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Variations in fiber morphology of prehistoric textiles from the Seip Group of Mounds: A model for explanation
Song, Cheunsoon Ahn, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University, 1991
Copyright ©1991 by Song, Cheunsoon Ahn. All rights reserved.
UMI 300 N.ZeebRd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
VARIATIONS IN FIBER MORPHOLOGY OF PREHISTORIC
TEXTILES FROM THE SEIP GROUP OF MOUNDS:
A MODEL FOR EXPLANATION
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the
Graduate School of the Ohio State University
by
Cheunsoon Ahn Song, B.S., M.S.
*****
The Ohio State University
1991
Dissertation Committee: Approved by
L. R. Sibley -advise K. A. Jakes
R. W. Yerkes /Co-advis^ ^Department of I'extiles H. O. Jackson and Clothing College of Human Ecology Copyright by Cheunsoon Ahn Song 1991 This work is dedicated in honor of my parents and to my husband Dr. Yongjin Song
11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express sincere appreciation to Dr. Lucy R.
Sibley and Dr. Kathryn A. Jakes for their insights,
encouragement, and guidances throughout this research. I
thank them especially for their generosity and patience in
coping with my haste deadline. The helpful suggestions and
comments by the members of my advisory committee, Drs.
Richard W. Yerkes and Hazel O. Jackson are also greatly
appreciated. Gratitude is expressed to Dr. N'omi Greber for
her support and interest in my research.
The success of this endeavor was made possible by the
separate contributions from many institutions and
individuals. The College of Human Ecology is most greatly
appreciated for providing a fellowship throughout the year
this work has been conducted. Research expenses were funded
by the Graduate School of The Ohio State University and the
Department of Textiles and Clothing. I wish to thank the
Ohio Historical Society for allowing me access to the Seip
textiles in their collection. Special thanks go to Bradley
K. Baker and Dr. Martha Potter Otto fcr helping me collect the samples. I thank the Scanning Electron Microscope
Facility of the Department of Geological Sciences at The
iii Ohio State University for allowing me to use the facility.
I appreciate John Mitchell for helping me conduct the X-ray
analyses of the samples. The statistical consultants Dr. R.
Santner, Dr. Robert Leighty, and Laura Atkins are
appreciated for conducting computer analyses.
I would also like to thank Mary Swinker for her helpful
suggestions for this research and for her time in conducting
the validity test of the instrument. I also thank her for
providing me with the mental and emotional support
throughout this research and my graduate studies.
Deepest appreciation goes to my family for their love
and support which have made possible the success of this
work and my graduate studies. I thank my parents and my
sisters for their support and encouragement. I also thank
my father-in-law for his support. However, the most sincere
gratitude and appreciation go to my husband Yongjin who have
shared with me the ups and downs of this endeavor. I thank
you for your unshakable faith in me and for taking charge of
the children during the most stressful weeks of this work.
Thank you also for making the illustrations of the model,
helpful suggestions, and the last minute secretarial aids.
To my daughter, Jeanyoung, I thank you for your patience and
understanding throughout this work and graduate studies. To my son, Wonho, I thank you for the laughter you brought
during the most difficult periods of writing this
dissertation.
iv VITA
March 23, 1958 ...... Born, Seoul, Korea
1981 ...... B.S., Ewha Women's University, Seoul, Korea
1987-1988 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1988-1989 ...... Graduate Research Associate, The Ohio State University
1989-1990 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University
1990 ...... M.S., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
PUBLICATIONS
Sibley, L. R., Jakes, K. A., & Song, C. (1989). Fiber and yarn processing by prehistoric people of North America: Examples from Etowah. Ars Textrina. 11. 191-209.
Song, C., & Sibley, L. R. (1990). The vertical headdress of fifteenth century Northern Europe. Dress. 16. 4- 15.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Human Ecology, Textiles and Clothing
Studies in Archaeological Textiles, Historic Costume and Textiles, Textile Science, Social Psychological Aspects of Clothing TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ...... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii
VITA ...... V
LIST OF TABLES ...... xi
LIST OF F I G U R E S ...... xvi
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Problem Statement ...... 2 Purpose of the S t u d y ...... 8 Research Objectives ...... 15 Limitations of the S t u d y ...... 16 Definition of Terms ...... 19 Overview of Following Chapters ...... 20
II. THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 22
Hopewell Culture ...... 22 A d e n a ...... 27 Artifacts and Features ...... 29 Settlement and Subsistence Pattern ...... 36 Social Organization ...... 37 Hopewell Decline ...... 39 The Seip Mounds and Earthwork...... 41 Seip Burial P r a c t i c e ...... 44 Seip T ex t i l e s ...... 51 Textiles of the Ohio Hopewell Including Those from the Seip Group of Mounds ...... 52 Seip Textiles in the Reports of 1906-08 and 1925-28 Excavations ...... 58 Archaeological Textiles ...... 62 S u m m a r y ...... 64
VI CHAPTER PAGE
III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 66
Model Development...... 67 Introduction of Related Models ...... 68 Effects of Treatment on Fiber Morphology .. . 73 Variations in fiber morphology due to the biologic factors ...... 74 Variations in fiber morphology due to growth conditions, and the activities related to cultivation and collecting . . 80 Variations in fiber morphology due to the activities related to processing of f i b e r s ...... 81 Variations in fiber morphology due to the activities related to processing of yarn and textile f a b r i c a t i o n ...... 84 Variations in fiber morphology due to w e a r ...... 85 Variations in fiber morphology after burial discard ...... 86 Variations in fiber morphology occurring in the post-excavation s t a g e ...... 87 Introduction of the Proposed Model ...... 89 Application of Model to the Seip Textiles and the Research Hypotheses ...... 99 Derivation of Hypothesis I ...... 100 Derivation of Hypothesis I I ...... 101 Derivation of Hypothesis I I I ...... 103 Derivation of Hypothesis I V ...... 104
IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY...... 106
Instrument Development ...... 107 Population and Sample ...... Ill Description of Population ...... 112 Initial Assessment of the Seip Textiles . . . 113 Blackened and unblackened groups ...... 113 Random stained, oval-shaped stained, and unstained groups ...... 114 Painted and unpainted groups ...... 115 Four types of fabrication structures . . . 116 Sampling Frame and Sampling Procedures . . . .119 Sampling frame ...... 119 Sampling procedure for selecting textile s a m p l e s ...... 122 Sampling procedure for selecting yarn s a m p l e s ...... 125
V I 1 CHAPTER PAGE
Data Collection ...... 126 Materials ...... 127 Specimen preparation for LM ...... 127 Specimen preparation for EDS and SEM 127 Equipment ...... 128 Methods ...... 128 Light microscopy ...... 128 Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy 131 Scanning electron microscopy . . . . 131 Data Analyses ...... 132 Frequency Distribution ...... 133 Chi-Square Test for Independence . . . . 133 Logistic Regression ...... 134 Summary ...... 135
V. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS 136
Identification of Fiber Classes ...... 136 Characterization of Seip Textiles Containing Animal Hair Fibers ...... 142 Seip Textiles Containing Only Animal Hair Fibers ...... 142 Seip Textiles Containing Both Bast and Animal Hair Fibers ...... 144 Characterization of Seip Textiles Containing Bast Fibers ...... 149 Microscopy of Blackened Seip Textiles . . . 154 Separation of fiber bundle ...... 160 Fiber twist ...... 161 Nodal structure ...... 162 Lengthwise striations ...... 163 Fibrillation ...... 164 Fiber end tips ...... 164 Microscopy of Unblackened/ Oval-shaped Stained Seip Textiles ...... 165 Separation of fiber bundle ...... 166 Fiber twist ...... 169 Nodal structure ...... 170 Surface markings ...... 171 Fiber end tips ...... 173 Microscopy of Unblackened/ Randomly Stained Seip Textiles ...... 174 Microscopy of Unblackened/ Unstained Seip Textiles ...... 175 Report of Frequency Distribution and Chi-Square T e s t ...... 179 Summary of Chi-Square Tests for Hypothesis I 180 Summary of Chi-Square Tests for Hypothesis II 185 Summary of Chi-Square Tests for Hypothesis IV 189
Vlll CHAPTER PAGE
Logistic Regression Procedure for Fiber Width V a r i a t i o n ...... 192 S u m m a r y ...... 194
VI. IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS ...... 195
Cultural Significance of the Presence of Animal Hair Fibers among the Seip T e x t i l e s ...... 195 Biologic Context and the Initial Fiber Collecting Stage of Systemic Context .... 196 Systemic Context ...... 198 Fiber and yarn processing and textile fabrication...... 198 Fabric decoration ...... 202 Use and d i s c a r d ...... 202 Archaeologic Context ...... 204 Inference Drawn from the Report of Excavations...... 205 Cultural Implications of the Variation in Microscopic Morphology of the Seip Textiles Made of Bast F i b e r s ...... 208 Biologic Context ...... 209 Systemic Context ...... 210 Archaeologic Context ...... 213 Post-Excavation Context ...... 214 Inference Drawn from the Hypothesis Tests . . 215 Consideration of the Spatial Component of the M o d e l ...... 216 C o n c l u s i o n ...... 217
VII. SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .... 219
Summary of Previous Chapters ...... 219 Statement of Problem ...... 220 Review of Related Literature ...... 222 Construction of a Theoretical Framework . . . 223 Development of Research Methods ...... 224 Presentation of Findings ...... 225 Implications of Findings ...... 227 Limitations of the R e s e a r c h ...... 229 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 231
LIST OF REFERENCES...... 235
IX APPENDICES
À. Glossary of Terms Related to Morphological Characteristics of Fiber ...... 247
B. Index of Bast Fiber Morphology ...... 250
C. Textile Checklist for the Seip Group of Mounds . 259
D. Sample Number Specification, Sampling Frame, and List of Textile Samples Selected for the S t u d y ...... 268
E. Computer Code for each Sample and Data Entry for Catagorical Variables ...... 272
F. Computer Code for each Sample and Data Entry for Continuous Variable ...... 278
G. Tables of Frequency Distribution of Each Question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology for Research Hypotheses I, II, & I V ...... 286 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Types Of Bast Fibers Found among the Pre historic Textile Related Artifacts of the Eastern North America ...... 76
2. Types of Variation in Fiber Morphology Which May Occur on Bast Fibers While a Textile Element is in Four C o n t e x t s ...... 109
3. Number of Textiles in the Blackened, and Green Stained Categories (N=226) ...... 114
4. Number of Textiles in the Four Fabrication Types (N=226) ...... 118
5. Number of Textiles in the Blackened, Green Stained, and Painted Categories (Sample Frame, N=73) ...... 120
6. Number of Textiles in the Four Fabrication Types (Sample Frame, N=73) ...... 121
7. Characterization of Seip Textiles Which Contain Only Animal Hair Fibers: Summary of LM and X-Ray A n a l y s e s ...... 143
8. Characterization of Seip Textiles Which Contain Both Animal Hair Fibers and Bast Fibers: Summary of LM and X-Ray A nalyses...... 145
9. Number of Yarn Samples in Blackened, Green Stained, and Painted Categories Which were Included in the Hypothesis Tests ...... 150
10. Number of Yarn Samples in the Four Fabrication Types Which were Included in the Hypothsis T e s t s ...... 150
XI TABLE PAGE
11. List of Textile Samples of the Seip Textiles Made of Bast Fi b e r s ...... 152
12. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Yarn Samples Obtained from the Blackened Seip Te x t i l e s ...... 157
13. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Yarn Samples Obtained from the Oval-Shaped Stained Seip Textiles ...... 167
14. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Yarn Samples Obtained from the Randomly Stained Seip Textiles ...... 176
15. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Yarn Samples Obtained from the Unstained Seip Te x t i l e s ...... 178
16. Results of the Chi-Square Test of Each Question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology Regarding Hypothesis I ...... 181
17. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Degree of Fiber Separation...... 182
18. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Transverse S t r i a t i o n ...... 183
19. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Surface Folds . . 184
20. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Transverse C r a c k ...... 185
21. Results of the Chi-Square Test of Each Question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology Regarding Hypothesis II ...... 186
22. Frequency distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Transverse S t r i a t i o n ...... 187
23. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Fibrillation . . 188
Xll TABLE PAGE
24. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Transverse C r a c k ...... 189
25. Results of the Chi-Square Test of Each Question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology Regarding Hypothesis IV ...... 190
26. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Transverse Striation . . 191
27. Logistic Regression Procedure for Fiber Width Measurements ...... 193
28. Preliminary Survey of the Seip Textiles (N=226) 260
29. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Cellular E l e m e n t s ...... 287
30. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Presence or Absence of T w i s t ...... 287
31. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Direction of T w i s t ...... 288
32. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Regularly and Irregularly Spaced Nodal Structure .... 288
33. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Four Types of Nodal Structures ...... 289
34. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Lengthwise S t r i a t i o n ...... 290
35. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Bulging ...... 290
36. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Fibrillation . . 291
37. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Presence or Absence of Fiber's Natural End Ti p s ...... 291
xiii TABLE PAGE
38. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Type of Fiber's Natural End Tips Present...... 292
39. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Cellular E l ements ...... 293
40. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Degree of Fiber Separation...... 293
41. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Presenc or Absence of Twist ...... 294
42. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Direction of T w i s t ...... 294
43. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Regularly and Irregularly Spaced Nodal Structure ...... 295
44. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Types of Nodal Structures Present ...... 295
45. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Lengthwise Striations...... 296
46. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Bulging . . . .296
47. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Surface F o l d s ...... 297
48. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Fiber's Natural End T i p s ...... 297
49. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Type of Fiber's Natural End Tips Present ...... 298
50. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Cellular Elements .... 299
XIV TABLE PAGE
51. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Degree of Fiber Separation ...... 299
52. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Presence or Absence of Twist ...... 300
53. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Direction of Twist . . . 300
54. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Regularly and Irregu larly Spaced Nodal Structure ...... 301
55. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding the Presence of Four Types of Nodal Structures ...... 302
56, Frequency Distributi on of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Lengthwise Striations . 303
57. Frequency Distributi on of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Bulging ...... 303
58. Frequency Distributi on of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Surface Folds ...... 304
59. Frequency Distributi on of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Fibrillation ...... 304
60. Frequency Distributi on of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Transverse Crack . . . . 305
61 Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Presence or Absence of Fiber's Natural End Tips ...... 305
62. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Type of Fiber's Natural End Tips Present ...... 306
XV LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Seip Earthwork with the Associated Mounds (A) and Surrounding sites ...... 6
2. Blackened and Unblackened Seip Textiles .... 9
3. Visual Evidence of Probable Copper Association Present among the Seip Textiles...... 11
4. Visual Evidence of Color Application Present among the Seip T e xtiles...... 13
5. Four Different Fabrication Structures Present among the Seip Textiles...... 14
6. Hopewell Artifacts Found in the Seip Group of M o u n d s ...... 32
7. Plan of the Seip Group of Mounds and E a r t h w o r k s ...... 42
8. Floor Plan of the Seip Mound l Showing the Burial Platforms and other Features ...... 45
9. Floor Plan of the Seip Mound 2 ...... 47
10. Diagram of West Elevation of Multiple Burial. . 49
11. Shetrone and Greenman's Five Different Fabric Structures of the Seip Textiles...... 60
12. Design on Fabric Adhering to Copper Breast plate from Burial 5 ...... 61
13. Transverse and Longitudinal Sections of the Stem of Jute f Cannabis sativa L. ) ...... 82
XVI FIGURE PAGE
14. À Theoretical Model Depicting the Accumulated Change in Fiber Morphology as the Textile Element Passes Through the Four Context . . . 90
15. Illustration of the A,-'s in the Four Context. . 94
16. Distribution of the Fabric's Structural Variations across the Seip Textiles in the Sampling Frame with Blackening, Different Types of Green Staining, and Painting .... 122
17. Number of Textile Samples in the Categories of Blackening, Green Staining, Painting, and Construction Types Selected as the Samples for This Study ...... 123
18. Diagram Showing How the Fiber Specimens for the Microscopy were Selected ...... 126
19. Bast Bundle Found in the Seip Textiles . . . 138
20. Animal Hair Fibers Found in the Seip Textiles 139
21. Impregnation and Surface Encrustation of Copper on Seip 47052-2220; SEM ...... 148
22. Fibers of Blackened Seip Textiles 154
23. Four Different Types of Nodal Structures Which Served as Bases for Examining the Nodal Structures of the Seip Textiles ...... 163
24. Four Types of Fiber's Natural End Tips Observed among the Seip Textiles ...... 165
25. Unseparated Fiber Bundle ...... 166
26. Cross-sectional View of an Unseparated Bundle 168
27. Cross-sectional View of a Bundle ...... 169
28. Plain Continuous Type Nodal Structure Occurring Regularly Along the Fiber Length with Some Indication of Surface Folding at the Nodal A r e a ...... 170
29. Fibrillation in Seip 20021-1210 ...... 172
30. Transverse Cracking in Seip 20021-1210 .... 172
X V I 1 FIGURE PAGE
31. Tapering Type Fiber End Tip Found in Seip 20011-1210: S E M ...... 173
32. Illustration of the Possible Mixture of Bast and Animal Hair Fibers in Seip 47051-2220: SEM ...... 174
X V I 11 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The research presented here is based upon an analysis of textiles from the Seip Group of Mounds which are associated with the prehistoric Hopewell culture of Ohio.
This research investigates the cumulative effects of the textile production, utilization, and discard behaviors of the Seip population which are reflected in the morphological characteristics of fibers. A model for inferring cultural behavior related to textiles is proposed which delineates the rate of morphological change in fibers through time and the cultural activities which occur during the life of a textile element. It incorporates temporal and spatial dimensions to provide a theoretical framework for examining archaeological textiles from any given culture. The model is employed to explain the morphological characteristics of fibers of the textiles from the Hopewell burials in the Seip
Group of Mounds (ca. 100 B.C. to A.D. 500). 2
Material artifacts reflect past human behavior. A
proper examination of any type of material artifact should
allow one to make inferences about the socio-cultural
systems to which the artifacts belong. Among different
material artifacts, textiles convey symbolic meaning as well
as utilitarian significance (Roach and Musa, 1982).
However, they are often neglected by archaeologists due to their fragmentary state.
Problem Statement
We assert that our knowledge of the past is more than a projection of our ethnographic understanding. The accuracy of our knowledge of the past can be measured; it is this assertion which most sharply differentiates the new perspective from more traditional approaches. The yardstick of measurement is the degree to which propositions about the past can be confirmed or refuted through hypothesis testing-not by passing judgement on the personal qualifications of the person putting forth the propositions (Binford, 1968, p. 17).
The need for a "hypothetico-deductive" approach to archaeological research was emphasized by Binford (1968) more than two decades ago. Apart from the more traditional methodology in which the archaeological records are used for inductive inferences, the "new perspective" requires archaeologists to advance a proposition after the initial set of observations are made (Binford, 1968). Once the proposition has been set forth, a series of testable hypotheses must be derived from it so as to test or verify the proposition against some independent empirical data
(Binford, 1968). The hypotheses testing will lead to 3 probability statements about certain phenomena rather than to empirical generalizations (Binford, 1968). In the area of archaeological textiles, an example of research which adopted the "new perspective" is the study by Sibley and
Jakes (1989), in which Schiffer's (1972) cultural flow model was expanded to depict the transformation process of textile elements in biologic, systemic, and archaeologic context.
In the present research. Schiffer's (1972) and Sibley and Jakes' (1989) models are combined to illustrate the rate of morphological change in fibers as the textile element passes through different stages of textile production, use, discard, and post-discard conditions. The proposed model provides a theoretical framework for inferring prehistoric decisions relating to textile production and utilization, based on the observations of the morphological characteristics of fiber. Following Binford (1968), the model is based on the assumption that "a single characteristic observed in the archaeological record" is
"the compounded byproduct of a number of codeterminant variables" (p. 24).
Textile elements pass through stages of procurement, manufacture, use, and discard in the biologic and systemic context before they become part of the archaeologic record
(Schiffer, 1972; Sibley and Jakes, 1989). As a consequence, the final form of a textile artifact in the hands of an analyst becomes the cultural object in which independent 4 attributes pertaining to its interaction with human activities and the micro-environment where it was deposited are accumulated. This implies that any morphological variations among textile artifacts are due to the differential treatments received during the sequential stages of biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post excavation contexts. The resultant variations are reflected in the morphological characteristics of fibers. Therefore, analyses at the fiber level are required if one attempts to infer cultural behavior through the examination of archaeological textiles.
Nevertheless, past studies of the prehistoric textiles of North America have focused primarily upon the structural analysis of a fabric or that of a yarn (Church, 1983;
Hinkle, 1984; White, 1987; Kuttruff, 1988). Studies which include the analyses at the fiber level are limited
(Whitford, 1941; Sibley, Jakes, and Song, 1989). This is due largely to the inherent difficulties in the identification of vegetable fibers (King, 1978; Catling and
Grayson, 1982; Goodway, 1987) which constitute a large part of the prehistoric textiles of North America. Unlike the identification of animal fibers, the identification of plant fibers is difficult even when sophisticated analytical techniques are used (King, 1978; Catling and Grayson, 1982).
Therefore, fiber analyses of archaeological textiles made of plant materials need to be directed to the examination of 5 other physical and elemental characteristics than typically used in fiber identification. It is this approach which will form the basis for the present research.
According to Hearle, Lomas, Cooke, and Duerden (1989), different forms of damage occur in the fibers of archaeological textiles during growth, manufacture, use, burial, and post-excavation stages. The different forms of damage produce changes in fiber's morphology whether the damage is due to biological degradation, burning (or carbonization), or chemical attack (Hearle, et. al., 1989).
For this reason, fiber morphology is selected as the indicator variable over other physical and chemical characteristics of fiber which are affected by differential treatment.
The textiles which are examined in this research are from the burials of the Seip Group of Mounds which is associated with the prehistoric Hopewell culture of Ohio.
