderly elderly’s life satisfaction and their place attachment and to study the attachment to outdoor environment and it importance to determine the degree of is possible to investigate how elderly elderly satisfaction with their life. In this people respond to places and felt about research, a theoretical framework is their identities by examining their proposed for exploring the phenomenon lifestyles and ways of fulfilment. The main of place attachment. It focuses on the focus of this study is the key concept of nature, source, mechanism and impacts place attachment, which is an important of elderly to nearby urban public parks aspect to the ultimate goal of creating a and their implications on open space place such as the urban public park in a planning, and design and place relationship between people and places development in the context of the urban and its impact on elderly life satisfaction. public park in Malaysia. Urban public park plays an important role in creating environments that meet the 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW needs of older adults. Therefore, daily living in these environments, the routine experience of elderly people is argued 2.1 Place Attachment and its Nature that nearby urban public park can be transformed and seen as special There are two different dimension in "places", by which elderly appreciate not place attachment that are place identity only the physical and social environment and place dependence which both characteristics, but also the embedded functionally and emotionally / symbolically meanings of these outdoor space. As a include the significance that attributes result, in this process of person - place people to places (Kaltenborn, 1997; interaction, elderly can develop a positive Moore & Graefe, 1994; Schreyer, Jacob, emotional link to these conditions. While & White, 1981; Williams, et al., 1992). there is a special feel for a particular These dimensions have gotten great place, sense of attachment, overcoming focus and are recognized as the most fitness uncomfortableness or social important and relevent aspects of the undesirability can be encourage, even if nature of place attachment. In empirical people have only occasionally studies in different contexts of research, relationship to those situation, as their validity and reliability have been mentioned by Keller (1968). Therefore, systematically reviewed and examined. the attachment to these settings become more complex and persistent when it is 2.1.1 Place Identity formed. This means urban public park is one of the best place in which elderly Place identity is a concept developed people develop their attachment during through the conception of selected problems in relation to the cognitive links

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between the physical environment and a against current viable alternative places, person. The theory is from the self - which determine how well those place identity development included a broader have met their needs the way in which range of analyses that includes the social they are being treated (Shumaker & and environment aspects of self – identity Taylor, 1983). Their suggestion was that in which such development takes place the CL and CL alt could be influenced the (Proshansky, 1978; Proshansky, et al., number and the scale of needs within the 1983). "The dimensions of oneself that present context are met by factors such define the personal identity of the person as the quality of previous places the with regards to the physical environment resource quality within the current are represented by a complex pattern of environment, and the extent to which conscious and unconscious thoughts, needs are met, thus to what extent a beliefs, preferences, emotions, values, person depends on a particular place aims and behavior tendencies and (Shumaker & Taylor, 1983). competences relevant to that environment" (Proshansky, 1978) and 2.2 Impact of Place Attachment also defined as "a substructure of the individual's self - identity which consists, Studies has shown that the degree of widely conceived, of cognitions of the attachment of people has a considerable physical world in which the person lives" impact on their attitudes towards the (Proshansky, et al., 1983). The sense of management of the environment and its self subjective is therefore defined subsequent behaviour and action. Place determined and expressed through the attachment between various people in relationship with others, but also through groups can be a result of different the relationships with the various physical influences and can mean various conditions, which define and organise opinions and views regarding a place's everyday life (Proshansky,et al., 1983). environment. Some therefore suggested that emotional attachment should be 2.2.2 Place Dependence integrated into the management of natural resources and the public land as an Place dependence was described as "the important approach for understanding the subjective characteristics of the significance people attribute In a place to connection between the people and the the environment and how different places" and "the perceived strength of an strategies of the environment can affect occupant's connection with certain or improve the bonding between people- places" (Stokols & Shumaker, 1981). By place (Eisenhauer, et al., 2000; Williams mentioning place dependence is a kind of & Stewart, 1998). For instance, Williams emotional feeling that is linked to a et al. (1992) noted that attached visitors specific place's potential to satisfy can be environmentally sensitive to requirements and objectives of a person environmental effects, for example litter through comparison with previous place, and the loss of vegetation. which is called comparison level (CL), by means of reference to Thibaut and Kelly 2.3 Place Attachment (1986) comparison level and comparison Dimensionality level for alternative models Stokols and Shumaker (1981) and evaluating the A literary review has shown the most comparison of the present place with recognized and examined dimensions of other existing settings which may meet place attachment are place identity and the same requirements that’s, the place dependence. Scholars agree that comparison level of alternatives (CLalt), place dependence and place identity meaning that the place dependence level implies place attachment from an of a place is the result of comparisons “appraisal of the congruence between between the current place and the physical and psychological needs and previous place and the current place characteristics of the environment”

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(Giuliani, 2003, p. 153). way of developing the typologies of human perceiving in the physical Research from the past shows that environment of everyday life (Craik & persons who have a deep attachment to Zube, 1976). In the past four decades, for a place can be very careful and instance, significant empirical evidence concerned with that place, and these has shown that various types of feelings are at the heart of people who landscape are producing diversified are implying place dependence and place responses from various people in group identity dimensions and are going beyond and surveying and quantitative analysis its functional and symbolic meaning. may contribute on people's perception models of various types of landscape and Therefore, it is claimed that with a strong landscape characteristics (Kaplan & desire to know the past, the condition and Kaplan, 1989; Zube, Sell, & Taylor, the future of the site, a strong 1982). Research on landscape therefore responsibility and a strong commitment can provide an opportunity to explore how and devote oneself to the place can be a people perceive the physical conditions of matter of deep interest and caring over a place cognitively may impact their the condition of place. The relationship emotional feedback to that place and how between a person and a place isn't just a places and landscapes should be plan, reflection toward which he or she design, and manage. develops an emotional link in this "place caring and place value" dimension of Current studies argue the attachment to attachment, but also an indicator of the this place is psychological result derived behavioral intentions of the place from knowledge of the place, their consciously held by individuals. The cognition of place, and affection of place validity and reliability of the "place caring and behavioural of place. The choice for and place value" dimension of the place specific type of landscape in one place attachment must be tested and its relation may be therefore be supposed to mean a with other attachment dimension and trend to favour past or thoughtful other variables of prediction other experience of this kind of landscape and predictive variables and its behavioral a tendency to be compatible with the consequences should be examined as meaning of this type of landscape for the well. person or community. Therefore preferences in the landscape can 2.4 Place Characteristics, contribute instead of the other way Perception and Place Attachment of around to the place attachment Urban Park development. This mean, it can influence development of place attachment The physical environment is integral to because the perceived attraction in the place concept, as explained in certain kind of local landscape may literature review. There are some, influence the general meaning of the however, pointed out that the current landscape. Landscape preferences people - place study only uses common therefore should be examined rather than behavior and cultural processes to deal as the outcome of people - place bonds with attachment, while neglect the role of as a potential precedent of place physical environments (Hidalgo & attachment. Hernández, 2001; Stedman, 2003). Stedman (2003) examined the effects on In conclude, the connection to one of the the evolution of the place attachment and most important sources of attachment other related place to the characteristics needs to be investigated: characteristics of the physical environment. of the physical environment, which people subjectively perceive. The argument is Some proposed that observational that the "perceived" physical environment evaluation technique be introduced as a characteristics should be accepted

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instead of the "objective" physical significance is generated, condensed and environment characteristics as used in maintained. When the significance is some preceding studies examine the attached during interactions between possible linkages, the experience places people, physical space becomes a place. and place related subjective assessment ‘‘In essence, people confer meaning on and effect between perception and the environment in ways that reflect their environmental characteristics such as social and cultural experiences’’ place attachment and place satisfaction (Eisenhauer, et al., 2000, p. 422). The and the effects of environmental experience is used to apprehend what a perceptions on place-related behaviour place means to a person and to identify and attitudes. with these meanings, which has significant effects on the emotion, attitude 2.5 Place Satisfaction and Place and behavior of individuals. Thirdly, place Attachment meanings are the outcomes of human interpretations, which depend on the With regard to the connection of place experiences of individuals, their satisfaction and place attachment, a few background and their socio-cultural proposed that place satisfaction could context. Thus environmental meanings influence place attachment. In their are not given, but are constructed analysis of the determinants of place socially. “Any physical place has the attachment, for instance, Mesch and potential to embody multiple landscapes, Manor (1998) found that both social each of which is grounded in the cultural relations and environmental satisfaction definitions of those who encounter that are linked to the evolution of place place.” (Greider & Garkovich, 1994, p. 2) attachment. The degree of satisfaction of A place could therefore represent multiple a person with the physical and social symbolic significances in individuals and qualities of their neighborhood was across them. positively linked to their degree of attachment to place (p. 514). Stedman 2.7 Place Attachment Studies (2003) observed that the quality of a Research Gaps place may be satisfied by a person but stay unattached to a place. Also, one First of all, the theoretical discussion of might be unhappy with a place and still alternative compositional dimensions is remain firmly attached to it. Conceptual lacking on place attachment except the place satisfaction and place attachment widely accepted recognized dimensions must be distinguished and their of place identity and place dependence. measurement operationalized in a Therefore it is necessary to test structural different way. The connection between place attachment model on validity and place satisfaction and place attachment reliability, which empirically incorporates to the place and their various effects on this ignored dimension of ' place caring attitudes and behaviours must also be and place value ' and examine its further explored. connection and behavioral implications with other variables of the predictive. 2.6 Place Meaning and Place Attachment Secondly, past studies have identified A theoretical framework (Figure 1) on place Previous studies have shown that first, attachment is proposed to lead the the concept of place has a core existing research by reviewing the place component of meaning (Relph, 1976; literature and research needs. The Tuan, 1977). It is the significances phenomenon of place attachment, ascribed by people who distinguish according to this framework, three closely between place and abstract space. - associated components: the affective, Secondly, place experience is one of the cognitive and behavioural components, most important sources from which which correspond to the relationship

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between and environment. The affective place attachment. Therefore, the component concerns in particular the mediating effect of the meaning of the aspect nature of the place attachment place meaning shall be examined in the and is manifest in effects, emotions and prediction of place attachment. feelings. The cognitive component concerns the potential sources of place Thirdly, these essential structural factors attachment as well as the structural factor must be differentiated from the factors exogenous such as socio-economic like place experience, perception, characteristics of the elderly and their satisfaction of a place and meaning of the physical properties of the place. The place and theorizing of causal relations knowledge, experience, perception, among them, including the thought and belief are manifested and in socioeconomic of elderly and physical connection with the place result from the characteristics of the place. The causal interaction of people and place; and connections between them must be behavioural component affects the theorized accordingly. resulting impact and is manifested of place attachment in place - related Finally, the impact of place attachment on attitude, behaviours and action.different the attitudes and behaviors of the elderly factors which could affect place in relation to place needs to be explored. attachment. However, the most frequent In summary, the literary review indicates analysis was only conducted of the direct that place attachment research has to be relations and place attachment between structured more consistently and these factors. This kind of direct link is comprehensively so as to enable us to deterministic or overexploitation, leaving better understand what is the essence of the mechanism of the formation attachment, its source and development unexplored, of the complex nature of the and how it can influence the Conceptual phenomenon of place attachment. As Framework of Place Attachment and to place is a concept based on meaning, determines the level of elderly place identification with the meanings given to attachment and degree of elderly place may, due to its intermediary satisfaction with their life. position, play a major role in developing

Figure 1 A conceptual framework of place attachment

3.0 CONCLUSION consequences of identifying with the significance attributed to that spatial From the review, we synthesized place context, both physical and social - attachment is defined according to this cultural, deriving from the perceptions, theoretical framework as emotionally experiences and evaluations of the place. positive relationship that creates an In addition to strong self - identity as elderly and a geographic locality as a regards place identity, ongoing functional dependence on place (place

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dependency), continuous care and research paradigms, and there have been commitment to place (place caring and few consensuses concerning the general place value); it has also significant guiding structure of the place attachment implication for attitudes and behaviours study and in particular the structure, associated with the settings. origins and effects of the attachment structure. Place attachment is explored Place literature has shown that meaning either as a concept for a variety of is at the core of place-making, an sentiments or beliefs or is subsumed as essential concept of research that an integral part of another structure. combines multi-disciplinary nature on human - environmental relationship. The proposed tripartite theoretical Place attachment an emotional framework attempts to systematically and connections between individuals and extensively delineate the nature, sources particular places. Sense of place, unlike and impacts of place attachments. It not the phenomenon of placelessness, only highlights the need to incorporate reflects a awareness of the spirit and place caring and place value in the meaning of space which acts as the multifaceted structure of placement as an psychological foundation of daily life, and additional dimension and examine the is characterized by a tendency to form effects on attachment of environmental deep emotional relations between people- perception, experience and assessment place. Some people treat as but also, the key mediating role of interchangeable terms but the sense of identification in the formation of place place and place attachment is different, attachment is also emphasized most because the former refers to a broader importantly. Further attitudes and general field of research, which includes behaviors are suggested to be critical for a variety of sensations, significances, environment design and management as values and symbols associated with results of identification with the place place, while the latter generally refers meaning and place attachment. The more specifically to a specific aspects of literature provides important indications the overall relation to place (Patterson & that the environmental impacts determine Patterson), that's the positive emotional place attachment which, in turn, results in relationship between people and place. the satisfaction of the elderly with their life. Previous research has shown that attachment can differ between individuals ACKNOWLEDGEMENT or groups of people, depending on how they perceive the physical and social I would like to thank my supervisor environment, as a salient phenomenon in Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hassanudin bin Lamit, relations with people-place, how the place Senior Lecturer of the Faculty of Built is experienced and assessed, how the Environment and Surveying, Universiti place meanings and its own specific Teknologi Malaysia, and my co- backgrounds are interpreted.The supervisor Dr. Muhammad Farid Azizul emotional relationship between people bin Azizui, Lecturer of the Faculty of Built and place plays an important part in Environment and Surveying, Universiti building and maintaining an identity of Teknologi Malaysia. Thanks for their individuals and communities and also has valuable assistance on my research or a significant impact upon attitudes and writing, always consistently steered me in behaviors. the right direction.

As the literature reflects, the REFERENCES multidisciplinary nature of place attachment research has led to several Afshar, Pouya Farokhnezhad, and Mahshid concepts of people-place connectivity Foroughan. (2016).The Effects of Place across various philosophical and Attachment on Social Well-Being in Older

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Adults.

Brown, Greg, et al. (2015). Mapping and Measuring Place Attachment. Applied Geography, vol. 57, Elsevier Ltd, pp. 42–53.

Ebadi, Hadi. (2015). Physical Attributes on Place Attachment in Malaysian Urban Parks (2015), pp. 1–18.

Madgin, Rebecca, et al. (2016). Connecting Physical and Social Dimensions of Place Attachment: What Can We Learn from Attachment to Urban Recreational Spaces? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, vol. 31, Springer Netherlands, pp. 677–93.

Ramkissoon, Haywantee, et al.(2012).Place Attachment and Pro-Environmental Behaviour in National Parks: The Development of a Conceptual Framework. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 20, pp. 257–76.

Raymond, Christopher M., et al. (2010). The Measurement of Place Attachment: Personal, Community, and Environmental Connections. Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 30, pp. 422–34.

Relph, Edward, et al. (2014) Place and Placelessness, Edward Relph.

Rowles, Graham D. [Ed], and Miriam [Ed] Bernard.(2013). Environmental Gerontology: Making Meaningful Places in Old Age. (2013).

Scannell, Leila, and Robert Gifford. (2017). Place Attachment Enhances Psychological Need Satisfaction.

Ujang, Norsidah, and Khalilah Zakariya. (2015). Place Attachment and the Value of Place in the Life of the Users. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 168, Elsevier B.V., pp. 373–80.

Xie, Lili.(2018). Age-Friendly Communities and Life Satisfaction Age-Friendly Communities and Life Satisfaction Among the Elderly in Urban China.

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EMBEDDING OUTDOOR LEARNING THROUGH CHILDREN’S VISUAL PERCEPTION OF BIOPHILIA ON NATURE

Mega Suria Hashim*1, Sarah Alia Norazlan2 and Ismail Said3

1,2, Greenovation Research Group, Faculty of Built Environment & Survey, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT Children’s nowadays begins to feel they are drowning under an electronic technology and media which limit opportunities for them to connect with the natural environment, Children’s as early at their age of 1 to 5 years has been exposed to the world of digital at their fingertips. The way that children visual on nature was sometimes base an experienced in vicarious and symbolic ways through the subject that thought in the classroom such as pictures, language, stories, and other media. Therefore, this study aimed to foster children experiences and preferences for the outdoor environment as well as their attitudes toward nature. The study conducted in the rural area in Laman Tamara, Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan. The data was analyzed using NVIVO12, and Microsoft Office Excel 2013 were tabulated according to the number of frequency of enjoyment and were then triangulated. The result indicated that these children do perceive the outdoor settings especially being in the garden as part of learning environments and they do recognize the value of experiences from their feeling even though less interaction with outdoor activity. The study suggests that urban children were to have a strong affinity for the outdoors and nature and need to spend outdoor regularly for children to develop a connection towards nature.

Keywords : Outdoor Learning, Biophilia , Nature, Rural-area, Children Experiences

1.0 INTRODUCTION parents (Goh, Bay, & Chen, 2015). Therefore it increases Biophobia instead Outdoor environments for children are of Biophilia for children. Children learn essential for their well-being to promote a best when they have access to sense of wonder and affection towards environments which surround them with nature (Cobb, 1959). Today’s children are nature. In the context of children’s unplugged with so many benefits of being environment, there is a need to in outdoor which dominated by digital understand children’s perception that excess. Children going online with those leads to an understanding of their portable devices are the children who not emotion, needs, preference, and given any specific time limit by the interactions (Aziz & Said, 2012).

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biophilic connections are expressed 1.1 Outdoor Learning based upon the early experiences children contact with nature. Therefore, The vast majority studies on children this study aimed to foster children outdoor learning have been related to experiences and preferences for the what children want to do outside when outdoor environment as well as their they have many opportunities to offer attitudes toward nature. more diverse play opportunity, such as like to be in contact with natural 2.0 METHODOLOGY phenomena such as water, animals, and plants (Mustapa et al., 2015;Clark, 2007; Burke, 2005). Meanwhile, significantly 2.1 Description of Study Area fewer children grew up in urban areas had experiences in the nature-related As mentioned by Thompson, (2004), activity. It was due to the social generally the kampung itself as a site environments in urban areas is possibly and retainer of traditional residual decline of its experiences with nature values, embodied most frequently in among urban children, (Mohamad kinship ties, naturalistic Muslim, Hosaka, Numata, & Yahya, environmentalism and especially 2017). Rural children can spend their free gotong-royong or mutual aid among kin time which they are exposed directly to and neighbors. The chosen study nature by seeing what nature has to offer context located in the rural area which them. For example, in Yusuf (2016) known as kampung (village) Gunung study, she mentioned that the children’s Sikai, and it named as Laman Tamara everyday landscape is a place where situated at Seri Menanti Kuala Pilah, surrounded by a diversity of abiotic and Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. The land is biotic elements. Therefore these children located in the rural area, of which its were able to develop their sensibility to greenery and close-knit among the the physical characteristics, increase their community of Malay villagers. Laman knowledge of the outdoor environment Tamara has its big courtyard with ample and their social skills. open space in front and a rear area which consisted of a spectacular view of 1.2 Biophilia the kampung house, garden and the mountainous backdrop with diversities To enrich children thinking and learning of flora and fauna (Figure 1). as well to develop inquisitive minds, children must have a strong correlation between nature connectedness and spent time in an outdoor environment (de Brito Miranda et al., 2017; Nisbet et al., 2009). It means that being outdoor do offers more diverse experiences with nature and have a sense of emotional attachment. In other words, children appraiser nature not only as aesthetics but instead of the interactions and sensory experiences. It relates to Biophilia. The word Biophilia postulated by Edward O. Wilson and populated during the 1980s. Wilson Figure 1 View of a responsive (1984) presents that human need to be landscape of Laman Tamara house around other living things which need to compound (source: LTFB) connect with nature, while Kahn, Weiss, & Harrington (2018) mentioned that Therefore, the availability of the

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surrounding garden and nearby nature perception about being outdoors and may afford children to learn and play a have experience with nature before. The variety of activities without parental questionnaires testing the children pre- concerns (Skar, Gundersen, & Brien, conception included some questions that 2016). asked general information about how they appreciate and encounter during being in 2.2 Data Collection – A Selection of outdoor. Respondents The children completed answering all the Participants consisted of twenty - one questions to see their prior knowledge middle childhood children (N=21) aged 5 about connectedness to nature. Before to 12 years chosen from urban schools in the answers written by the children, the Kuala Lumpur. The reason of choosing researcher assured the children that all middle childhood children is because it is the answers were acceptable and no right the most crucial stage of children’s or wrong answers existed. It shows that development, whereby through their children have a right to express their social, cognitive, emotional and motor basic knowledge of being in outdoor development they earn a logical and spaces. positive perception of becoming adolescents and adults (Schutte, Table 1 Connectedness to Nature Torquati, & Beattie, 2015). Moore (2014) themes in words coined that children cognitive functioning Subject in Nature Like Moderate Dislike can be more effective when they I like to hear different sounds in garden. preceded by spontaneous actions such I like to see flowers in my garden. as play, a free exploration that having I like to play in my home garden. direct discoveries in nature which means, I like to play with soil, muds, twigs and leaves which there are part of my this group of children becomes more childhood play. appreciated towards the living things I like seeing many animals and insects in my garden. and they able to assimilate knowledge Being in garden makes me feel happy and understand ideas and question and peacefully. Many types of plants are in my actions. garden, such as ornamental plants, medicinal plants, fruits trees, flowering plants, herbs and grass. Quantitative research was conducted by When I feel sad, I like to go outside distributing questionnaires (Table 1) to 21 (garden) and play. middle childhood children (n=21) that divided into 3 groups. Each group 2.3 Data Analysis consists of 7 children, assisted by the researcher assistants who had trained in The analysis in this study utilized NVivo interviewing techniques. In other words, 12, as it involved descriptive analysis this is how to persuade these children to using Microsoft Office Excel. Data from answer the questions. It was conducted in the close-ended questions were to dual language, Malay and English as reveal the highest score of their these children occasionally used multi- preferences being in nature. To language when they talk to each other. It evaluate the score according to the found that children aged between 9-12 Nature Values by Kellert, and this study years can speak good English. Children focuses on the typology of Nature had to answer individually the Values (Table 2). questionnaires which based on their

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Table 2 Kellert’s Typology of Values

3.0 MAIN RESULTS be in the garden, was generally a social experience which does not limit for The results had presented the children’s discovering. Total from 19 (90%) has response (n=21) on nature-related recorded as the highest percentage for experience when they were in the garden. the number of children as they said they Figure 2 shows the total percentages for admired and “like to see flowers in their each statement that required children to garden”. It shows that children’s describe answer according to their experiences ‘like’ as a sense of beauty, particularly exploring and discovering in their garden. emphasized the colors and textures. The majority of the respondents aged between 5 to 12 years. Looking at the overall, the contact with nature especially

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Total of Children's Participation in Nature -Related Experiences 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

[VALUE] (81%) I like to hear different sounds in garden. [VALUE] (9.5%) [VALUE] (9.5%)

[VALUE] (90%) I like to see flowers in my garden. [VALUE] (4.8%) [VALUE] (4.8%)

[VALUE] (67%) I like to play in my home garden. [VALUE] (9.5%) [VALUE] (19%)

I like to play with soil, muds, twigs and leaves which [VALUE] (57%) [VALUE] (9.5%) there are part of my childhood play. [VALUE] (24%)

[VALUE] (76%) I like seeing many animals and insects in my garden. [VALUE] (9.5%) [VALUE] (4.8%)

[VALUE] (62%) Being in garden makes me feel happy and peacefully. [VALUE] (14.2%) [VALUE] (4.8%)

Many types of plants are in my garden, such as [VALUE] (81%) [VALUE] (19%) ornamental plants, medicinal plants, fruits trees,… [VALUE] (0%)

[VALUE] (67%) When I feel sad, I like to go outside (garden) and play. [VALUE] (14.2% [VALUE] (14.2%)

Like Moderate Dislike

Figure 2 Result on accessing children garden experiences

Meanwhile, there were two experiences the most influential in their experience carried the same percentage, has within the garden. Word Clouds display recorded 81% for the statements, “I like to the most prominent or frequent words in a hear different sounds in the garden’, and body of the text. “Many types of plants in my garden” as part of naturalistic and ecologists - scientific. It means that the children felt pleasure when having direct contact with nature and understanding of the interconnectedness of nature and natural systems. Others results displayed as, see animal and insects in my garden (76%), play in my home garden (67%), Feeling emotional and would to go outside and play at the garden (67%), Feeling happy and peaceful (62%), and playing with soil, muds, twigs, and leaves (57%). From these results, it shows that children‘s have the strongest preference to be close to the garden which becomes part of outdoor learning. Figure 3 Selection of children’s As can be seen in Figure 3, children preference words describing the described their feelings of wonder by enjoyment of being outdoor focused on aesthetic values such as curiosity by beauty and color. Thus, from those many statements mentioned in the questionnaires, the word ‘Garden’ was

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3.0 CONCLUSION Psychology, 9(MAY), 1–16.

Mohamad Muslim, H. F., Hosaka, T., Numata, S., The study has found that children develop & Yahya, N. A. (2017). Nature-Related a lifelong interest in learning through Experiences during Childhood in Urban and experiences that are pleasant and Rural Areas : A First Look at Peninsular memorable. Elements of the out-of-doors Malaysians. Urban Studies Research, 2017, that make it so appealing to children 1–9. include association with other living things MooRe, R. (2014). Nature Play & Learning (plants and animals), immersion in Places. NC State Design. Retrieved from sensory stimulation, opportunities for http://natureplayandlearningplaces.org/wp- exploration and hands-on content/uploads/2014/08/Nature-Play-and- experimentation. Therefore, the garden Learning-Places_Executive- Summary_v.01.pdf represents the primary source for children outdoor learning to interact within their Mustapa, N. D., Maliki, N. Z., & Hamzah, A. daily lives. (2015). Repositioning Children’s Developmental Needs in Space Planning: A Review of Connection to Nature. Procedia - ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Social and Behavioral Sciences, 170, 330– 339. The study was funded by the Research University Grant Scheme Nisbet, E. K., Zelenski, J. M., & Murphy, S. A. (2009). The Nature Relatedness Scale. (Q.J130000.2621.15J24) by Universiti Environment and Behavior, 41(5), 715–740. Teknologi Malaysia. Schutte, A. R., Torquati, J. C., & Beattie, H. L. REFERENCES (2015). Impact of Urban Nature on Executive Functioning in Early and Middle Childhood. Environment and Behavior, Aziz, F., & Said, I. (2012). The Trends and 0013916515603095-. 5 Influential Factors of Children’s Use of

Outdoor Environments: A Review. Procedia - Skar, M., Gundersen, V., & Brien, L. O. (2016). Social and Behavioral Sciences, Children ’ s Geographies How to engage 38(December 2010), 204–212. children with nature : why not just let them

play ?, 3285(March). Burke, C. (2005). “Play in Focus”: Children

Researching Their Own Spaces and Places Thompson, E. C. (2004). Rural Villages as for Play. Children, Youth and Environments, Socially Urban Spaces in Malaysia, 41(12), 15(1), 27–53. 2357–2376.

Clark, A. (2007). Early childhood spaces Involving

young children and practioners in the design Yusuf, J. N. (2016). Middle Childhood Sensibilities process. Children. Bernard van Leer Towards Physical Charateristics of Everyday Foundation. Landscape inLow Cost Housing

Neighbourhood, 16 (February). Cobb, E. (1959). The Ecology of Imagination in Childhood. Daedalus, 88(3), 537–548. de Brito Miranda, A. C., Jófili, Z., & dos Anjos Carneiro-Leão, A. M. (2017). Ecological literacy–preparing children for the twenty- first century. Early Child Development and Care, 187(2), 192–205.

Goh, W. W. L., Bay, S., & Chen, V. H. H. (2015). Young school children’s use of digital devices and parental rules. Telematics and Informatics, 32(4), 787–795.

Kahn, P. H., Weiss, T., & Harrington, K. (2018). Modeling child-nature interaction in a nature preschool: A proof of concept. Frontiers in

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AFFORDANCES OF TERRESTRIAL AREA AT FISHERMEN VILLAGE IN SHAPING CHILDREN’S PLAY

Janatun Naim Yusof *1 and Ismail Said2

1, 2 Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Most of children’s studies in the natural outdoor environment were conducted in urban areas but only a few in coastal communities. This study focuses on the level of affordances of a fishermen village for children’s outdoor play. This study was conducted at Kampong Terusan Baru, Pulau Bum Bum, Sabah, Malaysia. Forty- five early childhood and middle childhood children of Bajau Ubian participated in the study. Data on children’s play and their perceptions were elicited from participatory approach, photo taking and in–depth interview. The data were analysed through content analysis using nVivo11 and chi-square test of independence. Based on content analysis, the geographic profiles of children’s play at terrestrial area were divided into three zones namely, on the land, transition zone and at the sea. Among the three zones, the result shows that on the land provided the most utilized and shaped affordances (n=341) and (n=55) respectively, the transition zones afforded the most perceived affordances (n=546). The test shows that H0 were rejected and H1 were accepted which indicate the geographic profile and circadian are dependently with the numbers of affordances produced during children’s play. This findings suggest that when the children in fishermen village were playing at the three zones, they developed a rhythm in their play which majorly affected by the weather. This reveal that the variety of geographic profiles in fishermen village offer variety of affordances for children’s play and become an ideal environment for children to learn, explore and solve problems they encounter during their play.