The Ohio Hopewell culture is characterized by large mounds and earthworks, "elaborate" burials of cremations and in flesh burials, and rich grave offerings which often accompany "exotic" raw materials and finished goods from different geographic regions (Fitting, 1978). The Seip
Group of Mounds are located 17 miles southwest of
Chillicothe, Ohio, at the center of a large bend of Paint
Creek (Figure 1). Over 200 fragments of textiles of varying sizes were recovered among numerous artifacts of different Ril [f*^ EXHIBITING A SECTION OF SIX MILES of the FATNT CREEK VALLEY, M'if/t t ’/.r s.^ /trih ff ^ ffo u /f/ztr/ifs.
h r E (!. .tyM//** H 4 7.
Figure 1. Seip Earthwork with the Associated Hounds (A) and Surrounding Sites. Taken from Squier, G. E., and Davis, E. H. (1848). Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Vallev (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge. No. 1). Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution. classes during the two series of excavations which took place from 1906 to 1926. The Seip textiles included in the investigation are currently curated at the Ohio Historical
Society of Columbus, Ohio. Although several researchers have endeavored to examine the textile production and related utilization behaviors of the Hopewell population
(Church, 1983; Hinkle, 1984; Carr and Hinkle, 1984; White,
1987), their studies were limited to the examination of the structural variations of the fabric. This research is the first attempt in the study of the Hopewell textiles which is 7 based primarily upon the analyses of textiles at the fiber level. Greber (1976) found a hierarchical social division among the Seip burial population in her study of burial data from several classic Ohio Hopewell sites. Following Binford
(1971), she suggests that this pattern of social division reflected a social hierarchy among the living population.
As evidence of the differential treatment of burials and the differential distribution of artifacts, Greber (1976) suggests that several artifacts made of copper represent social significance and may be classified as what Binford
(1962) has labelled as socio-technic artifacts.
Upon excavation of the Seip Group of Mounds, it was found that a large number of textiles were often associated with the evidence of extensive mortuary practices and were associated with copper artifacts within burials (Mills,
1909; Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). The reports of two different excavations of the Seip Mound Group provide ample evidence that the textiles were of ceremonial significance to the Seip population (Mills, 1909; Shetrone and Greenman,
1931). The initial characterization of the Seip textiles based on the visual distinctions suggest that the textiles may serve as evidence of differential burial treatment. 8
Purpose of the Study
There are two purposes in this research. The first purpose is to investigate the variations in the morphological characteristics of fibers due to the differences in the accumulated effects of treatments among the Seip textiles. The differences in the additive effect of treatments on the bast fibers are measured by the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology developed for this research. The second purpose of this research is to employ the proposed model as a framework for inferring textile production and utilization behavior of the Seip population based upon the results obtained from the analysis of textiles. Among various physical and chemical features of fiber which are affected by differential treatments, the variations in morphological characteristics of fiber which may be seen with the techniques of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are examined in this study.
Among the total of 226 Seip textiles, one feature clearly separates the textiles into two groups upon visual examination. The two groups of textiles are based on the visual appearance of whether or not they are "blackened"
(Figure 2). In their report of excavations, Shetrone and
Greenman (1931) report that the Seip burials exhibited evidence of both cremations and in-flesh burials. Mills
(1909) as well as Shetrone and Greenman (1931) explains that the cremation practice of the Seip population included the placement of the textile in direct contact with the body and its associated artifact before the body was burned.
Therefore, it is likely that the blackened textiles are the textiles which were associated with cremations.
Shetrone and Greenman (1931) report that, upon excavation, a large number of Seip textiles were discovered in direct contact with copper artifacts. The visual evidence of the former copper association among the Seip textiles is probably the "green-staining" which is present on the surface of the textiles either in a random form, or in a clear oval shape (Figure 3). Some of the Seip textiles with the oval-shaped staining have a slit at the center of
(a)
Figure 2. Blackened and Unblackened Seip Textiles. (a) Blackened: Glass case No. 35, (b) Unblackened: Glass case No. 06, (c) Unblackened: Glass case No. 30 10
Figure 2 (Continued)
(b)
(c) 11
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Visual Evidence of Probable Copper Association Present among the Seip Textiles. (a) Random staining: Glass case No. 01, (b) Oval-shaped staining: Glass case No. 14 12 the stain somewhat resembling a buttonhole. The intensity of staining suggest that the oval-shaped staining may be the result of a direct placement of certain type of copper artifact. Almost all of the unblackened Seip textiles exhibit green-staining. The burials associated with this type of textiles were mostly in-flesh burials (Shetrone and
Greenman, 1931). From this fact, one can infer that the textiles which have green-staining were associated with in flesh burials while the textiles which are blackened were associated with the cremations.
In addition to the above distinctions, several of the unblackened Seip textiles show a visual evidence of color application which is described as painting in Shetrone and
Greenman's report (Figure 4). The placement of several pieces of painted textiles within the Seip Mound has been described by Shetrone and Greenman (1931) (e.g., the Great
Multiple Burial). In many cases, they described the burials with which the painted textiles were associated as having been more "elaborate" than the other burials. However, their statement is not based on any test of statistical significance of the differential burial treatment.
Another feature which was reported by Shetrone and
Greenman (1931) was that all the Seip textiles with a certain fabrication structure, denoted as the type A by
Shetrone and Greenman, were always directly associated with copper artifacts upon excavation. This structure 13
Figure 4. Visual Evidence of Color Application Present among the Seip Textiles. Glass case No. 10 corresponds with Emery's (1980) spaced alternate-pair weft- twining and is the dominant structural type among the Seip textiles. Besides the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining, three other fabrication types are noticeable among the Seip textiles with which the fabrication structure is identified
(Figure 5). Shetrone and Greenman's (1931) report implies that those textiles with spaced alternate-pair weft-twining technique occur in the burials which appear to be more
"elaborate" than other burials. 14
Figure 5. Four Different Fabrication Structures Present among the Seip Textiles. (a) Spaced alternate-pair weft-twining, (b) Oblique interlacing, (c) Spaced 2-strand weft-twining, (d) Interlacing 15 Research Objectives
Based on the initial characterization of the Seip textiles, the following research objectives are generated to guide the present study.
1. To assess the microscopic morphological characteristics of the fibers obtained from the Seip textiles through the techniques of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.
2. To determine whether there is a relationship between the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from different visual and fabrication categories of the Seip textiles and any visual evidences of carbonization, copper association, coloration, and the variation in the fabrication structures of the Seip textiles,
3. To employ the proposed model as a framework for inferring textile production and utilization behavior of the
Seip population based on the results obtained from the analysis of textiles. 16
The research is based upon the following assumption:
It is assumed that the fiber morphologies observable through different microscopic techniques represent the total effects of the sequential treatments which a textile received in the biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post excavation contexts. This assumption follows Binford's
(1968) premise that a "single characteristic" observed in the archaeological record represents "the compounded byproduct of a number of codeterminant variables" (p. 24).
Limitations of the Study
One limitation of this study has to do with the nature of archaeological data. Our knowledge of the past is based on the examination of what is left or what has survived of the past material culture. An archaeologist is confronted not only with the problem arising from the incompleteness of an artifact assemblage, but also with the problem due to not knowing how much of the total assemblage has survived. When a set of textile artifacts becomes the object of the study, the problem is augmented since textiles have less chance to survive in the archaeological context than do the more durable artifacts. According to Binford (1968), our knowledge of the past based on the inference drawn from the remaining material culture can be enormously distorted due to this limitation. He comments that "since we can never know what is missing from the archaeological record, we can 17 never correctly evaluate what is present" (p. 18). Binford
(1968), however, asserted that by taking a "hypothetico- deductive" approach- observation, formulation of propositions, and verification of the propositions- this limitation could be partially overcome.
The practical limitations on our knowledge of the past are not inherent in the nature of the archaeological record; the limitations lie in our methodological naivete, in our lack of development for principles determining the relevance of archaeological remains to propositions regarding processes and events of the past (Binford, 1968, p. 23).
When an archaeologist is aware of this limitation, more careful generalization can be drawn from the available data.
In the case of the Seip textiles the investigator sees the limitation resulting from the nature of archaeological data taking two forms. The first form of this limitation has to do with the problem concerning the differential survival rate of textiles in the archaeological environment.
For example, even when the conditions of soil and other micro-environs are held constant, some textiles have a better chance of survival if they were in close contact with copper artifacts (Jakes and Sibley, 1983). Thus for the
Seip textiles which are either green stained (presumably with copper) or blackened (except for a few which are neither the two), the generalization beyond the surviving textiles is a problematic task. 18
The second form of the above limitation arises from the
fact that even among those textiles which have survived, the
surface degradation of a large number of Seip textiles
inhibits the identification of fabric structure. The effect
of surface degradation is more apparent among the fabrics
smaller than 3cm\ Hence the fabric structure of over 90
pieces of Seip textiles, most of which are smaller than
3cm% is difficult to identify even when the macroscopic
examination is carried out. As a consequence, the
generalizability of the results is questionable even among
the Seip textiles which have survived.
The third factor which is of a concern in conducting
this type of research has to do with the lack of provenience
data for most of the Seip textiles. The two series of
excavations of the Seip Group of Mounds were carried out
during the 1906-08 and 1925-28 seasons (Mills, 1909;
Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). The change of field
supervisors between the two series of excavations and the
lapse in time resulted in much confusion in the cataloging of artifacts and also resulted in the renaming of the mounds. The problem is aggravated by the fact that the
field notes from the excavations of 1906-08 seasons are missing. Due to these problems, the provenience data for most of the artifacts, including the textiles, are simply not available. The lack of provenience data limits the scope of the research since the information which can be 19 drawn from the comparison of the textile data and its related contextual data cannot be obtained. However, in an effort to minimize this limitation, the hypotheses for this research are designed in order that they have the least dependence on the contextual information.
Definition of Terms
Archaeologic Context — the place where a cultural element
stays after it is abandoned by the living population.
Bast fiber — long, slender schlerenchyma cells of plants
which commonly occur in strands or bundles (Raven,
Evert, and Eichhorn, 1986), and are obtained from the
stem of dicotyledonous plant (Florian, Kronkright, and
Norton, 1990).
Blackening — a blackened appearance which may be evidence
of carbonization rather than the result of gradual
degradation in the archaeologic context (Dimbleby,
1967).
Biologic Context — the temporal and spatial boundary where
a fibrous plant grows with or without human
manipulation.
Fiber — the fundamental unit comprising a textile (Dan
River, 1980).
Fiber morphology — fiber's surface and inner physical
structure which can be observed through microscopy.
The inner structure refers to the structures such as
lumen in plant fibers or medulla in animal fibers. 20
Post-excavation Context — the temporal and spatial boundary
of the life of a cultural object after it is recovered
from the archaeologic context.
Provenience — the three-dimensional location (horizontal
and vertical) within a site at which the artifact is
found (Sharer and Ashmore, 1987).
Systemic Context — the temporal and spatial boundary of an
element's life within the cultural system where the
human manipulation of the element transforms the
element into a certain type of cultural object.
Textile element — an element such as raw fiber, yarn, or
fabric which comprises the final form of a textile.
Treatment (Additive effect of treatment) — the activity
relating to the procuring, collecting, processing, use,
burial discard, and excavation as well as conditions
governing the long-term deposit in the archaeological
environment and that of the post-excavation context.
Variations in fiber morphology — the differences in the
cumulative effect of treatments on the morphological
characteristics of fiber observed through microscopic
examination.
Overview of Following Chapters
Chapter II consists of a review of literature related to the present study. Various aspects of the Hopewell culture which might aid in the understanding of the textile production and utilization behavior of the Seip population 21
are introduced with the details of the structural component of the Seip Group of Mounds. This is followed by the discussion on the Seip burial practice, the information on the Seip textiles, and the review of past studies of archaeological textiles. The theoretical framework for this research is presented in Chapter III. The proposed model is introduced and the hypotheses drawn from the examination of
Seip textiles in accordance with the model are presented.
In Chapter IV, the research method designed specifically for this research is presented including the sampling procedures and the introduction of the instrument developed for this study. Chapter V presents the results of microscopic examination of the Seip textiles and the results of hypothesis tests. The cultural implications of the findings is discussed in Chapter VI. Chapter VII summarizes previous chapters. Also included are limitations and future recommendations. CHAPTER II
THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of literature relevant
to the investigation of the cumulative effects of textile production, utilization, and discard behavior of the Seip population which are reflected in the morphological characteristics of fibers obtained through different microscopic techniques. The first section introduces various aspects of the Hopewell culture. The second section provides a description of the Seip Mounds and Earthworks, related research studies, and the Seip burial practices.
This section is followed by the discussion of the textile artifacts recovered from the Seip Group of Mounds. The last section of this chapter includes the review of current trends in the study of prehistoric textiles of North
America.
Hopewell Culture
The term, "Hopewell," was first used in the nineteenth century to designate a group of prehistoric earthworks situated in Union township, Ross county, Ohio, in honor of its owner Captain M. C. Hopewell (Shetrone, 1926). Since
22 23 then, the term has been given meaning far beyond its
original definition. The problems concerning the identity of the Hopewell are well reflected in the unrestricted usage
of the term, which Caldwell (1964) summarized as denoting "a
civilization, a culture, a complex, a phase, a regional
expression of a phase, a period, a style, a cultural climax, migrations of a ruling class, a technological revolution, a
social revolution, (and) an in-place development out of
previous antecedents" (p. 136).
Some scholars consider Hopewell to "an episode of
social interaction" which linked several regional cultural
traditions of the Middle Woodland period (Prufer, 1964;
Struever, 1964). Hall (1980) described the usage of the
term as follows;
Most simply, "Hopewell" is a name that came to be applied in the early twentieth century to certain archaeological remains in the north-central United States that had a high archaeological visibility and that were dramatically different from anything left by Indians of the generations found by early explorers or later settlers in the same area (p. 406).
The Hopewell culture is characterized by mound burials and
earthworks, artifacts such as platform pipes which are often
carved with animal and bird effigies, pan pipes, cut animal
jaws and teeth, "ritual" knives, artifacts made of copper,
pearls, and other materials which came from sources
scattered over thousands of miles (Fitting, 1978; Yerkes,
1988). 24
Until the end of nineteenth century, the large geometric earthworks and elaborate mortuary items found in the Ohio valley were generally credited to the so called
"lost Moundbuilder race," whose origin was subject of the greatest speculation (Willey and Sabloff, 1980). It was after the work of Cyrus Thomas of the Bureau of Ethnology in
1894 when the lost race hypothesis was demolished (Willey and Sabloff, 1980). Thomas' extensive survey and excavations convinced him that the mounds and earthworks and the associated artifacts were the products of prehistoric
American Indians (1894). Using these artifacts. Mills
(1906) was able to separate the Hopewell culture from other prehistoric cultures of North America.
Griffin (1946, 1967) dated the Hopewell cultural climax to a period from about 200 B.C. to A.D. 400. Following
McKern's Midwestern Taxonomic system, Griffin (1946, p. 6) divided the Woodland patterns into "transitional," or
"early" and "middle" Woodland periods. The latter being equivalent to the Hopewell florescence. This period coincides with the early part of what Willey (1966) proposed as the Burial Mound II period, which ended at A.D. 700.
Brose (1985), however, maintained that the Ohio Hopewell sites in the Scioto River valley date from as early as 100
B.C. to as late as A.D. 600. Similarly, Jennings (1968) placed the closure of the Hopewell culture around A.D. 600
in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. 25
The Hopewell expression of Middle Woodland period has
been found over a wide geographical area in the eastern
North America ranging from western New York to Kansas City
and from the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of Lake Huron.
For this reason Fitting (1978) described the Middle Woodland
as an "horizon throughout the Northeast- time period of
general cultural similarity over much of this large area"
(p. 45). The local cultural continuity over time is
referred to as a tradition (Fitting, 1978).
After 1950, when archaeological fieldwork progressed
and chronology was better established, the Hopewell cultures
outside of Ohio became clearly separable from the Ohio
Hopewell (Fitting, 1978). The Ohio Hopewell cultures are
marked by mounds and earthworks which are far larger than
those of other Hopewell expressions outside of Ohio. Also,
the Ohio Hopewell burials consist of elaborate cremations as
well as inhumations, both of which are accompanied by grave
associations far richer than those of other Hopewell
variants (Fitting, 1978).
The horizontal element of Hopewell expression is still
present among the local Hopewell variants in terms of
artifact similarities. The widespread similarities in
artifact style clearly suggest the existence of
interregional interactions among the regional Hopewell variants (Fitting, 1978). For instance. Gulf coast conch shells are found in Michigan and Wisconsin. Sharks' teeth 26 are found in Middle Woodland mounds in Illinois, an effigy alligator pipe dating to this period has been recovered from western Michigan. There is evidence that copper from the
Lake Superior region was traded far to the south. Obsidian and grizzly bear teeth from the far west came to Ohio and
Illinois. Mica and special types of flint, such as that from Flint Ridge in Ohio, were traded or carried over long distances and found their way into village and burial sites over much of eastern north America (Fitting, 1978).
Fitting (1978) said that the long distance trade which was evident during the Archaic times reached its peak during the Middle Woodland period. Prufer (1964) has postulated this phenomena of interaction as involving "Hopewellian standards, ideas, concepts, and material goods" (p. 77).
Similarly, Caldwell (1964) called it the "interaction sphere," where the focus of exchange was on the "mortuary- religious matters" (p. 137). Struever (1964) recognized the movement of raw materials and "stylistic concepts, (but) not finished goods," (p. 88) through the exchange network in his study of the Hopewell culture in the Great Lakes-Riverine area.
In the past 50 years of North American archaeology, there has been much dispute among the archaeologists concerning the origin of the Hopewell complex, its social organization, its settlement and subsistence pattern, and its decline. There are also questions about the 27 relationship between Hopewell and Adena culture. Some of these issues will be summarized below.
Adena
Fitting (1978) described the changes which occurred between the Early Woodland period and the Middle Woodland period as follows:
Around 300 B.C., in some areas slightly earlier and in other places slightly later, quantitative changes took place in prehistoric northeastern North America as the relative stability achieved during the late Archaic and Early Woodland periods gave way to the new dynamism of the Middle Woodland period (p. 44).
In earlier literature, these changes were explained by the migration of a different population into the Ohio valley
(Webb and Snow, 1945; Griffin, 1952; Dragoo, 1964). The alleged support for this thesis came from comparisons of the cranial size and shape of Early and Middle Woodland individuals that were integrated with other classes of archaeological information (Webb and Snow, 1945; Dragoo,
1964; Buikstra, 1979). However, Buikstra (1979) reported that
new techniques have been applied to the investigation of biological distance, in a morphological and inferred genetic sense...it appears that our current characterization of Hopewell would emphasize the presence of distinctive local Middle Woodland populations, with an absence of identifiable population interaction or dispersal (p. 233).
Griffin (1964, 1979) described the shift from the Early
Woodland period to the Middle Woodland period as "unbroken continuity from Early into Middle Woodland times" (1979, p. 28
272) (also see Asch, Farnsworth, and Asch,(1979). The growth of the population level during the Middle Woodland period was more a result of a shift in local settlement locations rather than actual regional population growth
(Asch et al., 1979). Similarly, Otto (1979) has documented a continuation from the Early Woodland to the Middle
Woodland period in the Ohio Valley. Black's (1979) study suggested that Adena and Hopewell were related, and may be contemporary complexes. According to Black (1979), an increased bottomland occupation along major streams was evident during the Late Adena period, and this trend had continued through the Hopewell period.
Much of the cultural expression which characterizes
Hopewell was already present in the Early Woodland period
(Fitting, 1978; Griffin, 1978; Otto, 1979). Especially, many Adena cultural practices were directly handed down to the Hopewellians. According to Griffin (1978), "Adena as a mound-building complex may well have not begun until about
500 B.C., but many of the artifacts and behavior patterns common after that date originated in the area with Early
Woodland complexes" (p. 242). The mortuary ceremonies and mound construction activities are the most representative traits which were practiced by the Adena and elaborated by the Hopewell (Griffin, 1978; Fitting, 1978; Muller, 1986). 29
Artifacts and Features
Among the different Hopewell sites excavated in the eastern United States, those situated in the Ohio Valley and
Illinois Valley exhibit by far the most interesting archaeological features (Muller, 1986). Past excavations showed that the Ohio Hopewell especially manifest quantitative as well as qualitative superiority over all the other Hopewell variants (Muller, 1986). Six major Hopewell sites have been excavated in Ohio, including the Edwin
Harness Mound (Mills, 1907; Greber, 1977), the Seip group of earthworks (Mills, 1909; Shetrone and Greenman, 1931), the
Tremper Mound (Mills, 1916), the Mound City group (Mills,
1922), the Turner group (Willoughby and Hooton, 1922), and the Hopewell group (Moorehead, 1922; Shetrone, 1926).
The earthworks of Ohio Hopewell are constructed in such shapes as squares, circles, octagons, ellipses, and trapezoids, which may be isolated, arranged in sets of one or two of each shape, or arranged in complexes including all of these shapes (Brose, 1985). In some instances, the alignment of earthworks show mathematical precision, and suggest seasonal solar and/or lunar orientations (Brose,
1976; Greber, 1983). According to Squier and Davis (1848), a great number of earthworks of the Ohio Hopewell contain anywhere from one to twenty-two burial mounds. Mounds themselves can be loaf-shaped, conical, or similar to truncated pyramids, and are placed in either geometrically 30 precise locations or are randomly located within and outside of the earthworks (Brose, 1985).
The burial mounds and the structures or rooms within the burial mounds are geometrically shaped (Brose, 1985).