Keywords : Affordances, Sensibilities, Bajau Ubian, Fishermen village

1.0 INTRODUCTION consent. Children require outdoor environment that support their need to Based on previous studies, children’s explore and gain knowledge (Ann and range of activities evolve in three Taylor, 2013; Zamani, 2016). However, important places which were home, nowadays they tend to spent most of their school and recreational area known as time indoor rather than outdoor. institutional triangle (Rasmussen, 2004; Consequently, this phenomenon King and Howard, 2014). This ranges promotes sedentary life style instead of were bounded based on their parents’ active life style. This worried

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phenomenon eventually caused more 2.0 CHILDREN AND NATURE numbers of children suffer from obesities ENVIRONMENT and health problem such as diabetes type II (Percy-Smith and Thomas, 2009; In recent years there has been a growing Westendorp et al., 2011; Torrens and of interest in understanding how play in Griffin, 2012). outdoor environment contribute in children’s development. The stage of A vast evidence from the past studies children play which involved learning, dictates that children should be allowed to exploration, problem invention and be closer to nature especially in outdoor solving are thoroughly investigated in order to understand the process, environment. Nature offered them constraint and improvement of the spontaneous and unstructured activities, qualities in children’s play (Maynard, make them discovered and learned about 2007; Sandseter and Kennair, 2011; their surroundings and also creating their Lloyd and Gray, 2014). The most studied own boundary in place making (Hart et area is children’s play in outdoor al., 1992; Kylin, 2003; Miles, 2013). environment through direct experience Despite the positive effect of nature on with nature. Opportunities for play available in variety types of outdoor children’s development, little is known environment that children engaged such about what nature could offer more in as home school journey, school, children’s play especially in different neighbourhood, forest garden, park, geographic setting. Many studies were playground (Lein, 2010; Platt, 2012; conducted in urban regarding the children Gundersen et al., 2016) Abundance play in nature but a few studies were studies on children and nature suggesting a wide variety of benefits for children conducted in rural including coastal when they play in nature. This is because settlement. Therefore, this study nature occupy qualities which children investigates how nature affects children’s view in their own as part of their play based on level of affordances at a construction of playscape (Woolley, 2008; fishermen village. It is not yet known how Browning et al., 2013; Gundersen et al., children in this setting carried their 2016; Lerstrup and Refshauge, 2016). activities and what is their pattern of play. Among the qualities are diversity, dynamic, timelessness, unstructured and adventurous. As this area constantly experiencing coastal phenomena daily such as low and Children encounter many elements when high tides, this study predicts the they play in nature environment. Available phenomena might affluence in children elements varied according to type of play. This is because the dynamics of nature environment they engaged. For natural phenomena ensure the rigour and example, when they play in jungle they are exposed to variety of fruit such as diversity of children activities (Ouvry, durios (durain), garcinias (mangosteen) , 2003; Maynard and Waters, 2007; parkia (petai), nepheliums (rambutan and Maynard et al., 2011; Zamani, 2016). In pulasan) and lansium (langsat) and birds addition, the geographic settings are (Said, 2012; Yatiman et al., 2012; different from terrestrial are because the Askerlund and Almers, 2016). Diversity setting involved combination of land, means each of the element they encounter are unique and different water edge and sea. This provides varied among each other. Therefore, they spaces for children to play and make their manipulated the characteristics to surrounding assorted with object play and transform into an object play in order to play place (Fjørtoft and Sageie, 2000; suit their desired play activities. According Bringolf-Isler et al., 2010; Aziz and Said, to Fjørtoft and Sageie (2000); Samborski 2012). Hence, this study predicts the (2010); Sargisson and McLean (2012) the second assumption that geographic diversities of natural settings stimulate complex and exciting play opportunities setting in fishermen village might for children with diff erent play activities . influence children’s play that leads to their The true meaning of play was achieved growth and development. through spontaneous activities which set them off in child-initiated activities

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(Maynard et al., 2011; Skar et al., 2016; changes and ambiguities of nature Lerstrup and Refshauge, 2016). inspired challenging and exciting games Furthermore, the unstructured qualities in children’s game (Torrens and Griffin, added more freedom in children play 2012; Browning et al., 2013; Chawla, decision making. It is often unstructured 2015). The variety of plants and creatures and includes a range of informal environs in the setting inspired children’s sense of not specific to a certain distance or curiosity and imagination. location. This is when their boundary of their play places changing from time to 3.0 METHOD time. 3.1 Subject Autonomous in movement and choice of the objects play cannot exist if the nature The experiences of children outdoor environment is stillness and predictable. engagement were explored among forty- Nature hold the adventurous and five early childhood children and middle mysterious qualities in which intriguing childhood children, aged between 4-13 and arouse curiosity in children self years old, in fishermen village at (Herrington and Studtmann, 1998; Oloumi Kampong Terusan Baru, Pulau Bum, et al., 2012; Gundersen et al., 2016). Bum Malaysia. This study focused on Adventure often takes place in natural children’s direct interaction with their outdoor environment because of exciting surrounding environment through their elements available such as river, forest, play. Elements of their object play, birds and insect. It involves challenging physical characteristic of the object play, physical activities such as attempting to architype of their place of play and try something new and overcoming their periodic of play time were thoroughly fear. This situation makes children investigated. The data collection was understand their capability of their body divided into two tasks. Firstly, participant and surrounding well when they make an observation. Secondly, photo taking and adjustment in ensuring their safety group discussion interview. (Sandseter, 2009; Waller et al., 2010; Sandseter and Kennair, 2011). The 3.2 Site adjustment involving a process of triggering a solution to the fear situation Kampong Terusan Baru, Pulau Bum Bum they encountered by using others in Sabah were chosen for the study elements. They either used or created the because it consisted diversities of flora others element as a tool to become the and fauna. Besides, this village was solution of the encountered situation. fishermen village and was the winner of They also were identified to make Kampong Wawasan competition in 2014 adjustment in their movement to ensure and 2016. This village was a focused their body were capable of facing the village under Ministry of Rural and situation. They cannot predict what the Regional Development Malaysia’s environment could offer them unless they programmed which focused on explored it by repetitive engagement. development of fishery programmed called ‘Satu Kampung Satu Industri’. Nature continuously changing from time to time according to seasonal climatic, 3.3 Measures circadian rhythm, microclimate, winds or optical phenomena. This dynamic quality Affordances of the terrestrial were ensured children were being active and investigated by using visual method flexible when they were playing in the including photo and video recording setting. Moreover, the existence of loosed methods. The photograph method was items in the setting were enabling them to design to identify the element that transform it into the objects play based on children encounter during their play. their physical characteristic. For Before the data collection were instances, branches were used in a conducted, the researcher had formally construction of dens, shelters and hut informed about the research to the village (Staempfli, 2008; Dyment and O’Connell, leader through letter. Once the 2013). Characteristic possessed by the researcher reaches the site, parents’ element triggered the opportunities for consent forms were distributed to the hiding, imagining, creating games and children’s parent in order to explain how playing in groups. This made children the data collection would be conducted. perceived nature as timeless. The The task was assisted by the assistant

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and children themselves. To encourage are dependent to geographic profile of the children participation, one of the fishermen village. Whilst the second participants were selected to film his or hypothesis was the numbers of her friend’s activities of play. The children affordances were dependent to natural were selected based on their abilities in phenomena in fishermen village. handling video camera. This allowed the view from children in documenting their Later, a chi square test for independence play activities especially when dealing were conducted using Microsoft Excel to with any element they found interesting, test both hypotheses. This test was unique or peculiar such as a flock of birds conducted to prove that there was a or a school of fish. During play session, relationship between the number of voice recorder and video camera were affordances recorded in children play with pinned at children shirt. Secondly, the geographic profile and natural assistant needs to filled the checklist phenomena in fishermen village. This at while play sessions were conducted. the end revealed that both geographic Thirdly, children needed to take photos of settings and natural phenomena were their favourite element during play part of factors contribute in affecting session according to their turn. Group children’s play discussion interview were conducted in order to get their view in the photo took 4.0 RESULTS AND by them and their friends. DISCUSSION

3.4 Analysis The results were divided into two which were the level of affordances according to The aim of this study was to investigate geographic profile and rhythm in their the level of affordances in terrestrial area play. and how their direct engagement with their everyday landscape element 4.1 Level of Affordances According contributed in their play and learning to Geographic Settings skills. The data were triangulate and analysed using content analysis in nVivo 12, children’s words and photos were Children play in terrestrial area can be bracketed in three parent nodes which understood from their geographic profile. The were geographic, natural phenomena and geographic profiles were land zone, transition level of affordances. Then, sub categories zone and at the sea zone. On land zone was were coded under each of parent nodes a zone where man made structured took known as child nodes. For instances, majority of the component. Many facilities and under parent node of geographic profile, amenities located at this area such as school, there were three child nodes which were mosques, futsal court and volleyball court. on land zone, transition zone and at sea Manmade structured such as a hut and zone. Once this stage complete, two grocery shop were built by the community. hypotheses were created based on the This zone consists of many unstructured number of affordances recorded with the spaces such as bushes. Figure 1 until 4 show total of 2334 affordances. The first the sketches on illustration of on land zone. hypothesis is the numbers of affordances

Figure 1 Sketches on Land Zone

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Figure 2 Sketches on Land Zone

Figure 3 Sketches on Land Zone

Figure 4 Sketches on Transition Zone

At transition zone was a zone where the community house was built, the houses Children activities in their play is revealed were constructed on the water near to the from the level of affordances of the shoreline. The houses were built from environment. Three level of affordances timber. Each house was separated by that were recorded involved in children wooden walkway or strips of catwalk play at terrestrial area in fishing village. connecting to each other converging The level are perceived affordances, towards the land. Some of the house utilised affordances and shaped consisted of platform where they affordances. Table 1 shows that a total of tightened their small boat (boggok) for 2334 (N=2334) of affordances recorded domestic purposes such as fishing and which were somewhat distributed on land, shuttling to cater water. At the end of the transition and at sea zones (n = 910, catwalk, (jambatan) there was a pondok 39%; n = 837, 35.9%; and n = 587, together with platform used to pick and 25.1%, respectively). Table 1 presented drop off bot penampang (shuttled boat) the contingency table that compares how passenger during low tide. Figure 4 different zones provided different shows the sketches on illustration of numbers of affordances level, and the transition zone and the sea zone. These distribution of affordances level in each areas were physically bounded from the zone (within zone). end on the jambatan until kelong which was an offshore platform built predominantly with timber as a space to breed fish and parked fishing ship. Sea zone is an area where a lot of fishing ship and shuttle boat were operating.

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Table 1 Level of affordances instances on the land, transition and at sea zone

Geographic Profile Level Of Affordances Total Perceived Utilized Shaped On land Count 514 341 55 910 % within zone 56.5 37.5 6.0 100 % within 34.8 45.5 51.4 - affordances Chi Statisctic 19.17 Value Transition Count 546 253 38 837 Zone % within zone 65.2 30.2 4.5 100 % within 36.9 33.8 35.5 - affordances Chi Statisctic 12.64 Value At Sea Count 418 155 14 587 % within zone 71.2 26.4 2.4 100 % within 28.3 20.7 13.1 - affordances Chi Statisctic 3.72 Value

Table 1 also shows that the total of Chi children’s creativity. This also suggest statistic value which is 35.52 is higher that land zone helped children’s problems than critical value which is 9.488. this solving through creativity based on the means that Ho which is geographic complexity, variable and explorative profiles and the numbers of level qualities of the zone. For instance, they affordances that were independent was created a tank from a packet drink and to rejected. This suggest that the ensure the pretended tank do not flip over geographic profiles and the numbers of easily they fill the packet drink with sand. affordances were dependent. Among the They worked in a team to overcome the three zones, the result shows that on the problems they encountered. These land provided the highest percentage of qualities inspired their games, teamwork, utilized and shaped affordances (45.5%) creativity and imagination. and (51.4 %) respectively while the transition zones afforded the highest Highest percentages of perceived percentage of perceived affordances affordances which 36.9% at transition (36.9%). Highest percentage of utilized area, suggested that the children actively shaped affordances on land zone engage with sensorial activities the explained that this zone triggered children activities are collecting mussel, sea creativity to create their targeted object urchin and sea snails. The objects play play and tooled object play. For instances available at the sea zone triggered their sling shot was made up from rubber activities based on exploratory activities. band, Y shaped twig and food plastic This involved sensibility process which whiles the targeted object play is bird. were recognition, identification, This object play inheres loose items classification and naming such as while which can be moved, carried, combined, collecting sea snails, they identify the redesigned, lined up, and taken apart and habitat of the shell, recognizing the shape put back together in multiple ways. This of shell, classifying the shell according to finding accords to studies by Waller et al. the same type and naming based on the (2010), Dowdell et al. (2011) and shape of the shells. The results also Gundersen et al. (2016) that loose items showed that children highly used nature are preferred especially when children element at the sea. This finding is parallel could use them with different aims due to with findings from others studies such as

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Fjortoft and Sageie (2000), O’Brien and phenomena and the numbers of Murray (2007), Waite (2010) Maynard et affordances level were run. This section al. (2011), Ridgers et al. (2012) and provide result on level of affordances that Gehris et al. (2015) that nature elements was also dependent on natural are preferred by children as their object phenomena. play due to wide range of possible activities. However, the studies do not Table 2 presented the contingency table take account the nature phenomena like that compares how natural phenomena this study which found that children provided different numbers of affordances engaged with different kind of nature level, and the distribution of affordances element during high tide and low tide level in each zone (within zone). There phenomenon. The crustacean, were two types of phenomena happened cephalopods and echinoderm were on land which are day and night. different in texture, colour, shape, and However, in transition and at sea zones, it size. was not only day and night phenomena but also high tide and low tide 4.1 Rhythm of Children’s Play in phenomena that were reported occurred Fishermen Village during both in daytime and at night (refer Table 3 and 4). Table 2 also shows that Previous section interpreted that the the total of Chi statistic value which was number of level affordances were 43.24 higher than critical value which was dependent on geographic profile of the 28.869. This means that Ho which was fishermen village. The reason for this to natural phenomena and the numbers of happen was due to the nature level affordances that were independent phenomenon of tide. The natural was rejected. This suggested that the phenomenon involved consist of day and natural phenomena and the numbers of night, low tide and high tide. Therefore, level affordances were dependent. further analysis consists of natural

Table 2 Level of affordances instances during natural phenomena according to on land

Geographic Level of Natural Phenomena Profile Affordances

Day Night

Count % % within Chi Count % % within Chi within affordances Statistic within affordances Statistic zone Value zone Value On land Perceived 343 37.7 23.2 171 18.8 11.6 Utilized 227 24.9 303 114 12.5 15.2 6.42 12.54 Shaped 37 4.1 346 18 2.0 16.8 Total 607 66.7 - 303 33.3 -

Note: degree of freedom=4, N=2334, probability of interest P(X ≤ x) = 0.05 critical value= 9.488, total chi square statistic value=35.52

The highest total number of affordances day time. While at night, a total of 303 occurred in land zone. A total of 607 (n=303) of affordances recorded were (n=607) of affordances recorded were distributed in perceived, utilized and distributed in perceived, utilized and shaped (n = 171, 18.8%; n = 114, 12.5%; shaped (n = 343, 37.7%; n = 227, 24.9%; and n = 18, 2%, respectively). This and n = 37, 4.1%, respectively) during suggested that the highest number of

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affordances associated with the numbers and tooled object play were created of games played. This was because there based on loosed items for example a bird was a total of 27 games were played on trap from branches and twigs. This was land zone compare to 13 games at because the loosed items offered many transition zone and 3 games at sea zone play chances and stimulated creativity recorded. Most of the game played were that was unlikely to be found in settings functional play and games with rules with fixed elements (Staempfli, 2008; which focused on motor skills such as Dyment and O’Connell, 2013; Aziz and running, chasing, throwing. This targeted Said, 2016).

Table 3 Level of affordances instances during natural phenomena according to on transition zone

Natural Phenomena

Day Geographic Level of Profile Affordances High Tide Low Tide % Chi % Chi Cou withi % within % within Statistic Count within Statistic nt n affordances affordances Value zone Value zone Perceived 235 28.1 15.9 197 23.5 13.3 Transition zone Utilized 117 14.0 15.6 84 10.0 15.6 4.44 1.88 Shaped 12 1.4 11.2 15 1.8 11.2 Total 364 43.5 N/A 296 35.4 - Geographic Natural Phenomena Profile Night High Tide Low Tide Level of % Affordances Chi % Chi Cou withi % within % within Statistic Count within Statistic nt n affordances affordances Value zone Value zone Perceived 114 13.6 17.7 Transition zone Utilized 52 6.2 6.9 1.58 N/A N/A Shaped 11 1.3 10.3 Total 177 21.1 N/A

Note: degree of freedom=18, N=2334, probability of interest P(X ≤ x) = 0.05 critical value= 28.869, total chi square statistic value=43.24

A total number of 27 games were This indicated 73 differences numbers of recorded happened on land while 16 affordances recorded. With a slight games were recorded happened on difference in number of affordances, it transition zone. Even the number of suggested that the total game number games played in transition zone almost played by children do not result in the half of the games were played on land, greater number of affordances produced the affordances recorded on land did not in the game children played. This was show a double number of affordances due to the fact that when children played, compared to transition zone. the number of games played did not Table 2 and 3 show that a total number of matter but what matter was the number of 910 affordances recorded on land whilst elements children engaged. Elements of at transition area was 837 affordances. children’s play gave chances for children

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to discover and conduct their preferred tide which ensured their explorative activities. Therefore, the number of desire in finding new object play affordances produced in transition area continuously happened. were based on level of high tide and low

Table 4 Level of affordances instances during natural phenomena according to at sea

Natural Phenomena

Day Geographic Level of Profile Affordances High Tide Low Tide Co % Chi % % within Chi % within un within Statistic Count within affordance Statisti affordances t zone Value zone s c Value Perceived 77 13.1 5.2 87 14.8 13.3 Utilized 35 6.0 4.7 31 5.3 15.6 At Sea N/ N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Shaped 5.4 7.84 A 11 Total 19.1 N/A 296 35.4 N/A 2 Geographic Natural Phenomena Profile Night Level of High Tide Low Tide Affordances Co % Chi % % within Chi % within un within Statistic Count within affordance Statistic affordances t zone Value zone s Value 11 Perceived 13.6 17.7 186 31.7 12.6 4 At Sea Utilized 52 6.2 6.9 56 9.5 7.5 5.35 4.71 Shaped 11 1.3 10.3 14 2.4 13.1 Total 17 21.1 N/A 256 43.6 N/A 7

Note: degree of freedom=18, N=2334, probability of interest P(X ≤ x) = 0.05 critical value= 28.869, total chi square statistic value=43.24

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At sea, children actively played during  Some of games can be played in the high tide and low tide in day time and at daytime night. Highest number affordances  Some of games can be played in the recorded at sea zone were during low tide daytime and at night at night. Table 4 shows that a total of 256  Some of games can be played in (n=256) affordances recorded which were somewhat distributed in perceived, daytime during high tide and low tide utilized and shaped (n = 186, 31.7%; n =  Some of games can be played in the 56, 9.5%; and n = 14, 2.4%, respectively). daytime during high tide The number of games played in this area  Some of games can be played in the were only 3 but when children played in daytime during low tide this zone, they spent a large amount of  Some of games can be played in the time. For example, during day time they daytime and at night but during low were collecting mussels, sea snails and tide sea urchin. While during night at sea  Some of games can be played at zone, children activities were based on night during high tide moon rise moon set. During high tide moon light was an attracting agent to fish cuttlefish. Cuttlefish were attracted to 4.0 CONCLUSION AND moonlight. This only occurred on the 13th IMPLICATION to 15th in lunar calendar. Most of their object plays were natural element consist Terrestrial coastal environment provides of biotic component such as crab, mantis children with vast range of activities base shrimp and barnacle. This suggested that on geographic profile and level of tide. they were freely play everywhere and This study found that different types of anytime which make they able to discover activities carried by children not things themselves, in their own space and necessary dependent on different type of their own time because they do not have space available but similar space still limit in their range of play. Therefore, this afford different type of activities. This is finding rejects the studies by (Kyttä, 2002; because of the level of tide which Benwell, 2013; Gundersen et al., 2016; dependent to the moon. This create a Skar, Wold, et al., 2016) which state that total of seven types of play rhythm in their range of play are bounded with parent daily play activities during day time and at consent, traffic, strangers and dangers. night. They carried different activities This were due to the area of their play during low tide and high tide due to the were surrounded by their relative which discovery of many animals such as created casual supervision and flat crustacean, cephalopods and topography which allowed them to be echinoderm. Hence, their activities are seen easily even from far. Plus, the only exploratory including seeking, recognizing hierarchy of the road available in the and differentiating animals which island is local road with 6 feet width contribute in their cognitive skills. The suggested that the children activities did fishing village provides an open-ended not obstruct by the traffic unlikely to be spectrum of play types which majorly found on land. As a bajau they were consisted of functional play and games naturally acquire local knowledge which with rules but few in pretend play. Level make them so attached to the sea. This of tide in transition zone ensure they in entitles them with variety of skills in engaging with challenging experiences dealing with risk taking such as diving in especially involving heights, depth of the to the sea and swimming during high tide. sea, wind and darkness at night. Engaging with different geographic A total of seven types of play rhythm were setting evolving knowledge of the identified. Children’s play rhythm can be environment which enhance their understand based on the number of ecological literacy regarding animals’ games played. Among the rhythm are: habitat, food chain and types of animals.

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This also adds new knowledge in 30(4), pp.433–452. understanding the environment of Dowdell, K., Gray, T. and Malone, K., 2011. children play which not necessary evolve Nature and its Influence on Children’s within triangle institution but also only Outdoor Play. Australian Journal of within two corners between home and Outdoor Education, 15(2), pp.24–35. school. The third corner which is recreational area do not exist in this Dyment, J. and O’Connell, T.S., 2013. The impact of playground design on play choices and research. Their surrounding home fully behaviors of pre-school children. afford them to satisfy their desired Children’s Geographies, 11(3), pp.263– activities. This results only depicted the 280. first stage of data analysis which focused on geographic profile and tides in Fjørtoft, I. and Sageie, J., 2000. The natural environment as a playground for children. influencing children activities. This study Landscape description and analyses of a implies further research on mode of natural playscape. Landscape and Urban independent mobility, physical Planning, 48(1–2), pp.83–97. characteristics of object play and language influential in influencing the Gundersen, V. et al., 2016. Children and nearby nature: A nationwide parental survey from level of affordances can be further Norway. Urban Forestry and Urban investigated. Greening, 17, pp.116–125.

REFERENCES Hart, R., Katz, C., Iltus, S. and Mora, M.R., 1992. International Student Design Competition of Two Community Elementary Ann, R. and Taylor, P., 2013. Analysis with Four , Schoolyards. Children’s Environments, of Aesthetic Other Eight , Sensitivity 9(2), pp.65–82. Variables and and Creativity Grades. The Journal of Educational Research, 73(1), Herrington, S. and Studtmann, K., 1998. pp.26–30. Landscape interventions: new directions for the design of children’s outdoor play Askerlund, P. and Almers, E., 2016. Forest environments. Landscape and Urban gardens – new opportunities for urban Planning, 42(2–4), pp.191–205. children to understand and develop relationships with other organisms. Urban King, P. and Howard, J., 2014. Factors influencing Forestry and Urban Greening, 20, children’s perceptions of choice within pp.187–197. their free play activity: the impact of functional, structural and social Aziz, N.F. and Said, I., 2016. Play, Recreation, affordances. , 1(2), pp.173–190. Health and Well Being. In: Play and Recreation, Health and Wellbeing. pp. Kylin, M., 2003. Children ’ s Dens. Children, Youth 87–108. and Environments, 13(1), pp.30–55.

Aziz, N.F. and Said, I., 2012. The Trends and Lein, H., 2010. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Influential Factors of Children’s Use of Norwegian Journal of Geography Hazards Outdoor Environments: A Review. and forced migration in Bangladesh. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Norsk geogr. Tidsskr, 53(May 2013), Sciences, 38, pp.204–212. pp.37–41.

Bringolf-Isler, B. et al., 2010. Built environment, Lerstrup, I. and Refshauge, A.D., 2016. parents’ perception, and children’s Characteristics of forest sites used by a vigorous outdoor play. Preventive Danish forest preschool. Urban Forestry Medicine, 50(5–6), pp.251–256. and Urban Greening, 20, pp.387–396.

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opportunity? Early Years, 27(3), pp.255– Staempfli, M.B., 2008. Reintroducing Adventure 265. Into Children’s Outdoor Play Environments. Environment and Maynard, T., Waters, J. and Clement, J., 2011. Behavior, 41(2), pp.268–280. Moving outdoors: further explorations of “child-initiated” learning in the outdoor Torrens, P.M. and Griffin, W. a., 2012. Exploring environment. Education 3-13, 4279(July the Micro-Social Geography of Children’s 2015), pp.1–18. Interactions in Preschool: A Long-Term Observational Study and Analysis Using Miles, R., 2013. Experiencing sustainability Geographic Information Technologies. education through place : A case-study Environment and Behavior, 45(5), from rural- regional Australia. pp.584–614.

Oloumi, S., Mahdavinejad, M. and Namvarrad, A., Waller, T. et al., 2010. The dynamics of early 2012. Evaluation of Outdoor Environment childhood spaces: opportunities for from the Viewpoint of Children. Procedia - outdoor play? European Early Childhood Social and Behavioral Sciences, Education Research Journal, 18(4), 35(December 2011), pp.431–439. pp.437–443.

Percy-Smith, B. and Thomas, N., 2009. A Westendorp, M. et al., 2011. The relationship Handbook of Children and Young between gross motor skills and academic People’s Participation, Routledge. achievement in children with learning disabilities. Research in developmental Platt, L., 2012. “Parks Are Dangerous and the disabilities, 32(6), pp.2773–9. Sidewalk Is Closer”: Children’s Use of Neighborhood Space in Milwaukee, Woolley, H., 2008. Watch This Space! Designing Wisconsin. Children, Youth and for Children’s Play in Public Open Environments, 22(2), pp.194–213. Spaces. Geography Compass, 2(2), pp.495–512. Rasmussen, K., 2004. Places for Children – Children’s Places. Childhood, 11(2), Yatiman, N.A., Aziz, N.F. and Said, I., 2012. pp.155–173. Affordances of Homeschool Journey in Rural Environment for Children’s Said, I., 2012. Affordances of Nearby Forest and Performances. Procedia - Social and Orchard on Children’s Performances. Behavioral Sciences, 68, pp.395–405. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38(December 2010), pp.195– Zamani, Z., 2016. “The woods is a more free 203. space for children to be creative; their imagination kind of sparks out there”: Samborski, S., 2010. Biodiverse or barren school exploring young children’s cognitive play grounds: Their effects on children. opportunities in natural, manufactured Children, Youth and Environments, 20(2), and mixed outdoor preschool zones. pp.67–115. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 16(2), pp.172–189. Sandseter, E.B.H., 2009. Characteristics of risky play. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 9(1), pp.3–21.

Sandseter, E.B.H. and Kennair, L.E.O., 2011. Children’s risky play from an evolutionary perspective: The Anti-phobic effects of thrilling experiences. Evolutionary Psychology, 9(2), pp.257–284.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY THEORY TOWARDS ABUNDANCE, RICHNESS AND DIVERSITY OF BIRDS IN FRAGMENTED CITY PARKS

Hazlinda A. Aziz*1 and Mohd Hisyam B. Rasidi2

1, 2 Landscape Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Size and distance are the main factors influencing bird abundance and richness when dealing with island biogeography theory. Most research has successfully shown that park size and distance have significant value and strong relationship towards bird abundance, richness and diversity. However, those reported were mainly in the context of natural forest habitat. Hence, the study aimed at investigating how birds in city respond to the size and distance between parks. Eighteen parks in Putrajaya were surveyed by using point count method. A regression analysis was then used to find if there is significant value between the dependent and independent variables. The result shows that the bird's occurrence in the city were not depending on the size and distance of the park itself. Thus, the findings rejected the fundamental theory of island biogeography which highlighted that size and distance were the main factors influencing the bird's occurrence. This is due to high urbanization and fragmentation levels occurring in the city. The study concluded that size and distance were not the main factors, but rather the bird's presence in the city must be influenced by many other factors including design and physical planning of the park. The city characteristic changes the overall result from what has been found by previous study done in the context of natural landscape.

Keywords : Island Biogeography, Parks, Bird abundance, Bird richness, Bird diversity

1.0 INTRODUCTION and extending the breeding season to deal with urbanization (Shochat et al., Land conversion from natural forest areas 2010). Park land use from the beginning to urban areas lead to the elimination and were believed to serve an important role fragmentation of native communities in conserving biodiversity (Niemela, 1999) (Rush et al., 2014). Urbanization process especially to the urban bird communities not only shrinking the natural habitat, but (Ortega-Alvarez & MacGregor-Fors, also alter the natural to the built up areas 2009). However, huge challenges come which is associated with park when rapid urbanization growth takes development. To be in the city, birds place. Residential, industrial and were seen to adjust their behavior commercial land use limited the including changes in foraging behavior development of parks or green space in

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the city. Hence, park size becomes population (Chambers, 2008). Thus, smaller and fragmented. making them valuable to the urban ecosystem functions and services. According to the theory of island biogeography (MacArthur & Wilson, Specifically, this study evaluates the 1967), size and distance of forest patch extent to which bird species are classified are the main factors influencing a into three different functional groups, community population including birds. namely as urban exploiters, urban The theory recently applied in the urban adapters and urban avoiders occur in context and inspection towards park as three different park hierarchy which has a the remaining green patch replacing different character and surroundings forest patch has been done by many context. As the effective area of urban ecologist and planners. Birds are sufficiently urban habitat increases sensitive to fragmentation and isolation of considerably in the gradient from the park remnant patches in the urban. Thus, hierarchy from smaller park to bigger park according to the theory explanation, (Local park - Urban Park - Metropolitan larger parks should contain greater Park), the study predicts parallel trends in numbers of birds population because of the capacity of these strata to host bird greater area of habitat (Hinsley, 1996) species with diverse ecological and food availability (Marzluff, 2001). On characteristics. Thus, this study intended the other hand, lower distance from at testing the fundamental theory which mainland which is the regional species emphasize that bird richness should be pool should favor bird species greater as park size become bigger and establishment to be more than the further distance from the mainland become distance (MacArthur & Wilson, 1967). nearer. Nevertheless, previous research has confirmed that species community 2.0 METHODOLOGY assembly and richness in urban parks influenced by size more than the 2.1 Description of Study Area connectivity does (Fernandez-Juricic, 2000). The district of Putrajaya is one of the designed and planned city in Malaysia. Higher richness and diverse bird species Putrajaya conveys the concept of green reflected the healthiness of a park. city that emphasize more towards the Hence, to assess the ecological quality of development of successful green areas, park in the cities, many urban planners providing guidelines and protection for aimed to attract more birds to come to the city parks. With an area of 4,931 city (Hemami & Zaeri Amirani, 2011). hectares, this city recorded high green Species diversity is particularly useful as space land use comprised of 1,930.43 it is often considered as part of biological hectares, 39.15 percent more than the process and ecosystem function (Larsson other land covers (Noriah Mat, 2012). et al., 2001, Breininger et al., 2002). Putrajaya is near to two protected Birds particularly are very useful as neighboring habitats which are Paya indicators of habitat quality (Fernández- Indah Wetland and Forest Juricic, 2004) because they are mobile Reserve (Ismail et al., 2012). Despite the species that are fairly easy to be fact that Putrajaya is the federal surveyed which require a wide range of administrative centre of Malaysia, habitat variety at multiple spatial scales compact with human population, (Angelstam et al., 2004). Birds usually especially during the day, the city play an important role and often become recorded an increasing of bird key species in a food web (Gatti, 2010) populations. The census conducted by and has always help in plants pollination the Department of Environmental, Lake by dispersing seeds to other places and Wetland Putrajaya expressing an besides controlling other animals

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increase of over fifty percent bird the city. This study considers only top numbers for sixteen years’ time period. three hierarchies of parks as remnant The success formulated through the green patches following the fundamental establishment of city parks which is theory. Thus, a total of eighteen parks attached by the artificial wetland surround were selected as surveyed site (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Study area in selected three hierarchies of Park in Putrajaya which consists of eighteen parks

2.2 Data Collection Strategies combined in this study. The data on birds and habitat attributes were gathered By employing quantitative approach, using two data collection strategies: (A) primary and secondary data were birds survey and (B) habitat mapping of

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park physical. The habitat mapping in this summarizes the data collection strategies study includes park size and park used in this study. distance to the mainland. Table 1

Table 1 Strategies of data collection in the park

Strategies Sampling Effort Variables measured Tools A: Bird Twice a day for only 10 Bird abundance, diversity and GPS, survey form, Putrajaya green survey minutes observation in richness space map, voice recorder, each session binocular, DSLR camera, bird Pictionary, colourful pen

Park size and park distance to Satellite image (Secondary data) B: Habitat - the mainland mapping

Birds were used as habitat indicator Thus, this is generally the best time to indicators in this study because they count them. As the day progress, they responded and adapted well with the become lazy and their activities urban landscapes. Birds were surveyed including foraging peak again in the using fixed radius point counts following evening. Hence, the samplings were (Bibby et al., 2000) with 47 sampling carried out between 7.00 and 10.00 in the points randomly distributed in the parks morning, and 5.00 to 7.00 in the evening covering each of the three strata for about without rain or strong wind. half and a month period in June 2013. Birds are active in the morning hours.