The rooms within the mounds are identified as single- or multiple-mortuary structures, burial crypts (a large box constructed for storage of the dead and their grave goods at the death of an individual), or charnel houses (structures designed to shelter both the dead and associated mortuary processing activities) (Griffin, 1978; Brown, 1979). Brown
(1979) stated that
in contrast to the simple mortuary program of crypt burial, the burials (in charnel houses)...involved extensive body preparation and body reduction before final interment in specially prepared facilities. These burials were graded in form and elaborateness in a manner indicative of the status of the deceased. Hence, the charnel house burials were interred in such a manner as to openly declare the social standing of the deceased to those entering the charnel house (p. 211- 212).
In his study of the burial practices among the known
Hopewell cultures of Illinois and Ohio, Brown (1979) pointed out that the burial facilities of most Illinois Hopwellians were represented by burial crypts, whereas that of the Ohio
Hopewell were distinguished by the presence of the charnel houses. He maintained that the structural differences between the two burial facilities are indicative of the differences in "the size of the sustaining population investing in these facility types and, indirectly, a reflection of differences in the complexity of the 31 associated societies” (p. 219). From this. Brown (1979) postulated that the usage of the charnel houses among the
Ohio Hopewell societies implied "a more populous supporting population and more complex societies” (p. 219) than the
Illinois Hopewellians.
Over 1150 burials were found at the six major sites of
Harness, Seip, Tremper, Mound City, Turner, and Hopewell
(Griffin, 1978). The burials were in the form of complete cremations or partial cremations, extended or flexed in flesh burials, piles of partially or wholly disarticulated bones, or isolated skulls (Griffin, 1978; Brose, 1985).
Burials of individuals or groups occur in pits which are dug through several floor layers (Brose, 1985).
One of the most interesting aspects of the Hopewell culture, especially the Ohio Hopewell, is the quantity and quality of grave offerings, mostly of "exotic” raw materials or finished objects, which accompany burials (Figure 6).
Muller (1986) defined the term, "exotic,” as meaning that
"the materials were foreign to the locations where they were
found” (p. 96) such as obsidian from Wyoming and mica sheets
from Appalachia. Other exotic objects consist of different
species of marine shell from the Atlantic and Florida Gulf
coasts, barracuda jaws, ocean turtle shells, shark and
alligator teeth from Florida, and cobble-size chunks of
galena from unknown sources (Griffin, 1978). According to
Griffin (1978), "some of the trade or acquisition was Figure 6. Some Examples of "Exotic" Artifacts Found in the Seip Burial Complex. (a) Copper earspool, (b) Examples of cut mica, (c) Tobacco pipe made of steatite in effigy of an owl, (d) Shale effigy probably representing the pupa of an insect, (e) Ceremonial points made of obsidian, (f) Effigy of the trumpeter swan, cut out of tortoise shell, (g) Pearl beads. After Shetrone, H. C., & Greenman, E. F. (1931). Explorations of the Seip Group of prehistoric earthworks. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly. 15. 345-509.
32 33
w ü f t ’ifff'fffi-’iifti
(a) (b)
m ÆÜ:
(d) (c)
(f)
<î?
(e) (g)
Figure 6 34
probably done by long-distance travel, but other materials
or finished goods may have been exchanged locally and moved
from group to group” (p. 249).
Griffin (1978) explained that sheets of copper or mica
found among the Ohio Hopewell burials were cut into naturalistic or geometric figures, e.g. embossed designs of
eagles, turkeys, buzzards, parrots, and effigy forms. Human
figurines were made from baked clay and animal and human effigy forms were sculptured in Ohio pipestone. According to Griffin (1978), "cut-out designs may have been stencils for painting designs on finely woven cloth of native bast fibers" (p. 249). There were also engravings on animal or human bone, which Griffin (1978) described as the
"representations of shamans in ceremonial dress and many other designs (p. 249).
Prufer (1965) maintained that "the production of ceremonial objects" was "primarily intended for deposition with the dead" (p. 132). Struever (1964) suggested that these artifacts probably served as "status-specific objects which functioned in various ritual and social contexts within community life" and were eventually "deposited as personal belongings or contributed goods with the dead, reaffirming the status of the deceased" (p. 88). Griffin
(1967), however, viewed the Hopewell burial ceremonialism not as "a special exotic cult but as a climactic expression of a central theme of their way of life" (p. 184). At any 35 rate, one can suggest that the exotic artifacts found in
Hopewell burial contexts represent their functions as what
Binford (1962) referred to as either "socio-technic" or
"ideo-technic" objects.
Besides the elaborate grave offerings, the fill of the mound and of the earthworks contained a considerable amount of village debris, with areas within or near the earthworks being the village sites (Griffin, 1978). The excavations of the Mound City and the Seip group in the sixties uncovered both house sites and village debris (Greber, 1979). In
Illinois, the excavations of Hopewell villages and campsites uncovered exotic artifacts deposited in domestic settings as well as graves (Yerkes, 1988). Baby and Langlois (1979) argued that the structures within the earthwork complexes served as specialized workshops for producing exotic artifacts, whereas Cinadr and Genheimer (1983) suggested that they were produced at mortuary camps. Seeman (1979) speculated that the Hopewell charnel house was the focal point of a redistribution channel, which was probably administered by priests or ritual specialists.
Another type of artifact recovered from the Hopewellian context, which is often ignored because of its fragmentary state, is the textiles. Since the focus of this study is specifically on the textiles, the review of literature concerning the Hopewell textiles will be presented in the separate section entitled, "Hopewell textiles." 36
Settlement and Subsistence Pattern
The Hopewell settlement and subsistence pattern is better known in Illinois than Ohio (Yerkes, 1988). The investigation of Ohio Hopewell has been focused on the burial mounds and accompanying mortuary artifacts. Very few habitation sites have been investigated in Ohio. Those settlements which were investigated have only been partially excavated, and represent a limited range of subsistence activities (Prufer, 1965; Fischer 1974; Yerkes, 1988).
Prufer (1964) suggested that the Ohio Hopewell settlement can be characterized as individual farmsteads scattered through the alluvial valleys.
Among the few cases of Hopewell house sites and village excavations are the excavations at Mound City and at the
Seip group (Griffin, 1978). At the Seip group, the houses are basically rectangular with rounded corners in different sizes with some variations (Griffin, 1978). The house sizes vary from 10.5 to 12 meters long and 9 to 10.5 meters wide
(Griffin, 1978). Griffin (1978) suggested that while the structure could have housed an extended family of 30 to 40 people, the interior activities and furnishing would have taken much of the space.
According to Baby (1976), there is evidence of storage pits in the floor and of the possibility of various craft activities among the Ohio Hopewell. Yerkes (1988), however, maintained that without ample evidence of subsistence 37
activities and domestic tools, it is difficult to
demonstrate the presence of craft specialization within the
Ohio Hopewell society. The lack of investigation of Ohio
habitation sites limits any inferences about craft
activities (Yerkes, 1988).
In Illinois, the Hopewell subsistence and settlement
pattern had been extensively investigated by Struever (1964,
1968) and later by Asch, Farnsworth, and Asch (1979). The three site types which have been described are: (1) permanently occupied base camps; (2) mortuary or ritual camps related to bluff-top mound groups: and (3) a "regional transaction center" marked by floodplain mound groups and habitation sites (Struever, 1964; Yerkes, 1988).
Social Organization
The status of Hopewell organizational structure has been the center of debate among many archaeologists (Greber,
1976, 1979a, 1979b; Braun, 1979, 1981; Bender, 1985). The interpretations relating to the Hopewell social structure have generally fallen into two parties: those who interpret the archaeological phenomena which define Hopewell as indicating a complex, hierarchically organized society, and those who see these characteristics as reflecting a simpler egalitarian system (Tainter, 1983).
The social structure of the Ohio Hopewell has been extensively examined by Greber (1976, 1979a, 1979b) based on the data recovered from several classic Ohio Hopewell sites. 38
In her study of three Hopewell mound groups, Seip (mound 1
and 2), Ater, and Turner, she concluded that there was
diversity of social structure among the three Hopewell sites
with additional differences within each site (Greber, 1976,
1979b). Following Binford (1971) and Saxe (1970), her
assumption was that "patterns found within a burial population reflect significant social patterns of the
associated living population" (1979b, p. 38).
When attributes such as artifact count, grave area, grave location, and sex of individuals were statistically compared across the sites listed above, Greber (1976, 1979b) found a "tripartite" pattern in the distribution of artifacts and the usage of space in Seip Mound 1 and 2. The same pattern is also reflected in the Seip earthworks.
Greber (1976, 1979b) suggests that the tripartite pattern of earthworks and mounds reflects three hierarchical social divisions in the Seip's social structure.
Similar results were obtained from the analysis of
Edwin Harness Mound whose earthworks and mound structures also show the tripartite pattern (Greber, 1979a). In contrast, only one social component was represented in the
Raymond Ater mound, and two at the Turner burial place
(Greber, 1976, 1979b). Greber, therefore, suggested that there were hierarchical social divisions among the Seip and the Harness population. She further commented on the intersite differences of the above sites. 39
The intersite diferences in social structure and organization among Ohio Hopewell peoples mean that the social context and possible social function of a given class of objects found at diferent sites can vary, though the morphological characteristics of the objects may not (p. 56).
Muller (1986) supports Greber's theory by saying that
"at least some Hopewell leaders may have been the functional equivalents of chiefs within the level of political organization sometimes called 'chiefdom'" (p. 97). Using
Service's (1962) terminology, Struever (1965) also suggested that the Ohio Hopewell represented a chiefdom level of sociopolitical development, while the Great Lakes-Riverine
Hopewell is at a tribal level of development. Similarly,
Bender (1985) stated that "perhaps the display and conspicuous consumption of the Ohio Hopewell was linked to the affirmation of inherited position, while in the Havana status is still achieved" (p. 47). However, Braun (1979,
1981) asserted that the Hopewell organizational structure should be characterized as a simple egalitarian system based on the data obtained from the Hopewell sites in Illinois.
Hopewell Decline
According to Stoltman (1978), about 300 years following the Hopewell climax is perceived as "a time of cultural decline over much of the East" where "decline is especially evident in areas of former Hopewellian dominance, where elaborate earthwork construction and the manufacture of exotic burial furniture were either abandoned or drastically 40
curtailed" (p. 721). Earlier literature (Webb and Snow,
1945) listed factors such as population migration into and
from the Ohio valley for the cause of Hopewell decline.
However, recent works in biophysical analyses confirmed a continuity of Middle and Late Woodland populations in the major valleys (Brose, 1985). In his earlier article,
Griffin (1952) proposed that the Hopewell demise could have been the result of "cultural fatigue."
...Ohio Hopewell marked a high peak in ceremonial and artistic forms based on a long tradition of cultural development in the area. In achieving this cultural peak they may have reached a level beyond which they found it impossible to go (p. 321).
After Griffin's earlier comment, a number of different theories emerged in the 1960's, and were well summarized by
Hall (1980). According to Hall (1980), factors such as disease and plague towards the end of Middle Woodland period are considered as possible causes. However, there is no evidence for this thesis. Prufer (1964) suggests that external conflict and warfare had affected the decline of
Hopewell by summarizing the archaeological evidence from hilltop enclosures of the Ohio valley, which he labeled the
"latest Hopewell." Wray and MacNeish (1961), on the other hand, proposed the introduction of new technology and subsequent internal conflict as one possible explanation.
A British archaeologist. Bender (1985) also proposed several possible causes for the decline of the Hopewell cultures in the Ohio and Illinois valleys. She listed 41 subsistence problems, demographic pressures, and the growth of a "'Gulf tradition' which might have deflected southern marine products or cut off access to Appalachian resources such as mica and steatite" (1985, p. 49). Braun (1986), on the other hand, insists that the shift from the Middle
Woodland to the Late Woodland period should be explained as
"a consequence of the continuation, rather than the reversal, of many of the social processes they had initially helped promote" (p. 125).
The preceding discussion consisted of the Adena and
Hopewell relationship, artifacts and features, settlement and subsistence pattern, social organization, and decline of the Hopewell. The following pages pertain to the discussion related to the Seip Mounds and Earthwork; the description of the site, its burial practice, and the textiles recovered from the Seip burial complex.
The Seip Mounds and Earthwork
The Seip Earthwork is a large geometric earthwork composed of two circles and a square, within which are a large elliptical central mound, three conjoined mounds, and a number of small mounds (Figure 7). Early description of the Seip group appeared in 1820 by Caleb Atwater in the first volume of the American Antiquarian Society (Mills,
1909). In 1848, Squier and Davis provided both description and illustration of the earthwork and mounds in Ancient
Monuments of the Mississippi Valiev. They described the 42
ij* ' ‘-■'•‘.J
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1000 fr.ioIncK.
Figure 7. Plan of the Seip Group of Mounds and Earthworks. A; Seip Hound l, B; Seip Mound 2. After Squier, G. E., and Davis, E. H. (1848). Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valiev (Smithsonian contributions to Knowledge, No. 1). Washington DC: The Smithsonian Institution.
Seip complex as such;
Within the larger circle, and not far from its center, is a large elliptical mound, two hundred and forty feet long by one hundred and sixty broad, and thirty in height. It is considerably larger than any other single mound in the valley, and covers a little more than two-thirds of an acre. ...To the right of this fine mound is a group of three others in combination...
When the Seip group was excavated by William Mills during 1906 and 1908, the large elliptical central mound (a of Figure 7) was called the Pricer mound after the owner of the land, and the Seip Mound referred to the three conjoined mounds (b of Figure 7) (Mills, 1909; Shetrone and Greenman,
1931). Only the three conjoined mounds were excavated during the 1906-08 seasons. The second excavation of the 43
Seip complex was carried out by the Ohio Historical Society during 1925-28, under the direction of Henry Shetrone and
Emerson Greenman. This time the large elliptical central mound was extensively excavated (Shetrone and Greenman,
1931). Upon excavation, Shetrone and Greenman renamed the large elliptical central mound as the Seip Mound Number 1
(Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). The three conjoined mounds which was previously called Seip Mound by Mills was then called Seip Mound Number 2.
The renaming of the mounds, together with the change of field supervisors during the four seasons, created much confusion in the cataloging of the artifacts in the Ohio
Historical Society, and frequent lack of provenience numbers
(Greber, 1976). To aggravate the problem, Mills' field notes from 1906-08 excavation of the Seip Mound 1 (Pricer
Mound) are missing. The report of the excavation of Seip
Mound 2 (Seip) has been available only through Mills' (1909) publication, which did not include provenience data of each burial and associated artifacts.
Shetrone and Greenman (1931) reported that on the floor
of the Seip Mound 1 were crematory basins, pits, post molds,
and burial platforms on which the great majority of burials
were placed. Squier and Davis (1848) described Seip Mound 2
in their drawing as three distinct mounds (b of Figure 7).
Mills (1909), however, was able to note that they were
actually one mound which is made up of three separate but 44 connected mounds. Mills reported that both cremations and
in-flesh burials were found within the Seip Mound 2. The floor plans of the Seip Mound 1 and the Seip Mound 2 are separately illustrated in Figures 8 and 9.
The archaeological implication of the Seip complex has been most extensively investigated by Greber (1976, 1979a,
1979b). As discussed previously, Greber (1976, 1979a) found a tripartite pattern of artifact distribution and the use of floor area among individual burials. She found that the same tripartite pattern is present in the floor plan of the mound as well as the earthwork. Based on the statistical test, Greber concluded that there are three main hierarchical social divisions present among the burial population of the Seip Group of Mound. She suggested that the same pattern of social distinction had been present among the living population.
Seip Burial Practice
Integrating the two separate reports of Shetrone and
Greenman (1931) and Mills (1909), it is possible to reconstruct the probable way in which the Seip population interred their dead. According to Shetrone and Greenman
(1931), "the great majority of burials in Mound Number 1 were cremated and lay upon specially prepared earthen platforms built up a few inches above the floor" (p. 480).
They reported that most of the platforms were "made of clay, gravel or sand with coverings of charcoal" which suggests Figure 8. Floor Plan of the Seip Mound 1 Showing the Burial Platforms and other Features. Taken from Shetrone, H. C., & Greenman, E. F. (1931). Explorations of the Seip Group of prehistoric earthworks. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly. 15. 345-509.
45 Oitêrut^
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0^ Figure 8 C\ 47
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Figure 9. Floor Plan of the Seip Mound 2. Taken from Mills, W. C. (1909). Explorations of the Seip Mound. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Publications. 18, 268-321. 48 that "cremation was accomplished not far from the burial site" (p. 480). They noted that
there is nothing to show, however, that the fire was built over the platforms although in a number of instances bodies may have been cremated on the actual site before erection of the platform. For example, the charcoal of the platforms of Burials 36 and 39 extended out onto the floor beyond the log-molds. However the charcoal did not in every case result from the fires of cremation; there was charcoal on the platform of Burial 52, but the remains were uncremated (p. 480).
Thin layers of disintegrated bark covered most of the burials. However, Shetrone and Greenman (1931) comment that it is uncertain whether the bark was the actual covering for the dead or if it was all that remained of a bark roof placed over each log crib. A total of 129 individual burials were found in the Seip Mound 1, with four burials not on platform, and seven intrusive burials. The 118 burials interred on platforms were either in-flesh burial, cremation, or partial cremation. Shetrone and Greenman reported that among the total of 90 platforms, 69 had remains of single individuals, with the rest having two or more burials.
The most notable burial platform was "the great multiple burial" (p. 369). Its burial chamber had been constructed of "logs placed above one another and secured in place by large stones" (p. 370). It served as a vault to withstand the pressure of the earth. Over the vault lay a fabric canopy secured in place by hundred or more bone skewers (Figure 10). Shetrone and Greenman (1931) suggest 49
Figure 10. Diagram of West Elevation of Multiple Burial. AB; Line of the Fabric Canopy. Taken from Shetrone, H. C., & Greenman, E. F. (1931). Explorations of the Seip Group of prehistoric earthworks. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly. IS, 345-509. that the canopy was "perhaps intended as a ceremonial shroud" (p. 372). Upon the platform were six burials
(burial numbers 2 to 7 in Figure 8) all of which are in flesh burial. The six burials were of four adults and two
infants and were accompanied by rich artifacts such as a copper breastplate, numerous pearl beads, copper button, and mica. The copper breastplate was laid underneath the head and neck, and beneath the copper plate was "a portion of fabric or burial shroud bearing a design in color" (p. 376).
Shetrone and Greenman (1931) state that, in the Seip
Mound 1, the artifacts with cremations were generally placed either on the side of the pile of bone fragments or were found intermingled with them. On the other hand, they reported that with the uncremated burials, the artifacts 50 were generally found in the positions "probably corresponding to their positions on the body during life”
(p. 488). Mills (1909), in his report of the excavation of
Seip Mound 2 described that all the burials placed in the three conjoined "charnel houses" (p. 284) were cremations and the five in-flesh burials were placed "promiscuously" at various sections of the mounds. Similar to Seip Mound 1, the Mound 2 graves were prepared so that one or more burials could be placed on the same burial cist (Mills used the term, "cist," which is probably similar to or the same as
Shetrone and Greenman's burial platform.). The largest combination of burials in a single cist was that of four individuals. He described that:
frequently the floor around the posts would be covered with great quantities of charred cloth, ornaments, and implements, and occasionally the floor would be covered with mica...It seems very probable that the cluster of posts near the graves were the sacred shrines for the dead, and here the clothing, and very frequently, some of the most interesting ornaments,...and in a few instances, copper ornaments were found with the charred woven fabrics, so promiscuously placed upon the floor surrounding the posts (p. 286).
Finally, several comments by Mills (1909) comparing the possible cremation practice in the largest circular enclosure of Seip Mound 2 and that of Harness Mound are quoted below to aid in further understanding the Seip burial practices. 51
(In the Seip Mound 2,) the incinerated remains were placed in the prepared grave, and a covering of wood, usually split pieces, was placed over the top and the grave covered with earth to a depth of a few inches... The final ceremony of burning straw, bark, and clothing over the remains, similar to the burial methods at the Harness Mound, was in evidence in 9 burials of the 19 found on the base of the section, and only one of the 19 was cremated in the grave where the remains were found (pp. 288-290).
Seip Textiles
Over 230 pieces of textile fragments recovered from the
Seip group of mounds during the excavations of 1906-08 and
1925-28 seasons are located at the Ohio Historical Society,
Columbus, Ohio. Shetrone and Greenman's (1931) and Mills'
(1909) reports together provided a partial depiction as to where and in what condition the textiles of Seip complex were found in different archaeological contexts. When textiles recovered from 10 different Ohio Hopewell sites are compared, the Seip complex had by far the largest number of textiles, comprising approximately 50 percent of the total population of textiles from 10 sites (Hinkle, 1984).
Furthermore, Willoughby (1938) described that the textiles from the Seip Group exhibit the finest form of structural variations. An in-depth examination of different resources pertaining to the topic of Seip textiles is presented below.
The first subsection is a discussion of the textiles of Ohio
Hopewell including those from the Seip Group of Mounds. In the second section, the Seip textiles reported in both 1906-
08 and 1925-28 excavations are reviewed in detail. 52
Textiles of the Ohio Hopewell Including Those from the Seip
Group of Mounds
Most textiles of Ohio Hopewell were found within the burial mounds, in many cases associated with copper artifacts and/or with evidence of "carbonization" (Hinkle,
1984). Textiles show no evidence of the use of the loom
(Willoughby, 1938). Willoughby described:
A crude framework consisting of two stakes and a crossbar or a similar contrivance was probably in use for suspending the warp in the larger pieces but the manipulation of the woof seems to have been principally the work of the fingers, perhaps in some instances aided by a twig or needle (p. 273).
Prufer (1961) summarized 12 possible functional categories of Ohio Hopewell textiles and indicated their occurrence at individual sites. Prufer's scheme was modified by Hinkle (1984) for the purpose of assigning context to individual textiles with known provenience from
10 different Ohio Hopewell sites. Hinkle's study will be discussed in detail later in this section.
Structural variations of the Ohio Hopewell textiles were summarized by Charles Willoughby in his article.