Figure 2 Point and line transect sampling method used in this study

Each of the parks was visited only twice 2010), and was monitored by only one per day, once in the morning and once in field researcher. Combination of point the evening. To prevent overlapping count and transecting technique is observations of individual birds, the referred to (Ralph et al., 1995) were distance between survey points was set applied in the study (Figure 2). The use to at least 100 meters (modified from of the point count technique was done for Sandstrom et al., 2006). Birds do move Metropolitan Park and Urban Park, while around, and new birds will fly in, and this line transect technique was applied in the means that the number of birds counted Local Park since it contains longer and is very much dependent on the length of narrower green linkages than the other time spent counting (Dawson et al., two types of parks. 1995). On the other hand, mapping was a Thus, to reduce bias, all individuals of method used to produce data to measure birds seen and heard were recorded only park size and park distance to the during 10 minutes at every point (Mollon, mainland. The secondary data was widely

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used to measure habitat structure in bird- satellite imagery was developed, the habitat study. Hence this study employed availability of metadata was costly and the same method. The original maps scarce. However, the required satellite used in this research were dataset online images are now free and offered on some obtained from Federal Department of sites and locations on the Internet, from Town and Country Planning Peninsular which this study choose Google Earth as Malaysia (JPBD) and satellite imagery the study source. For Putrajaya, the from Google Earth. Google Earth is a quality images offered by Google Earth is popular free Internet application that good as it provides very clear information provides a library of satellite imagery and on roads, vegetation, urban areas and aerial photography wetland areas (Figure 3). of the entire Earth's surface, thus supplying integrated coverage and monitoring images. Before high-resolution

Figure 3 Satellite imagery of Putrajaya, January 2014, produced by Google Earth

the total number of species from all 2.3 Data Analysis groups. While, species richness (R) is the number of different species represented The sets of data obtained from two in an ecological community, landscape or measurement strategies were analyzed region. Species richness is simply a using statistic index analysis and analysis count of species, and it does not consider tools in ArcGIS 10.0 software. the abundance of the species or their relative abundance distributions. 2.3.1 Statistic Index Analysis This study used the Shannon’s Diversity Species abundance (A) is calculated by Index (H’) to measure the order within a

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community. Particularly, the Shannon’s park based on its hierarchy which are Diversity Index is sensitive to the number Metropolitan Park, Urban Park and Local of rare species in a community. Hence, Park. In order to measure species Shannon’s Diversity Index is most similarity of different habitat types, suitable for plant, bird and mammal Sorenson similarity index was used in this studies It is characterized by the number study following (Bideberi, 2013). of individuals observed for each species Dominance measures the extent of in the parks. It is also often used for a common species in the habitat and it random sample study from a larger ranges from 0 to 1. It was designed to community. equal to 1 if two habitats are completely similar and 0 if species of two habitat As the value of the index increases there types are dissimilar (Krebs, 1999). is more order in the bird community. A Sorenson Similarity Index (S) was small value would indicate a lack of order computed as: in the bird community (Doherty et al., 2011). Meanings, the Shannon’s S=2C/(A+B) Diversity Index varies from zero (0) for communities with only a single species to where A and B are number of species in one (1) for communities with many habitat A and B, C is the number of species, each with few individuals. species present in both habitats A and B. This index measures similarity of species Shannon Diversity Index: 퐻 = between two communities but does not 푠 ∑푖−1 − (푃푖 ∗ ln 푃푖) take bird abundance into account. It is measured based on relative presence or Where H= the Shannon’s Diversity Index, absence data. Thus, the index in this Pi = fraction of the entire population made study is using bird richness (R) which is up species I, s = numbers of species species numbers to be calculated in the encountered and ∑ =sum from species 1 formula. to species S. High values of H would be representative of more diverse 2.3.2 ArcGIS Analysis communities. A community with only one species would have an H value of 0 To calculate park size, statistic toolset because Pi would equal 1 and be was used. While, to measure the multiplied by ln Pi which would equal connectivity between centre of the habitat zero. If the species are evenly patch to the mainland which is the distributed, then the H value would be Wetland Park, nearest distance analysis high. So, the H value allows us to know was used by using ArcMap GIS 10 not only the number of species but how software. This is to quantify the the abundance of the species is connectivity or proximity value between distributed among all the species in the each fragmented patch which is the community. parks. The result of proximity value then helps in observing the effects of To be able to distinguish possible connectivity towards bird’s distribution differences in urban habitat structure and pattern. The nearest distance value of bird community composition, Putrajaya each park to the mainland which is the was divided into three different types of wetland is shown in Table 2.

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Table 2 Nearest Distance value from Inner Park Patch to the Wetland area

Metropolitan Park Nearest Urban Park Nearest Local Park Nearest (667.22 ha) Distance (166.81 ha) Distance (116.74 ha) Distance (m) (m) (m) Taman Botani 215.19 Dataran Putra 196.21 Putrajaya 9.23 promenade Taman Wetland 235.22 Laman Perdana 253.11 Laman Putra 301.56 Taman Wawasan 271.93 Dataran Gemilang 330.11 Taman Warisan Pertanian 503.25 Dataran Wawasan 352.68 Taman Selatan 629.41 Taman Cabaran 384.35 Taman Putra Perdana 687.87 Dataran Rakyat 458.33 Taman Pancarona 731.59 Dataran Putrajaya 501.71 Taman Rimba Alam 934.52 Taman Saujana Hijau 1557.22

2.4 Result and discussion (S=0.38). The score is near to what Urban Park and Local Park had recorded 2.4.1 Comparison between park (S=0.40), showing a little overlapping in hierarchies bird community. Among all, Metropolitan Park and Local Park recorded highest A total of 2051 abundance of birds similarity index (S=0.63), indicated 63 comprised of 44 species, from which 10 percent resemblance in bird composition were generalists, and 34 were specialists and ecological conditions of the two observed from the survey. Bird urban habitats. Table 3 shows bird communities of both Metropolitan Park community’s similarity patterns between and Urban Park were highly dissimilar as the three-parks. they had a lowest similarity index

Table 3: Sorenson Similarity Index of bird communities in the three parks of Putrajaya

Habitat Number of species Total richness Sorenson Similarity (Park Types A and B) common to both for both habitat Similarity Percentage habitat (C) (A+B) Index (S) (%) Metropolitan Park and 9 38+9 0.38 38 Urban Park Metropolitan Park and 20 38+26 0.63 63 Local Park (Highest) Urban Park and Local 7 9+26 0.40 40 Park

The results suggest that Metropolitan pressure from the surroundings. Bird Park had quite similar habitat attributes communities in the Urban Park were and resources to the Local Park. While constrained by surroundings landscape Urban Park has different landscape quality. character as the other two park types. Obviously, the differences can be seen This is in line with the study done by from the location and surroundings Shanahan et al. (2011) who established a context. Urban Park is located at the model signified landscape context as bird centre of Putrajaya surrounded by higher abundance predictor. The results from a number of buildings and hard surfaces. study done by Hedblom, (2007) also While Metropolitan Park is situated suggested that bird species in their urban throughout Putrajaya which is surrounded woodlands were strongly affected by the by mix used development areas which landscape composition of the surrounding majority was residential areas and Local city. In the urban, understanding of park Park is located nearby the wetland areas. location that emphasizing ecological This shows that many bird species properties of landscape context is preferred to inhabit park that had less necessary because it is a good indicators

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of ecological quality in habitat patches resources, foraging substrates and (Esbah et al., 2004). Hence, this study is nesting sites. That is why the Local Park parallel to majority of previous study that got highest number in terms of the bird demonstrated adjacent landscape as one diversity (H'). On the other hand, the of the factors that influence birds’ Urban Park recorded lowest values in abundance, richness and diversity in the each of the variables measurement city. including bird abundance (A), species richness (R) and Shannon-Weiner Index In addition, the Urban Park had different (H') because many of the bird found are communities structure compared to the the same species which commonly can other two urban habitat types as the park be found in other cities. is mainly inhabit by many exploiters and generalist species. While Metropolitan Although the birds were quite abundant in Park and Local Park were inhabited by a numbers, but they are all the same wide range of bird communities from repeated species that commonly found in exploiters to avoiders and generalist to other urban areas. The species found specialist species. Most of the bird were mainly generalist and exploiters species found in the Urban Park easily species which were mainly ground can also be found in both the feeders. Overall, the three parks studied Metropolitan and Local Park but, bird recorded variation in bird abundance, species that inhabited Metropolitan Park species richness and diversity index and Local Park usually absent or very depending on the park size and distance little in the Urban Park. For example, to the mainland. Pink-necked Green-Pigeon, Olive-backed Sunbird, Paddy field Pipit, and Greater Although the importance of area effect on Green Leafbird were among the species species richness is widely documented, that can be found in both the Metropolitan more than 50% of the studies of species Park and Local Park but certainly not richness on urban elevation gradients did present in the Urban Park. not justify the effect of area (Rahbek, 1995). Table 4 summarized the 2.4.2 Influence of park size correlation between bird species abundance, species richness and species It was found that the Metropolitan Park diversity with park area is poorly which is bigger in size recorded highest significant (p > 0.05). Thus, the overall bird abundance (A) and species richness conclusion is that there was no significant (R) as what has been expected, but the evidence that supported Island results turn lower than the Local Park in Biogeography theory in terms of patch or terms of bird species diversity (H'). It was island size as the main factor influencing surprisingly that the Local Park, the abundance, richness and diversity of smallest, recorded the highest diversity birds in urban park in this study. Patch index which is 2.32 among the other two size may not be the main influencing parks. The index calculation (H'=2.32) factor since there are other area-related indicates that the bird species in the Local effects, especially when high mobility Park was evenly distributed than the animals including birds are considered other two parks. (Ding, 2001). This includes neighborhood area which is defined as an area of This probably happens because the Local similar habitats where birds can disperse Park is located along the wetland which into each of the park in Putrajaya that become the mainland that provide diverse answer why park size is not relevant. resources for the birds including food

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Table 4 Comparing significant and correlation value between park size with total bird abundance, richness and diversity

Total Abundance Total Richness Total Diversity

Park Size Multiple R 0.987 0.699 0.014 Significant F / P-value 0.102 0.506 0.991 * It is significant if F / p- value < 0.05

The result was not parallel to what was any spaces they inhabited. Other birds known in the theory because park in especially urban avoiders rarely can be Putrajaya harbour about 1758 numbers of found in the place where generalist types generalist bird species compared to only of birds occurred. Figure 4 shows groups 283 numbers of specialist bird species. of Common Myna making their own The large quantity of generalist species is territory where there were no other birds believed to contribute to the non- appeared near them. Competition is the significant relation to the park size. This exact word to explain why many other is because many studies which resulted birds’ absence from the place where in positive relationship of birds' Common Myna appeared. Inasmuch, abundance, richness and diversity to the invasion by the urban exploiter species patch size was strongly correlated to the generate a significant loss in bird species specialist species especially the forest richness (MacGregor-Fors and species such like woodpeckers (Myczko Schondube, 2012) regardless of park et al., 2014) and insectivorous species. size. The generalists and urban exploiters are those favoring species that The common birds which are also known can inhabit and exploit the new urban as urban exploiters found during the condition, which were significantly more survey were including Common Myna, social and sedentary than urban adapter House Sparrow, Slender-billed Crow, and birds (Kark et al., 2007). Rock Pigeon which commonly conquer

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Figure 4 Bird species composition according to species specialty including generalist bird species and specialist bird species in each of the urban habitat in Putrajaya; Abundance (A), Richness (R) and Diversity (H')

2.4.2 Influence of park distance to the and Montelongo (2014). The result was mainland contra to what was normally expected, although the wetland which is believed to According to the theory of Island provide diverse resources including food Biogeography, a large island close to the and nesting site to the birds, the distance source which is the mainland sustained from parks to the wetland did not more bird diversity than the island far influence the bird species abundance, from the source simply because more richness and diversity. Table 5 shows species can reach to it (MacArthur and the result of the correlation between bird Wilson, 1967). However, the result from species abundance, species richness and this study again has rejected the species diversity with distance from the hypothesis, similar to a study by Peris

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inner park patches to the nearest wetland is poorly significant (p > 0.05).

Table 5 Comparing significant and correlation value between park distance to the mainland with total bird abundance, richness and diversity

Total Abundance Total Richness Total Diversity Park Distance to the Wetland Multiple R 0.506 0.105 0.762 Significant F / P-value 0.662 0.933 0.448 * It is significant if F / p- value < 0.05

Divisive role of wetland corridors as the Bittern, Shrenck's Bittern, Striated Heron, mainland explained why there is no Black Crowned-night Heron, Purple significant relationship between the Heron, Grey Heron, Watercock, White- degree of isolation and bird distribution breasted Waterhen, Common Kingfisher, was detected (Peris and Montelongo, Salty-breasted Rail and Painted Stork. 2014). Nowadays, wetland role is not Occurrence of those species are only focusing on the ecological aspects important inasmuch as it showed positive only but rather it is designed to serve signal towards ecological values and people with natural values provided. ecosystem services provided by Moreover, only one-third out of 30 studies Putrajaya as a green city. Hence, shows granted facts that riparian corridors that Putrajaya has the ability and potential including wetland could enhance to be one of the successful and diverse landscape connectivity (Beier and Noss, alternate habitat spots to the surrounding 1998). areas.

Location of the wetland which is in the 3.0 CONCLUSION centre of Putrajaya heart can be one of the answers why distance to the mainland Park in the urban is commonly isolated to do not influence bird distribution. Hence, each other and has different physical the Putrajaya wetland is surrounded by character attached to different types of higher numbers of grey surfaces and surrounding landscape. This can be one buildings that hinder birds from being of the factors influences the bird within the wetland areas. Instead, it abundance and species richness in the causes the birds to absent. Thus, this park. For example, plant varieties has finally brought out birds away from present in the park might be one of the the wetland which was the mainland in habitat determinants. The abundance, this study. species richness and diversity of birds must have strong connectivity to the The affected birds were including species amount and diversity of vegetation in the that do not always or mainly used wetland same area. Thus, the overall results corridors except for those water birds or suggested that bird abundance, richness piscivorous species which primarily eat and diversity is not influenced by the size fish. of park and connectivity only. It has nothing to do with the park hierarchies. The existence of the Putrajaya wetland The urbanization level itself be influential has resulted in the findings of more factor that may drive to the non-significant wetland birds in Putrajaya. A total of 14 result in park size and park connectivity species equivalent to 30.4 percent of all as habitat determinants as in the overall birds found were under the category of view. Every species responds to the water bird species. These include Water surrounding landscape in a different way. Cock, Great Egret, Little Egret, Cinnamon Since this study context was in the urban,

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it is believed that there must be other composition patterns in urban parks of expanded factors influenced the overall Madrid: the role of age, size and isolation. Ecological Research. 15(4): 373–383. results such as habitat structure of the doi:10.1046/j.1440-1703.2000.00358.x park and other disturbances from outside the park. Fernández-Juricic, E. (2004). Spatial and temporal analysis of the distribution of forest specialists in an urban-fragmented ACKNOWLEDGEMENT landscape (Madrid, Spain): Implications for local and regional bird conservation. The authors sincerely acknowledge Landscape and Urban Planning. 69(1): 17– Research Management Center (RMC) of 32. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.09.001 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), and the Ministry of Education (MOE) of the Gatti, R. (2010). Birds: Evaluation of Blue-winged Teal Production on Private Lands. Wildlife Government of Malaysia for the funding Research. Retrieved undated, from of this research through MyBrain15. http://dnr.wi.gov/org/es/science/wildlife/bird s.htm REFERENCES Hedblom, M. (2007). Birds and Butterflies in Angelstam, P., Roberge, J., Lõhmus, a, Swedish Urban and Peri-urban Habitats : A Bergmanis, M., Brazaitis, G., Edenius, L. & Landscape Perspective. Sciences-New Strazds, M. (2004). Habitat modelling as a York. tool for landscape-scale conservation – a review of parameters for focal forest birds. Hemami, M. & Zaeri Amirani, A. (2011). Influence Ecological Bulletins. 51: 427–453. if Urban Park Size and Shape on Bird doi:10.2307/20113327 Species Richness: Case study: Parks of Isfahan Hemami. Journal of Environmental Beier, P. & Noss, RF. (1988). Do habitat corridors Studies. 37(59): 16–18. provide connectivity? Consv Biol.12: 1241– 1252. Hinsley, S. A., P. E. Bellamy, I. Newton. & T. H. Sparks. 1996. Influences of population size Bibby, C., Jones, M., Marsden, S. & Court, W. and woodland area on bird species (2000). Expedition Field Techniques Bird distributions in small Surveys (Vol. 44). Cambridge: BirdLife woods. Oecologia. 105:100–106. International. Ismail, A., Rahman, F. & Zulkifli, S. (2012). Status, Bideberi, G. (2013). Diversity, Distribution And composition and diversity of avifauna in the Abundance Of Avifauna In Respect To artificial Putrajaya wetlans and comparison Habitat Types: A Case Study Of Kilakala with its two neighboring habitats. Tropical And Bigwa, Morogoro, Tanzania. Sokoine Natural History. 12(October): 137–145. University, Morogoor, Tanzania. Retrieved from http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232 Chambers, S. A. (2008). Parks Victoria Technical 271948_Status_Composition_and_Diversity Series. Birds as Environmental Indicators. _of_Avifauna_in_the_Artificial_Putrajaya_W Review of Literature. etlands_and_Comparison_with_its_Two_Nei ghboring_Habitats/file/d912f507f4b81c60dc. Ding, T.-S. (2001). Species Diversity at Different pdf Spatial Scales: Birds in Yushan, Taiwan, and East Asia. Graduate Group in Ecology, Kark, S., Iwaniuk, A., Schalimtzek, A. & Banker, University of California at Davis. E. (2007). Living in the city: Can anyone become an “urban exploiter”? Journal of Esbah, H., Deniz, B., Cook, E. A. & Use, L. Biogeography. 34(4): 638–651. (2004). Isolation Trends of Urban Open http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- Spaces. In U. D. Licht (University of Calgary, 2699.2006.01638.x Canda), Q. Weng (Indiana State University (Ed.), International Society for MacArthur, R. H. & Wilson, E. O. (1967). The Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (pp. Theory of Island Biogeography. (E. O. 1–7). Turkey: Elsevier B.V. Wilson, Ed.) (2001st ed.). New Jersey: Princeton University Press. J. Doherty, C. Harris, L. H. & the E. S. of A. (2011). diversity. America. MacGregor-Fors, I. & Schondube, J. E. (2012). Urbanizing the wild: Shifts in bird Fernandez-Juricic, E. (2000). Bird community communities associated to small human

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Myczko, L., Rosin, Z. M., Skorka, P. & Tryjanowski, P. (2014). Urbanization level and woodland size are major drivers of woodpecker species richness and abundance. PLoS ONE. 9(4): 1–10. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094218

Ortega-Alvarez, R.. & MacGregor-Fors, I. (2009). Living in the big city: Effects of urban land- use on bird community structure, diversity, and composition. Landscape and Urban Planning. 90(3-4): 189–195. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2008.11.003

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INDIGENOUS STORMWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM BY HIGHLAND COMMUNITIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Eidayu Rosli*1, Sapura Mohamad2 and Hamidah Ahmad3

1, 2, 3 Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Indigenous knowledge for stormwater management responded differently by rural communities in most of different parts of the world. South East Asia, in particular, well-known for agrotourism highlands houses to one fourth of its rural communities since before ninetieth century. This paper reviews the various indigenous slope adaptation strategies developed by indigenous highland communities in managing their resiliency and discussed the resiliency of their adaptations. The indigenous community resilience in managing stormwater within their vicinity, mainly depending on its localised socioeconomic and biophysical factors. This study reviewed where and what system adapted by the highland communities within agrotourism industry. Data from 120 literature reviews on indigenous knowledge in managing stormwater by highland communities located within 1500m above sea level, planted with perennial vegetation from exotic species and non-native, within comfortable cool climatic setting, and the existing system still sustained within South East Asia region were reviewed. Results suggest significant relationships between stormwater management system and how rural communities perceived and correspond to their given landscape. This study also suggests the sustainable subak systems maintained by the Balinese highland communities, the kinnaw system maintained by the Batad’ Communities and the highland tea plantation by BOH Plantation community’s sustainability rely on their involvement since the planning stage to the management stage. Climate change has been recognized as one of the contributing factors influence the selection of slope stabilisation systems which indirectly dictate the outer look of highlands landscape. The finding also suggests special study shall be conducted to map the distribution of highlands community, review their relationship with the given settings and measure their resilience level towards the type of suitable highland stormwater management systems. Additionally, this information viable to enable community capacity improvements and improves development plans in supporting Sustainable Development Goal 11 on sustainable cities and communities within agricultural highlands region.

Keywords : Indigenous stormwater management systems, Highland agrotourism communities, Highland stormwater management, Traditional highland irrigation system

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1.0 INTRODUCTION lives (George, 1999). This knowledge normally exists as part of the indigenous Increasing demand on global food peoples’ culture and past down from one security to support several billion earth generation to the next, and not learned or population, cause rapid land conversion extracted from an archives or laboratories and expansion of highland infrastructures. (Maurial, 1999). In the twentieth century, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the indigenous knowledge system seen United Nations (FAO) estimated, 630 commonly adopted as alternative million of South East Asian population treatment associated with native cultural depends on agriculture product. These tradition by the local communities. demands also made remarkable increment on land use required for In the field of research for indigenous agriculture since early 1990s (June M. people, the World Council of Indigenous George, 2017), with less focus on how Peoples acknowledged indigenous as the associated infrastructure such as for such individuals occupied lands prior to stormwater, soil and landscape populations, within a shared or claimed management support the agriculture territories and possess a distinct culture industries. and language. As research in indigenous world evolved in the 19th century (Mazel, Highland agricultural activities commonly 2009), scholar nowadays recognised that associated or surrounded with scenic all knowledge known are related to natural beauty that attracting tourism, and specific contexts and peoples (Jill & draw more land conversions to Stringer, 1999) and influence by the accommodate tourism accommodations cultures of the locality, or inhabitant or and settlement for urban dwellers on also known as local community. The limited slope areas (Othman, 1998; Ati biological factors, social factors and Rosemerry Mohd Ariffin et al., 2014; economic factors (Boeri, Longo, Jabatan Landskap Negara (JLN)., 2015;). Gianfrate, & Lorenzo, 2017) form a As many highland plateau in South East unique combination profound community Asian considerable developing countries, reflection to build a system unique to their highland development since ninetieth immediate nature. century seen rapid commercial oriented development. With less environmental The majority of landscape in sustainable friendly approaches recorded, cause highlands agrotourism of Southeast Asia ecological degradations. Cameron are covered by settled agriculturalists. Highlands in Malaysia, is one of the living Very minimal nomadic pastoralists and example where, twenty years of shifting cultivators seen in the modern agrotourism activities polluted twenty- agrotourism region of Southeast Asia. three percentiles of it natural rivers(M. Though, undoubtedly in non-agrotourism Eisakhani, Pauzi, Karim, & Malakahmad, highlands shifting cultivators and nomadic 2011; Mahdieh Eisakhani, Abdullah, pastoralists, co-existed alongside settled Karim, & Malakahmad, 2015). When agriculturalists (Kingwell-Banham, Petrie, curbing hydrological and geological & Fuller, 2015). disaster through scientific system fail to conserve our beautiful natural As a reflection to frequent typhoon environment, it is worth to revisit events, in the Philippines, the Batad indigenous knowledge and science that community living on the highlands region still existed and sustained by the in Luzon Island, build structural low highlands community. retaining wall structure as part of their stormwater management system to Indigenous knowledge can be described manage water and soil for the rice as a designate knowledge produced in plantation. The reflection of the relation to specific social context and indigenous community corresponds to practiced by ordinary people in their daily their immediate nature (biological

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factors), their cultures in conducting search the existing literature from two agriculture (social factors) and their sources; Google Scholar and Web of source of income in maintaining their way Science. These sources latter, served as of life (economic factors). complementary tools to draw more data and information. This study only recorded The importance of highlands community research article focusing on agrotourism perspectives in relation to highland highlands where the agricultural activities stormwater management in South East are the key factor that attracting Asian region is reflected in the recognition highlands tourism, located 1500 meters of slope treatment systems by UNESCO above sea level, plantation consist of and in local legislation and government exotic species and not native to the area, policy. Most of the established terracing set within comfortable cool climatic system built by the highland communities condition, and the existing systems still more than hundred and fifty years ago, sustained by the highland agrotourism still sustained by the same community. communities. This shows a significant relationship between resilience infrastructure with Result from literature reviews limited to resilience community. data availability captured on highland stormwater management system. Most 2.0 DATA SOURCES AND available data collected from research on ANALYTICAL METHODS irrigation field of study and rural stormwater management in general. Four key words (indigenous stormwater Table 1, explained the significant of management systems, highland collected data and its relevance to this agrotourism communities, highland study. stormwater management, and traditional highland irrigation system) were used to

Figure 1 Distribution of Indigenous Highland Stormwater Management System within Agrotourism Hill Station in South East Asia (Source: Map on Distribution of Early Agriculture in South East Asia by Cambridge University Press (2015))

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Table 1 Highland stormwater management systems (HSWMs) for water management, slope stabilization, soil and landslide control measures developed and managed by agrotourism communities in South East Asia

Location Landscape Building Type of Terrace Highland Agriculture Setting time HSWMs Type Community Practices (year) Banaue, Ifugao Primary 2000 Ponding Stone Batad Settled Mountains, Montane years Terraces System wall Community agriculture Luzon, The Forest. ago (also known as terraces (Rice Philippines the Kinnaw plantation) System) Bali, Indonesia Tropical 1500 Ponding Soil ridge Balinese Settled Rain Forest years Terraces System terraces Community agriculture ago (also known as (Rice the Subak plantation) System) Chiang Mai, Tropical 1500 Ponding Soil ridge Settled Northern Rain Forest years Terraces System terraces agriculture Thailand ago (Rice plantation) Cameron Montane 150 On natural Not Tea Planter Settled Highlands, Forest years ground system applicable Community agriculture Pahang, ago (also known as (Tea Malaysia Colonial plantation) Plantation System) Dalat, Vietnam Montane 150 On natural Not Coffee Settled Forest years ground system applicable Planter agriculture ago (also known as Community (Coffee Colonial plantation) Plantation System)

The traditional terraced paddy cultivation 3.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION by indigenous highland community in the Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam Highland stormwater management in showcase very different typology of SEA mainly driven by community ponding terraces system, despite all use irrigation system. They have generally for the same rice cultivation. The different developed in mountainous or hilly areas in terraces typology show community based on the diversion of small or understanding on their landscape settings medium streams, especially in the and biological factors have strong northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, the influence on technique of stormwater Philippines and Indonesia, (Barker, management system applied for their Randolph; Molle, 2004) or on the natural agriculture activities. slope following natural gravity such as found in colonial plantation in Malaysia 3.1 Ponding Terraces System (Barrow, Chan, & Masron, 2008) and Vietnam (Frenken, 2012). This study recognised two typical terracing systems. The ponding terraces In most of South East Asia highland system such as in the Kinnaw System in agricultural activities, stormwater Luzon, and the Earth Ridge Terraces management system commonly seen as System such as the Subak System in integrated drainage, irrigation and soil Bali. management system with no distinction can be made in between these systems. Kinnaw is the terraces system built by the

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highlands communities in ponding technique, allows agriculture activities on a steep slope conditions. Kinnaw terrace system located in Ifugao mountains in the Philippines erected on slope area more than forty-five degrees. This well-known rice terraces systems in South East Asia existed more than 2,000 years ago were erected for the purpose of irrigation. However, the planning indirectly became traditional knowledge that helps community to prevent soil erosion on Figure 2 The Kinnaw System by Batad such steep slope, control landslides and Community showcase how integrated potential flood (Barker, Randolph; Molle, irrigation system planning for rice 2004; SK Redfem, N Azzu, 2012). The cultivation also works to manage highland stormwater management includes water stormwater, control soil erosion and management and conservation within prevent landslides Source: Lesson from micro-watersheds built by the highlands the Terraces : Research into 2000-year- agriculture community and mange in old water management techniques by the cluster. There are four known rice terrace indigenous tribes, University of Sheffield clusters, which are the Banaue, Mayoyao, (Lamb, 2016). Kiangan and Hungduan. One of the most established cluster are the Banaue, 3.2 Colonial Plantation System developed and manage by the Batad community. The colonial plantation system work well for tea plantation and coffee plantation as Kinnaw terraces system consists of stone it fed with good fresh groundwater at the retaining wall made of local stone at mountain area (Frenken, 2012). This approximately 1.2 meters to 1.5 meters system introduced by the colonial regime height. Each terrace contains permanent during their colonization period(Chan & presence of water. The existing rivers run CJ Barrow, 2015). from the existing forest atop of this system were kept intact. Fresh water from these rivers were tapped at different interval to fed main terraces. Generally, it follows the detention basin concept. Water outlet allow overflow to the lower terrace and prevent surface water run-off. This concept benefited the rice cultivation activities and the surrounding natural environment. Kinnaw system also promotes water percolation and groundwater recharge (SK Redfem, N Figure 3 tea plantation in Cameron Azzu, 2012) as the constant water flow Highlands, were planted on true ground provides the Batad community many system. other benefit for their daily life. The ponding rice terrace system also BOH Tea Plantation in Cameron minimise the use of pesticide to control Highlands is one of the oldest tea weed growth and reduction on farming plantation in Malaysia (Barker, Randolph; labour (FAO, 2003). Molle, 2004). The perennial tea species were planted intact to the ground act as blankets, preventing surface runoff and soil erosion problem Similar to Kinnaw and Subak system, the original principle

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is to preserves the forested area atop of land owner, whose company still run the plantation area, and make full use of under the same family, following the existing watershed to fed micro- same method of agricultural practices as watershed created by the highland their ancestor. The sustainability of their community. stormwater management system rely on the fact that the plantation is owned by 3.3 Relationship between Resilience the single company. The master plan Communities and Stormwater developed at the inception stage, Management System for Highlands executed and followed through until now. The estate worker which majority from the The study recognised the significant same family still practicing the same correlation between resilience method of plantation. communities and the system that they manage, thus call for the need of However, the other highland communities resilience infrastructure systems. As described in this study consists of many study focusing on stormwater indigenous local communities, with skill management from the perspective of and method of plantation passes through water and drainage management, this generations and run following the study suggest a specific study should be traditional communal systems (Barker, conducted to review and understand the Randolph; Molle, 2004). Their stormwater feasibility of introducing resilience management systems also sustain by the highland infrastructure system from the fact that the same type of settled agrotourism community perspectives. agricultural practices by the communities. Recognizing these relationship, will help None of this systems practicing shifting the local authority to review and plan cultivation nor nomadic pastoral. resilience highlands not just for agrotourism community, but also for the In summary, the traditional communal local dwellers. systems practices by the indigenous highlands communities in developing and 4.0 CONCLUSION managing localised and regional stormwater management systems on Most of sustainable stormwater slopes is a valid way forward. Lesson management system in South East Asia learned from sustainable traditional started as irrigation system for agricultural communal systems around South East activities developed and managed by the Asia region, can be drawn to facilitate indigenous highland communities. These potential solution to new agrotourism well planned irrigation systems, however development on highlands or improving not only regulate water for cultivation existing under threat highland purposes, but also manage micro- agrotourism areas. These includes watershed on steep slope once altered by building community capacity to build body man. Through time, this system became of knowledge, improve tools and provide an important highland community platform for partnerships to facilitate the contribution to the field of highland transition, adaptation and continuous agriculture, highland stormwater implementation and management of the management, highland agrotourism and suitable intended stormwater highland landscape conservation. management systems.

This study also acknowledged the National institutions, policies and laws indigenous highland communities on need to support actions to build existing agrotourism highlands not only stormwater management system in the limited to indigenous people who born highland agrotourism sector at local level. and raised as highlander. In the case of The stormwater management system Cameron Highlands, the indigenous shall be treated as resilience community is referring to British’s borned infrastructure components. And the

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existence of this components must meet (2008). Evolving more sustainable highland agrotourism capacity to agriculture in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. International Journal of developed and managed the selected Agricultural Resources, Governance and components. Once the resilience Ecology, 7(6), 450–468. infrastructure components established, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJARGE.2008.02274 the institutional framework for stormwater 7 management system and related sectors Boeri, A., Longo, D., Gianfrate, V., & Lorenzo, V. should be reviewed and fine tune any (2017). RESILIENT COMMUNITIES . adjustment needed to support the effort to SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURES FOR build highland agrotourism resilience SUSTAINABLE GROWTH OF URBAN AREAS . A CASE STUDY, 12(2), 227–237. In light of this review, several indigenous https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V12-N2-227- knowledge can be translated into 237 scientific design oriented solution to Chan, N. W., & CJ Barrow. (2015). Sustainable better manage our highlands. Legislation Development in the Cameron, (August). concerning environment, culture and economic shall be developed in the light Eisakhani, M., Abdullah, M. P., Karim, O. A., & of long term appreciation from the Malakahmad, A. (2015). Best management practices for water quality improvement of perspective of end-user managing and Bertam River, Malaysia. International maintaining the selected systems. Lack of Journal of Applied Engineering Research, action plans to accommodate and 10(2), 3923–3935. evaluate local community needs and concern over selected system, weaken Eisakhani, M., Pauzi, A., Karim, O., & Malakahmad, A. (2011). Investigation and any potential solution adopted, regardless management of water pollution sources in their biophysical, social culture or Cameron highlands, Malaysia. WIT economic factors. Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 148, 231–241. https://doi.org/10.2495/RAV110221 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FAO. (2003). The international year of rice, 2004. The authors would like to thank Universiti Fao, (October 2003), 1–12. Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) as main Frenken, K. (2012). Irrigation in Southern and sponsor for this study, and participating Eastern Asia in figures. Rome. members from Phillippines Institute of Landscape Architects (PALA), and George, J. M. (1999). Indigenous Knowledge as a Jabatan Pertanian Malaysia for their Component of the School Curriculum. In contributions in this study. What is Indigenous Knowledge: Voices from the Academy (pp. 79–94).

REFERENCES Jabatan Landskap Negara (JLN). (2015). Pelan Induk Landskap, Majlis Daerah Cameron Ati Rosemerry Mohd Ariffin, Ali, Z. M., Zainol, R., Highlands, Pahang Darul Makmur. Cameron Rahman, S., Hua, A. K., & Sabran, N. Highlands, Pahang. (2014). Sustainable Highland Development through Stakeholders’ Perceptions on Agro Jill, A., & Stringer, E. (1999). Indigenous Learning EcoTourism in Cameron Highlands: A and Knowledge. In What is Indigenous Preliminary Finding. SHS Web of Knowledge: Voices from the Academy Conferences, 6. (Volumn Two, pp. 143–155). Garland https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/2014120108 Reference Library of Social Science. 6 June M. George. (2017). Agriculture Outlook Barker, Randolph; Molle, F. (2004). Evolution of 2017-2026: Southeast Asia Prospect and irrigation in South and Southeast Asia. Challenges (pp. 59–100). Research Report 5. Retrieved from http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/assessment/files/p Kingwell-Banham, E., Petrie, C. A., & Fuller, D. Q. df/publications/ResearchReports/CARR5.pdf (2015). Early agriculture in South Asia. The Cambridge World History, 261–288. Barrow, C. J., Chan, N. W., & Masron, T. B. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511978807.0

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Lamb, C. (2016). Lessons from the terraces – travels in the Philippine Cordilleras.

Maurial, M. (1999). Indigenous knowledge and schooling_A continuum between conflict and dialogue.pdf. In A. L. SEMALI, JOE L.KINCHELOE (Ed.), What is indigenous knowledge? : voices from the academy (VOLUME 2, pp. 59–77). GARLAND REFERENCE LIBRARY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.

Mazel, O. (2009). the Evolution of Rights : Indigenous Peoples and International Law. Australian Indigenous Law Review, 13(1), 148–158.

Othman, J. (1998). Scenic Beauty Preferences of Cameron Highlands Malaysia : Local versus Foreign Tourists. Journal of Business, 248– 253.

SK Redfem, N Azzu, J. B. (2012). Rice in Southeast Asia facing risks and vulnerabilities to respond to climate change.pdf. In Building Resileince for adaptation to climate change in agriculture sector (pp. 295–314). FAO/OECD.

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THE IMPACT OF PROPERTIES AND ATTRIBUTES OF OPEN SPACES ON ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL RESTORATIVE EFFECT ON THE HEALTH OF OBESE ADULTS IN SAUDI ARABIA

Amr Mohamad Alabbasi 1,2 and Ismail Said 2

1 Faculty of Islamic Architecture, College of Engineering and Islamic Architecture, Umm Al Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia. 2 Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi, Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Malaysia (Email: [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Obesity and its related diseases prevalence in Saudi Arabia has reached a critical level. Moreover, a study about the restorative effect showed that there is a relationship between experiencing open spaces and physiological health of obese adults. This highlights the importance of the physiological restorative effects in open spaces. Medical studies shown evidences which relates obesity preventive strategies with physical activities. This relation explain the effect of open spaces on the prevalence of obesity and its related diseases. There is a lack of studies that focus on open spaces properties and attributes that provide this physiological restorative effect. Therefore, this paper aims at determining the properties and attributes of open spaces that contribute to enhancing the physical activeness of obese adults at open space in Saudi Arabia. The data was collected by a survey questionnaire that has been distributed on the people of the city of Yanbu in Saudi Arabia, 416 respondent answered the survey. The collected data are related to the respondents’ physical activity, preference, the regularity, and duration. The data was analysed by SPSS 24. The result indicates that there were five properties and two attributes that motivated the users to use open space. Two of these properties motivated and encouraged the users to be physically active. Besides, the other three properties and the attributes of the open spaces keep them motivated to visit this space regularly and spend more time. The findings of this paper determine the elements that could improve the physical activeness of the open spaces users, which improve their health and well-being.

Keywords: Physiological, Restorative effect, Open spaces, Properties and attributes, Obesity

1.0 INTRODUCTION physiological health and well-being did not take similar attention. In the 21st The relationship between experiencing century, many discoveries occurred about open spaces and psychological health the obesity, one of the most significant has previously studied intensely in was the link between the cardiovascular restorative environment literature. disease and weight loss. Countless However, the effect of open spaces on studies suggested that the changes in the

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people live style affected their health and obesity which in turn prevents its related well-being. One of these studies diseases. According to the authors, losing concluded that many factors are weight could control the glucose level in substitute to increase the occurrence of the blood and could help to cure T2D. In obesity in the worldwide. Importantly, how an urban environment, people have less the lifestyle changed, which are allied mobility in their daily life than ever before. with cumulative of urbanization, (Sicree & This less mobility changes in peoples’ Shaw, 2007). lifestyle have affected their health and well-being. The new urban lifestyle that 1.1. Problem Statement depends on vehicles for transportation and the consumption of junk food, in Many studies have led to the fact that addition to being physically inactive. This encountering environment support changes are factors that Increase the restoration effect (Tsunetsugu et al, 2013; chance of obesity occurrence. It is Cole and Hall, 2010; Staats and Hartig, concluded that many factors were 2004; Kaplan, 1992). Most of the studies responsible for the increased occurrence that have been conducted aimed at of diabetes worldwide. These factors are measuring the outcomes of experiencing the reduction of physical activity and the natural environment such as reducing increased rates of obesity. More stress and restoration from attention importantly, change in lifestyle has been fatigue. For example, it have been allied with the growth of urbanization suggested that visiting natural area even (Sicree and Shaw, 2007). Most of the for short period of time has affect the health problems and chronic diseases perceived stress relief positively in found in people living in Arab towns such comparison to build environment as diabetes, hypertension, and high (Tyrväinen et al., 2014) cholesterol can be attributed to bad urban planning, which have led to a change in One of the health problems of the 21st the lifestyle of the population. The lifestyle century is obesity and its related of the people these days have become diseases. Obesity related diseases are more dependent on machines, and conditions which arise as consequences people are more physically inactive. of obesity such as diabetes, Thus, physical activities can help people Hypertension, and cardiovascular to lose weight by exercising, walking, diseases (WHO 2016). According to The jogging and swimming. However, this World Health Organization (WHO), adults type of activities may happen either in over 17 years old who are considered gymnasiums or at open spaces if this obese reached 600 million in 2014. open space has the facilities. Generally, 13% of the world’s population was obese in 2014 (WHO, 2016). According to WHO, by 2025 the number According to WHO, obesity is the of people diagnosed with T2D will reach accumulation of an abnormal amount of 200-300 million (Hussain, Claussen, fat, and it is measured by body mass Ramachandran, & Williams, 2007). index (BMI), which is the weight in kilos Hypertension and T2D occur more divided by height in meter2 (WHO, 2016). frequently in obese adults than in lean Obesity leads to many diseases such as people at almost every age. Weight loss cardiovascular diseases and type two is effective in reducing obesity and its diabetes (T2D) (WHO, 2016). related diseases (Thakur, Reisin, & Richards, 2001). Since obesity is an In the 21st century, many discoveries increase in body weight, which means an have been made about obesity. One of increase in body mass index BMI (WHO, the most significant is the link between 2016), losing weight is the first step to obesity related diseases and weight loss stop obesity and prevent its related (Sicree and Shaw 2007). Losing weight diseases. T2D risk, which is considered helps in preventing the occurrence of one of the obesity diseases, is linked

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roughly to two factors; environmental performed by obese adults and reduction exposure and genetics (Hussain et al., of obesity and motivates them to perform 2007). How is environmental exposure this activities regularly in certain types of related to T2D? It is suggested that open spaces. The study was held in sedentary lifestyle plays a vital role in Saudi Arabia at one of the well-planned obesity prevalence. Environmental cities along the coast of the Red Sea. exposure means visiting urban parks and This city, which is known in Arabic as outdoor open spaces, thereby could Madinat Yanbu Asenayah (MYAS), is the encouraging people to be physically industrial city of Yanbu. It is located 350 active. For example, exercising, jogging, kilometers north-west of Jeddah in Al walking, and swimming. All of these Madinah province of western Saudi activities could occur in open spaces. Arabia (see maps below). Industrial Yanbu is a major Red Sea port and was Overweight happens more often because established in 1977, and it is still under of an inactive lifestyle. Besides, physical development. It was designed and inactivity has been identified as a risk planned by Parsons Cooperation and is factor for obesity and its related disease, currently managed by the Royal which are T2D, Hypertension , and Commission of Jubail and Yanbu (Al- cardiovascular diseases (Hussain et al., But’hie & Eben Saleh, 2002). 2007). As a result, physical inactivity leads to obesity, which has affected This format is to be used for submissions people around the world. Therefore, to be to be considered in journal publication. physically active means being more We therefore ask that authors follow healthy. According to WHO, all body some simple guidelines. In essence, you movement performed by muscles should format your paper exactly like this requires the expenditure of energy, for document. The easiest way to do this is example, walking, cycling, or participating simply to download a template from the in sports is usually defined as physical activity(WHO, 2016). This activity can 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW occur at open spaces in urban areas. In Yanbu, the open spaces that provide Urban parks are defined as open space space for physical activity are waterfront areas reserved for the public and mostly and neighborhood parks. Physical activity dominated by vegetation and water for an adult on a regular daily basis could (Konijnendijk, Annerstedt, Nielsen, & reduce the risk of T2D by 20 to 60 Maruthaveeran, 2013). In MYAS, percent (Hussain et al., 2007). waterfront parks and neighborhood parks Moreover, most of the prevention are the open spaces provided by programs for T2D require that people The Royal Commission for Jubail and change their lifestyle. Thus, inserting Yanbu (RCJY). Possibly, engagement in physical activity into the daily schedule of physical activities in both parks can the people who live in an urban context, reduce stress (Tyrväinen et al., 2014) and especially obese adults, could prevent the obesity. This engagement can lead to obesity and its consequences. reducing the risk of diabetes, Aforementioned study, indicates how Hypertension, and cardiovascular beneficial physical activity like exercising disease. Four different disciplines helps in losing weight and preventing conducted studies discussing obesity and T2D. In 2010, adults aged 20-79 its related disease interaction with diagnosed with T2D numbered 285 physical activity including medical (AR Al- million and will increase to 439 million by Nuaimt, K Al-Rubeaanl, Y Al-Mazrou2, O 2030, globally (Shaw, Sicree, & Zimmet, Al-Attasl, 1996), environmental 2010). psychology (Parsons, 1991), urban design, landscape architecture (Frank et This study investigates the properties and attributes that enhance physical activity

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al., 2004), and community design (Frank of the most prevalent diseases (Hu, et al., 2004). 2013). Diabetes has two types, and the focus of this study is type 2. T2D is In 2014, 600 million adults 18 years and defined as the condition when the body older were obese around the world cannot use the insulin hormone (WHO, 2016). This show how serious this efficiently, which causes the increasing of health issue has become. What are the the glucose concentration level in the reasons behind this phenomenon? It is blood (WHO, 2016). The glucose level in proposed that sedentary lifestyle and the blood should be less than 100 mg/dl eating junk food are behind the obesity for a normal person, 100-125 mg/dl is prevalence (AR Al-Nuaimt, K Al- considered prediabetes, and 126 mg/dl or Rubeaanl, Y Al-Mazrou2, O Al-Attasl higher is considered diabetes (American 1996; WHO 2016; Dubbert et al., 2002). Diabetes Association, 2016). Thus, to Obesity has other effects that measure the effect of physical activity on consequentially occur with its the diabetic person, the glucose level appearance. These effects, which are should be monitored. called obesity related disease (Hu, 2013), include diseases such as T2D , Saudi Arabia was ranked sixth in diabetes hypertension, cardiovascular diseases prevalence in 2011(Whiting et al., 2011). (WHO, 2016). However, many medical This percentage shows the seriousness studies analyzed the obesity problem to of this problem of diabetes as well as stop its rapid spread. These studies obesity in Saudi Arabia. It has been suggested preventive strategies that can suggested that to prevent T2D; lifestyle stop obesity and its related diseases. Two must be changed by becoming more main strategies are improving physical physically active (Hussain et al., 2007), activity as a daily routine and fixing the which could happen at open spaces such daily diet (Hussain et al., 2007; Pais, as neighborhood parks and waterfront 2006). This study focused on improving parks. Thus, being physically active physical activity. affects diabetes, and this is a restorative effect. This study shows the properties Studies in urban design and landscape and attributes that enhance the outcomes architecture suggested that open space of the physical activity and encourage the promotes physical activeness (Giles-Corti users to engage in this activity more & Donovan, 2002). Since this study is often. This properties and employed examining the restorative effect of open attributes is what led to the physiological spaces, it is necessary to show how the restorative effect. Physical activity affects previous study presented the relationship obesity in two different ways, losing between physical activity and obesity and weight and controlling one of the related its related diseases. diseases, which is T2D. Losing seven percent of the body weight and moderate Consequently, losing weight is the logical exercising for 30 minutes five days a reaction. However, what about the week could reduce the risk of T2D by 58 obesity related diseases? How does percent (American Diabetes Association, physical activity affect diabetes, 2016). Therefore, the commitment of hypertension, and cardiovascular keeping physically active on a daily basis disease? Medical studies discussed the gives an image of how crucial physical benefit of routine physical activity on the activity is for urban people. Another study obesity related diseases. These physical also suggested that 150 min/week of activities such as walking, jogging, and leisure-time physical activity, which is exercising can be done in open space in considered moderate, reduced the risk of MYAS. diabetes by 36 percent (Smith, Crippa, Woodcock, & Brage, 2016). This study T2D is one of the obesity related could help to show how beneficial diseases, and globally it has become one physical activity is in the reduction of

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diabetes and obesity. However, another 2011b; Doherty et al. 2014). It has been study suggests that high-intensity found that people who live close to the physical activity helps to control the coast are usually more physically active glucose level in the blood in T2D (Giles-Corti & Donovan 2002). In sum, it diagnosed people (Adams, 2013). This can be assumed that availability of information raises the question that how waterfronts in cities has a restorative moderate high or low-intensity exercise effect on the residents. Thus, the determined? And what could help in preference for outdoor space can occurrences of the physical activity? encourage people to use it in their leisure time. The third obesity related disease is the cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is a Yanbu is a well-planned coastal city, and condition that affects heart and blood from the author's experience, the people vessels including the failure of delivering use the waterfront parks for recreation. blood to the body parts such as brain and The author was working as a landscape heart muscle (WHO, 2015). This disease architect in the division of operation and is the result of being obese, which leads maintenance in MYAS, responsible for to the increased glucose level in the the landscaping O&M at the residential blood and unstable blood pressure area. Furthermore, outdoor spaces help (American Diabetes Association, 2016; people to be more physically active, Whiting et al., 2011). Thus, which sometimes depends on design, cardiovascular diseases occur as the mentality, and the distance (Herzog et al. result of obesity, and the other two 2003; Giles-Corti & Donovan 2002). related diseases increase the risk of its Thus, how attractive the park plays a role occurring. As a result, preventing obesity in encouraging people to engage. Since causes a reduction of T2D and Yanbu is following standards in designing hypertension, consequentially reducing open space, the possibility of quality the risk of CVD. parks in Yanbu is good because it is a well-designed city. However, the obese In sum, habitual moderate physical adult's opinion, which was collected in activity causes a reduction in the this study, may clarify which space is prevalence of obesity. Thus, it will cause more preferred, waterfront parks or to prevent the occurrence of T2D, neighborhood parks and why. As a result, Hypertension, and cardiovascular the preference and attractiveness are the diseases. factors that control the eagerness of obese adults to be more physically active As discussed in the medical field, the at outdoor parks. These two factors will ultimate goal is the enhancing of the help to show which space is helping the physical activity of obese people. What obese adults to be more active, which are the keywords within the means more restorative effect from the environmental psychology to achieve this outdoor spaces. In this study, the goal? It is suggested that people who live restorative effect is controlling glucose in cities along water have an attachment level in the blood, lowering blood to the spaces along the water (Völker & pressure and losing weight. Kistemann, 2013). As a result, spaces along water attract the people to spend In landscape architecture, urban design their leisure time at waterfronts. Thus, and community design, obesity has been waterfront parks have the potential to be discussed in relation with the built a restorative environment for obese environment. The scale which has been adults. Besides, there are many possible discussed varied in every study. For physical activities a user could do while example, in community design, every they are experiencing the spaces at the hour of using vehicle per day increases waterfronts such as jogging, swimming, the risk of the obesity by 6 percent (Frank and working-out (Völker & Kistemann et al., 2004). Thus, new lifestyle that

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depends on vehicles for transportation is social benefits. In MYAS, people do some increasing the possibility of obesity, which of these activities such as walking, is happening in MYAS (Zawawi, 2013). jogging, fishing, and sitting at the The design influences to promote waterfront, which called Corniche. In sum, physical activity in daily life and leisure because of the availability of open spaces time by enhancing the walkability of the system in Yanbu, people especially the environment (Abraham et al., 2010). obese adults can engage in physical and Walkability is the most often mentioned passive activities at outdoor spaces, but word because it affects peoples' health. what is the properties and attributes of For each kilometer of walking, the obesity this open spaces that motivates users to risk reduced by 4.8 percent (Frank et al., the open space? 2004). This relation raises the question, “why don’t people walk?” Another study 3.0 METHOD suggested that the land use design plays a role, the accessibility to open spaces This study aims to determine what the improving peoples’ health (Sandifer, properties and attributes that if it had Sutton-Grier, & Ward, 2015). In MYAS, been included or employed in open there is 14 square kilometer of green spaces design could promote more open spaces (Al-sinayiah, 2014). Thus, physical activeness. Promoting more the amount of green open spaces provide physical activeness lead to more good accessibility for the residents for physiological restorative effect. It may physical activity. Therefore, in landscape show the link between the quality of the architecture scale, the availability of open open spaces and the health quality of the spaces system in Yanbu could encourage residents of Saudi Arabia. Therefore, it people to walk more. Other aspects also investigated the users’ preferences and discussed included well-designed opinion about why they chose to visit the landscape spaces attracting people public open spaces in MAYS. The data in (Abraham et al., 2010), and that helps this study was obtained through survey people to be more active by providing questionnaires which has been walkways, pedestrian zone, and cycling distributed on the resident of MAYS: to tracks. MYAS was designed and planned build data set that can help in by American cooperation with experience distinguishing the relationship of the in this area, which is Parsons availability of properties at urban open Cooperation (Zawawi, 2013). This spaces with the physiological health and cooperation is still working as a well-being. The questionnaire was consultant with RCJY until the present distributed electronically upon the RCJY time. MYAS has received the third place male employees the returned answered prize in the Arab Cities Organization survey was (n=416). The targeted landscaping competition in 2013 (Al- measurements were user’s preference sinayiah, 2014). As a result, Yanbu is a and opinion about open spaces. They well-designed city and has high quality were asked about the reason of their green open spaces. regularity of visiting the open spaces, Studies about urban parks showed that what motivate them to visit the open people who spend time in parks are spaces more often, what is the elements usually more physically active. For they like the most, and what make them example, being in urban park encouraged chose one open space over the other the people to walk, play social games and open spaces. Besides, general do other physical activities (Völker & information such as weight, length to Kistemann, 2011b; Ahern, 1991; Völker & calculate the BMI which helped in show Kistemann, 2011a; Doherty et al., 2014; the obesity percentage. These Abraham et al., 2010). measurements helped to link the public Moreover, to do some passive activities spaces design to the health and well- such as bird watching, fishing, and sitting being of the obese adults. to have physiological, psychological, and

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4.0 MAIN RESULTS motivate them to be more physically active and by encourage them to visit The collected data have shown that these spaces more often. 69.2% of the respondent visit public open spaces regularly. 72% of the REFERENCES visitors visiting these spaces for physical activities. The visitors choose Abraham, A., Sommerhalder, K., & Abel, T. the public open space they prefer to visit (2010). Landscape and well-being: a scoping upon the availability of properties such study on the health-promoting impact of outdoor environments. International Journal as walkway that is suitable for jogging, of Public Health, 55(1), 59–69. playgrounds and sitting areas. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-009-0069-z According to the survey, 69.2% of the respondent choose the availability of the Al-But’hie, I., & Eben Saleh, M. (2002). Urban and walkway as the reason while 61.5% industrial development planning as an approach for Saudi Arabia: the case study of chose the availability of kids’ playground Jubail and Yanbu. Habitat International, as a reason and after that comes the 26(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0197- availability of sitting areas which has 3975(01)00026-1 been chosen by 57.7%. It means the variation of activities of the space Al-sinayiah, Y. (2014). Yanbu Al-Sinayiah. motivates the people in Yanbu to visit American Diabetes Association. (2016). the open space regularly. Especially Diagnosing Diabetes and Learning About when they can bring their families with Prediabetes A1C Fasting Plasma Glucose ( them to experience these open space. FPG ) Oral Glucose Tolerance Test ( also On the other hand, the respondent was called the OGTT ), 5–8. asked about which space is more AR Al-Nuaimt, K Al-Rubeaanl, Y Al-Mazrou2, O preferable for them, to examine the Al-Attasl, N. A.-D. and T. K. (1996). high attributes that affect them the most. prevel obesity.pdf. Retrieved from 73% of the respondents have chosen https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yagob_ the waterfront, and when they were Al- Mazrou/publication/14419582_High_Prevale asked about the reason, they expressed nce_of_overweight_and_obesity_in_Saudi_ their interest about the sea and the Arabia/links/0deec5309b7f827d68000000/Hi view, while 42% chosen neighborhood gh-Prevalence-of-overweight-and-obesity-in- park for the availability of the enclosure Saudi-Arabia.pdf space. Literatures was suggested the Dubbert, P. M., Carithers, T., Hall, J. E., Barbour, emotional relationship between the K. A., Clark, B. L., Sumner, A. E., & Crook, spaces along water bodies and the E. D. (2002). Obesity, Physical Inactivity, residents of coastal cities. As a result, and Risk for Cardiovascular Disease. The the attribute that has been employed in American Journal of the Medical Sciences, the waterfront park design, which is the 324(3), 116–126. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000441- seashore, motivate the people more 200209000-00002 effectively Frank, L. D., Andresen, M. A., & Schmid, T. L. (2004). Obesity relationships with community 5.0 CONCLUSION design, physical activity, and time spent in cars. American Journal of Preventive The well-designed open spaces in MAYS Medicine, 27(2), 87–96. employed attributes and includes the https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.04.01 properties that motivate the users to be 1 physically active. This motivation affects Giles-Corti, B., & Donovan, R. J. (2002). The obesity and its related diseases. As a relative influence of individual, social and result, the properties and attributes of the physical environment determinants of open spaces in MAYS support the physical activity. Social Science & Medicine, physiological restorative effect of the 54(12), 1793–1812. open spaces on the obese adults by https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277- 9536(01)00150-2

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Hu, F. B. (2013). Resolved: There is sufficient https://doi.org/10.1097/00000441- scientific evidence that decreasing sugar- 200104000-00005 sweetened beverage consumption will reduce the prevalence of obesity and Tyrväinen, L., Ojala, A., Korpela, K., Lanki, T., obesity-related diseases. Obesity Reviews, Tsunetsugu, Y., & Kagawa, T. (2014). The 14(8), 606–619. influence of urban green environments on https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12040 stress relief measures: A field experiment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 38, 1– Hussain, A., Claussen, B., Ramachandran, A., & 9. Williams, R. (2007). Prevention of type 2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.12.005 diabetes: A review. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 76(3), 317–326. Völker, S., & Kistemann, T. (2013). Social Science https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2006.09.020 & Medicine “ I ’ m always entirely happy when I ’ m here ! ” Urban blue enhancing Konijnendijk, C. C., Annerstedt, M., Nielsen, A. B., human health and well-being in Cologne and & Maruthaveeran, S. (2013). Benefits of Düsseldorf , Germany. Social Science & Urban Parks - A systematic review. Medicine, 78, 113–124. International Federation of Parks and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.09. Recreation Administration, (January), 1–68. 047

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CHILDREN’S ECOLOGICAL LITERACY IN THEIR EVERYDAY LANDSCAPE TOWARDS NATURAL LEARNING

Sarah Alia Norazlan1, Mega Suria Hashim2, Azmiah Abd Ghafar3, Rohana Mohd

Firdaus4 and Ismail Said5

1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Children’s interaction with natural environment is crucial for their knowledge and experiences in play and learning where they are able to access and engage directly with the natural elements and its surroundings. Allowing children to contact with natural environment provide them with exploration, discovery and an understanding of nature in which leads to ecological literacy. However, little is known on how much children’s knowledge and play behaviours influence their ecological literacy when they experiencing everyday landscapes in the rural environment. Hence, this study explored the ecological literacy of young children in the ecosystem in a rural village in Malaysia. Eight children, aged 4-11 living in rural areas at Kampung Jawa Ulu, Pontian, Johor were observed. The data of children’s perceptual and behavioural responses were elicited from map drawings and gathered from open-ended interview and participatory observation in the village. It is found that children are highly sensitive to their environment in which their ecological literacy was directly influenced by their play time and activities outdoors. Throughout the observation, children revealed their everyday experiences with nature; the trees that they have climbed, the fruits they have eaten, the birds they have admired. The results revealed that the children’s good knowledge on a relationship with nature was sensorial rich and varied; affording them diverse natural elements and complex understanding for play and learning that leads to their ecological literacy. Therefore, children expressed strong positive feelings about nature and interact with the organisms around them. Hence, this understanding suggests that children perceive natural and physical elements through the phenomenal process and contribute to natural learning.

Keywords: Ecological literacy, Children interaction, Knowledge and play behaviour, Natural learning

1.0 INTRODUCTION allow them to enrich their thinking and learning as well as a belief that ecology in Reconnecting children to interact with the science may be a particular important ecosystem in the natural environment domain in early childhood (Worth, 2010).