Textile fabrics from the burial mounds of the great earthwork builders of Ohio (1938). A total of twelve different fabrication structures were identified by
Willoughby. Although Willoughby acknowledged the fact that these textiles were constructed without the use of a loom, he used the term, "weaving," when describing the structural variations of the Hopewell textiles. This contradicts the 53 more standardized classificatory scheme by Emery (1980, New edition).
According to Emery (1980), when two (warp and weft) or more sets of elements in a fabric cross each other at a more or less right angles and are interworked by each other, the fabric is described as having been "woven" with the simplest form of weaving being "interlacing" (p. 74). In contrast, when "pairs (or larger groups) of adjacent elements of one set spiral or turn about each other in their passage through a fabric," the fabric is described as having been "twined,"
"paired," "chain-twisted," or "cross-twisted" (p. 196).
Emery further distinguished between weaving and twining as follows:
But in contrast in interlaced weaves and unlike the warps in gauze- and other crossed-warp weaves, twining elements can hardly be said to interlace (or be interlaced by) the elements of the opposite set; they simply 'enclose' or 'clasp' the non-twining elements in their twining interaction with each other. Nor do the non-twining elements secure the twining itself (as gauze wefts secure the crossing of gauze warps); they serve only to join successive groups or 'cords' of twined elements in a coherent fabric, and if they are removed the twined elements remain twined - but as separate cords, not as a fabric (p. 196).
Similarly, but from a more technical standpoint, Wilson
(1979) distinguished between a woven fabric and a twined (or openworked) fabric through the devices which produced them.
She explained that a loom is "generally distinguished from other frames used to make openwork and twined fabrics by the addition of heddles" (p. 36). While Willoughby's classificatory system presented an inherent problem of 54
terminological error, the compilation of textile information
from more than 10 different Ohio Hopewell sites, alone,
served as a benchmark for later studies of Hopewell textiles.
Structural diversities of the Ohio Hopewell textiles were studied by Hinkle (1984) in regard to their hypothesized function as a medium of inter-regional exchange. Hinkle examined more than 150 textiles from 10
Ohio Hopewell mound sites and investigated the pattern in which different stylistic attributes of textiles were represented across different sites. Employing Wobst's
(1977) model of information exchange, she studied whether stylistic variations among Ohio Hopewell textiles can be used as "an indicator of the intensity of social interaction between the populations of neighboring Ohio Hopewell mortuary centers" (p. 143). As a synthesis of Wobst's
(1977) information exchange model, she utilized the
"synthetic theory" for the study of artifact design, which was proposed by Carr and Hinkle (1984). The main emphasis of the proposed model holds that any theoretical approach to the study of artifact style must include "total variation of design of artifacts— all morphological and decorative variability" (p. 3).
Hinkle (1984) postulated that if a diversity of "mid range" attributes present at a single site was also present in several surrounding sites, this would be indicative of 55
"the interaction of several local groups at one ceremonial center" (p. 288). Among the selected attributes, structure
(warp and weft structure), element category, fabric classification, interworking category, and variation were identified as the "mid-range" attributes. According to
Hinkle (1984), the Hopewell site and the Seip group share the same diversity of mid-range attributes. From this she speculated on the information exchange mode between the
Hopewell site and the Seip group as follows:
Because these sites differ from all the other sites in the sample in terms of the distribution of "mid-range" attributes states...it is speculated that local groups from Seip and Hopewell may have interacted together at one ceremonial center, separate from other local groups...This suggests that Seip and Hopewell possibly represent a distinct polity within the Scioto-Paint Creek region (p. 289).
Hinkle's study provide valuable information as to the status of textiles and their styles as medium of exchange of information among different Ohio Hopewell complexes.
Especially, the identification of "mid-range" attributes and their presence at the Hopewell and the Seip groups allows a possible delineation of the exchange system centering upon
Hopewell and Seip complexes, and the significance of the two sites as communication focal points. However, one cannot overlook the fact that her analysis did not include attributes concerning the collecting and processing behavior of initial fiber preparation stages. Rather, it was limited to distinguishing between the vegetable and animal fibers.
In order to adhere strictly to Carr and Hinkle's (1984) 56 synthetic theory, analysis at the fiber level, i.e. evidence of fiber collecting and processing behavior, must also be carried out if one attempts to examine total variation of morphological and decorative dimensions of textiles.
Interesting results might be found if the distribution of attributes concerning fiber collecting and processing were to be plotted across 10 sites.
Church's (1983) study is another example which studied the structural variations of the Ohio Hopewell textiles.
Church (1983) examined textiles from the three Ohio Hopewell sites. Harness, Hopewell, and Seip, which are currently located at The Ohio Historical Society. Her survey of the variations in fabrication (fabric structure) techniques among the 62 selected textiles showed that spaced alternate- pair weft-twining, following Emery's (1980) classification, was the most common method comprising 64.5 percent of the total sample. Other frequently occurring structural variations were oblique interlacing, and open pairs over/under pairs. She found that fabrics directly adhering to copper artifacts were made consistently of spaced alternate-pair weft-twining. Regarding the probable amount of time required to produce these textiles, she commented as: 57
concerning labor input, a contemporary weaver estimates that it would take over 1500 hours to make only the cordage necessary to make a bag less than a half-meter square, using the same pattern at the same scale of fineness as the spaced alternate-pair weft twining from Seip Mound 1...Therefore, in terms of extent of labor input in manufacturing and construction of some of the textiles, plus their further decoration with pearls, painted designs, feathers, mica, and copper 'buttons', and their association with copper plates-perhaps forming elaborate costumes- I suggest that the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining and oblique-interlacing textiles from these sites functioned as clothing to broadcast messages concerning a higher status and amount of prestige for the individuals with which they are associated (p. 11).
Given this result. Church (1984), in her later article, suggested that the textiles of Ohio Hopewell from Harness,
Hopewell, and Seip can be used to infer social identities of the three sites.
The last study to be discussed, which also observed the structural variations of the selected Ohio Hopewell textiles, dealt with 35 textile fragments, mostly
"carbonized" or in the form of fabric impression on copper artifacts, recovered from the Hopewell Mound Group during the 1891 excavation (White, 1987). White's (1987) study includes the survey of structural variations of the textiles adhering to copper artifacts, the description of production procedures of copper materials based on ethnographic records, and the description of the phenomenon of copper corrosion. White (1987) found that the oblique interlacing technique was indicated on both sides of nearly all copper artifacts. From this she suggested that the textiles of this type were used both during the manufacturing process of 58 copper artifacts, and as a wrapping for copper materials to be placed in burials. In many cases, ethnographic records of the use of textiles and their fabrication techniques among the historic Indians were discussed to infer ritual and technological significance of the textiles of Hopewell
Mound Group.
All studies introduced above dealt with the structural characteristics of the Ohio Hopewell textiles at the fabric and the yarn levels. Consideration of the fiber characteristics was not sought in any study except for that by Willoughby (1938). Willoughby (1938) comments that the textiles of two fabrication types (f, e, i, and o of Figure
15), which are from the Seip Group of Mounds, are probably made from various plants such as Indian hemp fAoocynum cannabinuml. nettle, and also the inner bark of the Linden,
Slippery Elm, and other trees.
Seip Textiles in the Reports of 1906-08 and 1925-28
Excavations
The different ways in which the Seip population utilized textile items are partlv identifiable by examining the reports of the two separate excavations of Seip Mounds 1 and 2. The two reports provide information such as fabrication structures, function, possible fiber types of the Seip textiles. From the two reports, it can be summarized that the Seip textiles were generally associated with either cremations or in-flesh burials. 59
All textiles described by Shetrone and Greenman (1931) do not suggest evidence of association with cremations since terms such as "blackened," "carbonized," or "charred" were not employed to describe any one of the textile pieces.
This statement can be verified by the fact that the bodies associated with these textiles were not described as cremations. Evidence of "charred" fabrics were reported by
Mills (1909). Mills described of the cremation process of the Seip Mound 2 in which the body was burned with the coverings of straw, twigs, and cloths.
Shetrone and Greenman (1931) recognized that different types of fabrics were preserved within varied contexts of
Seip Mound 1. The textile fragments reported in their article were found 1) with association with copper artifacts, 2) as pieces of fabric canopy, 3) burial shroud without the evidence of association with copper artifacts, and 4) as a cover of burial platform. According to Shetrone and Greenman (1931), five different fabric constructions were found among the fabrics recovered from the Seip burial contexts (Figure 11).
They reported that type (A) (which was labelled as the alternate-pair weft-twining by Church) was the most common construction method, and that "all fragments found beneath or adhering to copper breastplates" (p. 453) were made of this type. Fabrics with colored designs were found under the copper plates of burials 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 28, and 86 60
Figure 11. Shetrone and Greenman's Five Fabrication Types of the Seip Textiles. Taken from Shetrone, H. C., & Greenman, E. F. (1931). Explorations of the Seip Group of prehistoric earthworks. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly. 15. 345-509.
(Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). Shetrone and Greenman (1931) suggested that the fabrics from the burials 2 and 5 are
"characteristically Hopewell design" (Figure 12) and reported that the fabrics were made of type (A). They explained that;
the incompleteness of these two patterns seems to indicate that the breastplates were originally fastened to larger pieces of fabric upon which was painted the entire pattern. The background is maroon, with the tan designs outlined in black. The designs are not the result of weaving colored threads into the fabric but were effected by means of staining or dyeing with mineral pigments, possibly by the use of stamps. The print of these designs was transferred to the copper plates, on which they are still to be seen clearly (pp. 451-452). 61
Figure 12. Design on Fabric Adhering to Copper Breastplate from Burial 5. Taken from Shetrone, H. C., & Greenman, E. F. (1931). Explorations of the Seip Group of prehistoric earthworks. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly. 15., 345-509.
Another interesting statement was that of the fabric canopy over the "great multiple burial," which they described as being made of "a simple open weave corresponding closely to a thin quality of modern burlap" (p. 452).
According to Mills (1909), the most common type of fabrication structure found among the textiles of the Seip
Mound 2 was that of a "reticulated weaving." He comments that the charred cloth which showed "the simplest to the highest art in primitive weaving" (p. 316) was found in the first section of the three conjoined structure of Seip Mound
2. He further stated that 62
the cloth was made from many of the trees and plants known to exist in prehistory times. For the most part, the specimens show the simplest form of weaving...This was made by having the warp and woof made of the same kind of thread, usually large and strong, and both were drawn egually tight (p. 316).
Consideration of fibers of the Seip textiles was sought
by Shetrone and Greenman (1931). For example, when
describing the five different fabric construction types,
they stated that those were of the five "different
techniques in the weaving of spun or twisted vegetable
fibres" (p. 452-453). They suggested that type (D), which
was found with a large "ceremonial celt" in the ceremonial
cache, is made up of "fine twisted strands which were
probably taken from the inner bark of a tree" (p. 455).
Another type found beneath "the ceremonial celt" was Type
(E), which they described as having made of "twilled pattern
of matting done in split reeds" (p. 455). More
specifically, they suggested that the yarns of Type (A)
"were probably made of the Swamp Milkweed, Asclepias
incarnata." which "must have been specially prepared,
perhaps by treatment in water" (p. 453).
Archaeological Textiles
The current trend in the study of archaeological textiles is directed towards the derivation of inferential
statements of the culture based upon the analysis of
textiles. During the past decade, researchers have
endeavored to demonstrate the significance of textile 63 artifacts in inferring past human behavior (Church, 1984;
Kuttruff, 1988; Schreffler, 1988; Sibley & Jakes, 1989).
Kuttruff (1988), for instance, investigated the relationship between the textile production and utilization behavior and the status differentiation among the population of the prehistoric Caddoan culture. A Similar study was reported by Schreffler (1988) based on the results obtained from the analysis of textiles from the Etowah Mound C, Georgia
(1988). Using the same set of textiles, Sibley and Jakes
(1989) proposed a theoretical framework for inferring cultural behavior through the textile related activities.
Past studies on the archaeological textiles were focused primarily upon the analyses of fabrication structures. The history of fiber analysis approach in the area of archaeological textiles has been presented by King
(1978) along with the discussion on the common problems which can be encountered in the methodology. King (1978) points out the difficulties in the fiber identification of archaeological textiles among the textiles made of vegetable fibers. She emphasized the need for an extensive collection of ethnobotanical plants with prepared cross-sections and fiber sections, along with the collection of plant materials in all stages of processing from plant to thread.
Research studies which deal with the examination of fibers of archaeological textiles are rare. Whitford
(1941), for example, reports the results of fiber 64
identification of the ethnological and archaeological textiles in the American Museum,which are primarily made of plant fibers of various species. For all textiles, he reports the generic fiber type present in the samples which he identified by using the techniques of light microscopy.
However, when vegetable fibers such as the bast fibers are of interest, the identification of the generic fiber type cannot be carried out successfully even through a high power microscopic examination (King, 1978). Therefore, some of his results may need to be questioned concerning the accuracy of the information.
A study reported by Sibley, Jakes, and Song (1989) represents one example which includes the examination of fibers in archaeological textiles by means other than the traditional "fiber identification" type of an approach.
Included in their study is the analysis of morphological characteristics of fibers of the textiles from the Etowah
Mound C. Based upon the results obtained through the fiber analysis, cultural inference on the collecting and processing behavior of the prehistoric people of the Etowah
Mound C was discussed (Sibley, Jakes, and Song, 1989).
Summary
This chapter presented the review of literature relevant to the examination of the Seip textiles. In the first section, various aspects of the Hopewell culture was introduced. This was followed by the discussion on the 65 structural components of the Seip Group of Mound as well as the burial practices evidenced within the mound upon excavation. Research studies of the Hopewell textiles, and the detailed information on the textiles of the Seip Group of mounds upon excavation were presented. Finally, a review of the current trend in the study of archaeological textiles and the problems concerning the fiber analysis of prehistoric textiles were introduced. In the next chapter, the theoretical framework for this research is presented with the introduction of the model proposed for the examination of morphological characteristics of fibers of the prehistoric textiles. CHAPTER III
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
According to Clarke (1978), cultural systems are
"integral whole units" in which material culture, economic structure, religion, and social organization reside as subsystems. Examination of any component of the cultural systems becomes meaningful when such a component as well as other dimensions of culture are considered as an integral whole. By the same token, a study of material culture within the culture system is valid when it is carried out in accordance with the consideration of the sociocultural systems (Clarke, 1978). Cultural systems are described by
Clarke (1978) as "elaborate behavioral information systems" with "certain inherent qualities and innate 'behavior' dependent upon their common structure" (p. 149-150). He states as follows;
Since each sociocultural system is a unitary whole, and because the sub-division of such an entity into component subsystems is merely an arbitrary conceptualization of different aspects of the same network, it appears that the same set of general postulates may be relevant in each arbitrary subsystem (p. 150).
66 67
Therefore, material culture as a subsystem of the integrated sociocultural systems will display the same set of inherent qualities or behavior which are present in the sociocultural systems (Clarke, 1978).
Model Development
Clarke (1978) defined the material artifact as "any object modified by a set of humanly imposed attributes" (p. 152).
..the artefact is the focused result, directively correlating a whole set of actions, sequences of actions, or behaviour necessary to materialize the abstract conception in the maker's mind (p. 153).
Binford (1968) emphasized the interdependence between any given material artifact and its non-material components when examining the artifact's "history" within a sociocultural system where the artifact's history is defined as "its phases of procurement of raw material, manufacture, use, and final discarding. He explained that the final form of an artifact is the result of a combination of different classes of independent attributes (Binford, 1968).
Each kind of independently varying attribute might be relevant to a different set of determinants and would thus require independent explanation for their form and distribution in the archeological record. Each such independent explanation would, upon verification, inform us about the operation of different variables in the cultural system under study. It is highly improbable that the multiple, independent variables which determined the form of any item or the distribution of items should be restricted to only one component of a cultural system (p. 22). 68
Corresponding to what Binford (1968) referred to as the different phases of an artifact's history (procurement of raw material, manufacture, use, and final discarding),
Clarke (1978) utilized the two terms "fabrication behavior" and "usage behavior" to describe the sets of activities which might occur during the life of an artifact. The fabrication behavior was defined as "repeated sequences of actions to produce the type" (p. 153) and the usage behavior was defined as "repeated sequences of actions implemented by the type" (p. 153). According to Clarke, an artifact is the sum of the two types of behavior pattern.
Introduction of Related Models
Schiffer (1972) employed a similar concept of an artifact's history to construct a simple flow model for viewing how an element (e.g., food, fuels, tools, or human beings) passes through the "self-regulating" cultural system. According to Schiffer (1972), any element within the cultural system goes through the two contexts, the
"systemic context" and "archaeological context." The systemic context refers to the sequences of stages through which the element passes during its "life." The archaeological context refers to the final deposition of element after the element has passed through the systemic context. 69
Schiffer's (1972) model implies that an element in the systemic context may undergo all or several of the five basic processes during its life; stages of procurement, manufacture, use, maintenance, and discard. Besides the five basic processes, Schiffer emphasized the possibilities of "temporal or spatial displacement" of an element due to storage or transport activities which can occur at any point during the element's life within the systemic context.
After final completion of an element's use-life within the cultural system, the element is discarded. Schiffer
(1972) used the term "refuse" to label the "post-discard condition of an element- the condition of no longer participating in a behavioral system" (p. 159). The element is then part of the archaeological context and has the potential to be investigated by the archaeologists.
Elements may be discarded after being worn out or even before they are worn out if their serviceable function can no longer be met. At the same time, elements which are still usable may be discarded either accidentally or purposefully.
Although the term, "discard," is used by Schiffer
(1972) for any type of refuse, the term does not provide an accurate description of artifacts such as those found within the Seip burial contexts. These artifacts apparently convey some sort of ceremonial significance and are often given the labels such as "grave offerings" or "elaborate grave goods." 70 Hence it is clear that the artifacts of the Seip burial contexts have been "deliberately" buried by the living population rather than have been discarded. For such artifacts one needs to employ an interpretive framework different from that of discarded artifacts. Here, the distinctions among what Binford (1962) labeled as
"technomic," "socio-technic," and "ideo-technic" artifact is pertinent.
According to Binford (1962), technomic artifacts refer to those artifacts whose primary functions are the efficiencies of utilization. These artifacts interact directly with the physical environment. Socio-technic artifacts function as a means to convey social identity within the sociocultural system. Relative social complexity is reflected in the style and the distribution of socio- technic artifacts, and as a consequence, the distribution of them in certain archaeological contexts often serves as a measure of social complexity of the culture to which the artifacts belong (Peebles and Kus, 1977; Greber, 1976). The third type of artifacts, the ideo-technic artifacts, are related to the ideological components of a cultural system.
Like the socio-technic artifacts, the ideo-technic artifacts also exhibit the relationship between the material culture and the associated socio-cultural complexity. 71
Artifacts found within the burial contexts, with the evidence of ceremonial activities, and with the differential distribution of them within the burial population, are often called, "ceremonial objects" or, following Binford's (1962) terminology, socio-technic artifacts (Peebles and Kus, 1977;
Greber, 1976; 1979b). In the case of the Seip Group of
Mounds, Greber (1976, 1979b) recognized a differential distribution of artifacts such as copper breastplates, earspools, and celts among the three conjoined mound structures and suggested that they may be classified as socio-technic artifacts.
Another type of artifact recovered from the Seip Group of Mounds which was not included in Greber's analysis but seems to exhibit apparent ceremonial significance (Mills,
1909; Shetrone and Greenman, 1931) is textiles. Wallace
(1974) described a finished textile item as "the product of a configuration of interrelated choices" (p. 101). The interrelated choices refer to decisions made during different stages of procurement, manufacture, distribution, and consumption of a textile item (Sibley and Jakes, 1989).
According to Clarke (1978),
the very manufacture of the artefact directively correlates sets of actions and their resultant attributes and these complexes of attributes will remain so correlated as long as the artefact survives intact (p. 153). 72
Thus the final form of a textile item is a reflection of different activities which the textile underwent during its life. Utilizing Schiffer's (1972) flow model, it can be restated that a textile artifact found within the archaeological context is a representation of different processes through which the textile passed in the systemic and archaeologic contexts. Not only will the textile exhibit attributes pertaining to the physical and functional dimensions of a material object, but also inherent would be the information concerning the sociocultural systems.
Expanding Schiffer's (1972) flow model, Sibley and
Jakes (1989) proposed a model, C = f(Tp, T,, Sg, O) , for inferring the relation between textile transformation and culture, and the associated human behavior. In addition to the two contexts in Schiffer's model, the systemic and the archaeologic contexts, Sibley and Jakes (1989) incorporated a "biological" or "ecological" context to "reflect the nature of the textile element before it enters the cultural system" (p. 38). In the biological stage, such factors as temperature, moisture, and other environmental conditions direct the growth of the plants or animals which provide the fibrous materials. The first set of cultural activities which takes place as the textile element enters the systemic context includes that of procurement which relates to cultivation or collection of fibrous materials. This initial set of activities affects and is affected by the 73
decisions governing the direction of transformation of
textile element in the systemic context.
Effect of Treatments on Fiber Morphology
Textile elements pass through a series of manufacture and utilization stages before they become the long-term deposit in the archaeologic context (Sibley and Jakes,
1989). As a consequence, the final form of a textile artifact exhibits different effects of interaction between human and micro-environments in the biologic, systemic, and archaeologic contexts. Labeled as the "treatment" in the present research, the effect of these interactions can cause physical and chemical change among textile artifacts.
Furthermore, the cumulative effect of treatments may induce variations in the morphological characteristics of fibers of those textile artifacts. The fiber morphology is defined as the surface and inner physical characteristics of fibers which can be observed through the different microscopic techniques.
According to Hearle, et. al. (1989), fibers are subject to degradation when they are attacked by heat, light, and chemicals. The result of these degrading forces include scission of polymer molecules and other changes in fiber chemistry (Hearle, et al., 1989). Similarly, Bressee (1986) categorized the polymeric degradation into five types; physical ageing, photochemical degradation, thermal degradation, chemical attack, and mechanical stress. 74
Hearle, et al. (1989) report that different forms of damage
produce distinct changes in the microscopic appearance of
the fiber morphology. In the discussion that follows, the
possible effect on the variations in fiber morphology due to
different treatments as defined in this study is presented.