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Children have their own uniques learning problem-based learning situations. style (e.g. White and Stoecklin, 2008) and Hence, children are able to use a variety experiential way of knowing (e.g. Leach of senses in exploring the content to et al., 2007) the natural environment. In maximize active learning (Miranda et al., order to constantly restructure the 2017). children’s ways of knowing and develop inquisitive minds, they need to be given 1.1 Experiences of ecosystem opportunities to think, to construct, to make observations, to inquiry, to explore Home setting is a place where children the surroundings, to read the nature, to spend most of their time in playing, test hypothesis, to create relationships enjoying and resting (Said, 2007). and to reflect their actions (de Brito Children begin their everyday life from Miranda, Jófili and dos Anjos Carneiro- home to the outdoor contexts including Leão, 2016). This situation certainly built garden, ditch, orchard, street, important skills and attitudes for learning schoolyard, and stream. Without to their physical, cognitive and social children realized, they are engaging with (Chawla and Heft, 2002), thus leads to their surroundings and naturally become greater degree of competence (Gordon, part of their nature learning. Their A. & Browne, 2015; Duerden and Witt, surroundings are rich diversity, open- 2010; Chawla and Heft, 2002). Literacy of ended learning laboratory (Children and children on ecological system are when Nature, 2013) and easily accessible children’s ability to know and understand where children able to go beyond their the basic knowledge of ecology. Basic homeground in order to interact with ecology, is the study of organismal plants and animals. The availability of diversity that deal with the relations of home garden and nearby nature may living organisms to one another and its afford young children to learn and play a surroundings including water, soil and variety of activities without parental sunlight (Courchamp et al., 2015). concerns (Skar, Gundersen and Example, children are engaging to the O’Brien, 2016; Moore, 1986) orchard for playing, at the same time, they naturally learn about plants and Children experience is important to animals in particular locations such as consider how childhood nature ability to know the red ixora flowers have exploration, , which is often highly nectars compared to pink ixora flowers physical, combining bodily interaction (Yusof, 2015). According to McGinn and sensory attentiveness, may be able (2014), “knowledge alone is not enough to provide insight on the role of to constitute ecological literacy” (p. 5). embodied experience to stimulate Knowledge is influenced by hand’s on curiosity, discovery, and biodiversity experiences and must be fused with understanding (Beery et al., 2018). For behavior and a feeling of connectedness example, Linzmayer, halpenny, and to nature. Through direct experience, this Walker (2013) identified the importance understanding of ecosystem will fostering of sensory experiences for children children interaction, autonomy, visiting a botanical garden emphasizing exploration, curiosity and sense of how touch, sight, sound, smell, and responsibility ( Ferreira, Cruz and taste were important in children’s Pitarma, 2016; Courchamp et al., 2015; recollection of meaningful experiences Murtaza, 2011), thus it representing at the garden, including the colors of children’s good ecological literacy on flowers, the sounds of bees, the feeling relationship with nature. In other words, of rain on the body, the taste of berries although children learn from conventional and the sight of butterflies. Similarly to instructional technologies, e.g. textbooks James and Bixler (2008), they identified and videos, it is important to highlight the the importance of novelty and sensory importance of contextual, direct, and experiences, particularly touch, among unmediated experiences used in children attending a coastal beach

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environmental education program. The children’s literacy or idea in ecology in ability to have direct sensory experience order to reveal the children’s of the landscape, such as sand, shells, understanding on relationship between bird parts, and live reptiles enhanced plants and animals as well as their children’s learning and provided an habitats. opportunity for intimate interaction with natural objects and living creatures, 2.0 METHOD making the experience meaningful (James and Bixler 2008). According to 2.1 Data Collection Berry et al. (2018), not to simply argue for embodied sensory rich experience, The literacy of rural children on ecological but to consider the details of specific system were observed among eight childhood activity in nature. childhood children, aged 4-11, as they played and explored in the village. It is However, in recent years, children located at the Kampung Ulu Jawa, engagement and accessibility to natural Pontian in Johor, Malaysia. Children were environment has been decreasing. observed for six-days in their everyday Previous studies on children’s landscapes including in a nearby garden environment found that nature is the and forest, ditch, plantation, orchard, most significant place to develop open field, street, and home yard. It children’s learning (e.g. Skar, means that the village possesses many Gundersen and O’Brien, 2016; Smith, potential spaces for exploration, 2010; White and Stoecklin, 2008). In discovery and socialisation for children Malaysian school curriculum, children during their engagement with outdoors. are taught in ecological system for most The various settings of rural environment of their considerable time at school and permit the children with different play and extra tuition in which isolating their learning behaviours. Young children need everyday life experiences (Rivet and concrete, contextual experiences that are Krajcik, 2008). From this viewpoint, the meaningful and relevant. phenomenon is often decontextualized (Metz, 2004) and considered The data was conducted through construction of contemporary thinking participatory observation and analysed (de Brito Miranda, Jófili and dos Anjos through their map drawings to explore Carneiro-Leão, 2016) that will be how children understand the living understood as school tasks. Hence, organisms in their environment, that are children nowadays, they learn to see between plants and animals and its things as separate and without physical environment. Children were connection (Loureiro, 2006) to the given task to recall their experience with environment in which they live. As a peers, and draw any significant elements result, children related environmental during their interaction with nature literacy is rarely utilized, missing a key including their home surroundings, the opportunity to integrate children’s elements offered for children’s literacy everyday forms of perception and action and skills. Thus, an open-ended interview that are knowing, seeing and doing. was conducted to avoid misinterpretation Thus, children’s understanding of of drawings during the analysis process. ecology has been a comparatively The children’s actions were documented neglected field of study (Wood- from the pictures and videos in order to Robinson, 1991). get a broad understanding of children’s expressions of relations to and between Therefore, this study is to explore the other organisms. The children were given the ecological literacy of young children a tape recorder and two digital cameras, on ecosystem in their everyday to elicit their words and spontaneously landscape in rural village. This expressed by the children in the dominance is significant to consider

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situations (Askerlund and Almers, 2016;

Cobb and Mead, 1977). From the Main features of ecosystem walkabout interview, these children spent encountered in children's most of the time in outdoors since they drawings were in the preschool. The study focuses 30 27.3 26.4 21.8 on literacy of children on ecological 25 18.1 20 aspects, and thus activities preferences 15 and interactions should be according to 10 6.5 the children pace and demand. 5 0

2.2 Data Analysis drawn features of Percentage

Drawings, pictures and voice recording Component of ecosystem from the focus group activity were analysed to elicit activities of the children Figure 1: Elements of ecosystem drawn with the elements of ecology in their by children everyday landscapes. Children’s words on their experience during engagement Children’s illustrations on the elements in with outdoors were coded and tabulated rural area were categorised based on into three themes. Specifically, three key component of ecosystem. The themes were identified from the interview categorisation of children’s ecological data; 1) sensory experience, 2) diversity, literacy, however, concerns on the 3) ecological literacy and environmental conceptual understanding on ecosystem. understanding. These themes were It includes animal, plant, topography While, the drawing was analysed for the (surface, slope, water bodies and earth frequency of elements appeared in the elements), microclimate and human. The drawing. The analysis of the literacy is a result shows that children were frequently descriptive statistic looking at the identified about ecosystem on animals relationship of children physical and (27.3%), followed by plants (26.4%), sensorial actions with the ecological topography (21.8%), microclimate elements of the nature, that is their living (18.1%) and human (6.5%). This context including plants, animals indicates that children have more topography and water bodies. Figure 1 recognised living things with 60.2% and shows the categories of functional 39.9% of non-living things due to their taxonomy of children’s outdoor engagement that is fit to children’s play environment in which can be related to and learning activities. The result ecological literacy. These categories were suggests that the characteristics of the referred from Heft’s (1988) and Kytta’s physical elements in natural environment (2002). offered the complexity, dynamic, flexibility and abundant (Prescoot, 1987; Yatiman 3.0 RESULTS AND FINDINGS et al., 2012). The result was parallel to the numerous studies which found that The results obtained mainly from the children engage with natural elements in content analyses of the open-ended which influences their play activities in interview, cognitive mapping and pictures. natural spaces.

Therefore, from the drawings, it shows a clear pattern of knowledge in expanding their natural world and children’s understanding in their relationships with the environment. From these mappings, children’s homes fill in their maps and much of their play is within sight of their

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home. The house and yard are significant selasih’. place for them. Children often describe the worms, fish and birds that found in From child 2 and 3, it means that the frog their everyday landscape.Therefore, eggs afforded a child to interact and children’s geographical range are expand exchange words with his peer rapidly. It reveals that their knowledge and learned that eggs were soft to touch. about animals and plants are associated Walking into the path of nearby forest and with their range of exploration and plantation allow the possibilities for discovery. When the children go beyond children’s play, activity closely connected their home range, the ideas about nature to the children’s sensory experiences. are wide. The central focus in their maps The children constantly moved to and are known as the “explorable landscape” from the path as they were playing. The (Sobel, 2008) in which associated with children were observed catching rabbits their play activities and socialisation. This in the bushes, climbing the trees, finding has leads to ecological literacy. In the the right stem of oil palm for fishing rod map drawings, children express their and knowing the Caladium gives itchy if understand in knowing the plants, touching with bare hands. The results animals and the characters of their provide support for the idea that everyday landscape. Figure 1 is an childhood nature, play, and exploration is example of how a child potrayed the a rich avenue for sensory experience. places that has been explored. The sensorial actions described, and experiences observed illustrate the importance of children engagement with natural landscapes. As detailed in the result, children are sensorial rich; smells, sounds, taste, and the experience of touching and varied; affording them diverse natural elements.

3.2 Diversity

Another key theme noted by the children from direct observations was children interests. Below are examples from Figure 2: An 11 years old boy illustrated different context: his exploration from his home, where his play activities and plants and animals Child 1: My father has a hobby where he dominate. always goes for fishing and he knows mostly about the fish. So, I always followed my 3.1 Sensory experiences father and I collect different kind of fish species. I can tell you what kind of fish I had The theme of sensory experience caught in the ditch, stream and sea. emerged repeatedly from the children’s Child 2: I have my own garden where I words. Below are the following excerpts planted and took care of it. There are from the transcription: including ‘kangkung’, sweet potato plant, ‘kesum’ plant, ‘kunyit’ plant and many. Child 1: Whenever I play in the rain, there will be the sound of frog called ‘katak kodok’. We Child 3: We used to climb trees and cycling can locate where is the frog through the bicycles in the village. We know about the sound. birds in our places such as burung raja udang, ‘burung gagak’, ‘burung pipit’, ‘burung Child 2: Eew, the frog eggs are like jelly and merpati’ and ‘burung belatuk’. It can be found soft. in different spaces.

Child 3: It looks like ‘beras bali’ or ‘biji

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The uniqueness and variety are also noted by Rautio (2013), these interactions apparent to children’s experience of the in which children ‘make themselves everyday landscape in the rural village, available to their material surroundings’ is with the living organisms and the variation of great value. of plant species important to the children. The diversity of the landscape afforded 3.3 Ecological literacy and the children to know the environment in environmental understanding which leads to literacy. Thus, playing in nature allows children to identify, name, When children are given freedom to classify, and learn about the natural explore in the nature, they are developing environment. their independence. During the exploration, children shared what they Child 1: This is the place where my friends know and what are new to them. For and I called as our secret place. In here, we example, children can describe the were climbing and hiding on the oil palm characteristic of corn tree. This is trees. We collected oil palm’s fruits and play because they able to access the corn cooking. If you cook it, it will release the oil. farm everyday and eat the fruit. They By the way, you can see poison mushrooms even know that the leaves give itchy if it grow on the dead trunk of oil palm. The colour is white. touches their skins. Therefore, during their time to catch worm called ‘cacing Child 2: I want to tell you that inside this pisang’, they found white grasshopper for rotten wood, there are many of worms live in, the first time in their lives. They caught it called ‘ulat gonggok’. Whenever it feels and began to ask each other about the insecure, it always rolls itself. white grasshopper. The nature provided a variety of play options, such as digging, During the walk, there were places that catching, running, jumping, and climbing, were offered children to have a good offer children the opportunity to develop knowledge on the nature. It is significant their physically, cognitively and socially that nature provides unlimited and to enhance their reasoning and opportunities for learning that are observation skills (Clements, 2004; compatible with children’s interests and Handler & Epstein, 2010). Children’s skills (Lester & Maudsley, 2007). The experience and engagement are sensory experiences included openness considered as their own environmental of the material and the atmosphere of the understanding as they explored directly in landscape and its places. Topography the environment. afforded them to play, plants with herbs such as turmeric plant and ‘kesum’ plant Child 1: There are puddles with the frog eggs and a variety of trees afforded on the water surface and it close to each opportunities for hiding, climbing and other. The frog lays its eggs here and leave. foraging. The smell from from the Why the mother is not here? orchards and the plantations, the sound of wind in the trees and the sound of the Child 2: It will turn into tadpole, then grow into a frog. birds were due to the variety and diversity within the landscape, with direct Child 3: There is also a cricket in the puddle. relevance to the children’s attentiveness of their surroundings. Observing the The excerpts above also highlight how interaction between the children’s children were able to describe the cycle moving, sensing bodies and the richness of frog became a part of learning and of the environment provides insight into their interest or curiosity to know the children’s experiences of biotic and more. There was also a curiosity for other abiotic variation and diversity. living organisms and awareness of Therefore, the diversity of the landscapes ecological phenomena observed in the and the experiences of other living things children’s investigation of their seemed intertwined with their play. As

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environment. and structured ideas (Ferreira, Cruz and Pitarma, 2016). The focus of the children’s interest on the living animals were especially directed 3.4 Spaces experience for towards smaller species that could easily ecological learning be observed and touched. For examples, there were other small creatures such as The results were captured based on what earthworms in the soils, grasshoppers, was spontaneously expressed by the crickets, and fish that constantly attracted children in the situations in the everyday the children’s attention. By handling these landscape. The village were including in a animals, the children showed care and farm plantation, ditch, orchard, nearby knowledge by being attentive and forest, open field, street, and home yard keeping them in an environment suited and garden. The findings discussed on for their biological needs. the children experience in these places through exploration, articulation and Therefore, the experience was rich and reflection influenced their perceptual and challenging. This process will be action performances. A farm plantation is increased when children are given the a place where oil palm trees are located opportunity to be active in learning life mixed with secondary forest and science. It means that through direct inhabited by wild animals. The ditches are experience, learning the ecosystem can located along the street shoulder with the generates knowledge to the children as existence of insects and plants. An well as their perceptual-action (Cosco et orchard is type of farm where fruits are al., 2010; Chawla and Heft, 2002). grown on trees and shrubs. The nearby Throughout the data collection, children forest is a large area that has many trees were able to hand over information when and wild plants, with dense area. The researcher posted questions. An excerpt open field is defined by children, a place illustrated the children’s idea of with abundant land or field with grasses knowledge on the subject. where they can play with peers. The street is a place where children used to Researcher: How do water striders access from one place to another. The communicate to each other? home yard and garden are edible plants and fruit trees planted within their Child: Wave! [ripple] neighbourhood home garden.

It means through cognition; children recognized the water striders live and Contextualizing science instruction (Rivet walk on water. The child’s response is and Krajcik, 2008) are used as a catalyst more towards his common sense, but it for children to perform the tasks and was considered right. This shows the utilize their prior knowledge in everyday understanding on the relationship experiences in everyday landscapes. In between water strider and water is the oil palm plantation, children were existing. When the water strider moves, it given an exposure on how the ecological create and detect ripple. Using the systems took place. Children able to surface tension of the water, water identify that the tree was oil palm (host) striders stand up on their long, skinny and pteridophyte (epiphytic fern) grow on legs and send out vibrations that travel the palm tree. Through their perception, along the surface. Each leg has nerve this can be defined that children have sensors that can detect slight waves, high sensibility of knowing the type of water striders are able to communicate plants that found at their village. This is with one another in this way. Therefore, because they have the prior knowledge of this phenomenon will gradually establish the elements because they engage and the literacy of children between ideas interact everyday. This intense the which develop to become more complex children to be able to describe the information in the situated context.

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Therefore, children were also exposed to indicates that everyday landscape is the ecological learning on pteridophyte affording the natural elements including that grows on the oil palm. This plant- plants and animals towards children’s plant relationship known as sensory stimulation and responses commensalism. The pteridophyte used oil through exploratory and discovery to palm tree for their support system but it understand more about the world they does not obtain nutrients from oil palm live in. Thus, children perceived their and therefore does not harm or affect the environment as a place for them to have oil palm. Besides, another example is the sense of control to discover their own relationship between pteridophyte and knowledge. This interaction inspired the ants on the oil palm tree, known as children to extend their knowledge about mutualism. Children know that there are their world including noticing, wondering, ants and other organism such as ‘lipan finding challenges and taking risks. It sawit’ lives on the tree. The ant’s means that everyday landscape is directly inhabitants gain housing in root-masses influencing the children’s perceptions and of pteridophyte while ants protect the actions. Nevertheless, their everyday pteridophyte against other animals (Fayle landscape elucidate the importance of et al., 2015). These relationships are ideational resources for the initiation of called ecological systems. natural learning activities.

From the observation, children seem REFERENCES unable to describe these processes of relationships on ecology. As such, it Askerlund, P. and Almers, E. (2016) ‘Forest indicates that their ecological literacy is gardens – new opportunities for urban children existing but not in a complex knowledge. to understand and develop relationships with This suggested that children ways of other organisms’, Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. Elsevier GmbH., 20, pp. 187–197. perception were more to judgement of elements which firmly established as part of common knowledge rather than Chawla, L. and Heft, H. (2002). ‘Children’s science point of view. Therefore, children competence and the ecology of communities: A functional approach to the evaluation of were able to immerse themselves in the participation’, Journal of Environmental natural surrounding (Ord and Leather, Psychology, 22(1–2), pp. 201–216. 2011; Kellert, 2005a, 2005b) allowing them to be active in movements and Children and Nature (2013) Bright Horizons. actions. It can be visible when interaction, autonomy and exploration (Ferreira, Cruz and Pitarma, 2016; Courchamp et al., Cobb, E. and Mead, M. (1977) The Ecology of Imagination in Childhood. United State: 2015; Murtaza, 2011) take place. This Columbia University Press. demonstrate that experiencing the Courchamp, F., Dunne, J. A., Le Maho, Y., May, everyday landscape affords the children R. M., Thébaud, C., & Hochberg, M. E. (2015). to be active learners, thus leads to natural Fundamental ecology is fundamental. Trends learning. in Ecology and Evolution, 30(1), 9–16

4.0 CONCLUSION Cosco, N. G., Moore, R. C. and Islam, M. Z. (2010) ‘Behavior mapping: A method for linking The findings suggest that the everyday preschool physical activity and outdoor design’, landscape setting in the rural area Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42(3), pp. 513–519. become as an extension for children to develop their literacy on ecological system and support their actions; de Brito Miranda, A. C., Jófili, Z., & dos Anjos Carneiro-Leão, A. M. (2016). Ecological physically, cognitively and socially. The literacy – preparing children for the twenty-first children perceived the environment as an century. Early Child Development and Care, 1– open-ended laboratory because there are 14. no boundaries for exploration. This

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Dowdell, K., Gray, T. and Malone, K. (2011) Rivet, A. E. and Krajcik, J. S. (2008). ‘Nature and its influence on children’s outdoor ‘Contextualizing Instruction: Leveraging play’, Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, Students’ Prior Knowledge and Experiences to 15 Foster Understanding of Middle School Science’, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE TEACHING, 45(1), pp. 79–100. Ferreira, M. E., Cruz, C. and Pitarma, R. (2016). ‘Teaching ecology to children of preschool education to instill environmentally friendly Said, I. (2007) ‘Evaluating the Affordances of behaviour’, International Journal of Fishing Village Pertaining to Children’s Environmental and Science Education, 11(12), Functioning’, Landscape, 9(3), pp. 27–43. pp. 5619–5632. Said, I. and Bakar, M. S. A. (2012) ‘Landscape for Gordon, A. & Browne, K. (2015). Play and the Children to Play and Learn: A Conceptual Learning Environment, Naeyc (Vol. 10) (2). Comparison Between Natural Stream and Playground’, Jurnal Teknologi, 42(B)(Jun), pp. 1–9. Kellert, S. R. (2005a) Building for Life: Designing and Understanding the Human-Nature Connection. IslandPress. Skar, M., Gundersen, V. and O’Brien, L. (2016). ‘How to engage children with nature: why not just let them play?’, Children’s Geographies, Kellert, S. R. (2005b) ‘Building for Life Designing 14(5), pp. 527–540. and Understanding the Human-Nature Connection’, Nature and Childhood Development, pp. 63–89. Smith, N. (2010) ‘Disappearing Outdoors : The Changing Nature of Childhood Play’. Leach, J. et al. (2007). ‘Children’s ideas about ecology 1: Theoretical background, design and Tunstall, S., Tapsell, S. and House, M. (2007) methodology’, International Journal of Science ‘Children’s perceptions of river landscapes and Education, 17(6), pp. 721–732. play: What children’s photographs reveal’, Landscape Research, 29(2), pp. 181–204. Metz, K. E. (2004). ‘Children’s Understanding of Scientific Inquiry: Their Conceptualization of White, R. and Stoecklin, V. L. (2008). Uncertainty in Investigations of Their Own ‘NURTURING CHILDREN’S BIOPHILIA: Design’, Cognition and Instruction, 22(2), pp. DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE 219–290. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOR YOUNG CHILDREN’, White Hutchinson Leisure & Learning Group, pp. 1–8. Miranda, N. et al. (2017). ‘Preschool Children’s Social Play and Involvement in the Outdoor Environment’, Early Education and Wood-Robinson, C. (1991). ‘Young people’s ideas Development. Routledge, 28(5), pp. 525–540. about plants’, Studies in Science Education, 19(1), pp. 119–135. Moore, R. C. (1986) ‘Childhood’s domain: Play and place in child development’, in Children’s Worth, K. (2010). ‘Science in early childhood Environments Quarterly, pp. 61–62. classrooms: Content and process’, Early Childhood Research and Practice, 10, pp. 1– 118. Murtaza, K. F. (2011) ‘Developing Child Friendly Environment in Early Childhood Education Classrooms in Pakistan’, International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 1(3), p. 11.

Ord, J. and Leather, M. (2011) ‘The substance beneath the labels of experiential learning: the importance of John Dewey for outdoor educators’, Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 15(2).

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A REVIEW OF SOCIO-CULTURAL PREFERENCES TOWARD RURAL LANDSCAPE

N. Nazran*1 , S. Mohamad2 , N. S. Mahasan3

1, 2,3 Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

The past studies have shown that preferences of people about rural landscape are different depending on their socio-cultural. The preference of people from the different socio-cultural background is needed to produce better designs and plans as a milestone to conserve rural landscape. The rural landscapes are influenced by the people’s environment and their socio-demographic background. The aim of this paper is to review studies on the preference of people toward rural landscape. The study reveals that indicator of the landscape has profound influence people perception of landscape. The indicators of landscape preference also are that may influence the different view on landscape perception. This paper also discusses photo- based method to rural landscape preference assessment. The findings conclude that socio-cultural aspects also correspondingly affect the landscape preference.

Keywords: Socio-cultural; Preference; Rural landscape

1.0 INTRODUCTION or as the background to a portrait (Relph 1981). Olwig (1996) stated that the word The terminology of landscape has various of “Landschaft” originates from Germanic- interpretations and meaning from different speaking nations of Northern Europe. perspectives Taylor (2011). Landscape perpetually is an area of land having a It has thus been inferred that landscapes variety of landscape elements such as does not only possess a physical and natural or a man-made feature. The visual qualities, but that it also inconsistency in definitions makes it encompasses a psychological, social, problematic to describe landscape clearly and cultural quality, and can explain and sometimes it depends on the differently by different groups. Wylie situation. Historically, the meaning of (2007) which is real and solid. Forman word ‘landscape’ believed it was from and Godron (1986) defined landscape as Anglo-Saxon originates, which it meant a a diverse of area consisted of a cluster of tract of land. However, that’s word interrelating ecosystems that is repetitive probably can be traced during 1600 by in the same form all over. Turner et al Dutch painters to refer to the illustrative of (2001) define landscape as a space that a scene either as a subject in its own right is spatially varied in minimum of one

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factor of interest. A major factor landscape with nice visual created by connecting natural and human oriented human economy activities in rural areas. sciences in landscape study is the mix Every people tend to view things in relationship between people and the different view and with their own landscape: social groups not only effect perception. Preference and perception landscapes but are also affected by allow having better views and landscapes. Landscape also a diversity of understanding the other people needed. natural and cultural processes Few studies have been pressing the interconnect in landscape dynamics importance of taking into account (Tress et all, 2001; Palang and Fry,2003). opinions from various groups. In Rural landscape can be referred to as a landscape preferences studies, the socio-cultural creation or symbol of an identification of similarities across area, or of scenery that change different groups will facillitate the constantly in many parts of the world. development of landscapes design These changes are as a result of guidelines (Strumse,1996). Kaplan and changes in lifestyles, urban patterns and Kaplan (1983) posit that neglecting group energy consumption. Landscape differences in preference study leads to elements found in the earth environment negative consequencies and that a well consisting of natural elements and man- thought development plan might end up made elements. Elements of landscapes in conflicts between differing groups. are not only related to the vegetation and Based on (Hanssen,1998), landscape soil, but it also involves building gives specific meaning arise from human structures, roads or paths, cultural activities. Meaning is not only reflected in heritage monument, patches of the visual, but it becomes part of self- agricultural land and protected areas with human. According to Greider and different social values, cultural and Garkovich,1994, human beings through aesthetical (Forman, 1997). their socio-cultural phenomena transfer the physical environment into landscape, A study by Burgess and Sharper, (1981) which is a reflection of how people define described rural landscape as a themselves. combination of both natural and pattern activity of people’s and land use dynamic. This paper presents a synthesis of 56 Rural landscape can also be defined as a studies from 1977 to 2015 on landscape mosaic of naturally cultivated land outside preference and perception; with the the city limit, including rural settlement, main aim presenting a review studies on interacting with other economic activities the rural preference of people toward such as agriculture and agronomic crop, rural landscape. culture and natural landscape (Forman and Gordorn, 1986;Wang Yuncai,2003). 2.0 FACTORS AFFECT RURAL From (Oueslati & Salanie, 2011), the LANDCAPE PREFERENCE AND landscape can be viewed as an PERCEPTION economic resource and as a local public good in that it provides Rural landscape preference is influenced amenities and supports recreational as not only on the characteristics of the well as productive activities. According landscape, or people’s environmental to Zaizhi (1999) the integration of both the value orientation, socio-cultural aspects natural and man made environments also equally important affect the within the land use patterns, provide the landscape preference. There are many basis for rural landscape examination. previous works has studied on socio- Rural landscape is either created by the cultural preference toward rural environment or human-made landscape. Several studies (Yu,1995; environment planned or accidently based Van den Berg et al.; 2006; Buijs A. E. et on a daily people basis activities such as al., 2009) have pointed out that agriculture. Agriculture looks like a green

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landscape preference is vary among cultures, not only the general images of different culture. nature can vary, but also the preferences for rural landscapes (Kaplan and Talbot, For instance, ones place of residence 1988). Based on Buijs A. E. et al.[19] whether rural or urban and experience study, the study investigates the with the environment is a strong immigrants from Islamic countries and the determinat of landscape preference. native Dutch of their preference toward Studies among rural people have Dutch landscape. The native Dutch show sometimes reported low preferences for higher preferences for rural landscapes wilderness landscape (Fiallo and which are wild and unmanaged compare Jacobsen, 1995; Strumse, E. to the immigrants. This is because in 1996;Durrant and Shumway, 2004; Islam, there is a need to take a good care Howley et al., 2010). For example, results of the nature because nature is from Van den Berg and Koole (2006) represented as well organized and well study revealed that rural people showed managed (Maasen, 2004). The immigrant low preferences of wilderness landscapes tend to show higher preference for forests compared to urban people. There is a and for agricultural landscapes where high premium by rural dwellers for the interaction between humans and nature is development of cultivated environment visible. Dwyer and Hutchison (1990) also than that of wasteland in terms of found cultural differences between black landscape preference. This is due to the and white people in one study in Chicago. momentary influence of the changing Black people more preferred to recreate development plan context ( Van den Berg at a place that developed facilities with and Vlek, 1998). conveniences, on the contrary whites more prefer to natural sites. Equally important, occupation is one of the factors that influence landscape Additionally, age has been found to preference. Brush et al. (2000) found that influence landscape preference. Many landscape preferences differed studies found that children displayed significantly among farmers, foresters, preference differently from adults. Van logging contractors, lake-owners and den Berg and Koole (2006) study found tourist in a study in rural Wisconsin. that children display relatively high These differences were partly explained preference for wilderness landscape by different levels of knowledge regarding compare to elderly people. The elderly the roadside landscapes. Similar with people prefer managed landscape may Tempesta, T., & Vecchiato, D. (2015) be due to their physical and psychological study, the experts evaluate the presence limitation which may increase the risk of some elements in landscape from danger of wilderness area. As preference that vary from lay people. The Sayadi et al.(2005) notes the younger experts valued the rarity of the species in people (18-25 years) value the the landscape image more than their agricultural component more than older visibility. These situation can be people( older than 25). explained because of they are less affected by the visibility of an element Landscape preference also influence by than lay people and tend to quality the education level and knowledge of the importance of the landscape type or to particular landscape. Yu (1995) the element itself. Moreover, farmers also mentioned that education level were differ in landscape preferences compare strong determinant factors of landscape to non-farmer ( E. Rogge et al.,2007; preference. It stated that educational Sayadi et al. 2009; Vanslembrouck et al., background and environmental 2002). experience have a significant influence on landscape preference than landscape Culture play important role in determine expertise. Similar with Sayadi et al.(2005) landscape preference. Between different study that mentioned the graduates

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appreciate the agricultural component A comparison of results between more than those with lower level of study. photographs, and ‘on-site experience, Based on (Brush et al., 2000; Herzorg et indicates that use of surrogates such al., 2000); studies, concluding that photograph in visual assessment of important differences in view exist landscape is valid. Stamps (1990) between experts and public people on conducted a meta-analysis of some of landscape preference and judgement. these studies discussing preferences According to Strumse (1996) the public obtained both on-site experience and rates agrarian landscape higher than through photographs of the environments. experts and posits that knowledge and A high correlation was constantly training acquired in landscapes reported and respondents were found to disciplines leads to lower preference react with the same reaction both real rating of landscape. experience and photographs. Employing photograph in perception research on 3.0 METHODOLOGY community O’ Brien & Wilson (2011) APPROACHES ON LANDSCAPE found out that even with little information PREFERENCE STUDY: PHOTO- at their disposal human can easily and accurately pass judgments about a BASED ASSESSMENT phenomenon.

In landscape preference and perception As the literature mentioned, the majority studies, photography remains the most of the study use photography as a widely used and can be as surrogates for method to study landscape preference the real landscape view. These were assessment. Methods of the survey confirmed the validity of photographs as included photo-based questionnaires and surrogates for landscape preference and interviews with numerical ranking and perception studies (Shafer and Brush, rating procedure mostly applied on rural 1977, Shuttleworth, 1980; Kane, 1980; landscape preference studies. However, Palmer and Hoffman, 2001, E. Rogge et another procedure commonly used in al,2007, P. Howley, 2011). Though landscape studies is participant self- photographs allows for better perception conducted photography and arranging of specific landscape features by photographs in various sorting respondents, yet Shuttleworth (1980) procedures. In photo-based argues that photographs are more questionnaires and interviews. reliable in the overall landscape perception than the detail perception of In photo-based research, sorting landscape elements and characteristics. procedures also widely used in Furthermore, though the total landscape preference and perception of landscape. experience, especially its nonvisual Sorting procedures is a technique to aspects tactile and other sensory qualities investigate the preference and such as sound, smell cannot be perception of participants, by having adequately express by photograph, it participants rank and sort a series of nevertheless convey much of the photo according to degrees of likes and richness of a landscape setting it was dislikes (Fairweather& Swaffield 2001). argued J.R. Fairweather et. all. (1998). In the case of landscape assessment, Photograph not just cannot display sorting procedures have shown to be nonvisual impact on the site, it also hard effective in stimulating environmental to visualize overall component (Kim et al. conceptualizations and decisions (Scott 2003). This statement supported by Kroh & Canter 1997; Real et al. 2000; Green and Gimblett, (1992) that people do not 2005). respond the assessment similarly to on- site experience due to the impact of the multi-sensory stimuli gathered during field experiences.

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Table 1 Description of landscape preference indicators

Landscape Description Authors preference indicator Place of The situation where the rural Fiallo and Jacobsen, 1995; Strumse, E. residence& people show less preferences for 1996;Durrant and Shumway, 2004; Howley familiarity wilderness landscapes however et al., 2010; Van den Berg and Koole,( urban people is usually inferred 2006; Van den Berg and Vlek, 1998; in terms of rural people’ more Lyons, 1983; Wellman and direct experience with the Buyhoff, 1980; managed landscape (Strumse, E.1996). Occupation The results from previous studies Brush et al. (2000); Tempesta, T., & are not parallel on the impact of Vecchiato, D. (2015); E. Rogge et al.,2007; occupation towards landscape Sayadi et al. 2009; Vanslembrouck et al., preference. Some authors do (2002); Hunziker et al., 2008; Rogge et al., have a significant difference and 2007; Vouligny et al., 2009), other studies did not find any difference (Tempesta, T., & Vecchiato, D. (2015) Age The varying preference of Van den Berg and Koole (2006); Sayadi et landscape can be modified al.(2005); Balling and Falk, through familiarity across life 1982; Lyons, 1983; Strumse, 1996; Van span (Balling and Falk,1982) den Berg et al., 1998 Education There is a significant difference Yu( 1995); Sayadi et al.(2005) Brush et al., level& in preference for particular 2000; Herzorg et al., 2000; Strumse (1996) knowledge landscapes between groups of the differences levels of knowledge people.

Culture Cultural influence in preference Kaplan and Talbot, 1988; A.E. Buijs et of landscape is more probably to al.,2009;Yu, 1995) appear in particular images that contain some of the meaning of culture (Hull and Revell, 1989). Still, there is also very weak the impact of culture on landscape preference.

4.0 CONCLUSION In the methodological aspect, the use of photographs as surrogate widely used in It has been shown here that rural rural landscape study. Even some of landscape preference is influenced not study identified some limitations in photo- only on the characteristics of the based study, it is valid and applicable landscape, or people’s environmental used to accurately portray the actual value orientation; however, socio cultural landscape visual for aesthetic judgment. aspects also equally important affect the Irrespective of it is representing the real landscape preference. This can be due to landscape; sometimes it may provide place of residence & familiarity, false impression to the participants if not occupation, age, education and culture aware of quality of the pictures. influences. It can be concluded that Therefore, photo must be appropriately different of socio background have sample to retain photograph quality such different view about rural landscape. wide-angel lenses, lighting and view of landscape environment. In addition, with

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proper choice for photographing Forman, R.T.T., Gordorn, M.. Landscape Ecology. landscape portraits technique will New York :Wiley;1986 accomplish a better finding of any study Forman, R.T.T., 1997: Land mosaics, the ecology objective. This study will also encourage of landscapes and regions. Cambridge all professionals in considering the University Press, Cambridge,UK. different view of people and understand the other people needed to produce Green, R. (2005) Community perceptions of environmental and social change and tourism better plan for the future. development on the island of Koh Samui, Thailand, Journal of Environmental REFERENCES Psychology, 25, pp. 37–56.

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IMPACT OF GREEN SCHOOL GROUND ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE: A REVIEW

N. S. Mahasan *1, M. H. Rasidi2 and N. Nazran3

1, 2,3 Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have shown that a green environment has many benefits for student learning and development. This paper intends to address the impact of green school ground on student outcomes. Therefore, understanding and growing the green school ground is vital for the purpose of student development benefit. The aim of this paper is to present the findings across the articles on the matter of green school environment associated with beneficial and potential to the student. The studies were limited to student’s ages 0-18 years, the articles in English language and publish date from 1987-2017. The search across 136 articles and 30 studies met the inclusion criteria for this study were reviewed. This paper also discussed the research methods for a study on the green school environment. The synthesis results conclude that green school environment is one of the components that affect student behavior, social, physical and cognitive development. The environment of green school promotes a positive impact on student creativity, enthusiasm, social skill, physical activity and was even associated with the academic result. Whilst the research on the matter with green school applied the mixed method of data collection. However, many of the articles are written in an anecdotal genre making it difficult to fully understand the impacts of the green school grounds described in these studies and most of the studies concern mostly on the western country and less on Malaysia setting. Recommendations for more scientific evidence and detailed study are provided corresponding to the green school environment potential.

Keywords: School ground, Outdoor green learning environment, Natural environment, Research methodology

1.0 INTRODUCTION such as service learning, outdoor and place-based education, and Over the last decade, the concept of environmental education can lead to green and sustainability has emerged as improvements in academic performance an important contributor to the and related indicators (Hoody, L. L., & development of schools. There are a lot Lieberman, G. A., 2005; Dudek, M., of studies that have found that 2000). There are numerous studies components of sustainability education linking whole school building as a

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learning place (Dudek, M., 2000; Lackney trails, would be considered green J.A., 1996; Sanoff, H. et al., 2003). (Evergreen, 2000b). However, ‘greening’, School grounds play a significant role in whereas the term “green” as in school delivering these outcomes, providing ground is an adjective and refers to the safe, stimulating environments where description of the school ground, the term children and young people can learn, “greening” school grounds is a gerund explore, play and grow, regardless of that refers to the actual process of their educational needs (Flutter, J., 2006). transformation. Sometimes these two He also pointed out school grounds can terms are used together, represented as be a place to the student learning ‘greening school grounds’ and refers to platform. Students find lessons outdoors both the product and the process. learning more relaxed, interesting and Green school also known as sustainable easier to understand, and they think their school can be described as the teachers are “friendlier outdoors”. integration of sustainability into school organization including governance, There are many factors that contribute to pedagogical approaches, curriculum, student performance through the school management of the resources, operations environment. The literature review shows of the school and school grounds that the environment relates to the (Henderson, K., & Tilbury, D., 2004). student's achievement. According to Gordon, D. E. (2010) stated that the (Catling, S., 2005), in well-designed process of build green school is the school environments, students often feel consensus process of planning, more valued. The design of school designing, and construction as the result grounds has an influence on the social, are the building’s performance for over intellectual, and cognitive development of 50- to 60-year life cycle. Also, he stated students (Durán-Narucki, V., 2008; Killen that the green school is needed in order J. P. et al., 2003). Other studies show to provide clean air, a comfortable that school grounds make students feel temperature range, plentiful light, more attached to their schools (Kumar, R. controllable noise, improving the resource et al., 2008). efficiently, decreasing pollution, and as a This paper presents a synthesis of 30 setting for students learning the studies from 1987 to 2017 on school importance of the invention in the built grounds; with the main aim of presenting environment. Because of the above a review of studies on green school explanation on green school, there is no environment and relationship with student doubt that green and sustainability is the performance. fundamental element that must be present in the school environment for the 1.1 The concept of green school purpose of student development benefit. ground 1.2 The characteristic of green There is no specific meaning on what it school means to be Green. Green also usually termed as a sustainable, high In order to design and build green and performance and environment-friendly sustainable school buildings and grounds, (Rasmy, M. O., 2011). Green school from table 1, these are the compilation of ground will be defined as being ‘green’ several general characteristics of green when explicit intervention has occurred to school. increase the presence of natural elements on the school grounds. As an 2.0 METHODOLOGY example, a school that is beside a lake or forest would not be considered green; The articles were searched through conversely, a school where some sort of various sources from internet database intervention has occurred, in the form of and journals: ScienceDirect journal, tree planting, gardening, or creation of

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Google Scholar, JSTOR, Scopus, Web of green school ground on student Science and ProQuest Dissertations & performance, Theses Global. Refer to the aim of this study which is to address the impact of

Table 1 The Characteristic of green school

Criteria of green school Description Integrated site planning and landscaping design Minimize the use of pesticides and provide a (Olson, S. L., & Kellum, S., 2003). comfortable outdoor learning environment for students. Conserves energy and natural resources design Using renewable energy sources such as (Olson, S. L., & Kellum, S., 2003). Photovoltaics to convert energy from the sun to generate electricity. Good indoor air quality design (Olson, S. L., & Efficient ventilation systems to produce fresh air. Kellum, S., 2003) & (Ramli, N. H., et al., 2012). Use green material design (Olson, S. L., & Kellum, To eliminate or minimize harmful pollutants to S., 2003). reduce contribution to a lung ailment. Daylighting efficiency design (Olson, S. L., & Good building envelope design for optimum use of Kellum, S., 2003) & (Ramli, N. H., et al., 2012). daylight. Reduce sound pollution (Ramli, N. H., et al., 2012). Sound pollution from transportation can be reduced by alternative transport option such as walking and cycling to school. Efficient wastewater treatment (Ramli, N. H., et al., Replace school toilets with low-flow toilets. 2012). Efficient waste management (Klett, J. and Implement programs that encourage people at Cummins, A. 2011) school to buy less, compost, recycle and reuse to create an environmentally friendly practice Protection of habitat (Council, U. G. B., 2008). The creation of food and habitat gardens in school grounds can be good places to study sustainability. Easy to maintain and operate (Ramli, N. H., et al., Maintenance of building system such as heating, 2012). and cooling systems so that runs efficiently. Visually pleasing (Klett, J. and Cummins, A. 2011) Natural plantings of trees and shrubs in school give a pleasant view.

four main search terms were developed: green school environment and the green school ground or green schoolyard, summary of research findings. school outdoor environment, natural environment, and student performance. 3.1 Samples and methodology The articles were limited to student’s ages 0-18 years, the articles in English The review of literature relating to student language and publish date from 1987- use of school environments has shown 2017. The search across 136 articles and that they primarily focused on student 30 studies met the inclusion criteria for aged between 5 and 18-year-olds. At this this study were reviewed. The abstract stage, the use of the outdoor environment and the full articles were read to is widely (Chawla, L.,1992; Kellert, S. R., determine the studies which focused on 2002 ). the impact of green school ground on the student performance. The review of literature applied interview or questionnaires as well as observation 3.0 RESULTS method on student’s activity and behaviour (Prezza, M. ,2007; Bredekamp, From 30 articles reviewed, table 2 below S., 1987). Interview techniques are shows the methodological aspect of the effective as researchers can understand

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well, for example, the story behind school environment and student children drawing(Ghaziani, R., 2010). performance. Table 3 below shows the However, they do not provide proven trend of studies on the green school evidence, particularly in relation to the environment. developmental benefits of school environment use. Video and audio The poor condition of the school recording (Lowry, A. B., Gelardi, P. J., environment or school ground will make &Rochelo, D. R., 1993;Herrington, S., student unable to learn well. Green &Studtmann, K., 1998), smiley/sad faces school environment produces a safe, (Cox, S., Robinson-Pant, A., & Elliot, B., pleasant, healthy, environment-friendly 2003), wish poem, and rating scales and conducive learning environments for (Taylor et al., 2002) are others examples students (Olson, S. L., & Kellum, S., of methods for observing children in the 2003). Green school environment can environment. They provide insights as benefit student behavior, social, physical they have strong feelings and a lot of and cognitive development. implicit knowledge about the environments they use every day which 3.2.1 Social behaviour development are useful for planning strategies on design school environment (Hart, J., & Green school grounds provide rich Gunty, M., 1997; Chawla, L., 1992). The experiences to the student giving them table 2 below shows the methodological access to real-life natural experiences. aspect ofthe green school environment The students can handle, touch, smell and the summary of the research and even taste the material they are findings. From this can be concluded that learning with. The school grounds which various method or mix method of data are dull and boring lead to student collection is the primary use by the frustration and aggression. Moreover, researcher as research studies of the green school ground can increase the school environment. mood and control student behaviour, which enhance cooperative play, civil 3.2 Impact of green school ground behaviour, and decrease student on student performance discipline problems (Dyment, J. E., 2005).

There has been a growing study regarding the relationship between green

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Table 2 The Methodological Aspect of green School Environmental Research

Area of study Author Subject/Respondent Method of Findings study Green school Dyment JE. 149 respondent from Questionnaire& To integrate sustainable /green (2005) principals, teachers interview school grounds into the lives of and parents of 45 students and teachers, a schools elementary, fundamental shift in the culture middle and high of schooling is needed, schools particularly with regard to educational policy, teacher training and curriculum Ramli, N. guidelines in foreign compared and -the criteria of sustainable H. et al. countries school analyze the school design (2012) secondary data

Green Dyment, 105 respondents - questionnaire Green school grounds should &physical J.E., Bell, from teachers, figure prominently within development A.C., parents, and comprehensive school-based (2007) administrators of 59 strategies to promote physical elementary school. activity specifically Green &Social Kasalı, A., 3 school of total 173 -Yes/No and Environmental differences behaviour & Doğan, F. students from fifth, open-ended impact students’ preferences of development (2010). sixth and seventh questionnaire outdoor spaces both according grade -Observation to gender and grades. Fiskum T.A. 12 students from the Observation Outdoor education has many & Jacobsen fifth grade of one positive behavioural effects K. (2012) primary school such as more physical activity, greater concentration, less restlessness, less verbal and motor agitation, more positive emotions and a larger amount of emotional variability. Green Fjo¨ rtoft, I., kindergarten children spatial overlay - There was a positive relation &cognitive &Sageie, J. aged 5, 6 and 7 years analysis and between play activities and the development (2000) of age correlation plots diversity in vegetation types and physiognomy of trees and shrub

Malone, K., 50 students from 5 Interview and At at a philosophical level, & Tranter, primary schools of 8- observation most schools operate on a very P. J. (2003) 10 years old student. narrow field of vision in regard to the value of school grounds as formal and informal sites for learning. Arbogast 101 primary school mailed survey No correlation having lawn K.L. et covering over 50% of the al.(2009) school grounds with an increase in outdoor recess time. The presence of sports fields and, to a lesser degree, playgrounds encouraged more outdoor recess time as well.

The well designed of school environment students and teachers have meaningful has been shown to impact students’ relationships as they seemed more social development (Durán-Narucki, V., relaxed and open when learning takes 2008; Kumar, R. et al.,2008; Alexander, place in a rich natural environment J., 1995; Cheskey, E.,1996; Taylor, A. F. (Dyment, J. E. ,2005). The interaction et al., 1998; Hüttenmoser, M.,1995). between students also increases which Green school environment has the benefit can be seen through the cooperation to the student-teacher relationship. Both between them and they become more

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socially interact (Alexander, J., 1995; 3.2.3 Cognitive development Titman, W., 1994). Green school grounds give the 3.2.2 Physical development opportunity to the student creative, imaginative and spontaneous play There are many studies stated that possibilities (Herrington, S., & Studtmann, schools ground as one of the components K., 1998; Fjo¨ rtoft, I., &Sageie, J., 2000; that contribute to student physical Kirkby, M., 1989; Kirkby, M.,1989; development (Biddle, S. et al.,1998; Dyment, J. E., 2005; Malone, K., & Klesges, R. C. et al., 1990). Students Tranter, P. J., 2003; Weinstein, C. S., & learn and play in a natural environment Pinciotti, P.,1988). The green school becomes more active. Green school provide more access to nature and effect environment with natural playscape greater the cognitive functioning of promote a positive impact on student student (Wells, N. M. ,2000) by physical activity (Dyment, J.E., Bell, A.C., observing, interacting and exploring with 2007; Fjo¨ rtoft, I., &Sageie, J., 2000), nature such as building or making things motor coordination and obesity with loose materials from school ground. prevention (Humpel, N. et al. 2002; Owen, N. et al. 2000; Sallis, J. F. et al. 1993; Trost, S. G. et al., 2002; Ferreira, I. et al., 2007).

Table 3 The discipline and research concern on green school environment context

Year Type of Discipline Authors Research Concern 1987- Education, Health, Bredekamp, S. (1987); Weinstein, C. Physical activity in a 1989 Children’s S., &Pinciotti, P. (1988); Kirkby, M. A. community setting; Environments (1989); childhood education, cognitive functioning. 1990- Children’s Alexander, J. et al. (1995); Biddle et al. Social interaction, 1999 Environments, Health, (1998); Bowers, C. A. (1996).Taylor et physical activity of Environmental al. (1998); Huttenmoser, M. young people, culture Education, (1995);Klesges R.C. et al., (1990); dimension of Environment and Moore, R. C., & Wong, H. H. environmental Behaviour, Holistic (1997);Pivnick, J. (1994); Sallis J.F. et education, social Education, al., (1993); Titman, W. (1994); Lackney, relation, cognitive J. A. (1996) functioning, natural environment, physical activity in a community setting, 2000- Environment and Cheskey, E. (2001); Durán-Narucki, V. Behaviour 2009 Behaviour, (2008); Dyment JE. (2005); Dyment, development, social Environmental J.E., Bell, A.C., (2007); Fjo¨ rtoft, I., interaction, cognitive Psychology, &Sageie, J. (2000); Malone, K., & functioning, health, Children’s geography, Tranter, P. J. (2003); Wells, N.M.,( safety, natural Landscape and Urban 2000); Olson, S.L. &Kellum, S. (2003); environment, physical Planning, Henderson, K., &Tilbury, D. (2004); activity, sustainable Environmental Killeen et al. (2003) building, attention Education; capacity, sustainability, Architecture; Medicine; Education; 2010- Environmental A. Kasalı, F.Dogan(2010), Gordon, D. Natural environment, 2017 Psychology, Social E. (2010); Ramli N.H. et al. (2012) sustainable building, and Behavioral Sciences

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4.0 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE the connections?. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(4), 450-456. RESEARCH DIRECTION Biddle, S., Cavill, N., &Sallis, J. F. (Eds.). (1998). This paper has been discussed on the Young and active?: Young people and health- enhancing physical activity: evidence and background of the study, the concept of implications. Health Education Authority. green school environment, the discipline and research concern on green school Bowers, C. A. (1996). The cultural dimensions of environment context, the relationship ecological literacy. The Journal of between green school environment and Environmental Education, 27(2), 5-10. student achievement, and the Bredekamp, S. (1987). Developmentally methodological aspect on school appropriate practice in early childhood environmental research. Generally, it can programs serving children from birth through be concluded that green school age 8. National Association for the Education environment is important to student of Young Children. development as can be seen that the Catling, S. (2005). Children's personal benefit of green school environment geographies and the English primary school impact on student social behavior, geography curriculum. Children's physical and cognitive development. For Geographies, 3(3), 325-344 the methodological aspect of green Chawla, L. (1992). Childhood place attachments. school environment studies, most of the In Place attachment (pp. 63-86). Springer US. studies focus on primary school or elementary school as their subjects of Cheskey, E. (1996). How Schoolyards Influence research and they used mix method to Behaviour. Green Teacher, 47, 11-14. get the data collection. Nevertheless, Council, U. G. B. (2008). Green building facts. US there are still many gaps in school ground Green Building Council. Retrieved on 22 Nov, greening programs. To date, many of the 2015 from www. usgbc. org/ShowFile. aspx. research articles are written in an anecdotal genre making it hard to Cox, S., Robinson-Pant, A., & Elliot, B. understand the effects of the green (2003). Empowering Children Through Visual Communication: A Research Project Funded school grounds described in these by CfBT's Research and Development studies (R.C. Moore & Wong, 1997; Committee. School of Education and Stine, 1997; Titman, 1994). Furthermore, Professional Development, University of East most of the research has been performed Anglia. in the United States and England Dudek, M. (2000). Architecture of schools: the (Lieberman & Hoody, 1998; R.C. Moore & new learning environments. Routledge Wong, 1997). In contrast, less concern in Malaysia. Very little thus is understood Durán-Narucki, V. (2008). School building about the general trends or overall effects condition, school attendance, and academic of Malaysian Green school grounds. achievement in New York City public schools: A mediation model.Journal of Environmental Recommendations for more scientific Psychology, 28(3), 278-286. evidence and detailed study are provided corresponding to the green school Dyment, J. E. (2005). Green school grounds as environment potential. sites for outdoor learning: Barriers and opportunities. International Research in Geographical & Environmental Education, REFERENCES 14(1), 28-45.

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Arbogast, K. L., Kane, B. C., Kirwan, J. L., Ferreira, I., Van Der Horst, K., Wendel‐Vos, W., &Hertel, B. R. (2009). Vegetation and outdoor Kremers, S., Van Lenthe, F. J., &Brug, J. recess time at elementary schools: What are (2007). Environmental correlates of physical

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Gordon, D. E. (2010). Green Schools as High Klesges, R. C., Eck, L. H., Hanson, C. L., Performance Learning Facilities. National Haddock, C. K., &Klesges, L. M. (1990). Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities. Effects of obesity, social interactions, and physical environment on physical activity in Hart, J., &Gunty, M. (1997). The impact of a peer preschoolers. mediation program on an elementary school environment. Peace & Change, 22(1), 76-92. Klett, J. and Cummins, A. 2011. Sustainable Landscaping. CSU Extension Fact Sheet No. Henderson, K., & Tilbury, D. (2004). Whole-school 7.243. Retrieved on 19 Mei, 2015 from approaches to sustainability: An international http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/0724 review of sustainable school programs. Report 3.html Prepared by the Australian Research Institute in Education for Sustainability (ARIES) for The Kumar, R., O'Malley, P. M., & Johnston, L. D. Department of the Environment and Heritage, (2008). Association between physical Australian Government. ISBN, 1(86408), 979. environment of secondary schools and student problem behavior: A national study, 2000- Herrington, S., &Studtmann, K. (1998). 2003. Environment and Behavior. Landscape interventions: new directions for the design of children's outdoor play Lackney, J. A. (1996). Quality in School environments. Landscape and urban Environments: A Multiple Case Study of the planning, 42(2), 191-205. Diagnosis, Design and Management of Environmental Quality in Five Elementary Hoody, L. L., & Lieberman, G. A. (2005). Closing Schools in the Baltimore City Public Schools the Achievement Gap: Using the Environment from an Action Research Perspective. Volumes as an Integrating Context for Learning. State I and II. Education and Roundtable, General Education Benefits. Article from a course with Greg Smith Lieberman, G. A., & Hoody, L. L. (1998). Closing at Lewis and Clark College, Portland Oregon. the Achievement Gap: Using the Environment Spring. as an Integrating Context for Learning. Results of a Nationwide Study. Humpel, N., Owen, N., & Leslie, E. (2002). Environmental factors associated with adults’ Lowry, A. B., Gelardi, P. J., &Rochelo, D. R. participation in physical activity: a (1993). U.S. Patent No. 5,184,255. review. American journal of preventive Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark medicine, 22(3), 188-199. Office.

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THE INTERVENING FACTORS INFLUENCING LEVEL OF ADAPTATION OF THE ISLAMIC GARDEN IN MALAYSIA

Haza Hanurhaza Md Jani*1

1 Department of Landscape Architecture, Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design, International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Islamic garden or better known as the earthly garden of paradise rose to prominence during the peak of the Muslim civilisation. The acknowledgement of the garden received responsiveness attention from the European culture in the 18th century before the garden was started to be undervalued. Numbers of contributing factors causing the issues, among the prominent factor is the occurrence of a gap in adapting the historical values of the Islamic garden into a modern garden development. The difference has gradually caused a limitation towards the adaptation of the Islamic garden as the evidence of the earliest Islamic garden was established in the seventh century, through the development of the Persian garden. In addressing the issues, the study is conducted to identify the intervening factors that influence the level of the adaptation of the Islamic garden, particularly in Malaysia. Inlined to the aim, two objectives are outlined for the study which is to identify the level of the adaptation of the Islamic garden in two garden categories, garden with and without the Islamic garden concept. The second objectives are to determine the intervening factors influencing the adaptation of the Islamic garden for garden design in Malaysia. This study is based on a qualitative method of data collection. Two methods are embedded in the study namely, semi-structured interview and multiple case studies. The findings of the study cover on the level of the adaptation of the Islamic garden in Malaysia and the intervening factors influencing the garden concept. The finding of the study progress around identifying the challenges in adapting the Islamic garden in Malaysia. Through the identification of the potential difficulties, the study contributes to broadening and strengthening the importance of the Islamic garden for research as well as landscape development.

Keywords : Islamic Garden, Intervening Factors, Garden Design

1.0 INTRODUCTION (Hunt, 2011; Ruggles, 2012; Sara Mahdizadeh, 2015), the establishment of The study of the Islamic garden covers a the prominent Islamic garden as a garden wide range of research explorations; for of reference (Stino & Stino, 2011; example, through the historical Wescoat, 2011; Mohamadjavad understanding of the Islamic garden

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Mahdavinejad et al., 2013; Rezakolai et prominent Islamic garden is usually al., 2015; Raheleh Akbari Joni et al., focused on Middle Eastern countries 2016) and future advancement in regards (Farzaneh Elyasi Gorji et al., 2014; to the development of the Islamic garden Halsted, 2014; Iravani et al., 2015). For (Yeganeh & Ghoshouni, 2009; Tabriz & that reason, this study is conducted with a A’zami, 2009; Ruggles, 2008; Pour at al., view to examining the intervening factors 2012; Kazemi & Darskhan, 2014; Faezah influencing the level of adaptation of the Ashtiani, 2015; Rostami et al., 2015). In Islamic garden in Malalaysia. Two this study, the research exploration objectives are outlined to achieve the aim covers the historical aspects and the namely, i) to identify the level of the current condition of the remaining adaptation of the Islamic garden in two evidence, as well as the future garden categories, garden with and advancement of the Islamic garden. without the Islamic garden concept; and Throughout the reviews, a few concerns ii) to determine the intervening factors are raised in the research development influencing the adaptation of the Islamic relating to the topic of the Islamic garden. garden for garden design in Malaysia. As a multicultural society, the intention to A study carried out by Wescoat (1985) adapt the Islamic garden is viewed as a highlights issues related to the Islamic challenging approach considering the garden from the viewpoint of landscape cultural sensitivity of the country. research. The primary concern is the confusion in the terminology used in 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW relation to the Islamic garden, as well as the lack of understanding with regard to The term Islamic garden is closely appreciating the creation of the garden associated with Muslim history. In (Gilliat-Ray, 2010). The argument essence, the Islamic garden came to stresses the importance of strengthening prominence during the development of the basic understanding of the study of the Muslim civilisation. Many researchers the Islamic garden. such as Pour et al. (2012), Kordi (2015) and Nafisi et al. (2015) have verified that Another concern discovered in the the first example of an Islamic garden reviews is that of the limited surviving was formed in the seventh century with evidence that can be used as reference the creation of the Persian garden. These and guidance for the purpose of learning above-mentioned researchers highlighted about the Islamic garden (Gilliat-Ray & the Persian garden as the example that Bryant, 2010; Ruggles, 2009, 2012; Ali went on to have the greatest influence on Assari et al., 2012). Besides, Silverman shaping the next prominent Islamic and Ruggles (2007) point out that the gardens; for example, the Andalusian and surviving evidence is seen as a set of Mughal gardens (Ruggles 2003; Koch tangible indications about the Islamic 2005). Prior to the establishment of the garden that serves to trace the legacy of Persian garden, a garden was perceived the Muslim civilisation. Such deficiency in as a space for relaxation and recreation. maintaining the physical proof is seen as However, with the arrival of Islam in the contributing to a loss of the original sixth century, Leila Mahmoudi Farahani et identity of the Islamic garden. In view of al. (2016) state that there also came the this, this study embarks on discussing the basis of the inspiration for the creation of appropriate method for addressing these the Islamic garden. concerns. Research by Haaga (2005) explains the Another keyword highlight derives from early formation of the Islamic garden after the viewpoint of a local context, with the the establishment of the first Islamic city study’s emphasis being concentrated in state of Medina. The inspiration for Malaysia. According to Germeraad creating the Islamic garden thus came (1993), study of the establishment of the with the arrival of Islam in the city, and

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the influence subsequently spread to foundation for the philosophical other Muslim regions such as Persia, principle of the Islamic garden. Andalusia and Mughal Empire (Luengo & 2. The religion principle: The Ruggles, 2003; Licciardi et al., 2015). detailed explanation of the Muslim countries use Al-Quran as their physical characteristics of the book of reference to provide basic garden mentioned in Al-Quran knowledge for their Muslim populations is viewed as the key reference (Maulawi Sher Ali, 2004; Talal Itani, for the creation of the Islamic 2012). Therefore, according to many garden. researchers, such as Brookes (1987), 3. The symbolism principle: The Smith (1991) and Haenraets et al. (2013), symbolic meaning behind the the inspiration for the Islamic garden was selection of the physical derived from the imaginary garden of characteristics of the Islamic paradise that is mentioned in Al-Quran. garden and the restriction on The beautiful description of the garden in the expression of visual art as paradise inspired Muslim designers highlighted in Al-Quran. during that particular time to create an earthly garden of paradise known as the Research conducted by Adlard (2001) Islamic garden (Haaga, 2005; Sobti & concluded that water and plants were Gharipour, 2009). considered to be the prominent characteristic of the Islamic garden due to Research by Nazinin Nafisi and Yusoff their significant influences and functional Abbas (2014) discusses the importance values. Similar findings by of the elements of land, water, plants and Mohamadjavad Mahdavinejad et al. space within an Islamic garden. A prior (2013) and Rostami et al. (2014) in their research study by Ladan Tajaddini (2008) journal papers agree with the previous also emphasised the importance of these researcher in that water and plants are four elements. In the two similar types of perceived as the key features to research, the researchers concluded that represent the Islamic garden. the Islamic garden is defined by three main principles: philosophical, religion Despite the numerous agreements by and symbolism. Furthermore, the fellow researchers about the two garden UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992– elements, which are the watering and 2015 (2011, June 27) supports this planting orders, a report prepared by statement by emphasising how the Shaghayegh Moalemzadeh Ansari (2015) Persian garden is a representation of the offers an extended perspective. In this concept of a garden in paradise. In view report, she highlighted another prominent of this, these three principles are characteristic to be considered in observed as the foundation for the response to the Islamic garden, that of development of the Islamic garden. This the lodgement. Hardscape elements such implies that the earthly garden of as a pavilion and walls are seen as an paradise is materialised through the important built element in the principles of philosophical, religion and development of the Islamic garden. symbolism. Therefore, the physical characteristics of the Islamic garden is classified into the In a brief summary, the essence of the three garden orders, namely the watering, three principles highlight the following planting and lodgement orders. A total of points: 224 variables were identified from the literature review on the garden orders. To 1. The philosophical principle: break this figure down, 57 variables were The representation of the gathered to represent the watering order, garden of paradise as 82 variables for the planting order and 85 mentioned in Al-Quran is variables to signify the lodgement order observed as the basic (Haza Hanurhaza Md Jani et al, 2018).