The chemical compositional changes due to different
treatments are not discussed. The focus of the discussion
is primarily upon the morphological characteristics of bast
fibers which can be seen through the microscopy.
Variations in fiber morphology due to the biologic
factors. Fibers of differing genera and species exhibit
differences in their morphology (microscopic). The fibers which can be found among the prehistoric textiles of North
America are routinely categorized into either vegetable
fibers or animal fibers (King, 1978). Vegetable fibers
include fibers from the wood, stems, leaves, or seeds of
plants. Animal fibers include both hair and feathers. The
distinction between the fiber morphology of vegetable fibers
and animal fibers is relatively simple when the different
techniques of light microscopy or scanning electron
microscopy are utilized.
Although there are some difficulty involved in the
identification of different animal hair fibers if the
diagnostic guard hairs are removed during processing (Day,
1966), and there is a similar difficulty in identification
of feathers if the entire feather is not represented in the 75 sample examined, the animal fibers are considered to be easier to identify than the vegetable fibers (King, 1978).
The different animal fibers which are said to have been used by the native Americans are the down and feather of anseriformes such as ducks, and geese (Sibley, Jakes and
Swinker, in review), and turkey, chacalaca, grouse, ptarmigans, quail, and prairie chicken, and the hair of mammals such as rabbit (jackrabbit), hare, fox, muskrat, and buffalo hair (Whitford, 1941; Willoughby, 1952; King and
Gardner, 1981). The microscopy of some of the mammalian hair of North America has been reported by Brown (1942).
Among the four types of vegetable fibers- woody fibers, bast fibers, leaf fibers, or seed fibers- Schaffer (1981) explains that the seed fibers (e.g., cotton, kapok) were not introduced to the native Americans until the European contact began. A textile which may be an example of the possible usage of the woody fibers was reported by Shetrone and Greenman (1931) in the Seip excavation report. Among the four types of vegetable fibers, the bast fibers which are obtained from the stalks of dicotyledonous plants were predominantly used for the fabrication of finer fabrics by the prehistoric people of North America (Whitford, 1941).
Table 1 shows the types of bast fibers which have been
identified by Whitford (1941) in his study of the textiles and related materials of the ethnological and archaeological collection of the Indians of eastern North America. The 76 figure contains only the list of bast fibers which have been identified among the prehistoric textile samples. Among those in the figure, Whitford (1941) suggests that Indian hemp, swamp milkweed, basswood, yucca, and slender nettle were found in the fabrics of the Ohio Hopewell. The fibers from the leaves of monocotyledonous plants, the leaf fibers, were mostly used for bags, cords, mats, or other coarser materials (Whitford, 1941). Whitford (1941) reports that
Table 1. Types of Bast Fibers Found among the Prehistoric Textile Related Artifacts of the Eastern North America
Botanical name Common name Artifact type
Asimina triloba paw paw cords, mats, rope Apocynum androsaemifolium dog-bane fish net
Abocvnum cannabinum Indian hemp fabric, fish net
Ascleoias tuberosa highland milkweed fabric
Asclepias pulchra swamp milkweed rope, fabric
Ascleoias incarnata milkweed rope, fabric
Ascleoias syriaca milkweed fish net, cord, burden strap Dirca palustris moose or leather wood finer cord Tilia araericana basswood fabric
Erynaium vuccaefolium yucca (?) cord, cloth
Boehmeria cylindrica stingless nettle soft material
Urtica gracilis slender nettle cloth, cord
Laoortea canadensis woods nettle cord 77
the Tillandsia was the only plant of this group which was
used for the manufacture of fabrics.
Both bast and leaf fibers occur in bundles of ultimate
fibers in which the ultimates are held in place by cellular
tissue of the phloem and gummy and waxy substances within
the bundle (Mauersberger, 1954). The microscopic difference
between the bast fiber and the leaf fiber can be observed in
their cross-sectional view (Schaffer, 1981). While the bast
bundle is composed of less than 30 ultimates, the bundle of
leaf fiber contains up to 100 ultimates (Schaffer, 1981).
The cross-sectional shape of the bundle is also different
between the bast and the leaf fiber; the cross-sectional
shape of the former being irregular, and that of the latter
being circular, elliptical, or crescent-shaped (Schaffer,
1981).
Distinction among the different species of bast fibers
based on morphology may be made by comparing the dislocation
structures (or nodal structure), the type of fiber's natural
end tips, the cell wall and lumen structure, the structure
of cells from tissues other than sclerenchyma, and the
presence and the distribution of crystals or silica (Catling
and Grayson, 1982). (The glossary of terms related to fiber morphology is included in Appendix A.) Especially, the form
and distribution of silica inclusions (which are called phytoliths in the anthropological literature) are said to provide useful information for the identification of plant 78 fibers since they do not degrade even after the rest of the fiber deteriorates (Jakes and Angel, 1989). The measurements of length and width of the ultimate fibers also provide important diagnostic information (McCrone, 1979;
Catling and Grayson, 1982).
Ryder and Gabra-Sanders (1987), however, comment on the similarity between the fiber diameter of flax and nettle fibers of the textiles from several archaeological sites of
Europe. They report the difficulty encountered in the comparison of the fiber diameter of the two fiber types because of the indistinguishable nature of a single ultimate and a unit of fiber comprised of several ultimates.
Therefore, Ryder and Gabra-Sanders (1987) suggest that for distinguishing between flax and nettle fibers, diameter is not a good criterion.
The identification of different bast fibers is a difficult task due to the lack of a standard reference collection of plant fibers displaying the morphology of different species of bast fibers (King, 1978; Catling and
Grayson, 1982). McCrone (1979) and Goodway (1987) point out the difficulty in the identification of bast or leaf fibers based on their optical properties. The difficulties are well summarized by Schaffer (1981) in her study of the fibers of ethnological textile artifacts: 79
Considerable experience is required to identify by solely morphological characteristics of the fibers of the numerous plant species utilized by the North American Indian. These fibers have not been systematically investigated because most of them are of little commercial interest. Such studies are made difficult by the great sensitivity of the morphological features of these vegetable fibers to factors such as growth conditions (soil, climate), the degree of maturity, the location of the stem or leaf, and the applied processing method. Thus structural differences between various fiber species are often only slight and comparable with differences within the same species (p. 121).
The Textile Institute (1975), Rahman (1979), and
Catling and Grayson (1982) are useful sources of reference on the morphology of commercial plant fibers. However, for the plant fibers used in the archaeological textiles, there has not been a single source of standard reference up to date. Plant materials accumulated in the Volney Jones
Collection at the Museum of Anthropology, University of
Michigan provide some resources for the identification. The collection is not comprehensive, however, and the focus of the collection was not aimed at plants which produce textile fibers.
A collection of plant materials has been started at the
The Ohio State University by Dr. Kathryn Jakes with the aim of elucidating fiber structure within plant and after different treatments. This collection will provide future resource for the archaeologists who are interested in the identification of fibers of prehistoric textiles from
Eastern North America. In addition, the identification of plant fibers of archaeological textiles cannot be 80
accomplished by methods comparable to those used for
commercial plant fibers since considerable destruction of
the textile artifact is required for the diagnostic tests
such as ashing or drying-twist tests which are often
employed in modern materials (The Textile Institute, 1975).
Variations in fiber morphology due to growth
conditions, and the activities related to cultivation and
collecting. Within a fiber type, the growth conditions
(environmental) and the activities related to the
cultivating and the collecting of the fibrous materials affect the variations in fiber morphology. The different types of dislocation (or nodal) structures can occur due to the differential rate of the compression of cell walls during the growth of a fibrous plant (Rahman, 1979; Catling and Grayson, 1982). The different length of the growing period of a plant is related to the degree of the maturity of fibers. For instance, the separation of ultimate fibers from the bundle is more likely in the fibers obtained at an early stage of growth than the fibers obtained after the prolonged growth (Mukherjee, Mukhopadhyay, and Mukhopadhyay,
1986). The length of the growing period also affects the ease of fiber processing - the separation of fiber bundle from the rest of the plant tissues (Catling and Grayson,
1982). Therefore, the time of harvest of the fibrous plant would affect the fiber morphology of a single bast species. 81
Variations in fiber morphology due to the activities related to processing of fibers. Further changes in the morphology of bast fibers occur during the different stages of textile production and utilization. The first stage of textile manufacture involves the activities related to the processing of fibers in which the fiber bundles are separated from the unwanted tissues such as parenchyma or phloem (Figures 13). Generally, this process is accomplished by retting in which the plant tissues are separated by the action of "micro-organisms" (Catling and
Grayson, 1982). The ethnohistoric accounts of fiber processing include activities such as "hackling" which
Holmes (1896) described as pounding the collected plant with hammers or sticks or "steeping" (Adair, 1968, first published in 1775) which may have similar effect as retting
(Sibley, Jakes, and Song, 1989). Native Americans may have also carried out a retting process similar to that used in the hilly forests of Nepal, where "the fibrous materials are boiled in ash water for three to four hours and then washed in river" (p. 259-260) after the stems are peeled off (Singh and Shrestha, 1987).
According to Ray, Sengupta and Das (1986a), the scanning electron microscopy of jute fibers at different stages of fiber processing showed the effect of mechanical processing on the progressive damage to the fibers which is shown as the increasing amount of longitudinal or transverse 82
Phloem
(a)
Figure 13. Transverse and Longitudinal Sections of the Stem of Jute fCannabis sativa L.1 Showing Cellular Tissues. (a) Transverse Section, (b) Longitudinal Section Taken from Catling, D., and Grayson, J. (1982). Identification of vegetable fibres. London: Chapman and Hall. 83
Figure 13 (Continued)
Fibre
Parenchym a
too /im
(b) cracks on the surface of the fiber. They comment that "the damage caused to the filament may be due to the former stages, latter stages or to the sum total effect of all the stages of processing" (p. 34). Similarly, Appleyard (1972) reports the effect of mechanical processing which causes fibrillation and transverse cracking on wool and some 84
synthetic fibers. Rahman (1978), on the other hand, examined the effect of chemical treatment on the surface structure of jute as the jute fibers were progressively delignified. According to Rahman (1978), as the delignification progressed, some of the ultimate fibers began to separate from the fiber bundle. When separated, the twisting of the groups of ultimates forming a "sheet" was visible as well as the twisting of the individual ultimates (Rahman, 1978). He comments that
it can be confidently implied that an increasing number of instances of transverse surface foldings, twists, convolutions, etc., is directly related to the progressively decreasing lignin content in jute fibres (p. 291).
Variations in fiber morphology due to the activities related to processing of varn and textile fabrication. The second stage of textile production consists of the processing of yarn from the fibrous mass. According to Ray,
Sengupta, and Das (1986b), the twisting of jute yarn using a standard jute machinery results in the peeling or the rupture of the fibers on the surface of the yarn. However,
Hearle, et. al. (1989) suggest that in most cases the preparation of textiles using hand manipulation yields little to no damage on the fibers. The hand methods of prehistoric textile production which may have an equivalent nondestructive (or less destructive) effect as discussed by
Hearle, et. al. (1989) would include spinning and textile fabrication processes. 85
The spinning process employed by the prehistoric people of North America may be similar to that employed by the historic Indian tribes. Smith (1970, first published in
1624) illustrates the spinning of the historic Indian tribes of Virginia and Carolina as such:
Betwixt their hands and thighes, their women vse to spin, the barkes of trees, deere sinewes, or a kinde of grasse they call Pemmenag, of these they make a thread very even and readily (p.132).
The fabrication methods among the prehistoric people may also be somewhat similar to that of the historic Indians.
Du Pratz (1972, first published in 1774) describes of the fabrication process employed by the historic Indians of
Louisiana as:
they plant two stakes in the ground about a yard and a half asunder, and having stretched a cord from the one to the other, they fastened their threads of bark double to this cord, and then interweave them in a curious manner into a cloak of about a yard sguare with a wrought border round the edges (p. 344).
According to Hearle, et. al. (1989), the most extensive damage to fibers occur during the chemical treatments (such as the application of mordants). However, the result of the chemical degradation is so complex that it is difficult to relate this degradation process to specific morphological changes in fibers (Hearle, et. al., 1989).
Variations in fiber morphology due to wear. Cooke and
Lomas (1987) and Hearle, et. al. (1989) discuss the effect of wear on the degradation of the fibers of archaeological textiles. They suggest that different types of wear damage 86 produce "recognizably different fracture morphologies" in fibers. According to Cooke and Lomas (1987), the fiber failure due to normal wear results in a "progressive fatigue breakdown, which reduces the fibre to its basic structural units, i.e. macrofibrils and fibrils" (pp. 21-22). The observable consequence of this wear is the "brushed ends" of the broken fibers which can be seen through microscopy; fracture will only occur after considerable wear (Cooke and
Lomas, 1987). On the other hand, ageing due to oxidation, light degradation, chemical, fungal or bacterial attack results in the formation of transverse cracks or the embrittlement of the fibers. Each of these fracture in a morphologically different pattern (Cooke and Lomas, 1987).
The latter type of fracture will occur due to a prolonged stay in the burial environment or to a prolonged exposure to light (Cooke and Lomas, 1987).
Variations in fiber morphology after the burial discard. Goodway (1987) discusses the problems involved in the identification of the fibers of ethnographic and archaeological sources due to the fact that they tend to be aged, fragmentary, decayed, fossilized, or charred.
Mineralization is another form of degradation which can be observed in the textiles which have been in close contact with metal within the burial context (Jakes and Sibley,
1987). Cook (1964) differentiates humus from charcoal as
follows; the former is the result of the long-term 87 deterioration of the plant residues in the micro environment, and the latter is the result of the high temperature combustion by fire. Hence, unlike all the other long-term degradative conditions listed (above) by Goodway
(1987), charring is the result of a sudden trauma on the part of the fiber. Using light microscopy, Goodway (1987) found that only silhouette and size can be observed in the charred fibers of the ethnographic and archaeological origin, since the charring prohibits the transmission of light.
Variations in fiber morphology ocurrino in the post excavation stage. Hearle, et. al. (1989) point out that the textiles which have survived in the burial environment
"almost inevitably face a more destructive environment as a result of excavation" (p. 410). The destruction of the textiles is mainly due to a sudden change in the environmental conditions. Hearle, et. al. (1989) suggest that the post-excavation damage can be minimized if actions such as those which would reverse the condition of the textiles are avoided. The examples of such actions are; wetting dry textiles, drying wet textiles, neutralizing acid or alkaline textiles, or warming frozen textiles (Hearle, et. al., 1989).
According to Thomson (1986), light, heat, humidity, and air pollution in the museums can cause physical and chemical degradation of the historic objects including the textiles. 88
The combination of the above conditions could even increase the rate of degradation, and in the long run, could completely deteriorate the object (Thomson, 1986). While the degradation which may occur during storage and display
is slow and subtle, a more severe and abrupt degradation may occur if the textiles are to be examined with various analytical procedures. The initial damage to the textiles occur when yarn or fabric fragments are cut out from the textiles for the purpose of examination.
Different analytical techniques can cause differing degrees of damage to the textiles, e.g., the ashing procedure which is used to identify the different species of vegetable fibers by the presence and the distribution of crystals (The Textile Institute, 1975; Catling and Grayson,
1982; Jakes and Angel, 1989) completely destroys the sample.
The procedure requires a relatively large sample size, thus requiring large destruction of the textile. On the other hand, microscopy, including both light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) requires only a micro sized sample. Optical microscopy can be minimally destructive, and the fibers examined can be recovered and used in other analytical procedures. SEM requires coating of the fibers with electrically conductive material, so the fibers cannot be used subsequently. In addition, damage to fibers may occur in SEM caused by charging when a high accelerating voltage is applied. A crack, or void may 89 result.
In the case of archaeological textiles, fiber damage has occurred during each stage of collecting, processing, use, burial deposition, and handling after the excavation.
Each textile artifact passed through a unique channel of growth, manufacture, use, discard, and recovery conditions.
Although the activities of processing and the degree of processing involved in the production of modern and prehistoric textiles may be different, the consequence of processing and use on the morphology of fibers which are discussed above would be similar in both cases. Therefore fibers from archaeological textiles will display the cumulative effect of different treatments (damage) which the textile element underwent during its life and during its stay in the archaeological environment.
Introduction of the Proposed Model
In view of the above discussions, the investigator proposes a model for inference which incorporates the morphological changes in fiber to examine the nature of a textile element in the biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post-excavation contexts (Figure 14). The model is an expansion of Sibley and Jakes's model with an inclusion of a fourth context, the post-excavation context, and temporal Post- Biologie Systemic Archaeologic Excavation
V . processing
.rem ains. -> procuring "fiber yarn fabric deco- u se—> • discard - textile
->• Textile element transformation with possible storage
—^ Recycling ------® *" Trade
(a)
Figure 14. A Theoretical Model Depicting the Accumulated Change in Fiber Morphology as the Textile Element Passes Through the Four Context (a) Textile element trasformation process in the systemic context, (b) An example of the accumulated change in fiber morphology
VO o Figiure 14 (Continued)
Biologic Systemic Archaeologic Post-excavation
o>
o>
Time 19 2050 years 192050
(b)
\o H* 92
and spatial dimensions. The post-excavation context is
included in the model to depict the possible changes in
fiber morphology during and after the excavation. By
incorporating temporal and spatial dimensions, the model provides a general framework for examining archaeological textiles from any given culture. The model serves as a theoretical framework for examining the relationship between the change in fiber morphologies through time and the transformation process of textile element in the four contexts. Figure 14a displays possible activities which may occur in the systemic context. Figure 14b is a possible graphical representation of an increase in the change of fiber morphology when a Seip textile (or a group of Seip textiles) is used as an example.
The graphical representation of the change in fiber morphology will be different for each textile depending on the specific treatments each textile received in the four contexts. Figure 14b is a possible example drawn from the
Seip textiles which shows a theorized direction of increase in the morphological change. The figure assumes that a dramatic change in fiber morphology of a textile occurred at the time of discard as well as at the time when the textile element entered the systemic context. This specific phenomenon at the time of discard may occur when, for instance, the textile was burned as part of the cremation process. 93
Another feature needs to be noted in Figure 14b is that
the change in fiber morphology reaches its highest point
after the textile element enters the post-excavation
context. This is due to the accumulation of the changes in
fiber morphology which have occurred in the previous
contexts. Depending on the treatments in the previous
contexts, the cumulative sum of the change in fiber
morphology would be different for individual textiles. For
example, if two textiles which had identical fiber
morphology until the time of discard receive differential
treatments while being discarded (such as cremation versus
non-cremation burial discard), fiber morphology is expected
to differ in some respect between the two textiles when they
are analyzed by the specialist.
Therefore, the total variation in fiber morphology of
an archaeological textile will represent the accumulated
effects of different treatments. It is possible to express
the sum of the variation in fiber morphology as a function
of the morphological changes which may have occurred in the
four contexts. This can be expressed as follows when each
of the A;'s represents the extant of change in fiber morphology which occurred in the four contexts (Figure 15):
a -Ia, i=l 94
Biologie Systemic Archaeologic Post-excavation
O)
CD
Time 50 years 1920
Figure 15. Illustration of the A;'s in the four contexts.
Where A = sum of the variation in fiber morphology
Aj = change of fiber morphology which occurred in the biologic context
A 2 = additional change of fiber morphology which occurred in the systemic context
A 3 = additional change of fiber morphology which occurred in the archaeologic context
A^ = additional change of fiber morphology which occurred in the post-excavation context 95
Each Aj- accounts for the variations in fiber morphology which occurred through time within each context. Also incorporated in Ay 's would be the possible variations in fiber morphology which can be attributable to the geographic location or the relocation of the textile element (The spatial dimension of the model is discussed below.).
However, each individual Ay is not a measurable parameter since the textile analyst can only visualize the accumulated effect of the Ay's.
The length of the time the textile element stays in the systemic context will vary depending on the durability, function, and/or the usability of the textile element.
Therefore, the temporal boundary for the systemic context will vary across different textiles even if the textiles are all from the same culture. Approximately fifty years of a time span is given for the average length of the systemic context. For the example illustrated in Figure 14b, the systemic context is placed in approximately fifty years of a period around A.D. 290 to 370 which is the range of time
Greber (1983) suggested as the time for the burial activities in the Seip "Big House." Within the systemic context, the rate of change in fiber morphology will
fluctuate and vary for different textiles depending on the type of processing given to the textile element. The morphological change of a textile element begins during the growth of a fibrous plant in the biologic context. 96
When the textile element (fiber) is introduced into the systemic context, a dramatic change of fiber morphology occurs as the textile element passes through the stages of procuring, processing, use, and discard (Figure 14a). The procuring stage may be subdivided into cultivating and collecting substages (Sibley and Jakes, 1989). Whether or not to include a cultivating stage depends on the "presence" of cultivation in the given sociocultural system. After collecting (and cultivating) is finished the textile element enters various stages of processing. Textile processing takes place in fiber, yarn, and fabric stages. Textile elements may or may not pass the decoration (e.g. coloration, feather work) stage.
After the processing is completed, the textile may go through a regular consuming channel to be discarded after its abandonment or as a burial accompaniment of the user after his/her death. It may also go directly from the final stage of processing to the discarding stage if it was intended solely as a burial accompaniment. The textile artifacts which appear to have functioned as burial accompaniments often show evidence that they have gone through distinctive ceremonial activities. Partially or entirely burned textiles of the Seip Group of Mounds are of this type (Mills, 1909). In this case, the "discarding" activity has a dramatic effect on the fiber morphologies. 97
As Schiffer (1972) proposed, recycling of an element
may occur either in the sense of lateral cycling or
recycling; i.e., a new assignment can be given to the
textile element after its intended use-life is finished, or
it may be returned to the processing stage to be reworked.
A textile element may enter the existing cultural system
through trade in different physical forms; as raw fibers,
yarns, or finished fabrics. Depending on the point of
entry, the textile element continues its transformation
process within the system. The addition of a trade factor
in the model implies that some part of the total variation may be due to introduction of foreign material.
After discard, textile elements become subject to gradual degradation by the micro-environment surrounding them. According to Dowman (1970), an object, once buried, will adapt to its new environment through modification until
it builds a stable relation between itself and the soil.
Dowman (1970) explained that
once an equilibrium is reached any changes in the object will slow down or stop and this stability will remain constant until excavation when the object will be forced to adapt to a further set of new conditions (p. 4).
Further changes in the fiber morphology of an archaeological textile occur after the textile enters the post-excavation context. The changes may be due to the activities which take place during the excavation, in museums or in laboratory. The changes can also occur as the textile 98
becomes the subject of various analytical procedures of
investigation; such as scanning electron microscopy of
fibers at a high accelerating voltage.
The inclusion of temporal and spatial dimensions in the model makes it possible to generalize the model to explain morphological variations in archaeological textiles of any
given culture or site. Both the temporal and the spatial
dimensions reflect technological as well as cultural
differences. For example, if the Seip textiles were to be
compared with a group of textiles from a culture which
belongs to a different time period but similar geographic
boundaries, the differences in fiber morphologies of the two
groups of textiles will be due largely to the temporal
difference. The temporal difference will reflect the
technological and cultural gap between the cultures
represented by the two groups of textiles.
When the Seip textiles are compared with the textiles
of other contemporary Hopewell cultures inside and outside
of Ohio, the morphological differences in fibers of those
textiles will include variations due to spatial difference.
Here the spatial dimension will reflect the technological as well as cultural differences arising from the geographic
gap. Considering the possibility of a trade is an example
in which the spatial dimension of the morphological
comparison is built into the model for a given cultural
system. The consequence of trade on the range of fiber 99 morphology in textiles of a certain culture can be verified by comparing the textiles from other cultures of the similar time period to the textiles of the given culture.
Whether or not there exists a difference in the fiber morphology between two textiles will depend on the relative dissimilarity or similarity in the degree and the types of manufacturing, utilization, and discarding stages the two textiles underwent in the four contexts. The presence of differences in fiber morphology may also depend on the extent to which the different treatments produce noticeable differences in the fiber's morphological characteristics observed through the available analytical techniques. In this study, the evidence of the differences in the fiber morphology due to different treatments is examined using the techniques of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.
Application of Model to the Seip Textiles
and the Research Hypotheses
In this study, the textiles from the Seip Group of
Mounds are examined in regard to the morphological variations of fibers due to different treatments in the four contexts. The proposed model serves as a theoretical framework for inferring textile production and utilization behavior of the Seip population based on the results obtained from the analysis of fibers. The hypotheses for this study are derived on the basis of the preliminary 100 investigation of the Seip textiles which identified several visual distinctions among the 226 Seip textiles.
Derivation of Hvpothesis I
Upon visual examination, the Seip textiles can be grouped according to several distinctive features. First, the Seip textiles can be grouped into either blackened or unblackened categories. As discussed in chapter I, both
Shetrone and Greenman (1931) and Mills (1909) describe that the cremations of the Seip burials exhibited the evidence of placing the textile directly on the body and its associated artifacts before the entire was burned. This practice would produce a charred textile comparable to that described by either Cook (1964) or Dimbleby (1967). According to Cook
(1964), most outdoor fires result in incomplete combustion and as a consequence leave a "black material (charcoal)" (p.
514) which consists of some pure carbon as well as
"condensed organic matter" (p. 514). Dimbleby (1967), on the other hand, describes that the "process of carbonization," (p. 100) converts the material into a state of "elemental carbon" (p. 100) in which the original physical structure of the material is still retained.
Dimbleby (1967) emphasizes that the carbonized state can only be reached by burning the material and not through the slow process of ageing. 101
Therefore the blackened Seip textiles appear to be the products of the cremation practice among the Seip population whereas the unblackened Seip textiles either represent the association with the in-flesh burials or are not burned.
The two different burial practices involving the textiles had varying effects upon the morphological characteristics of the fibers. As a result, the cumulative sum of the variations in fiber morphology observed through different microscopic techniques may be different for the two types of textiles. From this assumption the first hypothesis for this research is derived:
Hypothesis I
There is an association between the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from the
Seip textiles and the visual characteristics of blackening and unblackening of the Seip textiles.
Derivation of Hvpothesis II
The second hypothesis for this research is derived from the visual distinction which separates the unblackened Seip textiles into three groups; the unblackened Seip textiles with oval-shaped green staining, the unblackened Seip textiles with randomly distributed green staining, and the unblackened Seip textiles without any type of green staining apparent. According to Shetrone and Greenman (1931), a large number of Seip textiles were in close contact with copper artifacts upon excavation. It is highly likely that 102 the green staining present among the Seip textiles is the evidence of former copper association.
The presence or the type of green staining may be an indication of the type of contextual relationship between the textile and the copper artifact. For example, a textile with oval-shaped green staining might have had the copper artifact directly attached to the textile, whereas a textile with randomly distributed green staining could have been indirectly associated with the copper artifact by placement in the vicinity of the copper artifact but not in contact with that artifact. The absence of any type of green staining in a Seip textile may suggest that the textile was not directly or indirectly associated with the copper artifact. It is also possible that the unstained textile was originally part of a larger piece of fabric which did have green staining but became separated from the main fabric during the excavation or in the laboratory. However, copper impregnation may not be physically apparent in forms such as green colored staining. Therefore it is possible to have textiles which look brown or "naturally colored" which contain copper due to association with copper in the burial site. The second hypothesis for this research is as follows: 103
Hypothesis II
There is an association between the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from the
Seip textiles and the visual characteristics of oval-shaped staining, random staining, and unstaining of the Seip textiles.
Derivation of Hypothesis III
Another visual distinction among the Seip textiles is the presence or absence of painting. The visual evidence of color application can be seen among several of the unblackened Seip textiles. The colored pieces have been described by Shetrone and Greenman (1931) as having been painted in their report of the excavations. They describe the placement of some of the painted textiles and suggest that the burials associated with the painted textiles were more "elaborate" than the other burials.
The comparison of the fiber morphology between the painted and the unpainted Seip textiles will enable one to examine whether or not there was any difference in the accumulated effect of the manufacture, utilization, and discarding activities between the two groups of textiles.
From this idea, the third hypothesis for this study is generated. Since it cannot be visually distinguished whether or not some of the blackened textiles are also painted, the third hypothesis concerns only with the unblackened Seip textiles. The third hypothesis for this 104 study is as follows:
Hypothesis III
There is an association between the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from the
Seip textiles and the visual characteristics of painting and unpainting of the Seip textiles.
Derivation of Hypothesis IV
The last hypothesis for this research is generated from the visual distinction based on the fabrication structure.
Spaced alternate-pair weft-twining is found to be the most dominant structure among the Seip textiles. According to
Shetrone and Greenman (1931) most textiles constructed with this structure type were associated with the copper artifacts upon excavation. The last hypothesis for this research is aimed to examine whether differential treatments such as different fiber type, degree of processing, and/or use history exist between the group of Seip textiles which are made of the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining technique and the group of Seip textiles made of structure types other than this technique. For this purpose, the structure types other than the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining were pooled. The fabrication structures which belong to the pooled group are oblique interlacing, spaced 2-strand weft- twining, and interlacing. The fourth hypothesis for this research is as follows: 105 Hypothesis IV
There is an association between the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from the
Seip textiles and the fabric structure categories of alternate pair-weft twining and the pooled construction types of the Seip textiles.
The microscopic characteristics of fiber morphology were measured by means of the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology
(Appendix B). Description of this index will be presented in the following chapter. The differences in fiber morphology which exist among the Seip textiles will provide information concerning the textile manufacture and usage behavior of the Seip population. However, since variation in fiber morphology is the result of the accumulation of the effects of different treatments in the four contexts, there does not exist a direct correlation between a single feature of morphological variation and a specific treatment. Thus, caution is needed when cultural inference is made based upon the analysis of the morphological characteristics of fibers.
In the following chapter, the research method which was developed to examine the variations in fiber morphology of the Seip textiles will be presented. CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research design and methodology developed to investigate the accumulated effects of textile production, utilization, and discard behavior of the Seip population on the 226 Seip textiles currently held at the Ohio Historical Society. It is assumed that the additive effect of the total treatments a textile element received in the biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post excavation contexts are reflected in the morphological characteristics of fibers as observed through different microscopic techniques. The first part of this chapter consists of the discussion of the instrument developed to measure the variation in fiber morphology. The next section provides the description of population and the initial assessment of the Seip textiles based on their visual characteristics. This is followed by the discussion of the sampling procedures developed for this study. The last section of this chapter includes the description of the method of data collection as well as the method of data analysis.
106 107
Instrument Development
An instrument, labelled the "Index of Bast Fiber
Morphology," was developed for the purpose of measuring the additive effects of the variation in the morphology of fibers, resulting from the different treatments the textile element receives during its stay in biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post-excavation contexts (Appendix B).
Although it is possible that fiber types other than bast fiber (such as animal hair, feathers or seed hair fiber) are present among the Seip textiles, the Index of Bast Fiber
Morphology was designed for the bast fibers only. This is due to the fact that generically different fiber types undergo different degradative mechanisms during the stages of processing, use, and archaeologic deposition and exhibit different conseguences of degradation. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the effect of treatments on bast and all other fiber type(s) using a single framework for observing the differences in fiber morphology. If different analytical frameworks were to be used for different fiber types, a parallel comparison of morphological consequences of degradation could not be made.
For this reason, the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology was designed to serve as a tool for observing the morphological characteristics of the bast fibers through various techniques of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The different techniques of light microscopy 108 include bright field, dark field, polarized light, and differential interference contrast employing transmitted light, and dark field and polarized light employing reflected light.
Light microscopic techniques, particularly bright field, phase contrast, and polarized light have been traditionally used by fiber analysts to examine the surface and inner structure of the fibers. Catling and Grayson
(1982), for example, utilized these light microscopic techniques to identify several commercial vegetable fibers on the basis of their characteristic cell structures, surface markings, and other structural features. Recently, scanning electron microscopic techniques have been employed in the field of fiber analysis to examine fiber morphology through the three dimensional image of fibers. The studies by Rahman (1978) and Ray, Sengupta, and Das (1986a) are the two examples in which the effect of fiber processing on the surface morphology of jute fibers is investigated. In the present study, both the light microscopy and the scanning electron microscopy were used for the verification of results.
In order to develop the instrument, the Index of Bast
Fiber Morphology, all the morphological variations known to occur in bast fibers during biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post-excavation contexts were listed
(Table 2). The compilation of morphological variations in Table 2. The Compilation of Types of Variation in Fiber Morphology Which May Occur on Bast Fibers While a Textile Elanent is in Four Contexts (The possible cause for certain types of variation is underlined)
Biologic Context Systemic Context Archaeologic Context Post-excavation Context
Fiber Tvne Cultivating and Collecting Interaction between the Interaction between the *fonn and distribution of ‘factors which affect the degree Textile and Micro-environment Textile and Environment crystals of fiber maturity ‘fiber fracture ‘fibrillation *bundle vs. singular fiber ‘color change ‘transverse cracks *tnist direction of ultimate Fiber Processing ‘coverage of fiber surface by ‘longitudinal cracks fiber ‘presence of surface debris inorganic substances such as ‘bulging of fiber along length *different types of fiber's ‘presence of parenchyma cells dirt ‘collapse of lunen as fiber natural end tips ‘degree of separation of ultimate ‘fibrillation dries *type of nodal structure fibers from the bundle ‘transverse cracks *fiber width and lunen width ‘amount of twist of ultimate ‘longitudinal cracks fiber ‘bulging of fiber along length Fiber Damage Due to Handling ‘fibrillation or transverse ‘collapse of lunen as fiber and Storage Decree of Fiber Maturity cracks dries ‘fiber fracture ‘flattened vs. round fiber ‘lengthwise or transverse ‘increase or decrease in fiber ‘lunen width and round vs. striation size due to alteration of flattened lunen ‘fiber fracture textile element Fiber Damage During Analytical[ ‘size and regularity of fiber Procedures width Y a m Processing and Fabrication ‘transverse crack ‘types of nodal structure ‘fibrillation of surface fibers Interaction between surrounding ‘fibrillation ‘surface folds at nodal ‘fiber fracture Artifacts ‘total destruction structure ‘transformation of fibers into Use inorganic entities ‘localized fibrillation ‘coverage of fiber surface by Disruption in Growing or transverse cracks elements from the associated Condition ‘fiber fracture with brushed end artifacts ‘surface markings such as dislocations, surface Discard folds, or bulging ‘fiber fracture ‘change in fiber size o VO 110
bast fibers shown in Table 2 was derived from the
independent research of the investigator, collaborative
research of the investigator with Jakes, and through the
review of literature. Some of the information derived from
the above collaboration is reported in Sibley, Jakes, and
Song (1989).
Each question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology is
supposed to represent a particular type of variation listed
in Table 2. The questions are not aimed to answer the exact cause of a particular variation type, but rather they are aimed to isolate all the observable morphological variations, regardless of the cause, present in the fibers of a sample yarn. For example, fibrillation in a fiber may have occurred during the fiber processing stage if a fairly extensive processing had been employed. However, it is also possible that localized fibrillation is due to wear.
Therefore, the instrument is designed so that each question represents a distinct type of variation which is independent of the other types of variation. Except for the section in which the fiber size, and lumen width versus the fiber width ratio is required, all the questions, and the item within a question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology are qualitative in nature and should be treated as categorical variables. Ill
Content validity of the instrument was tested by a
panel comprised of three experts in the field of textiles
and clothing. The content validity refers to the
representativeness of the instrument content and is not
tested statistically (Norland, 1990). In this study, the
content validity tests of the panel of experts verified that
the questions are actually designed to elicit evaluation of
the morphological variations in bast fibers due to different
treatments which the textile element received in the four
contexts. Each member of the panel was asked to review the
Fiber Morphology Variations Index to see 1) whether the
questions are representative of the total variation and are
all independent, and 2) whether the items within a question
are representative and are all independent. Appendix B also
includes the cover letter for the validity tests.
Population and Sample
The investigation is based on the 226 textiles from the
Seip Group of Mounds, which are currently curated at the
Ohio Historical Society, Columbus, Ohio. Although several
other sites of the Ohio Hopewell culture have been
identified in the past excavations, the Seip Group of Mounds has received more attention in the literature than any other site. Thus archaeological information is more readily available for the Seip Group of Mounds than other Ohio
Hopewell sites. The Ohio Historical Society is the only museum in the United States which officially carries the 112
collection of Seip textiles.
Description of Population
The population for this research consists of 226
textile fragments of the Seip Group of Mounds which have
been recovered during the two excavations which took place
during 1906-08 and 1925-28 seasons. This includes only
those fragments which, regardless of their size, still
retain the evidence of the two systems (warp and weft)
interworking with each other in some way. Following Emery
(1980), pieces that are fabricated with yarns which are much thicker than the average sized yarns of the Seip textiles and at the same time lack flexibility are considered basketry. Basketry is not included in the population.
Except for 7 pieces which are in direct contact with copper artifacts, all the remaining textiles are mounted between two rectangular glass plates. As few as twenty different fragments are mounted in each set of glass plates.
When more than ten different fragments are mounted between two glass plates, the size of the fragments are smaller than
3cm\ Although the pieces that are mounted within the same glass plates look similar to each other, they are not considered as coming from the same piece of fabric, since the lack of provenience data for most of the Seip textiles precludes this assumption. 113 Initial Assessment of the Seip Textiles
A preliminary investigation was conducted by the researcher on the 226 Seip textiles during the summer of
1989 in order to visually characterize them. The investigation was focused on the fabrication structures and yarn type (single versus ply) without removing the textiles from the glass cases. While examining their structures, the investigator realized that the 226 Seip textiles can be grouped into several distinct groups which can be categorized not only by the difference in fabrication structures but also by other visual distinctions.
Blackened and unblackened groups. The most readily observable visual distinction is based upon whether or not the textiles show the visual evidence of carbonization through a "blackened" appearance. As discussed in Chapters
I and III, it is assumed that the blackened textiles are the result of carbonization rather than the result of gradual degradation in the archaeologic context (Dimbleby, 1967).
Among the 226 textiles, 147 pieces are blackened, and the remaining 79 pieces are not blackened (Table 3). The blackened pieces in general are smaller in size than the textiles which are not blackened. Due to the black coloration, together with the extensive surface degradation, fabrication structure is difficult to identify
among a large number of blackened textiles which are smaller than 3cm\ The two groups of textiles are labelled as 114
Table 3. Number of Textiles in the Blackened, and Green Stained Categories (N=226)
Black vs. Unblack Blackened Unblackened
147 79
Green Stained Random Oval Unstained
55 9 15
Painted Paint Unpaint Unpaint Paint Unpaint
15 40 9 12 3
Total 147 79
"blackened" and "unblackened" in this research.
Random stained, oval stained, and unstained groups.
Except for 15 pieces, all the 79 textiles which are not blackened show some visual evidence of association with copper artifacts (Table 3). The evidence is shown as a green staining either in a random form, or in a clear oval- shape. In addition, some textiles are still in direct contact with copper artifacts. These textiles are grouped with the random stained textiles since their staining pattern is similar to that of the randomly stained textiles.
The fifteen fragments in which green staining is not apparent are labeled as the unstained. Two fragments in the 115 unstained group (Seip 2900 and Seip 3000) have masses of dirt particles embedded within and on the surface of the textile structure. Evidence of green staining is not apparent in the two textiles, perhaps due to the unclear surface appearance resulting from the textile-dirt mixture.
Elemental analysis of the fibers is needed to clarify this question.
Painted and unpainted groups. Among the 79 unblackened textiles, 27 textile fragments show additional visual evidence of coloration (Table 3). In the literature, the colored Seip textiles have been reported as having been painted (Shetrone and Greenman, 1931; Willoughby, 1938).
Among the 27 painted textiles 15 pieces belong to the random stained group and the remaining 12 pieces belong to the unstained group. Although the 12 pieces which do not exhibit green staining are grouped into the unstained category, the lack of visual evidence of green staining in these textiles may be due to the painting which may obscure the staining pattern.
The two pieces (Seip 2900 and Seip 3000) in the unstained group which also had dirt encrustation were difficult to assign to either the painted or unpainted groups. All the other unblackened textiles which are not painted consistently exhibit a more natural color of plant fiber with some slight browning effect, due possibly to the degradation. However, the two pieces (Seip 2900 and Seip 116
3000) are darker brown in color which makes one suspect the possibility of color application. The brown color may also be due to the fact that the two pieces are more heavily stained by soil or more degraded than the others. Chemical compositional analysis is needed to clarify this question.
Four types of fabrication structures. In addition to the visual evidence of carbonization, copper association, and coloration, another feature which provides a visual distinction among the Seip textiles is the type of fabrication structure. In their report of excavations,
Shetrone and Greenman (1931) identified five different fabrication structures among the Seip textiles. Church
(1983), on the other hand, suggested that there are ten different fabric structures present among the textiles of the Seip, Harness, and Hopewell sites. She did not specify which of the ten fabric structures are present at a certain site. She comments that the spaced alternate-pair weft- twining and oblique interlacing are present among the Seip textiles.
During the preliminary investigation, however, it was found that only four different types of fabric structures are present among the Seip textiles which were examined and in which a fabric structure is identifiable (Figure 5).
Fabrication structure is identified with 135 textiles among the total of 226 textiles (the number of unidentified textiles is 91). The four types of fabric structure 117 identified in this study are spaced alternate-pair weft- twining, interlacing, spaced 2-strand weft-twining, and oblique interlacing following Emery's (1980) terminologies.
These coincide with the structure types A, B, C, and D of
Shetrone and Greenman (1931). Except for interlacing, all three structure types were represented among the ten different fabrication types identified by Church (1983).
The inconsistencies in the number of structural variations among the Seip textiles may be due to the inclusion of basketry by Shetrone and Greenman (1931) and also by Church
(1983). The structure type E of Shetrone and Greenman, for example, was a structure of basketry rather than that of a textile. It is probable that the same condition holds for several of Church's structure types.
During the preliminary investigation, for a number of fragments whose surface degradation inhibited the visual distinction of fabric structure, Bausch and Lomb binocular macroscope with external light sources (MKII bifurcated fiber optic light, and Intralux 4000 ring illuminator) was used at 3.18X. The textile fragments were examined as they are encased between the two glass plates. The structure was difficult to identify with the remaining 91 textiles even with the aid of the macroscope due to extensive surface degradation. These 91 textiles are mostly smaller in size compared to the rest of the population (smaller than 3cm').
The number of textiles in each structure type is shown in 118
Table 4. The spaced alternate-pair weft-twining, oblique interlacing, spaced 2-strand weft-twining, and interlacing are labelled as Alternate, Oblique, 2-Strand, and Interlace, respectively. For the purpose of hypothesis testing, oblique interlacing, spaced 2-strand weft-twining, and interlacing are pooled to compare the pool with the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining (the support for pooling the three types is presented in chapters I and III).
To summarize the results of the preliminary investigation, the 226 Seip textiles were categorized according to several visual distinctions. First, the textiles were grouped into either blackened or unblackened category. Second, the unblackened textiles were categorized into random stained, oval stained, or unstained groups based on the type and the absence of green staining. Third, the unblackened Seip textiles were grouped into either painted or unpainted categories. Fourth, the 135 textiles among the
226 textiles with which the fabric structure was identified were grouped according to the fabrication structures. A
Table 4. Number of Textiles in the Four Fabrication Types (N=226)
Uniden Type Alternate Oblique 2-Strand Interlace tified TL
Un- Pool 115 9 2 9 91 226
Pool 115 20 91 226 119
checklist which was used during the preliminary
investigation for the categorization of the Seip textiles is
included in Appendix C with the results.