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The fundamentals elements of the Islamic the Islamic garden based on three garden garden are based on the three principles orders namely, water, plant and of philosophical, religion and symbolism, lodgement. The variables are converted whereby the idea is to create an earthly into a form of a checklist and used as a garden of paradise. The garden is viewed guide to measuring the level of the as a means of encouraging man towards adaptation of the Islamic garden in four the oneness of God, since He is the site studies. creator of the universe. In Al-Quran, the example of a garden is described in an 4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION exquisite manner, which subsequently inspired man to create a similar garden. It The result of the study are categorised is agreed that the Islamic garden is an into three main sub-topics namely, i) the element of striving for spiritual level of the adaptation of the Islamic enhancement, where religion – Islam – is garden in Malaysia, and ii) the intervening the fundamental basis for the garden. Al- factors influencing the garden concept. Quran and Al-Sunnah serve as both the The elaboration on the result is discussed primary guidance and reference for use in as follows. creating the Islamic garden. The 224 variables gathered from the document 4.1 The Level of the Adaptation of analysis refer to the prominent Islamic the Islamic Garden in Malaysia gardens throughout Islamic history. An evaluation of the case studies in 3.0 METHODOLOGY Malaysia is conducted to discover the level of adaptation of the Islamic garden The study is qualitative in nature. Three in comparison to a garden with and methods of the data collection are without the Islamic garden concept. The adopted in the study namely, document results are presented below in Table 1. analysis, semi-structured interview with the National Landscape Department Table 1 Marking system for the garden (NLD) and the Landscape Department at Aspect Indication KLCC PS MP PP the Putrajaya Corporation (PJC); and Total Watering 50.7 61.3 88.7 81.7 multiple case studies located in Wilayah Percentage Planting 80.4 67.4 89.7 85.3 Lodgement 65.3 69.3 97.5 91.5 Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur and Ranking Watering 3 3 3 3 Putrajaya, respectively. based on Planting 1 2 2 2 The case studies selected are divided percentage Lodgement 2 1 1 1 into two garden categories; a garden with and without the influence of the Islamic The purpose of developing a ranking garden: system for the watering, planting and lodgement garden orders was first to i. A garden with the Islamic garden discover the factors influencing the total concept scores for the gardens. Secondly, it Wilayah Persekutuan (WP) aimed to identify the level of adaptation of Putrajaya: Putrajaya Square, the Islamic garden in terms of the garden Moroccan Pavilion and Putrajaya order for each of the case studies. The Corporation’s Courtyard ranking-based system helps in ii. A garden without the Islamic developing an understanding of the garden concept reason behind the failure to achieve the Wilayah Persekutuan (WP) Kuala assumption of the study. Lumpur: KLCC Park. Based on the overall percentages, the As mentioned in the literature review, results are converted into a ranking- there are 244 variables discovered in based system. The result from the regards to the physical characteristics of literature review based on the identification of the variables indicates the

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rank of the three garden order based on garden design; hence, it contains no the original design of the Islamic garden. influence of the Islamic garden concept. The importance is placed first to water, Nevertheless, the result shows no followed by plant and lastly lodgement. significant difference between the non- Water plays an important role in defining Islamic garden influence and the garden the Islamic garden and to influence the under the influence of the Islamic garden. planting as well as lodgement order. In Therefore, the assumption of the study comparison to the ranking result for could not be concluded to indicate ‘the KLCC Park, Putrajaya Square, the case study with the influence of the Moroccan Pavilion and the Putrajaya Islamic garden concept has a higher Corporation courtyard, the watering order probability of receiving high marks in the is ranked in third place among the three evaluation’. The result, on the other hand, garden orders. shows a relatively close difference between the two garden concepts. Therefore, following these findings, it could be established that the reason Table 2 Average Score for the garden behind the failure to achieve the Garden Categories KLCC PS MP PP assumption of the study is the lack of With the Islamic 66.0% 92.0% 86.0% emphasis on the watering order within the garden concept Without the Islamic 65.5% garden design. The ranking result for the garden concept three case studies in Putrajaya (PS, MP and PP) show that it is the lodgement In this case, the average score for order that is ranked number one as Putrajaya Square (66.0%) is relatively opposed to the watering order. However, close to the average score for KLCC Park for KLCC Park, the planting order is at (65.5%), with a small difference of 0.5%. number one, followed by the lodgement The initial intention of the weightage and, finally, the watering orders. system was to discover the level of the adaptation of an Islamic garden concept According to the result, the similarities in a garden that has the influence of the discovered in the four case studies are for Islamic garden as well as a garden that the ranking position of the watering order. has not been influenced by the concept. As the watering order is ranked in third Based on the findings from the average place, the resulting emphasis is on the percentage, it can be concluded that importance of the watering order in there is very little in the way of significant influencing the scores for the planting as differences between the two garden well as the lodgement orders. On the categories of the PS, a garden with the other hand, the dissimilarities identified in influence of the Islamic garden concept, the ranking result are for the positions of and KLCC Park, a garden without the the planting and lodgement orders. influence of the Islamic garden concept. Nevertheless, the first and second ranks Therefore, another important argument is of the two orders have a relatively small discovered in the process. influence on the scoring result. Therefore, disregarding the importance of the The second argument focuses on the watering order can be seen as one of the enquiry into why there is only a small reasons for the failure to achieve the average percentage difference between a assumption of the study. garden with and without the Islamic garden concept. Supposedly, the The assumption of the study is that a assumption of the study was that ‘the higher possibility for a garden under the average scores for PS are higher than for influence of the Islamic garden concept KLCC’. However, since the actual result will receive higher marks on the shows no significant difference between evaluation. A total of four case studies the two, a reasonable follow-up were conducted, the first of which, KLCC assessment would be to identify the Park, is widely known as a contemporary intervening factors that have led to the

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average percentages having no Table 3 Summary of the causes and significant difference. It is discovered that aspects the intervening factors revolve around two key arguments, which are given as NLD PJC follows: Causes Aspect Aspect Acceptance Limited Limited Knowledge Knowledge i. The first argument considers the Lack of Lack of reason why the watering order is not Understanding Understanding Confusion in considered an important garden Definition element in Malaysia. Sensitivity of the ii. The second argument questions the Term Tendency to reason as to why there is almost no Adopt New significant difference between Concept gardens with and without the Islamic Adaptation Lack of Visibility Misapprehension on the selection of garden concept. material Lack of Identity Misapprehension on In general, there are several factors that the costing contribute to the intervening factors that Lack of Misapprehension on Originality the maintenance have led to the additional argument of this Lack of study. The reasons are compiled from Exposure two sources, namely the results and Lack of Confidence discussion from the literature reviews as Policy Lak of Emphasis Unconcise Policy well as the semi-structured interviews Unconcise No Proper conducted with i) the research team from Policy Guideline Inadequate the NLD, and ii) the representative from Knowledge the Putrajaya Corporation Landscape and No Proper Parks Department (PJC). Detailed Guideline explanations of the intervening factors are elaborated in the following section. By taking every aspect into account, the points mentioned in Table 3 are observed 4.2 The Intervening Factors as the underlying reasons contributing to Influencing the Garden Concept the following arguments:

In response to the two arguments i. The reasons why the watering highlighted in the previous section, there order is not considered to be is a theoretical and empirical explanation an important garden element in for the enquiries. Based on the Malaysia. discussions, the causes and aspects ii. The reasons for gardens with contributing to the issues foreseen by the and without the Islamic garden NLD and PJC were revealed through a concept to have very little in series of assessments, comprising i) the the way of significant evaluation of the ranking system, and ii) differences. the average percentages (refer to Tables 1 and 2). The details of the causes and The results from the four case studies at aspects as mentioned by both of these KLCC Park, Putrajaya Square, the government bodies (NLD and PJC) are Moroccan Pavilion and the Putrajaya presented in Table 3. Corporation courtyard are indicative of the current situation in Malaysia. It is viewed as being in line with the perceptions of the NLD concerning the low level of adaptation and acceptance of the Islamic garden concept in the country. Besides, in looking at the results, the concern highlighted by the NLD is also

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addressed by the representative of the Elyasi Gorji. (2014). Influence of Persian Putrajaya Corporation Landscape and Garden as Urban Green Spaces on Promotion of Social Interactions Citizens ; Case Study : Parks Department. Therefore, to Garden Chehel Sotun ( Mellat Park ) of overcome and reduce the impact, a Behshahr City, Iran. Journal of Civil checklist on the physical characteristics of Engineering and Urbanism, 4, 41–47. the Islamic garden is regarded as one of the needs by the NLD as a way to assist Germeraad, P. W. (1993). Islamic traditions and the landscape development in the general contemporary open space design in Arab- Muslim settlements in the Middle idea to develop a garden with the Islamic East. Landscape and Urban Planning, 23(2), garden concept. 97-106.

Gilliat-Ray, S. (2010). Muslims in Britain: An 5.0 CONCLUSION Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This study was conducted to identify the intervening factors that influence the level Haaga, E. (2005). Paradise in the Garden: the of the adaptation of the Islamic garden. In influence of the Islamic Garden Today. West view of this, a series of reviews and Looks East: The Influence of Traditional Arab Design on contemporary Western Designers. evaluations were conducted to focus on Retrieved from the aim and objectives outlined in the http://www.mosaicfound.org/sc/cultural_media/ study. The intention to carry out the topic wle_Haaga_bio. was to develop an understanding of the challenges occurs in adopting the Islamic Haenraets, J., Schwann, A., & Hollingsworth, M. (2013). Paradise in Conflict: Reexamining and garden in Malaysia. The challenges are Safeguarding the Genius of the Mughal observed as a limitation to implement the Gardens of Kashmir. Landscape Research concept in garden design. By identifying Record, 1, 160-174. the challenges, the findings have brought a way forward technique to address the Halsted, L. (2014). The Perso-Islamic Garden: A Reclassification of Iranian Garden Design after level of the adaptation of the Islamic the Arab Invasion (Unpublished senior thesis). garden. A discovery on the extent of the Davidson College, Davidson, North Carolina. adaptation of the Islamic garden in Malaysia highlights the need for guidance Haza Hanurhaza Md Jani., Nor Zalina Harun., to assist in directing a way to implement Mazlina Mansor., & Ismawi Zen. (2018). Physical Characteristics of the Islamic Garden the Islamic garden. in response to Landscape Development in Malaysia (Unpublished phd's thesis). REFERENCES Hunt, P. (2011). History of the movement of the Adlard, M. C. (2001). The garden as a metaphor Persian garden to other culture. Walnut Creek, for paradise (Unpublished master's thesis). CA: The Garden Conservancy.

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Licciardi, G., Boer, B., Brooks, L. A., Visentini, M. Rezakolai, S. A., Samadi, D., & Tabatabaian. A., Chaudhary, S. A., Herpin, U., & Hurka, H. (2015). Analysis of Persian Gardens using (2015). Qur'anic Botanic Garden in Sharjah Kaplan’s landscape preference theory (Case (UAE). UNESCO: Doha. study: Fin garden, Shazdeh Mahan garden & El Goli garden). International Journal of Luengo, A., & Ruggles, D. F. (2003). Gardens, Architectural Engineering & Urban Planning, Landscapes, and Vision in the Palaces of 25(1), 6-20. Islamic Spain. Garden History, 31(1), 115. Sara Mahdizadeh. (2015). Persian Gardens and Maulawi Sher Ali. (2004). The Holy Qu’ran: Arabic Pavilions: Reflections in History, Poetry and text and English translation. Tilford, Surrey, the Arts. Landscape Research, 40(4), 515-516. UK: Islam International Publications. Shaghayegh Moalemzadeh Ansari. (2015). An Mohamadjavad Mahdavinejad, Nasim Gholami Investigation into Water Usage and Water Rostam & Sepide Mahdavi. (2013). The Role Efficient Design for Persian Garden (pp. 1-5, of the Gestalt Theory in Understanding Persian Rep.). Tucson, Arizona, United States: The Architectural Masterpieces, Case Study: Fin University of Arizona. Retrived June 1, 2017, Garden of Kashan. International Journal of from https://linguistics.arizona.edu. Management and Sustainability (IJMS), 2(1), 1-13. Shahram Nassehzade Tabriz., & Ahadollah A’zami. (2009). Analyses of Iranian Garden Nazanin Nafisi., Mohamed Yusoff Abbas., & Sara Design Art from Landscape Architecture and Nafisi. (2015). The Role of Belief and Religion Urbanism View. Proceeding of the 5th of Persian Garden. Journal Architecture International Conference on Energy, Engineering Technology, 4 (3), 153. Environmental, Ecosystems and Sustainable Development, EEESD, Vouliagmeni, Athens, Pour, H. N., Rad, M. M., & Pishe, S. M. (2012). Greece, 28-30 October 2009. WSEAS Press, Persian Gardens Are Sustainable Gardens : Bulgaria. Scrutinize the Sustainablity Features in Persian Gardens. Paper presented at the Silverman, H. & Ruggles, D. F. (2007). Cultural ARchi-Cultural Translations through the Silk Heriatge and Human Rights. New York: Road 2nd International Conference, Springer. Mukogowa Women's University, Nishinomiya, Japan, July, 14-16, 2012, (pp. 280–285). Sobti, M. P., & Gharipour, M. (2009). The Hues of Paradise- Examining Color Design Layout in Raheleh Rostami., Hasanuddin Lamit., Seyed the Persian Garden. In S. Blair, & B. Jonathon Meysam Khoshnava., Rasoul Rostami., & (Eds.), And Diverse Are Their Hues: Color in Muhamad Solehin Fitry Rosley. (2015). Islamic Art and Culture. Paper presented at Sustainable Cities and the Contribution of The Third Biennial Hamad Bin Khalifa Historical Urban Green Soaces: A Case Study Symposium on Islamic Art, Palacio Congresos of Historical Persian Gardens. Sustainability, Cordoba, Spain, 2-4 November (pp. 1-50). 7(10), 13290-13316. Doha: Qatar Foundation.

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DETERMINANTS OF OCCUPANCIES AND PATTERNS OF THE MULTICULTURAL SOCIETIES AT THE URBAN MOSQUE OPEN SPACES IN KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA

Norhanis Diyana Nizarudin*1

1 Department of Landscape Architecture, Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Mosques are recognised as physical representations of Islam and its cultural distinctiveness in Malaysia. The novel notion of the mosques suggests that its function as a public place should be all-inclusive, not only for Muslims but also to instigate the participation of other society members. Apart from emphasising the mosques’ built architectural elements, the idea of exploring the inclusive occupancies of the mosque open spaces is believed to be highly significant. Alongside the far-reaching studies conducted on the utilisation of open spaces, this study intends to identify the determinants of spatial occupancies of the open spaces by the multicultural societies at the national, district and sub-district urban mosques in Kuala Lumpur. Through systematic observations with behaviour mapping, this method lends itself to an investigation of the usage-spatial relationship of open spaces in the forms of behavioural patterns based on certain intervals of time and narrative information. A few spatial determinants were identified – the location of the urban mosques, the spatial layout of the studied open spaces, the design and conditions of landscape features, as well as the allocation of facilities and amenities. Besides, sociocultural determinants were also identified from the observations and conversations with users which include – the heterogeneity of users and their interactions, the physical and social activities happening in and around the open spaces, as well as users’ preferences and motivations for utilising the spaces. Based on the identified determinants, improvements on the existing urban mosque open spaces design are required in fostering better multicultural participation and engagement.

Keywords: Spatial determinants, Sociocultural determinants, Urban mosque, Open spaces

1.0 INTRODUCTION mosque as a central place of worship that holds the spatial, spiritual and societal In urban areas, institutions such as qualities in Islam. The original idea of the mosques, chapels, churches, mosque was that it would not only serve synagogues and temples are the as a sacred institution for Muslims, but symbolism of religious and cultural also encourage towards inclusive identity (Cisneros, 1996, Shipps, 2013). community involvement by functioning as Mohamad Rasdi (2010) defines the

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a public space for beneficial multipurpose aesthetical values. Besides, Sirat and activities that could elevate the social Abdullah (2007) suggest that the well-being of the community (Omer, establishment of such spaces should 2013). Maroofi et al. (2014) agree that the cater the needs of multi-ethnic societies, sociocultural aspect of the mosque could as there is no indication of regulation improve social cohesion and enhance that prohibits the multicultural, or even people’s sense of belonging. the non-Muslim community from engaging in social activities in the open Pertaining to the issue of the weakening spaces around the mosque. role of the mosque, further attention should be given to the design of Based on the discussion of issues, the mosques. The design of mosques primary aim of this study is to explore seems to have created more exclusive the spatial and sociocultural factors of spaces which allow for restricted usage urban mosque open spaces in order to by certain community groups (Sirat and ascertain the extent to which Abdullah, 2007). Less integration of intercultural space exists within those important spaces such as courtyards areas. This study offers insight into the into the design of mosques may also potential value of urban mosque open reduce the roles of the mosque open spaces as a significant means of spaces. Salmani, Rahimi and Khakzand improving cultural and social integration (2016) concurs that mosque open within the community. With these aims spaces work as significant spaces for in mind, the following are the objectives the community. By overlooking this for this study: importance, it has led to gradually reducing or even eliminating the open i) to investigate the extent to which space in the mosques. urban mosque open spaces are used as intercultural spaces; As such, it can be assumed that, the mosque itself could not conceivably ii) to examine spatial occupancy and operate as a communal space for the activity patterns, as well as users’ local community. Nevertheless, mainly preferences, regarding the use of in the Kuala Lumpur area, even those urban mosque open spaces; mosques sans courtyards in Malaysia still possess some of the potentials and iii) to examine the views of mosque characteristics of common shared managers, Muslims and non- spaces (Sirat and Abdullah, 2007). Muslims regarding activities and These notions reveal that, in Malaysia, a interactions within urban mosque variety of communal spaces are open spaces; associated with the mosque are not necessarily courtyards. It may comprise iv) to examine the non-Muslims’ of other open spaces around the perceptions, experiences and mosque, neighbouring context adjacent feelings towards urban mosques to the mosque and other significant open spaces, and to find out how spaces that may not officially be part of the spaces are perceived by other the mosque. users;

Efforts have been made to change the v) to make recommendations about mosque open spaces into attractive and how urban mosque open spaces valuable public open spaces that should ideally be designed in encourage connections within the order to make them suitable for community. The mosque open spaces the multicultural community. should be appreciated for their distinguished environmental and societal functions, not merely for their

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2.0 THE NEXUS OF MOSQUE the Muslim community. OPEN SPACES DESIGN AND COMMUNITY Open spaces such as ‘sahn’ (courtyards) have always been acknowledged as a vital element in the history of the mosque Since the prominence of this study is design (Salmani, Rahimi and Khakzand, mosque open spaces, it is vital to 2016). Devres (1996) highlights that acknowledge the nexus between open mosque courtyards and gardens were spaces and the mosque itself. There has perceived as public open spaces in been little research focused explicitly on Istanbul, Turkey. Benli (2013) mentions mosque open spaces, including the that mosque courtyards were utilised as terminologies and parameters in relation public gathering areas during the to the mosque open space itself. Ottoman era as their environment were Nevertheless, in their study on Malaysian calm and conducive to users. There was campus mosque open spaces, Ismail, great demand for open spaces at the Megat Abdullah and Ibrahim (2010) mosque to serve the needs of the highlighted that mosque open spaces: community during the historical and traditional times. (…) should be similar to landscape park and recreational areas design which combine In differentiating between the types and artistic values and technology so that users not only can appreciate the natural elements layouts of mosque open spaces, Salmani, in its existing surrounding but also equipped Rahimi and Khakzand (2016) analysed with recreational facilities that can cater for the layout plans of the principal mosques passive and active human behaviours. in prominent cities in a few Islamic (Ismail, Megat Abdullah and Ibrahim, 2010, countries. Based on their analysis, they p.3) established a set of general patterns of mosque open spaces. Figure 1 below It is evident that mosque open spaces depicts four distinctive patterns of should serve the similar purpose as other mosque open spaces based on the global types of open spaces such as public context of the mosque developed by parks and squares. They also suggested them. that mosque open spaces should cater for the societal and religious activities of

Figure 1 General patterns of the mosque open spaces (reproduced from Salmani, Rahimi and Khakzand, 2016)

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Based on the patterns of mosque open (2010) summarise three aspects that spaces in Figure 1, each of these should be measured by designers in patterns has its own appearances and planning and designing mosque open design. They may also have dissimilar spaces in Malaysia. It is crucial to roles in fulfilling the needs of mosque understand the macro and micro contexts users and the local community. of the place around the mosque, site’s Alternatively, different patterns of mosque constraints and its users’ needs, as well open spaces might offer users with as the role of the mosque itself. They also different affordances and experience. mention the need to comprehend the Connecting this idea to the context of the functions and roles of mosque open multicultural community, particularly for spaces – so that, the mosque open the non-Muslim community, the layout spaces will be designed in a sustainable patterns and designs of mosque open way and be matched to the users’ needs. spaces may influence the way they utilise Besides, Department of Urban and Rural the mosque open spaces. They may Planning Peninsular Malaysia (2011) observe the spaces contrarily in terms of established a set of design considerations whether they may view them as an as a guide to design mosque open opportunity or a restriction to their use. spaces based on the typology and hierarchy of the mosque (refer to Table Ismail, Megat Abdullah and Ibrahim 1).

Table 1 Design considerations for mosque open spaces in Malaysia (Department of Urban and Rural Planning Peninsular Malaysia, 2011)

Typology Settlements Open space considerations hierarchy National City centre i) Good pedestrian and vehicular mosque Capital city circulations. ii) Appropriate parking spaces for National federal users and visitors. territory iii) A mosque close to a public State mosque transportation hub – which may help State federal to reduce the provision of parking territory spaces and increase the allocation District mosque Main local district for open spaces. iv) Should cater to the needs of the people with physical disabilities (provision of ramps, railings, and etcetera) Sub-district Rural and villages v) Landscape development should be Rural mosque Neighbourhood area carried out from an early stage. Landscape design should be easy to maintain, provide shade and may act as buffer zones for the mosque.

3.0 METHODOLOGY behaviour mapping (quantitative) and focus group discussions (qualitative) were This study employed a cross-sectional the methods of data collection for this design with mixed methods and case study. The data collection was steered in study elements. This study applied an two different phases. During phase one, equal weight to both quantitative and observation data were collected at three qualitative methods; however, the different urban mosques in Kuala quantitative method came first in Lumpur, namely The National Mosque, sequence, followed by the qualitative Abu Ubaidah Al-Jarah Mosque and also method. Systematic observation with Al-Ghufran Mosque. These observation

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data are very important to give a clear application to be further analysed. and structured representation of the real Through systematic observation method, scenario present at each of the case only direct information can be obtained by study areas, which include explorations the researcher, without any association to on spatial occupancy, user activities and causal aspect or relationship. patterns as well as physical settings at Consequently, a reflection on the the urban mosque open spaces. The observation findings was generated in behaviour maps for this study were order to develop suitable questions the digitally transmitted into the ArcGIS focus group discussions in phase two.

Figure 2 Example of behaviour maps generated with ArcGIS for this study based on activities at The National Mosque, Kuala Lumpur (Nizarudin, 2017)

The focus group discussions as a (particularly the National Mosque). qualitative strategy involved three Findings from both focus group different target participant groups – one discussions and social media source professional group and two groups were thematically analysed by using comprising members of the community. Quirkos software application. The discussions were significant in stimulating information that it was not 4.0 DETERMINANTS OF THE possible to obtain through systematic USERS’ OCCUPANCIES AT THE observation. Additionally, the social URBAN MOSQUE OPEN SPACES media source in the form of information obtained from Facebook and blogs post Based on the key findings of the three was used as a supporting method for methods employed in this study, the obtaining supplementary qualitative spatial and sociocultural determinants information with regard to the use of open that encourage intercultural activities and spaces at the studied mosques

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interaction at the urban mosque open (Table 2). spaces can be summarised as follows

Table 2 Summary of spatial and sociocultural determinants that influence the use of urban mosque open spaces in Kuala Lumpur (Nizarudin, 2017)

Spatial factors Sociocultural factors . Convenient location and proximity . Multicultural user’s preferences of the mosque (easy to be towards communal activities at reached by users) the mosque . Functional and safe space design . Suitable social and educational as well as attractive landscape activities organised by the features provided at the mosque mosque management for all open spaces users . Proper accessibility, wayfinding . User’s self-experience and and legibility to the mosque and perceptions in using mosque its spaces. open spaces and engaging with the activities . Influence of facilities available at . Protection of multicultural user’s the mosque open spaces . sensitivity as well as their acceptance and respect towards each other

In the spectrum of spatial determinants, it give them comfort while utilising the is found that location can be considered spaces. as a main factor influecing multicultural users to utilise the urban mosque open Pertaining to sociocultural factors, user’s spaces. Convenience or easy access to preferences towards communal activities reach the mosque location will instigate organised by the mosque management community to visit the mosque and use its has an influence on the use of urban surrounding spaces. On the other hand, mosque open spaces. Some of the users urban mosque open spaces must be suggested that the communal activities functional and safe for the users – the should engage all sectors of community. physical settings of the urban mosque Suitable social and educational activities open space should cater the needs of the should be all-inclusive, so that the multicultural users regardless of their multicultural users (both Muslims and genders, religions, ethnicities, and age non-Muslims) can learn from each other groups. In another perspective, proper especially about their culture, religion and accessibility and wayfinding are also main customs. In addition, this study concerns amongst the multicultural users. discovered that multicultural users’ self Signages should be practically designed experience (e.g: familiarity to the place) to suit the needs of all users – the and perceptions (e.g: pre-judgement language used for the signages should be about the place) about the urban mosque viable to be read by all, thus the use of open spaces have also influenced their primary languages in Malaysia should be use of the spaces. Finally, user’s applied. sensitivity, acceptance and respect towards each other also play a significant Well-maintained facilities has also role in inspiring multicultural users user’s influenced the multicultural users to use to get engaged and interacted witheach the urban mosque open spaces. The other at the urban mosque open spaces. users preferred the spaces that are satisfactorily furnished with physical facilities such as benches, shelters, trash bins and etcetera; as well as good landscape design and features that will

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5.0 CONCLUSION Neighborhoods - Case Study: A Comparative Study of Three Districts of Tehran. International Journal of Architecture and Urban Overall, this study has achieved its aim – Development. Vol.4 (2), pp.59–66. to explore the spatial and sociocultural factors of urban mosque open spaces in Mohamad Rasdi, M. T. (2010) Rethinking Islamic order to ascertain the extent to which Architecture [Online]. Strategic Information and intercultural space exists within those Research Development Centre. Available: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dsDCSA areas. This study has extended our AACAAJ. knowledge in investigating the reasons that may inspire people from different Nizarudin, N.D (2017) Factors Influencing Use of cultural groups to appreciate and get Urban Mosque Open Spaces in Kuala Lumpur, involved with urban spaces that are Malaysia. The University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom. associated with sacred civic institutions such as urban mosques, particularly in Omer, S. (2013) A Code of Conduct for the case of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Establishing and Using Mosques [Online]. IslamiCity.Available:http://www.islamicity.org/5 260/a-code-of- onduct-forestablishing- and- REFERENCES using-mosques/ [Accessed 17 May 2013].

Benli, G. (2013) The Use of Courtyards and Open Salmani, A., Rahimi, M. H. and Khakzand, M. Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul. In: (2016) Analysis of the Importance, Priority and Özyavuz, M. (ed.). Advances in Landscape Originality of Open Space in the Mosque. Architecture. INTECH Open Access Publisher, Journal of Researches in Islamic Architecture. pp.803–820. Vol.3 (4), pp.34–48.

Cisneros, H. G. (1996) Higher Ground: Faith Sirat, M. and Abdullah, A. (2007) Mosques as a Communities and Community Building. type of civic space in turbulent times: A case Cityscape. [Online] pp.71–84. Available: study of globalizing Kuala Lumpur. In: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20868437. Globalization, the City and Civil Society in Pacific Asia: The Social Production of Civic Department of Urban and Rural Planning Spaces. Routledge, pp.104–120. Malaysia (2002) Garis Panduan Perancangan Tempat Ibadat Islam. Jabatan Perancangan Shipps, J. (2013) „See You in Church?‟ Religion Bandar dan Desa Semenanjung Malaysia, and Culture in Urban America [Online].The Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Police Center Series on Religion and Urban Tempatan Malaysia. Culture.Available:http://www.polis.iupui.edu/RU C/Books/SeeYouInChurch/See_You_in_Churc h.htm[Accessed 1 Nov 2013]. Devres, R. (1996) Architecture as a Stage for Play and Self Expression: An Intervention of Public Open Spaces in Istanbul, Turkey. Massachussets Institute of Technology.

Ismail, A. S., Megat Abdullah, A. and Ibrahim, M. A. (2010) A Study of Mosque Open Spaces in MalaysianCampus[Online].Available: https://teknologimalaysia.academia.edu/Depart ments/BUILT_ENVIROMENT/Documents.

Maroofi, S., Akbar Taghvaee, A., Pourjafar, M. R. and Mahshid Jalalian Hosseini, S.(2014a) The Role of Socio-Cultural Components on the Performance of Mosques in Urban Neighborhoods. International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development. Vol.4 (2), pp.59–66.

Maroofi, S., Akbar Taghvaee, A., Pourjafar, M. R. and Mahshid Jalalian Hosseini, S.(2014b) The Role of Socio-Cultural Components on the Performance of Mosques in Urban

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GREEN CERTIFICATION CRITERIA FOR MALAYSIAN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICES

Kameelia Noor Haja Mohideen*1, Sapura Mohamad2, Abdul Rahim bin Abdul

Hamid3 and Siti Rahmah Omar4

1,2,3,4 Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Landscape architects are the key players in ensuring sustainability and greener environment is achievable within the context of built environment. Malaysia has envisioned to encrypt as a green country since the times development took place. Green certification is recognized throughout the world as a means for the construction industry to ensure developments carried out brings about sustainability. In today’s development, the utilization of these green tools is stressed out as an important means in ensuring green systems applied meets green standards in order to achieve the best quality of the environment and protect natural resources. The existing green certification in Malaysia is assessed by Green Building Index (GBI), Green Performance Assessment System (GREEN PASS), Skim Penilaian Penarafan Hijau JKR (PH JKR), and GreenRe (Green Real Estate). However, the utilization is minimal within Malaysian landscape architects. There are no specific guidelines to ensure the planning and designing of green systems by practising landscape architects in Malaysia. It is necessary to adapt and outline the green certification criteria within Malaysian landscape architectural practices to combat issues limiting the growth of sustainable and greener development. Nevertheless, this is to further ensure if the green systems such as vertical greenery systems (VGS) and green roofs (GR) are designed and utilized at its maximum potential, whereby the environmental issues and natural resources are equally addressed and protected. This paper outlines the integration of the existing Malaysian green certification criteria with the Malaysian landscape architectural practices to produce more efficient and integrated planning and design of the green systems. To obtain and confirm the criteria of these systems, sets of questionnaire and interview were distributed and conducted, respectively, with practicing landscape architects. The expected findings exhibit integrated criteria of green certification which is applicable for Malaysian green systems best practiced by landscape architects to ensure optimum achievement in sustainability.

Keywords : Green certification, Landscape architecture practices, Built environment

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1.0 INTRODUCTION Establishment Assessment Method (BREEAM), Green Star, LOTUS, Over the years, the planning and Greenship, Korea Green Building Index construction of green systems such as and many more. These green building green roofs (GR) and vertical greenery rating tools, which is also known as systems (VGS) have grown extensively certification acts as a medium to assess and rapidly contributing and dominating a and recognize buildings which meet country’s economy, social status and certain green requirements. caused a massive shift and transformation in the environment sector. Although studies on green building This shift projected and extracted the certifications have been carried out concept of sustainable development and globally, there is still lack of focus on its’ hence stresses on constructions that utilization upon exterior spaces attached mitigate issues such as that of urban heat to building. In Malaysia, Sustainable island (UHI), lack of greenery spaces, Energy Development Authority (SEDA) and large ecological footprints (S.C.M. listed green building certificates that may Hui, 2011). However, several studies be adopted and applied within the reported that the construction industry construction industry. Some of the ratings throughout the world is still slightly listed were GreenMARK, Green Building adamant with the idea of sustainability Index, LEED, GreenRE, Melaka Green and application that minimizes carbon Seal, GreenPASS, Penarafan Hijau, production mainly due to the thoughts MyCREST, and CASBEE Iskandar that it is costly, lack of experts in this field, (SEDA, 2018). Amongst the above listed lack of incentives from government to certificates, Green Building Index (GBI) developers and building owners, lack of has somehow emerged into practices utilities and the submissive attitudes of within small scale practicing landscape construction professionals (D. Doan, architects who are bound to certain 2017 ) projects with architects and engineers who are well verse with this rating tool. A few studies have also quoted Malaysia Nevertheless, a small number of as one of the earliest countries to have landscape architects’ references and tries ventured and taken environment quality adapting GreenMARK and Green Ship seriously by enacting the Environment into projects assigned upon them. Quality Act in 1974 (I. Jabar, 2013); (Hussin Abdullah, 2017). This has Landscape architects who are given the eventually led to the introduction of task to plan and design green systems sustainability concepts and approaches may argue in meeting the principles and for utilization within developers, fundamentals of these systems as no architects, engineers, planners, specific criteria are outlined to establish designers, contractors and public. requirements to comply to. However, a Sustainability was then made to measure study on green roof system for green via green rating tools which are designed building projects in Malaysia has by councils of countries and recognized somehow incorporated Green Building by World Green Building Council Index criteria upon green roof system to (WorldGBC). Some of the green rating achieve sustainability in construction and tools listed by WorldGBC on their website promotes awareness as well as at http://www.worldgbc.org/rating-tools possibilities of the certification utilization are ARZ, Beam Plus, BERDE, Casa among landscape architects (M. Ashraf (Colombo), GeenMARK, Green Building Fauzi, 2013) Index (GBI), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), This paper is to present an overview of Comprehensive Assessment System for criteria for green building certification in Building Environmental Efficiency Malaysia and proposes tools and ideas (CASBEE), Building Research that are applicable in landscape

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architectural practices depending on the architectural practices can be extracted nature of project. The specific objectives and utilized with items listed in Table 2. are: 2.2 Indonesia GREENSHIP 1. To identify the similarity, differences, strength and GBC Indonesia issued a rating tool titled weakness of green rating systems GREENSHIP. GREENSHIP is developed in Malaysia and other countries by Green Building Council Indonesia 2. To discover the components that (GBC Indonesia) by considering the allow and encourages the conditions, natural character and application of green certificates regulations as well as standards that within green systems designed by apply in Indonesia. GBC Indonesia has landscape architects. developed and published 5 types of GREENSHIP which are GREENSHIP 2.0 GREEN CERTIFICATION New Building, GREENSHIP Existing Building, GREENSHIP Interior Space, In this study, GBI, Green Ship, GREENSHIP Homes, and GREENSHIP GreenMark, LEED and BREEAM are Neighborhood all of which with criteria analyzed in detail. The rationale in such as appropriate site development, selecting these certifications is based on energy efficiency and conservation, water considering that LEED and BREEAM are conservation, material resource and well known and are one of the earliest cycle, indoor health and comfort, and green building certificates that were building environmental management. design, whereas certificates from tropical These criteria assessment that may be countries like Indonesia and Singapore, utilized by practicing landscape architects Green Ship and GreenMARK, can be seen within three scopes which respectively, have been incorporated in are as follow: some projects within Malaysia by i. Appropriate site development Construction Industry Development Board consisting of basic green area, (CIDB). GBI, however, has been site selection, community developed specifically to best suit the accessibility, public tropical climate of the country as well as transportation, bicycle, site the environmental and developmental landscaping, microclimate, and context and to meet the cultural and storm water management social need. ii. Material resource and cycle consisting of the utilization of 2.1 Green Building Index (GBI) environmentally friendly material, certified wood, prefab Green Building Index (GBI) was designed and regional material and developed by Association of iii. Water conservation with the Consulting Engineers Malaysia (ACEM) practice of rainwater harvesting and Persatuan Arkitek Malaysia (PAM). system and water efficiency in The main objective of this tool is to certify landscaping buildings with green status and allows evaluation and of green standard of the 2.3 Singapore GreenMARK building from time to time (M. Fauzi, 2013 ). The criteria that make up GBI are Singapore GreenMARK was designed Energy Efficiency (EE), Indoor and launched in 2005 with the intention to Environment Quality (EQ), Materials & guide owners in improving their existing Resources (MR), Water Efficiency (WE), building sustainability standards and Sustainable Site Planning & Management establishes environmentally friendly (SM) and Innovation (IN). The criteria practices in retrofitting existing building. assessment of GBI for landscape Its assessment criteria are similar as that

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of GBI which Energy Efficiency, Water 2.5 BREEAM Efficiency, Sustainable Operation and Management are, Indoor Environmental BREEAM was one of the first green Quality and other Green Features which building rating system established in UK comprises of new technologies that are in the year 1990. It was first utilized in innovative and contain potential assessments of offices in the year 1993. environmental benefits. Singapore Almost all green building certificates are certificates prioritize very much in water influenced by BREEAM. By 2017, about and energy efficiency and less in other 75 countries have adapted BREEAM in aspects such as public transport as it is in their rating system. The components place. The environmental protection investigated by BREEAM in achieving criterion in GreenMARK emphasizes sustainability are Management, Energy, sustainable construction, sustainable Transport, Water, Materials, Waste, Land products, greenery provision, Use and Ecology, and Pollution. environmental management practice, green transport, refrigerators, and The criterion Land Use and Ecology stormwater management. The rating encourage sustainable land use, habitat system also encourages green features protection while minimizing impact on and innovation. These are among the existing site ecology as well as enhancing elements which may be applicable for site ecology. Issues addressed within this utilization by landscape architects. criterion can be extracted into the landscaping practices to ensure 2.4 LEED sustainability is achieved at optimum.