Sampling Frame and Sampling Procedures
Based on the results of the preliminary investigation,
a sampling procedure appropriate for the study of the morphological variations in fibers among the visually distinct groups of Seip textiles was developed. As a first step, the list of textiles from which the samples for this study could be selected was generated. The list is called the sampling frame.
Sampling frame. Among the 226 Seip textiles, only those textiles which are larger than 3cmf are included in the sampling frame. The sampling frame refers to the portion of population to which the results can be safely generalized. A list of all the Seip textiles larger than
3cm' was generated in order to select samples for this study
(Appendix D). The minimum size of 3cm' was used as a criterion for the following reasons:
1. With a fragment smaller than 3cm', significant destruction of the textile may readily occur when the yarn or micro-sized fabric fragment are cut out from the textile for the microscopic examination. 120
2. The fabrication structure is difficult to identify with textiles smaller than 3cm\ Most of 91 textiles whose fabric structures have not been identified are less than
3cm\
Seventy three textiles meet the size criterion and were included in the sampling frame. The number of textiles among the 73 textiles for each category of blackened versus unblackened, different types of green staining, and painted versus unpainted is shown in Table 5. Table 6 shows the number of textiles in the four different types of fabrication structure. When the distribution of the visual evidence of carbonization, copper association, or
Table 5. Number of Textiles in the Blackened, Green Stained, and Painted Categories (Sample Frame, N=73)
Black vs Unblack Blackened Unblackened
25 48
Green Stained Random Oval Unstained
30 9 9
Colo ration Paint Unpaint Unpaint Paint Unpaint
0 30 9 7 2
Total 25 48 121 Table 6. Number of Textiles in the Four Fabrication Types (Sample Frame, N=73)
Fabric Structure Type Total
Alternate Oblique 2-Strand Interlace
60 5 1 7 73
Pool Alternate Pooled
60 13 73
coloration is compared with the distribution of the different fabric structures across the Seip textiles, an interesting pattern is discernable. For example, all the blackened textiles and all the textiles with the oval shaped staining are made of the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining technique. And all the textiles which are painted are constructed with the oblique interlacing technique which belongs to the pooled category of the construction type.
Figure 16 illustrates the distribution of the fabric structures across the traits of the blackened versus unblackened, the copper staining types, and the painted versus unpainted among the seventy three textiles included in the sampling frame. The specification for labelling the textile samples according to their visual distinctions and fabrication structures is included in Appendix D. 122
Sampling procedure for selecting textile samples. The samples for this study was selected, first by selecting a certain number of textile samples from each categories of the Seip textiles. Then three yarn samples were cut out from each of the selected textile sample. The total number of samples for this study comprises of the total number of yarn samples which is 156. The following discussion pertains to the description of the sampling procedures which were utilized to select textile samples and yarn samples for this study.
Blackened (25) Unblackened (48)
Alternate (25) Alternate (35) + Pooled (13)
Random (30) Oval (9) Unstained (9)
Alternate (25) Alternate (9) Alternate (1)
Pooled (5) Pooled (8)
Unpaint Unpaint [Alternate (1) + Pool (1)]
Paint [Pool (7)]
Figure 16. Distribution of the Fabric's Structural Variations across the Seip Textiles in the Sampling Frame with Blackened Effect, Different Types of Green Staining, and Painting. 123
Since the traits of blackening, staining, and painting are nested with the variations in fabrication structures within each textile, the most critical factor in selecting the samples for this study was to utilize an effective sampling procedure which would generate a set of samples appropriate for testing all four hypotheses presented in the preceding chapter. Figure 17 shows the number of textiles in each category of the blackened, unblackened, copper stained, painted, and construction types which were selected as the textile sample for this study.
Blackened (25) Unblackened (27)
Alternate (25) Alternate (14) + Pooled (13)
Random (9) Oval (9) Unstained (9)
Alternate (4) Alternate (9) Alternate (1)
Pooled (5) Pooled (8)
Unpaint Unpaint [Alternate (1) + Pool (1)]
Paint [Pool (7)]
Figure 17. Number of Textile Samples in the Categories of Blackening, Green Staining, Painting, and Construction Types Selected as the Sample for this Study. 124
The total number of textile samples selected for this study is 52. Appendix D includes the list of textile samples selected for the study. Since the categories of the pooled construction type and of the oval staining type have a smaller number of textiles than the other categories, all textiles in the pooled group and the oval stained group are included among the sample textiles. In order to test
Hypothesis II with a comparable number of samples in each of random, oval, the unstained category, an equal number of textile samples was selected for all three groups. This procedure led to the selection of 4 samples among the random stained textiles which are made of the spaced alternate- pair weft-twining, in addition to the 5 textiles in the pooled group which were already in the random stained category. The four textiles were selected randomly from the
25 random stained/ alternate group using the Table of Random
Numbers. Thus the unblackened group is comprised of these four textile samples and all the pooled construction type textiles and all the oval stained textiles. The blackened group is made of all the 25 blackened textiles which are part of the sampling frame. To summarize the above procedure which was employed to select the textile samples for this study, the following is the number of textile samples in the categories which are involved in testing the four hypotheses for this study. 125
Hypothesis I: Blackened (n=25) versus Unblackened (n=27)
Hypothesis II: Random (n=9) versus Oval (n=9) versus
Unstained (n=9)
Hypothesis III: Painted (n=7) versus Unpainted/ Unstained
(n=20)
Hypothesis IV: Alternate (n=39) versus Pooled (n=13)
Sampling procedure for selecting yarn samples. From the 52 sample textiles, a yarn smaller than 1.0cm in length was cut out from three different areas of each textile for the microscopic examination. To carry out this procedure, each set of glass plates comprising the two pieces of glasses holding the textile fragments had to be opened at three sides. In order to minimize the destruction of the textile fragment, the three areas chosen for the selection of the yarn samples were near the edge of the fragment. The yarn specimen chosen in this manner are labeled as the yarn sample throughout the study. Each yarn sample was put in an individual sample vial. The total of 156 yarn samples were examined in this study, which account for 3 yarns per each of the 52 textile samples. The microscopic examinations were conducted on each of the yarn sample individually
(Figure 18). 126
Yarn Sample 1 Random Fibers
A Textile Sample Yarn Sample 2 Random Fibers
Yarn Sample 3 Random Fibers
52 Textiles 156 Yarns Microscopy
Figure 18. Diagram Showing How the Fiber Specimens for the Microscopy were Selected.
Data Collection
The data were collected by the researcher between
January and March, 1991. For each of the yarn samples, a copy of the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology was provided. An appropriate item for each question regarding the qualitative traits of the fiber morphology was circled as the samples were examined with the different techniques of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was conducted on several yarn samples to verify the generic fiber type or the presence of copper within yarn sample. The verification of the generic fiber type was necessary when the image of the fiber obtained from the light microscopy and/or the scanning electron microscopy showed the possibility of the presence of a fiber type such as animal hair fiber within the yarn.
In the sections that follow, the details of specimen 127 preparation for light microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the methods of elemental analysis and microscopic examinations are presented.
Materials
Specimen preparation for light microscopy. For light microscopy, the smallest possible fiber group (mass of fibers or fiber bundles) was taken from each yarn sample either by cutting a micro-sized fragment from each yarn sample or by collecting the fiber mass from the sample vial in which the yarn sample was stored. Each fiber specimen for transmitted light microscopy was mounted with water on a glass slide. Care was taken to fan out the fiber mass in order to minimize thickness and therefore optimize the depth of focus. For some yarn samples in which the surface and inner structures were difficult to observe with the water mount. Zinc Chloro-iodide stain was applied. For reflected light microscopy, fibers were dry mounted on a preprepared nonreflective black microscopic slide. Cover slips were not used for the dry mounted microscopic slides.
Specimen preparation for EDS and SEM. Fiber specimens for EDS and SEM were obtained by separating fibers (or fiber bundles) under a Bausch & Lomb dissecting microscope. For
EDS, fiber specimens prepared in this manner were mounted on carbon planchettes with Electrodag 154 carbon paste and were 128 carbon coated using the SPI-MODULE sputter coater. Fiber specimens for SEM were mounted either on carbon planchettes or on aluminum stubs with Pelco colloidal silver paste and were gold coated using the Denton Vacuum Desk II sputter coater. In general, three to four fibers (or fiber bundles) of a single yarn sample were mounted on each carbon planchette or aluminum stub.
Equipment. Light microscopy, EDS, and SEM were conducted at the The Ohio State University. A Zeiss
Axioplan Research microscope equipped with MClOO camera and lOX eyepiece, lOX, 40X, and lOOX objective lenses was used for the light microscopy at the Materials Analysis Lab,
Campbell Hall. EDS and SEM were conducted at the Scanning
Electron Microscope Facility of the Department of Geological
Sciences. Elemental analysis by EDS was performed using the
SEM with a conventional Be-window, and a Tracor Northern TN-
5500 Micro-Z analyzer equipped with 5502 up-grade analysis
VISTA SQ software. A JEOL JSM-820 Scanning Electron
Microscope was used.
Methods
Light microscopy. All the unblackened Seip textiles were examined using the transmitted light microscope. The different techniques used were brightfield (BF), darkfield
(DF), polarized light (P), and differential interference contrast (DIG). When the surface structure of the fiber was not observable by means of the light microscopy, additional 129 microscopic examination was carried out using SEM. At least one representative micrograph per yarn sample was taken at
150.83X using Kodak Ektachrome 64 tungsten film.
All the blackened Seip textiles were examined under reflected light since the blackened fibers prohibited the transmission of light. The different techniques of reflected light microscopy were dark field (DF) and polarized light (P). Micrographs were taken at 150.83X using Kodak Ektachrome 64 tungsten film. Fiber width and the lumen width of ultimate fibers were measured with the eyepiece micrometer at 150.83X using brightfield.
A serious problem was encountered while measuring the fiber width and lumen width of ultimate fibers. It was
impossible to distinguish a single ultimate fiber from a group of ultimates held together, since the bundles were not well separated and the encrustation of what seemed to be
inorganic matter (such as copper) or dirt on the surface of many fiber bundles made it extremely difficult to capture a clear view of the fiber's surface. In addition, it appeared that the degradation of fibers caused many fibers (or fiber bundles) to break down into fibrils which were
indistinguishable from the ultimates. Therefore, it was
impossible to measure the fiber width of ultimate fibers with a certainty that they were indeed ultimate fibers. 130
In case of blackened textiles, this problem was even
more severe due to the nature of reflected light microscopy.
Since an object in reflected light microscopy is viewed by
the reflection of light at the surface of the object, only
the surface structure of that object can be seen. While
conducting reflected light microscopy, the researcher found
that extensive surface markings on the surface of the fibers
prohibited the distinction between an ultimate and a strand
of fibers formed by group of ultimates. Also the dry
^ mounting of the microscopic specimen without the cover slip
created an extremely irregular surface which made it
impossible to focus an entire fiber (or fiber bundle) at the
same time. Due to the above problems concerning reflected
microscopy and the nature of the fibers of blackened
textiles, the researcher was not able to measure the fiber
width of the blackened textiles.
Lumen width was almost impossible to measure. First of
all, the lumen could not be seen in blackened textiles
because reflected light microscopy only provides the surface
structure of fibers. In addition, except for 8 yarn
samples, the lumen was not visible in most unblackened
textiles either because it was so narrow that it appeared
only as a single line or because it was indistinguishable
from numerous lengthwise striations present on the surface
of the fiber. Therefore, the researcher was able to measure
the lumen width of only 8 yarn samples from the total of 156 131 yarn samples. Further discussion of this issue is presented
in the next chapter.
Energy dispersive X-rav spectroscopy. EDS was conducted on several yarn samples with the help of Mr. John
Mitchell at the Scanning Electron Microscope Facility of
Department of Geological Sciences. For the verification of generic fiber type, a distinction between vegetable fibers and animal fibers was necessary. If the microscopic results indicated the presence of animal fibers in a yarn sample,
EDS was conducted to check for the presence or absence of sulfur in the fiber's structure. For several randomly selected yarn samples of the blackened textiles, EDS was also conducted to check for the presence or absence of copper. A 20 kV accelerating voltage was applied for EDS with the magnification level between lOOOX to 3000X.
Scanning electron microscopv. SEM was conducted at a
20 kV accelerating voltage. At least one photograph was taken for each yarn sample using Polaroid Type 55 film with a range of magnification for photographs, between 400X and
3000X. SEM was carried out on those unblackened Seip textiles in which the fiber morphology was difficult to examine with transmitted light microscopy either due to the extensive surface coverage of the fibers by non-fibrous and non-plant materials (e.g., dirt, copper) or to the replacement of the fibers by inorganic substance such as 132 copper. SEM was also conducted on some of the randomly selected unblackened as well as blackened Seip textiles for which the examination of the fiber morphology was already completed using the light microscope. For some fibers, the specimen was tilted about 15 to 60 degrees to obtain a near cross-sectional image of the fractured end (either naturally or accidentally fractured).
Data Analyses
The data obtained from the Index of Bast Fiber
Morphology were entered into the Wylbur computer mainframe of the Instruction and Research Computer Center at the The
Ohio State University using SAS software. Appendix E includes the description of computer code for each yarn sample and the data for categorical variables (i.e., qualitative questions in the instrument). Appendix F includes the description of computer code for each yarn sample and the data for continuous variable (i.e, quantitative question concerning fiber width measurement).
The computer analysis was carried out by a statistical consultant in the Statistical Consulting Service of the
Department of Statistics at the The Ohio State University.
The procedure included two steps of data analyses for the qualitative questions in the instrument; 1 ) check of frequency distribution, and 2 ) hypothesis test using the
Chi-square test for independence. The check of frequency distribution and the Chi-square test were carried out using 133 the SAS computer computer software program. The quantitative question in the instrument was analyzed by the logistic regression procedure using the SAS computer software.
Frequency.Distribution
Separate tables of frequency distribution were obtained for each question or for a set of related questions in the instrument regarding individual hypotheses. The tables illustrate the frequency distribution of how all the yarn samples fell into different items in a question. For the
'check all the items that apply' type of questions, such as the question concerning the presence of different types of surface markings, separate frequency tables were obtained for each item (in this case each surface marking) based on the presence and absence of that feature. In case of closely related items, such as regularly or irregularly spaced nodal structures, a frequency table containing the presence or absence of both items was made.
Chi-Square fXM Test for Independence
A Chi-square test was conducted on each question in the instrument for individual hypothesis (i.e., each frequency table) to investigate whether or not there exists an association between the question (a morhological characteristic) and the visual distinctions (i.e., blackened, unblackened, random staining, oval staining. 134 etc.) of the Seip textiles. Separate chi-square tests for each question or a set of question were necessary rather than a single chi-square test conducted for all the questions. If a single test were to be conducted there will be more than 2 , 0 0 0 cells, more than thirteen times the size of the number of samples in this study. To carry out a single chi-square test for the instrument, one would require an extremely large sample size.
Logistic Regression
A logistic regression procedure allows one to examine the relationship between a single binary dependent variable and one or more continuous independent variable(s) (Walker and Duncan, 1967). In this study, the logistic regression procedure was employed to examine the relationship between the visual characteristics of the Seip textiles (e.g., blackening, unblackening, oval stained, random stained) and the measurements of fiber width. The procedure was carried out for individual hypotheses regarding the fiber width measurement. Since it was possible to measure the lumen width of only 6 yarn samples, the relationship between the visual characteristics of the Seip textiles and the lumen width, and the relationship between the visual characteristics of the Seip textiles and the ratio between the fiber width and the lumen width was not statistically tested. 135
Summary
This chapter presented the research design developed for the investigation of fiber morphology of the Seip textiles using different microscopic techniques. The instrument developed for measuring the fiber morphology of bast fibers was introduced. Population and sample for the study was described along with the discussion of sampling procedures. The methods of data collection and data analysis were described. In the following chapter, the results of the data analyses is presented with the discussion of the results. CHAPTER V
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
This chapter presents the results of the analyses of the data obtained through evaluation of fibers from the Seip textiles. The first section summarizes the results of microscopy and EDS analyses which led to the identification of non-bast fibers in several of the Seip textiles. The second section provides the characterization of animal hair fibers of the Seip textiles. Next is the report of microscopy of the Seip textiles composed of bast fibers as well as the supplementary data on EDS analyses. This is followed by the report of the frequency distributions of questions in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology, and the summary of chi-square tests. Finally, the results of logistic regression procedures regarding the fiber width measurements are presented.
Identification of Fiber Classes
Initial microscopic examination of the Seip textiles yielded evidence of at least two different classes of fibers. The first of these is the presence of animal and more precisely hair fibers in certain of the textiles. The second of these is the presence of bast fibers.
136 137
Under the microscope, bast fibers were found as bundles of ultimate fibers in which the nodal structures were seen throughout the length of the fiber (Figure 19a). Employing the techniques of polarized light or differential
interference contrast (DIG), bast fibers exhibited bright blue and/or purple colors due to the presence of groups of crystallites along the length of the fiber. On the surface of the fiber bundles were numerous longitudinal striations which often interfered with the distinction of ultimate
fibers within the bundle and the determination of the lumen
in an ultimate fiber. Figure 19b shows the typical pattern of longitudinal striations present on the surface of bast
fibers of the Seip textiles.
Animal hair fibers were readily distinguished from bast
fibers by the presence of pigmented internal structures
(medulla) and the absence of deep colors when examined under polarized light or DIG (Figure 20a). While bast fibers were made of groups of ultimates forming a bundle, animal hair
fibers were found as separate individual fibers. Their characteristic cuticular structure was visible when examined with SEM (Figures 20b and 20c). The morphological
characteristics of animal hair fibers found among the Seip
textiles resembled those of the hairs of rabbit or hare.
The pigmentation of medulla in the fibers of Figure 20a
appears to be the same as that of the "uniserial ladder-
type" described by Wildman (1954). 138
(a)
&
(b)
Figure 19. Bast Bundle Found in the Seip Textiles. (a) LM, DIG: Seip 16003-1220, (b) SEM: Seip 19013-2230 139
(a)
(b)
Figure 20. Animal Hair Fibers Found in the Seip Textiles, (a) LM, DIG: Seip 10032-2231, (b) SEM: Seip 10071- 2231, (c) SEM: Seip 47052-2220 140
Figure 20 (Continued)
(c)
According to Wildman (1954), the medulla of the finer fur fibers of rabbit or hare consists of pigmentation occurring in a single series, usually displaying cavities
(probably contain air) and separated by cortical bridges.
The coarse guard hairs (outercoat) of rabbit and hare frequently becomes biserial towards the root end, which further changes into a "multiserial ladder" towards the shield (Wildman, 1954). Both biserial and uniserial (often with cavities) types of medulla were observed in the fibers obtained from several of the Seip textiles. 141
The cuticular structures of the hair fibers found in the Seip textiles exhibited the "chevron” pattern of the
scale with differing depth of waves. Figure 20b illustrates the cuticular pattern which closely resembles that of the
fine fur fibers of rabbit or hare at the lower region of the fiber (Wildman, 1954). The fiber of Figure 20c, on the other hand, has the cuticular structure which displays the typical chevron pattern of coarse guard hairs of rabbit or hare (Wildman, 1954).
Wildman (1954) explains that the microscopic structure of rabbit and hare are essentially the same. By comparing the microscopic morphology of animal hair fibers in the Seip textiles to the standard fiber morphology of rabbit or hare, it can be concluded that the hair fibers found in the fibers obtaind from several of the Seip textiles are those of either rabbit or hare. It can also be stated that both coarse guard hairs and fine fur hairs of rabbit or hare are represented in the fibers of the Seip textiles on which the microscopic examinations were carried out. in the following pages, the discussion of the visual and structural characteristics of the Seip textiles which contain animal hair fibers is presented. 142
Characterization of the Seip Textiles
Containing Animal Hair Fibers
Three types of fiber composition were observed during the light microscopic examination of fibers obtained from the yarn samples of the Seip textiles. While 81% of the total yarn samples contained only bast fibers, 14% of the yarn samples were composed only of animal hair fibers, and
5% of the yarn samples contained both bast and animal hair fibers.
Seip Textiles Containing Only Animal Hair Fibers
Table 7 provides the list of 21 yarn samples (7 textile samples) of the Seip textiles which have been found to contain only animal hair fibers on the basis of light microscopy (LM) (the numbering system for yarn or textile samples is explained in Appendix D). The conclusion that the fiber samples obtained from yarn samples listed in Table
7 are animal hair fibers was made by the presence of pigmented medulla characteristic of hair fibers of rabbit or hare. Each of the seven textiles listed in Table 7 is about
3cm' in size. All were unblackened, unstained, and exhibit visual evidence of painting; they were constructed using the interlacing technique.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was conducted on the fiber samples removed from randomly selected samples 10032-
2231, 10071-2231, 10073-2231, 31031-2231 to see whether the data obtained from light microscopy (LM) were consistant Table 7. Characterization of Seip Textiles Which Contain Animal Hair Fibers Only: Sunmary of LM and X-Ray Analyses
Textile Y a m Sample Visual Category of the Fabric Structure SEM EDS No. Ho. Textile Sample
1001-2231 10011-2231 Unblackened- Unstained- Painted Pooled/ Interlacing 10012-2231 10013-2231
1003-2231 10031-2231 Unblackened- Unstained- Painted Pooled/ Interlacing 10032-2231 animal hair only 10033-2231
1005-2231 10051-2231 Unblackened- Unstained- Painted Pooled/ Interlacing 10052-2231 10053-2231
1006-2231 10061-2231 Unblackened- Unstained- Painted Pooled/ Interlacing 10062-2231 10063-2231
1007-2231 10071-2231 Unblackened- Unstained- Painted Pooled/ Interlacing animal hair only 10072-2231 10073-2231 animal hair only
3103-2231 31031-2231 Unblackened- Unstained- Painted Pooled/ Interlacing animal hair only 31032-2231 31033-2231
3105-2231 31051-2231 Unblackened- Unstained- Painted Pooled/ Interlacing 31052-2231 31053-2231
4705-2220 47052-2220 Unblackened- Random Stained- Unpainted Pooled/Oblique Interlacing animal hair only Cu,Ca,S,Si,P W 144 with that of SEM. The results of LM were confirmed by the presence of cuticular structure of fibers under SEM.