LEED was developed by US Green 2.6 Overview of GBI, GREENSHIP, Building Council in the year 1998 with GreenMARK, LEED and BREEAM direct influence of BREEAM. It is however, the most adopted tool among The establishment of green certificates any other certificates. Over 160 countries across the world has been considered are familiar with LEED rating system. vital in monitoring and achieving LEED look into factors such as sustainability. The construction industry Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, does recognize sustainability Energy and Atmosphere, Material and development as the niche in enabling Resources, and Indoor Environment environmental improvements along with Quality. For any new construction, the social and economic standards (Sharifi, assessment criteria that may be put in 2016 ). Table 1 indicates the main practice by landscape architects are as features of selected green certifications in follow: this study along with a summary on criteria of rating system deemed fit for i. Within the criterion of landscape architectural practices. sustainable sites, construction activity pollution prevention is 3.0 GREEN CERTIFICATE emphasized, and credits are APPLICATION BY MALAYSIAN given for site assessment, site LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTS development - protecting and

restoring habitat, open space, Green certification application has been rainwater management, heat implemented widely across the globe. It is island reduction and light a tool dominated by engineering pollution reduction. standards and methods (F. Xue, 2019). It ii. Location and transportation is urged for the utilization of engineers encourage bicycle facilities, and architects. Nevertheless, not many reduction in parking footprint, landscape architects in Malaysia utilizes green vehicles, and sensitive the rating system in their design and land protection.

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development. Hence, sustainability that guidelines are not extracted into could be achieved at maximum potential practices. may sometimes be disregard since the

Table 1 Main features of BREEAM, LEED, GREENSHIP, GreenMARK, and Malaysia GBI

Green Certificates BREEAM LEED GREENSHIP GreenMARK GBI Country UK US Indonesia Singapore Malaysia Organizations BRE USGBC IndonesiaGBC BCA MalaysiaGBC Flexibility 77 countries 160 1 country 1 country 1 country countries First Version 1990 1998 2012 2005 2009 Latest Version 2016 2013 - 2015 2013 Management / X / X / Health & wellbeing / / / X / Energy / / / / / Transport / / / X Water / / / X / Main Mineral / X X X X Categories Waste / X / X X Land Use & Ecology / X / X / Pollution / X / X X Innovation / / X / / Materials & Resources X / / / X Site Development X / X / X Rating Classifications Pass ≥ 30 Certified ≥ Design Platinum 70 Platinum 86- Good ≥ 45 40 recognition and above 100 pt Very good ≥ Silver ≥ Platinum ≤ 56 Gold Plus 60 Gold 76-85 pt 55 50 Gold ≤ 43 to < 70 Silver 66-75 Excellent ≥ 70 Gold ≥ 60 Silver ≤ 35 Gold 50 < 60 pt Outstanding ≥ Platinum Bronze ≤ 27 Certified Certified 50- 85 ≥ 80 Final 65 pt Assessment Achievement Platinum ≤ 74 Gold ≤ 58 Silver ≤ 47 Bronze ≤ 35 Number of certified buildings 561, 600 79,100 185 (as of 460 2016) Encourage use of / / / X / occupied/contaminated land Encourage development of / / / X / land with limited value of wildlife Minimize impact on existing X / X X / site ecology Enhancing site ecology / / X X / Criteria Minimize long term impact / / X X / Applicable of site development for Public Transport Access / / / X / Utilization in Carpark / / X X / Landscape Green Vehicle X X X / / Architectural Cycling facilities / / / X / Practices Stormwater Design X X / / / Greenery & Roof X X / / / Rainwater Harvesting / / / X / Water recycling / / / X / Water Efficient – irrigation / / / / / /landscaping Innovation in design / / X / / Sustainable Timber X X / / / Materials reuse and X X / / / selection Construction activity X / / / / pollution control

Note. Retrieved from Da Doan, et.al (2017), GBI Criteria Assessment at http://new.greenbuildingindex.org, GREENSHIP Criteria Assessment at http://www.gbcindonesia.org/greenship, LEED Criteria Assessment at http://www.new.usgbc.org/cert- guide, BREEAM Criteria Assessment at http://tools.breeam.com, GreenMARK Criteria Assessment at http://www.bca.gov.sg/green_mark.

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and management which is made up of 3.1 GBI Criteria Applicable for Site Selection, Rehabilitation of Landscape Practices Brownfield Sites or Redevelopment of Existing Buildings, and Community Landscape architects job scope closely Connectivity. GBI encourages selection of align with engineers and architects from sites close to public transport as well as designing and developing public parks, the usage of public transport and residential and non-residential areas, construction of quality pedestrian access. campuses and public spaces. The design Points are awarded to planning and of these spaces is carried out in the development that considers the utilization ordeal of achieving environmental, socio- of alternative transportation mode for behavioral and aesthetic outcomes (N. example cycle route. Nizarudin, 2012). As a multi-disciplinary field in built environment industry, In reducing heat island, GBI also landscape architecture is not just merely emphasized on conserving existing dealing with plantings, but it incorporates natural area and creating larger soft a large range of fields such as landscape area under assessment of architecture, ecology, environmental Greenscape and Water Bodies, sciences, geology, art and many more (N. Hardscape, and selection of roof Nizarudin, 2012). These developments materials (GBI Assessment Criteria, come with criteria that are influenced and 2013). listed by green rating system which in Malaysia is the GBI. For example, one of The design and planning of systems like the systems which clearly utilizes GBI is green wall and vertical green wall as well the installation of green roof. The method as herb garden have been considered as identified in extracting GBI for green roof an assessment criterion under the context system is within the technical aspect of Innovative Design and Environmental comprising of waste and recyclable Design Initiatives implemented by GBI. materials selection, plants technology To qualify for points however, GBI selection and techniques in mitigating indicated that the vertical green wall will storm water runoff (M. Ashraf Fauzi, have to be made up of at least 10% of 2013). façade area, whereas herb garden on landed area should be made of 25% One of the most sustainable designed landscape area and on low-rise and high- buildings in Malaysia is known as the rise at 10% landscape area (GBI Diamond Building situated in Putrajaya Assessment Criteria, 2013). and act as the Energy Commission Building. It was constructed in the year Furthermore, GBI’s materials and 2010 with sustainable building materials resources assessment encourages wood- and thoughts put through in the based materials and components of management of traffic and transport products which comply to certification (Pervez Hameed Shaikh, 2017). The issued by Forest Stewardship Council recycled materials used contributed to (FSC) or Malaysian Timber Certification 31% of the material cost employed and Scheme (MTCS). This is to ensure forest about 10% of the parking spaces were management in the country are carried designed to serve car pool and fuel- out efficiently (GBI Assessment Criteria, efficient vehicles, along with secure 2013). bicycle racks and public transport services (Pervez Hameed Shaikh, 2017)

GBI includes assessment criteria that landscape architects may find fulfilling and achievable in practice especially in the context of sustainable site planning

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Table 2 Criteria Assessment of GBI Applicable in Landscape Architectural Practices

Sustainable Site Planning & Management Site Planning Site Selection Brownfield Redevelopment Development Density & Community Connectivity Environment Management Construction Management Earthworks – construction activity pollution control QLASSIC Workers’ Site Amenities Transportation Public Transportation Access Green Vehicle Priority Parking Capacity Design Stormwater Design – Quantity & Quality Control Greenery & Roof Building User Manual Material & Resources Reused & Recycled Materials Materials reuse and selection Recycled content materials Sustainable Resources Regional Materials Sustainable Timber Waste Management Storage and Collection of recyclables Construction Waste Management Green Products Refrigerants & Clean Agents Water Efficiency Water Harvesting & Rainwater Harvesting Recycling Water Recycling Increased Efficiency Water Efficient – irrigation/landscaping Water Efficient Fittings Metering & Leak Detection System Innovation Innovation in Design and Environmental Design Initiatives Green Building Index Accredited Facilitator

Note. Retrieved from GBI Criteria Assessment at http://new.greenbuildingindex.org

3.2 Influence of Green Rating and reachable to designers (P.J. Irga, System in Landscape Practices 2017). M. Yadav, 2017, state that a sustainable landscape requires minimal Several systems requiring the skills and water, fertilizers, pesticides, labor and expertise of landscape architects are building material. Hence, in designing and growing at fast pace throughout the implementing a sustainable landscape, it world. Systems like green roofs and is important to have thoughtful balance green walls for example are increasing in upon resources used during construction demands since researchers concluded and maintenance. the benefits amounted in its application upon environment (P.J. Irga, 2017). LEED reported that the application of green rating system in landscape Developers and planners have then activities has increased the number of begun incorporating green certification high performing buildings and reduce the into design and planning. For example, in energy use as well as waste production. Australia, green wall and green roof are Vegetation can also reduce heating and planned and design under the influence cooling needs, provide cleaner air, and of local government policies and lower ambient temperature (David J. guidelines. The observation distinguished Nowak, 2006). differences between councils that offered policies and guidelines and indicate that more green walls and green roofs projects were then implemented with policies and guidelines made available

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3.3 Conclusion Building : http://gbcindonesia.org/download/doc_do wnload/71-ringkasan-greenship-nb-v1-1- There is a need to find out the most en efficient method of incorporating green systems design and application applied Hussin Abdullah, N. A. (2017). The Current State by landscape architects with green of Malaysia's Journey Towards a Green certification systems. This can be made Economy: The Perceptions of the possible by laying out green certificates Companies on Environmental Efficiency and Sustainability. International Journal of like GBI as concrete foundation in every Energy Economics and Policy, 253-258. design thought process. The components extracted from other green certificates I. Jabar, F. I. (2013). Issues in Managing and in comparison, with that of Green Construction Phase of IBS Projects. Building Index (GBI), will ensure design AMER International Conference on and planning by landscape architect Quality of Life (pp. 81-89). Langkawi: reaches sustainability. With proper Science Direct . guidelines and criterion assessment of M. Ali, P. M. (2019 ). Stakeholders' Perspectives green systems for the practice of on Green Building Rating: A Case Study landscape architects in Malaysia, in Indonesia . Heliyon , 1-26. development can take place at optimum efficiencies while keeping the M. Ashraf Fauzi, N. A. (2013). Evaluation of environmental quality intact. Green Roof System for Green Building Projects in Malaysia. International Journal of Environmental and Ecological REFERENCES Engineering, 75-81.

A.Ragheb, H. E.-S. (2016). Green Architecture: A M. Fauzi, N. M. (2013 ). Evaluation of Green Roof Concept of Sustainability . Procedia - System for Green Building Projects in Social and Behavioral Sciences, 778-787. Malaysia . International Journal of Environmental and Ecological BCA Green Mark Certification Standard for Engineering , 75-81. Existing Buildings. (2016). Retrieved from Building Construction Authority: N. Nizarudin, I. T. (2012). The Importance and https://www.bca.gov.sg/GreenMark/others Involvement of Landscape Architecture in /GM_Existing_Building_Certification_Stan the Importance and Involvement of dard.pdf Landscape Architecture in the Green Building Index (GBI) . IBECONF 2012 D. Doan, A. G. (2017 ). A Critical Comparison of (pp. 1-15 ). Bandung : Research Gate. Green Building Rating Systems. Building and Environment , 1-26. P.J. Irga, J. B. (2017). The Distribution of Green Walls and Green Roofs throughout David J. Nowak, D. E. (2006). Air Pollution Australia: Do Policy Instruments Influence Removal by Urban Trees and Shrubs in the Frequency of Projects? . Urban United States . Urban Forestry and Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 164-174. Greening, 115-123. Pervez Hameed Shaikh, N. M. (2017). Building F. Xue, S. S. (2019). Incorporating Biophilia into Energy for Sustainable Development in Green Building Rating Tools for Malaysia: A Review . Renewable and Promoting Health and Wellbeing . Sustainable Energy Reviews, 1392-1403. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 98-112. S.C.M. Hui, K. (2011). Biodiversity Assessment of Green Roofs for Green Building Design. GBI Assessment Criteria. (2013, July ). Retrieved Proceedings of Joint Symposium 2011: from Green Building Index: Integrated Building Design in the New Era https://new.greenbuildingindex.org/Files/R of Sustainability (pp. 1-11). Kowloon: esources/GBI%20Tools/GBI%20RNC%20 Research Gate. Residential%20Tool%20V3.0.pdf Sharifi, A. (2016 ). From Garden City to Eco- GREENSHIP Rating Tools. (2012, February). urbanism: The Quest for Sustainable Retrieved from GREENSHIP New Neighborhood Development . Sustainable

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Y. Tian, C. J. (2012). Challenges and Strategies for Greening the Compact City of Hong Kong. Journal of Urban Planning and Developments, 101-109.

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FRIENDLINESS OF ROUTE ALONG HOME-SCHOOL JOURNEY FOR LESS PRIVILEGED CHILDREN IN OLD-CITY ZONE OF MAKASSAR

Arti Manikam Asrun*1, Ismail Said2 and Noradilla Rusli3

1, 2 Landscape Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]) 3 Urban Planning, Univesiti eknologi Malaysia, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Walking from home to school and back is a natural routine activity for less- privileged school children in the city of Makassar. Children’s routinary engagement with the elements of street environment contributes to their growth and development. This study determines the friendliness of the routes in an urban area that are consistently walked on by the less-privilege children in their home-school journey, which lead them to perceive the street as their play space. Participatory observation and behaviour mapping were conducted to ten school children aged 9 to 11 years old. Their physical movement, social play, places they visit and their preferred walking routes were elicited during their journey from home to school and back. The location of the study was a residential neighbourhood in an old city zone of Makassar. The use of GIS heatmap analysis showed the various routes that children trail for their home-school journey. Both male and female children use their most familiar short routes in going to school, while longer routes were registered by both sexes in going home. However, the males have the greater propensity to meander twice longer in going back home than their way to school, compared to female children who registered approximately 10 % longer on their way back home over their home to school journey. It can be construe that children who walk to school and takes the longer route especially in going back home, view urban streets as their place spaces for their performance of various affordances as they perceived their route space for functional, emotional and social opportunities. Thus, it further implies that the geographic characteristics of urban streets generate spatial skills to less-privileged children through their performance of perceived functional opportunities such as social play, among others.

Keywords : Affordance, Children, Social play, Home-school journey

1.0 INTRODUCTION noticeably increased private car ownership, coupled with insufficient In highly urbanized cities in Indonesia, the number of mass public transport, gave mode of transport in getting to schools is rise to the use of motorcycles and cars to generally dominated by motorized means conduct children to and from schools. of transportation. In the city of Makassar, This unprecedented trend of conducting the rapid population growth has

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children to school by means of private Commuting by walking is a progressive motorized vehicles was mostly due to function that helps children mature and parental decision of not permitting their also enhances their autonomy of children to walk to school for security and movement (Yeung, Wearing, & Hills, safety precautions; thus, increases child 2008). dependence on private motorized transport (Kearns et al., 2003). At this A home-school journey is defined in this instance, children significantly miss some study as a place and time for school opportunities to have direct experience of children to experience a wider spatial outdoor environment by means of walking environment and liberally explore, as well as an active mode in going to school and as to freely express their movement while back home. walking between home and school in an urban built environment. This is an In the last few decades, fewer children expansion of the definition given by some walk to school particularly in developed scholars where they defined home-school countries (Buliung et al., 2009; journey as just a place or geographic Mehdizadeh et al., 2016; Pooley et al., location in between for the daily 2005). The journey to school adds to experience of children (e. g. Joshi et al., traffic congestion in towns and cities 1999; Pooley et al., 2005; Romero, 2010). during the peak commuting hours. It also Moreover, Matthew (2003) used as an costs parents time (Gershuny, 1993), appropriate setting for street games, play, deprives children of the opportunity for and adventure as well as socialization. regular exercise (Armstrong, 1993), and Thus, this study explores whether the engagement with the street elements. street environment is friendly to less- The growth of the child in an privileged children who walk to school accompanied travel to school has led to and back home in the old city zone of serious speculations about the cognitive Makassar; and anticipates that children and emotional impact of this change on would encounter challenges and barriers child development. The phenomenon of along their journey. accompanied travel to school has several important consequences. Prolonged 2.0 LITERATURE period of escort to school and to other destinations is likely to hamper the 2.1 Play along home-school journey development of children’s spatial skill, limit their knowledge of the environment, Play is a natural phenomenon for children and damage their growing independence who are in the middle childhood stage in (M. Hillman, 1993; Mayer Hillman, order to develop resiliency as they learn Adams, & Whitelegg, 1990; Joshi, to cooperate, overcome challenges and Maclean, & Carter, 1999). negotiate with others. It generates well- being to children, physically, socially and The school becomes a dominant factor in cognitively that triggers them to be the life of children by the time they reach creative. Moreover, play provides time for the school age. The experience of the parents to be fully engaged with their school environment affects children’s children, to bond with their children, and psychology either positively or negatively. to see the world from the perspective of In many cities of Indonesia including their child. However, children who live in Makassar, children from poor families poverty often face socioeconomic within the urban vicinity, walk to school obstacles that impede their right to have since they could not afford the daily play time, thus affecting their healthy transportation expenses. Walking from social-emotional development. This study home to school and back is considered speculates that less-privileged children an active travel mode as a key in living in the old city zone of Makassar promoting children’s physical activity as face inadequacy of play in their living well as their social interaction. environment. Relatedly, play means a

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physical contact with the elements of the performance. The physical activities are environment and social interaction with associated with motor skills development peers (Kellert, 2002; Olds, 1989). In where it improves body coordination, middle childhood stage, play is movement bone and muscle growth, strength, agility (Kellert, 2002; Moore, 1986), locomotion and endurance; all of which are essential or mobility (Kyttä, 2004). Movement is the for healthy childhood life. For the less- centre of children’s life, and through privileged school children, the home- movement, children gather information school journey involves plenty of regarding their environment (Gibson, movement. Hence, the researchers 1978) that enhances development of their anticipate that these children are agile cognitive faculties (McDevitt and Ormod, and nimble as they walk through the 2002); therefore, play comprises both streets of the old city zone in Makassar. movement and perception. Point of view The journey to school is a social In the eyes of the children play is free, phenomenon. It affords the children to and thus provides them the freedom of walk with friends and learn social skills choice. It let them learn about the including negotiating, turn-taking, and environment through experimentation and sharing (Olds, 1988). They also learn to it also means facilitating the children to cooperate, respect other’s views and explore and manipulate the environment express their ideas, feelings and needs (Matthews, 1992; Kellert, 2002). without the constant mediation from Exploration through manipulation adults (Malone and Tranter, 2003). It generates a sense of fulfilment because it means that walking to school and back allows children to control their own play, home could be a social play. Along the such that manipulation permits a child to journey, they may be having conversation finalize the content of a play setting (Said, with peers and adults, watching others 2007). The child per se develops a new playing but with no obligation to attempt structure from his own imagination (Khan, to engage in the activity (McDonald, 2002) which eventually satisfies him and 2008). the experience stays in his memory (Sebba, 1994; Said, 2007). This study The physical and social performances at examines how the less-privileged children the home-school journey are supported explore and engage with the street by cognitive functioning. That is a mental elements while walking to school and process that includes recalling the route, back home. Furthermore, is then attending their pace while avoiding expected that the children will find the moving traffics, and making decision to streets a dangerous place due to the choose their shortest route to the school. presence and movement of the enormous It means that walking to school is also a traffic of motorized vehicles. Nonetheless, cognitive play involving imagination and despite the hazards that the streets offer, creativity (Ahmadi and Taniguchi, 2007). it is also envisaged that children will enjoy The researchers on the conduct of this their journey while walking in going to study positively anticipate that the less- school and back home. privileged children would choose different routes when going back home. 2.2 Performance of Less-privileged Children while Playing This study adopts the concept of child- friendly environment coined by Horelli in Children get benefits from playing outdoor 2007 stating that such environment and moving freely (Karsten & Van Vliet, possesses ten dimensions. Of these, the 2006; Vliet, 1983). There are three types researchers have judiciously espoused of play as determined by Malone & only five dimensions; these are dwelling, Tranter (2003) which are related to safety and security, family, peers and children’s performance; that is the community, urban and environmental physical, social, and cognitive qualities, and the sense of belonging. It is

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further speculated that the home-school are the targets of most previous and journey provides these dimensions to the contemporary studies on spatial less-privileged children in the old city knowledge and its mental representation. zone of Makassar. Thus, the street The extended abstract should be written landscape is perceived by the children as in MS Word format in single-spaced in 12 a place to meet friends and feeling safe, point Arial. Do not indent the text as well as to be independent from adult paragraphs. Please briefly explain the supervision. aim and scope of the study, the materials and methods, and the main 2.3 Spatial knowledge, Travel findings and brief analysis of the study. Behavior and the Built Environment Please observe Figure 1 and Table 1 to include figures and tables in the Activity, known as travel behavior, is abstract, respectively. acknowledged as a significant factor in the acquisition of spatial knowledge 3.0 METHODOLOGY (Cohen, 1985). Varieties of social and environmental factors influence children’s Using Google Map and site observation, activity and, in effect, shape their spatial the SD Negeri Timur public elementary knowledge and skills (Hart, 1979). This school was chosen which is situated at study acknowledges that walking, either the old city zone of Makassar. This alone or with friends, to school provides investigation was conducted at Wajo knowledge to the less-privileged children. district which has four elementary It is a freedom of movement and a schools. The city has 1.5 million residents sensory motor experience, thus affects of which 38% is children population. The their spatial knowledge. Additionally, it city has been conducting child-friendly determines the travel mode to school as environment program since 2014. In old long distances are associated with more city zone of Makassar, there is about walking, and thus yield better spatial 7.4% of population are living in a high knowledge of the route. Ahmad and density area of 1.1 km2 that represents Taniguchi (2007) found that distance has about 5% of the city’s total geographic an indirect effect on children’s accuracy area. on spatial representation. Moreover, residential density, street connectivity and The basic unit of analysis for this study route distance are environmental factors are the children who belong in the middle influencing walkability (Moran et al., 2017; childhood with ages ranging from 9 to 11 Panter et al., 2010; Temperio et al., years old. The Office of Statistics of 2006). Apart from children’s spatial Makassar considers these children, who knowledge and mobility of the street walk to school and back to home, belong environment, this study also attempted to to less-privileged families who usually do provide metrics to these factors in order not own any vehicle to conduct them to to determine the friendliness of home- school. Children’s activities such as school journey to the less-privileged walking, playing and socializing with their children in Makassar’s old city zone. peers while going to and from school (Yatiman, 2014; Joshi et al., 1999) were Travel behavior being an activity is the subject of three-day observation by acknowledged as a significant factor in five assistor-researchers. Locations of the acquisition of spatial knowledge each child’s home and school as well as (Cohen S, 1985). Various social and manner of children walking and playing environmental factors (conceptualized as along the home-school routes were noted types of individual-environment on a printed Google Map. The interactions) influence activity that observation activity was done to ten eventually shape our spatial knowledge school children who conspicuously use and skills (Hart, 1979). Correspondingly, some 27 city streets as their regular these social and environmental factors

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home-school routes. At the same time, the morning. However, the male school the routes were duly recorded by each children exhibited the greater propensity assistor-researcher by making sketch to meander twice or thrice longer in going maps. back home than their way to school, compared to female children who Each route sketch maps were uploaded registered approximately only 10 % into the GIS database environment in longer on their way back home over their QGIS software. Each route travelled by home to school journey as shown in children from home to school and vice- Figure 1. As an illustration, a boy named versa was digitized in line format. In total, Ari use short route in going to school 20 lines from 10 children were converted covering a distance of 428 meters, while into point dataset and were analysed he diverts and takes the longer route in using Kernel Density model to produce going back home with a distance of 1.706 heatmap, thereby creating a Kernel km., which is three times the distance Density Estimation algorithm. Kernel when going to school as shown in Figure density estimation is a method used to 2. The males prefer passing by shopping diversify points or area points. Therefore, malls, though not going in. The males with the use of KDE algorithm, it mapped also visit medical clinics along the route the density of routes chosen by less- and peek through its glass walls. The privileged children. According to reason given by male children that they Silverman (1986), the Kernel Density would like to become medical Estimator is stated as: professionals or doctors in the future. More often, they try to go up the stairs in 1 푛 푠 − 푠 ̂ 𝑖 a bank building perhaps with the intent to 푓(푠,ℎ)(푥) = 2 ∑ 퐾 ( ) 푛ℎ 𝑖=1 ℎ work in a bank. As they go along the route of going home, they usually stop to With 푲 function is called Kernel, 풔 is the buy snacks and drinks at push-cart food location of the less privileged children's stall (known as gerobak) along the street home, 풔풊 is the location of school in and share the food among them. They bandwidth range, 풏 is the number of less also engage in child’s play such as hide- privileged children who travel to school by and-seek, running, and jumping as they walking in bandwidth range and 풉 is the tread the streets while going home from bandwidth which is the radius of location school. on children school travel. Thus 풅풊 is the distance between location 풔 and풔풊. Gaussian function is used in this study. Meanwhile, the girl named Olivia walks to school with a distance of 484 meters; not ퟏ ퟏ ퟐ much of a variation when she goes back 푲(풅풊) = 퐞퐱퐩 (− 풅풊 ) √ퟐ흅 ퟐ home trekking almost 538-meter distance. Similar to Ari, Olivia also takes The use of “Kernel Density Estimation is a different route in going home from part of an interactive tool is an effective school. While on their way home, Olivia way to analyze geospatial hotspots.” and her friends are engaged in a light Thus, with the employ of the space-time discussion with each other about their Kernel Density Estimation, it is possible to homework, and parenthetically they locate clusters to reveal the behaviour or commonly love a purple shop located children’s routes in this study. along their way that sells school bags and make-up accessories. It means that their 4.0 RESULTS journey from school to home provided them more utilized affordances than their The less-privileged school children leave morning journey in the going to school. their homes early via shorter routes in Frequent encounter with the elements of going to school to avoid being late and the streets with their friends allow the reach the school gate on time at 7:30 in less-privileged children to recognize them

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as their place for socialization, which zone of Makassar viewed their home- means physical engagement with the school journey as friendly environment. In environment qualities of the city as well contrast, road safety was not their as social interaction with peers concern while walking in between motor (Nordstrom, 2010). Therefore, the vehicles along the busy streets of children experienced two normative Makassar. They feel safe walking to dimensions of a child-friendly school in the company of their friends, environment (Horelli, 2007) which are the which behaviour clearly contradicts with environmental qualities and peer the researchers’ expectation that urban interaction. It means that the less- streets are not safe for young children. privileged school children in the old city

DISTANCE OF CHILDREN ROUTE

1800 1706

1600 1465 1458 1400

1200 1013 1004 1020 1000 877 826 800 639 598 623 600 538 501 449 484 428 405 418 400 314 314

200

0 Taqim (B) Yusuf (B) Ari (B) Faqih (B) Olivia (G) Nathusa (G) Arik (B) Fauzan (B) Faris (B) Mikael (B) HOME TO SCHOOL SCHOOL TO HOME

Figure 1 Distance covered by 10 less-privileged children walking to school and back to home

Figure 2 Routes taken by less-privileged children going to school and back home

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Figure 3 The Kernel density estimation of hotspots

The walking behaviour of the less- childhood children, which is considered privileged children was further analysed as a progressive behaviour for the growth using Kernel Density model to produce (Kytta, 2003; Said, 2006). heatmap. The result is shown in Figure 3 where it reveals that the intensity of 5.0 CONCLUSION children experiences with their home- school routes can be divided into three Urban streets at the old city zone of categories; high, medium, and low Makassar are play spaces and friendly categories. The route close to the school places for socialization for the less- is considered as high category as privileged especially for the male school indicated by colour red. This route is children. Children, who are in the middle highly used by all children during morning childhood stage, perceive the streets as school session. It is the shortest route safe haven for them to commute by relative to the medium and low-density walking to their school and back home. ones. Other short routes are those taken The positive perception is generated by by the female school children in going to the beneficial social interaction among school and back home. The streets where the children as well as with adults familiar the male school children locate their to them. Sharing time with their peers as favourite stops were also highly walked. It well as meeting with adults is a is also in these streets where the gerobok constructive behaviour of the less- and pedicab (known as becak) privileged children that are naturally congregate. The male children do not performed during their home-school only socialise among themselves, they journey. Their spatial skill gained during also interact with street food vendors and the journey is their capacity to mentally pedicab drivers. Oftentimes, they engage process and recognize the street in conversation with adults familiar to features. With this skill, they can easily them such as telling stories about their recall and remember these features and school. The socialization with their peers help them make decisions to walk safely and adults is an affordance for middle along the journey. In sum, they create

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