Considering the fact that all of the seven textiles are painted and are made of one construction type, one can speculate that all seven textiles were part of a single fabric which became fragmentary during the activities of discard or in the archaeologic environment. On the other hand, since the seven textiles come from two different glass cases (first five textiles were in glass case No. 10, and the last two were in glass case No. 31), one may suggest that the textiles were part of two different fabrics or
(and) that the two groups of textiles were found in different locations within the Seip burial complex. It is also possible that "like" textiles were put into the same glass case during the cataloging of Seip textiles. Knowing the provenience of these textiles would certainly aid in further speculation.
Seip Textiles Containing Both Bast and Animal Hair Fibers
While the 21 yarn samples discussed above contain only animal hair fibers, 8 yarn samples listed in Table 8 contain both animal hair and bast fibers based on light microscopic examination. The 8 yarn samples are part of textiles which are unblackened, randomly stained, and unpainted. They are all constructed using the oblique interlacing technique. Table 8. Characterization of Seip Textiles Which Contain Both Animal Hair and Bast Fiber : Sumary of LH and X-Ray Analyses
Textile Y a m Sample Visual Category of the Fabric Structure SEM EDS Remark No. No. Textile Sample
0200-2220 02001-2220 Unblackened- Randomly Stained- Pooled/ Oblique indefinite Si,P,S,Cu,Ca y a m 02002-2220 02003-2220 Unpainted Interlacing animal hair & bast has bast only
2800-2220 28002-2220 Unblackened- Randomly Stained- Pooled/ Oblique bast only y a m 28001 & 28003 Unpainted Interlacing have bast only
4701-2220 47011-2220 Unblackened- Randomly Stained- Pooled/ Oblique 47012-2220 Unpainted Interlacing animal hair only 47013-2220 Si,P,S,Cu,Ca
4705-2220 47051-2220 Unblackened- Randomly Stained- Pooled/ Oblique indefinite y a m 47052 has 47053-2220 Interlacing animal hair only animal hair only
t-* U1 146
In the case of textile sample 0200-2220, the light microscopic examination of two yarn samples (0 2 0 0 1 - 2 2 2 0 and
02003-2220) revealed that they contained both animal hair and bast fiber. When seen through the SEM, the researcher was unable to determine the fiber type of 0 2 0 0 1 - 2 2 2 0 except for some vague traces of surface scale. EDS analyses conducted on several fibers of this sample indicated the presence of sulfur on their surface (Table 8 ). The presence of sulfur and the vague traces of surface scale suggest that the fibers of 02001-2220 are animal hair fibers. However, one cannot exclude the possibility that sulfur on the surface of fibers may have originated from soil or adjacent artifact while the textile was deposited in the archaeologic environment.
Examination of yarn sample 02003-2220 by SEM revealed bast fibers alone. This is counter to the result of light microscopy described above. Similar inconsistencies between the two microscopic techniques were detected in the examination of yarn samples 28002-2220, 47012-2220, 47051-
2220, and 47053-2220. The inconsistency between the results of the two microscopic techniques may be the result of sampling, the specimens removed for SEM contained a very small quantity of the fibers of the yarn sample whereas the specimen removed for LM contained a larger quantity of fibers on a single slide. The small quantity of fibers observed in SEM fibers might have biased the results. 147
EDS analyses were performed on the fibers taken from
yarn samples 02001-2220, 47012-2220, and 47052-2220 in order
to examine the elemental composition of surface encrustation
of fibers. The EDS analyses on the surface of fibers
detected elements such as silicon, phosphorous, sulfur,
copper, and calcium. The implications of the presence or
absence of sulfur have been already discussed. The presence
of silicon, calcium, and phosphorous suggests that there was
encrustation of dirt on the surface of fibers. Copper must
have come from a close contact with artifacts made of copper
(such as copper breastplates or copper earspools) since the
two excavation reports (Mills, 1909; Shetrone and Greenman,
1931) indicated that the textiles were found either in
direct contact with the copper artifacts or they were found
in the vicinity of copper artifacts. Copper was not only
found on the surface of the fibers, but it was also found that the medulla of animal hair fibers were infilled with copper compound.
Figure 21 illustrates two animal hair fibers, one with the infilling of copper compounds within the medulla of an
animal hair fiber, and the other without this feature. Both
fibers show encrustation of some copper containing organic material on the fiber surface. The fact that the copper ion has impregnated the fiber was verified through EDS analyses conducted on the same fiber, which indicated a larger copper peak indicative of larger copper concentration for the area 148
Figure 21. Impregnation and Surface Encrustation of Copper on Seip 47052-2220: SEM. of internal blockage than the area of the exterior wall.
The impregnation of copper ion has been observed in the
interior of all three yarns of the textile sample 4705-
2220. The impregnation of copper in the interior of the
fibers plus heavy encrustation of copper on the fiber's surface suggest that the textile was in close contact with copper artifacts in the burial context. The two phenomena are indications that the fibers are undergoing the process of mineralization.
In summary, the Seip textiles which contain animal hair
fibers had distinctive visual and structural characteristics. Most interestingly all the Seip textiles 149 which contained only animal hair fibers were painted and incorporatated into interlaced structure. On the other hand, the Seip textiles which contained both bast and animal hair fiber were all constructed using the oblique interlacing technique.
Characterization of Seip Textiles Containing Bast Fibers
The remaining textile samples contained bast fibers, the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology was employed to obtain information about fiber morphology. The yarn samples containing both bast and animal hair fibers were examined using the instrument as well as the yarn samples containing bast fibers only. In the former case the examination was focused on bast fibers.
The exclusion of the yarn samples which are made only of animal hair fibers led to the reduction of sample size from 156 to 132 yarn samples for the statistical comparison of the results obtained from the Index of Bast Fiber
Morphology. Table 9 illustrates the number of yarn samples in different visual categories of the Seip textiles after the exclusion of yarn samples made only of animal hair fibers. The number of yarn samples in different construction types of the Seip textiles after the exclusion of yarn samples made only of animal hair fibers is shown in
Table 10. 150
Table 9. Number of Y a m Samples in Blackened, Green Stained, and Painted Categories Which were Included in the Hypothesis Tests
Carboni zation Blackened Unblackened
75 57
Green Stained Random Oval Unstained
24 27 6 Colo ration Paint Unpaint Unpaint Paint Unpaint
0 24 27 0 6
Total 75 57
Table 10. Number of Y a m Scunples in the Four Fabrication Types Which were included in the Hypothesis Tests
Fabric Structure Type Total
Alternate Oblique 2-Strand Interlace
117 1 2 3 0 132
Pool Alternate Pooled
117 15 132 151
As can be seen in Table 9, the exclusion of yarn
samples made only of animal hair fibers resulted in a sample
size of zero in the painted category. Consequently, the
sample size of the unstained category was decreased to 6
yarn samples. Since there are no data for the painted
category obtained from the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology, the research hypothesis III concerning the relationship between the fiber morphologies of painted and unpainted categories of the Seip textiles could not be statistically tested. Also, the sample size of six of the unstained category was not large enough to carry out a statistical comparison among the three stain types. Therefore, the research hypothesis II regarding the relationship among the fiber morphologies of randomly stained, oval-shaped stained, and unstained categories had to be restated to include only randomly stained and oval-shaped stained categories for the purpose of hypothesis testing. Further discussion of research hypotheses II and III is presented later in the chapter.
The summary of visual characteristics and fabric structural variations of the textile samples which contain bast fibers is shown in Table 11. The yarn samples containing both bast and animal hair fibers are also included in the table. The table indicates the number of yarn samples of a certain textile sample on which SEM and
EDS analyses were conducted. Table 11. List of Textile Samples of the Seip Textiles Made of Bast Fibers
Textile visual Category Fabric Structure SEM* EDS* Remark' No. Black Oval Random Unstain Alternate Pooled yarn yarn
0501-1100 X X 0506-1100 XX 2 2 3 EDS's 0509-1100 XX 0902-1100 XX 3301-1100 X X 3502-1100 X X 3503-1100 XX 3603-1100 X X 2 2 EDS's 3604-1100 X X 2,3 2 3 EDS's 3701-1100 X X 3702-1100 X X 1 3703-1100 X X 3802-1100 X X 3 3901-1100 X X 3904-1100 X X 3907-1100 X X 4014-1100 X X 4103-1100 X X 4106-1100 X X 4201-1100 X X 1 4202-1100 X X 4402-1100 X X 2 3 EDS's 4404-1100 X X 4501-1100 X X 4512-1100 X X 1401-1210 X X 1402-1210 X X 2,3 U1 1403-1210 X X to Table 11 (Continued)
Textile Visual Category Fabric Structure SEM EDS Remark No. Black Oval Random Unstain Alternate Pooled yarn yarn
1902-1210 XX 2 1903-1210 XX 3 2 0 0 1 - 1 2 1 0 XX 2 0 0 2 - 1 2 1 0 XX 1,2,3
2 2 0 1 - 1 2 1 0 X X 2 2 0 2 - 1 2 1 0 X X 1600-1220 X X 1500-1220 X X 2 1 0 0 - 1 2 2 0 X X 1 2400-1220 XX 0 2 0 0 - 2 2 2 0 X X 1,2,3 2800-2220 X X 1 , 2 4701-2220 XX 2 3 1 EDS 4705-2220 XX 1,2,3 2 3 EDS's 4706-2220 XX 3 3 EDS's 1901-2230 XX 3 3000-1230 XX 1,2,3
Number of yarn sample on which SEM was conducted. Number of yarn sample on which EDS was conducted. Number of time EDS analyses have been coducted.
wU1 154
Microscopy of Blackened Seip Textiles
Under the light microscope, the fibers of blackened textiles appear as black rod-like fragments (Figure 22a).
The fibers as well as the yarns were so brittle that they easily broke into tiny fragments during the preparation of specimen for microscopy. The embrittlement of fibers is reflected in the fragile fractile state of all the fibers of blackened textiles. Figure 22b illustrates the fiber fracture observed in the fibers taken from yarn sample
36043-1100.
(a)
Figure 22. Fibers of Blackened Seip Textiles. (a) Seip 37012-1100: LM, (b) Seip 36043-1100: SEM (c) Seip 42011-1100: SEM 155
Figure 22 (Continued)
(b)
(c) 156
When seen through SEM the fibers of blackened textiles often lacked a clear definition of ultimate fibers within the bundle and of nodal structures. This was due to the interference of numerous lengthwise markings on the fiber surface and, because the fibers seemed to have changed in some manner due to carbonization (Figure 20c).
EDS analyses were performed on four randomly selected yarn samples of the blackened textiles in order to investigate the presence of copper or sulfur in the blackened textiles. The four yarn samples are 05062-1100,
35032-110, 36032-1100, and 44022-1100 (Table 11). EDS was conducted on two or three different fibers of each of the above yarn samples. Elements detected through EDS analyses were calcium, iron, silicon, and phosphorus. Neither copper nor sulfur was detected in any of the fibers of the above yarn samples.
Table 12 presents the summary of the characterization of the yarn samples of the blackened Seip textiles in regard to the items included in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology.
The items concerning the presence or absence of cellular elements, and the presence or absence of fiber's natural end tips, and the type of fiber's natural end tips present are not included in the table. The table not only shows the morphological characteristics of each yarn sample but also it illustrates whether there is an inconsistency among the three yarn samples of a textile sample. Table 12. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Yarn Samples Obtained from the Blackened Seip Textiles
Textile Yam Sample Bundle Sep. Fibers with Twist Twist Nodes Node Type Length Trans Sur Fibril Trans All Some Many Many A Few None Direct. Visible Stria Stria face lation verse No. No. Bun. Sep. Sep. Fiber Fiber S Z Reg Irreg A B C D tion tion folds Crack
3301-1100 33011-1100 XX XXXX 33012-1100 X X XX XXX 33013-1100 XXXXX XXXX
3502-1100 35021-1100 XX XXX XX 35022-1100 XX XXXX XX 35023-1100 XXXX XX
3503-1100 35031-1100 X X XXXX 35032-1100 XXXXXXX X 35033-1100 X XXXX X
3603-1100 36031-1100 X XX XXX 36032-1100 XXXXXXXX X 36033-1100 XXXXXXXXX X
3604-1100 36041-1100 XXXXXXX 36042-1100 X XXXXX XX 36043-1100 XXX X
3701-1100 37011-1100 X XXX XXX X 37012-1100 X XX XXXXX X 37013-1100 X X XXXX
3702-1100 37021-1100 XXXXX XX XX 37022-1100 XX XXXX X 37023-1100 XXX XXX U1 V] Table 12 (continued)
Textile Y a m Sample Bundle Sep. Fibers with Twist Twist Nodes Node Type Length Trans Sur Fibril Trans All Some Many Many A Few None Direct. Visible Stria Stria face lation verse No. No. Bun. Sep. Sep. Fiber Fiber S Z Reg Irreg A B C D tion tion folds Crack
3703-1100 37031-1100 X XXX XXXXX 37032-1100 XX X XX XXXX 37033-1100 X XXXX XX
3802-1100 38021-1100 X XXXXXX 38022-1100 XXX XX X 38023-1100 XXX XXXX X
3901-1100 39011-1100 X XX XX X 39012-1100 X XX X XX X 39013-1100 X XXXXXXX X X
3904-1100 39041-1100 X X XXX 39042-1100 XX X XX 39043-1100 XXX
3907-1100 39071-1100 X X XXXXXX X 39072-1100 X X XXX 39073-1100 X XX
4014-1100 40141-1100 XX XXXX X XX 40142-1100 XXX XXXXX 40143-1100 XXX XXXX
4103-1100 41031-1100 X XX XXXX 41032-1100 X XX XXX 41033-1100 X X XXX U1 00 Table 12 (continued)
Textile Y a m Sample Bundle Sep. Fibers with Twist Twist Nodes Node Type Length Trans Sur Fibril Trans All Some Many Many A Few None Direct. Visible Stria Stria face lation verse No. No. Bun. Sep. Sep. Fiber Fiber S z Reg Irreg A B c D tion tion folds Crack
4106-1100 41061-1100 XXXX XXXX 41062-1100 X XXXX XXXX X 41063-1100 X X X X
4201-1100 42011-1100 X XXXX XXX 42012-1100 XXX X XX XX 42013-1100 XX XXXXX X
4202-1100 42021-1100 X XXXXXX X 42022-1100 XXXX X X X 42023-1100 X XXXXXXX
4402-1100 44021-1100 X XXXXX 44022-1100 X XXX 44023-1100 X XXXX
4404-1100 44041-1100 X XXX X XX 44042-1100 X XXXXXX 44043-1100 X XXXXX
4501-1100 45011-1100 X XXXXX 45012-1100 X X XXXXXX 45013-1100 X X XXXXX
4512-1100 45121-1100 X XX X XX 45122-1100 X XX XXXXX 45123-1100 X X XXXXX Ü 1 VO 160
Separation of fiber bundle. As discussed previously it
was impossible to check the presence or absence of cellular
elements on the surface of the fibers of blackened textiles
owing to the technical problems of reflected light
microscopy and the nature of the blackened textiles.
Cellular elements are either not present on the surface of
the fibers, or they cannot be distinguished from the fibers
because they are as blackened as the fibers themselves. If
cellular elements are not present, it may either be because
they were completely burned during the carbonization process
or because they were fully removed during fiber processing
stage.
As can be seen in Table 12, textile samples 3301-110,
3603-1100, 3701-1100, 4103-1100, 4404-1100, 4501-1100, and
4512-110 showed inconsistency among the three yarn samples
in their microscopic morphology of degree of fiber
separation. The three yarn samples of all the other textile
samples consistently fell into either 'some separated' or
'many separated' category. In this research, the terms
"some" and "many" of degree of bundle separation category
were defined as such at the initial stage of microscopy:
"Some separated": when less than about one fourth of
the fiber bundles on the microscopic slide exhibited either
separation into ultimate fibers or separation into groups of ultimates forming a narrow strand. The definition of ultimates in the latter case need not necessarily be clear. 161
"Many separated” : when more than about one fourth of the fiber bundles on the microscopic slide exhibited either separation into ultimate fibers or separation into groups of ultimates forming a narrow strand.
Fiber twist. None of the blackened textiles displayed
"many" fibers with twist when examined microscopically.
Twisted fibers were not present at all in all three yarn samples of the textile samples 3604-1100, 3802-1100, 3907-
1100, and 4512-1100. All the yarn samples of the textile samples 3502-1100, 3603-1100, 4014-1100, 4201-1100, 4202-
1100, and 4404-1100 had a few fibers with twist. The terms
"a few" and "many" in regard to the category of fibers with twist were defined as follows in this research.
"A few": when there were less than 5 fibers with twist on a single microscopic slide. Fibers refers to either ultimate fibers, or groups of ultimates forming a strand.
"Many": when there were more than 5 fibers with twist on a single microscopic slide.
In this study, the twist of fibers was examined as it naturally occurs on the water mounted microscopic slide and not through the drying twist technique. The drying twist technique could not be carried out since it requires larger
samples than those used in this research and because this test causes a greater damage to the sample than the method used in this research. 162
Of the textile samples which had twisted fibers,
samples 3502-1100, 3603-1100, 3701-1100, 3702-1100, 4014-
1100, 4106-1100, 4202-1100, and 4404-1100 exhibited both S
and Z twists in their yarn samples. Both S and Z twists
were seen on a single microscopic slide especially in the
yarn samples 36032-1100, 37021-1100, and 41062-1100.
Nodal structure. Textile samples, 3301-1100, 3603-
1100, 3604-1100, 4103-1100, 4106-1100, 4201-1100, and 4402-
1100 displayed both regularly and irregularly spaced nodal
structures in their yarn samples. The two types were seen
concomitantly in the yarn samples 33012-1100, 36032-1100,
36033-1100, 36041-1100, 36042-1100, 41061-1100, 41062-1100,
42011-1100, 42012-1100, and 44021-1100. Textile samples
3502-1100, 3503-1100, 3701-1100, 3702-1100 3802-1100, 3907-
1100, 4014-1100, 4202-1100, 4404-1100, 4501-1100, and 4512-
1100 exhibited only irregularly spaced nodal structures in
their yarn samples. None of the textile or yarn samples had
only regularly spaced nodal structure.
Among the textile samples in which the nodal structure
was visible, the plain continuous type (Type D in Table 12) was most commonly seen. Yarn samples 33013-1100, 35032-
1100, 37011-1100, 37012-1100, 37031-1100, 37032-1100, 39013-
1100, 40141-1100, 40143-1100, 45122-1100, and 45123-1100 displayed different nodal structures; bent (Type B in Table
12), protruding (Type C in Table 12), and plain continuous. 163
The illustrations of the four different nodal
structures are shown in Figure 23. The four different nodal
structures are the types which have been identified by the
researcher during her involvement in a research project
conducted by Sibley and Jakes (Sibley, Jakes, and Song,
1989). One of the objectives of the above mentioned
research was the examination of fiber morphology of textiles
from the Etowah Mound C which represents another prehistoric
culture of eastern North America.
Lengthwise striations. Lengthwise striations were
observable in all the textile samples of the blackened
textiles except for the yarn samples 35031-1100, 37013-
1100, and 40143-1100. Yarn sample 39071-1100 displayed
lengthwise striation, transverse striations, surface folds, and fibrillation in a single microscopic slide, while the
(b)
(d)
Figure 23. Four Different Types of Nodal Structures Found among the Seip Textiles. (a) Discontinuous, (b) Bent, (c) Protruding, (d) Plain Continuous 164
other two yarn samples of the same textile displayed only
lengthwise striations. Yarn samples 36033-1100 and 36042-
1100 exhibited lengthwise striations, transverse striations,
and surface folds. Transverse cracking was observed in the
yarn samples 36043-1100, 37021-1100, 38023-1100, and 41063-
1100 only.
Fibrillation. In case of the fibers of blackened
textiles there seemed to be more incidents of complete
separation of fibrils from the main body of the fiber than
the presence of fibrillated fibers which are still adhering
to the fiber bundle. The same phenomenon was noted in case
of the transverse cracking, since the blackened textiles
displayed more cases of complete facture of fibers in the
transverse direction, than the cracking of fibers within the
fiber bundle.
Fiber end tips. Among the nine different types of
fiber natural end tips listed in the Index of Bast Fiber
Morphology, only four types were observed in the Seip
textiles. Those were tapering, pointed, rounded, and square
shapes of natural end tips (Figure 24). 73.33% of the yarn
samples of blackened textiles exhibited square shaped end
tips (Table 38 of Appendix G). However, in almost all the
cases of blackened textiles it was impossible to distinguish between the natural end tips and the fractured tips of
fibers. Therefore, the skewed distribution of blackened 165
(b)
(d)
Figure 24. Four Types of Fiber's Natural End Tips Observed Among the Seip Textiles. Adapted from Catling, D. and Grayson, J. (1982). Identification of vegetable fibres. London: Chapman and Hall. (a) Tapering, (b) Pointed, (c) Rounded, (d) Square textiles towards the square shaped natural end tips may be due to the indistinguishable nature of fractured tips and squared shaped natural end tips rather than due to the actual difference in the presence and distribution of square type of natural end tip among the blackened textiles.
Microscopy of Unblackened/ Oval-Shaped Stained Seip Textiles
Under the microscope the fibers of oval-shaped stained, randomly stained, and unstained textiles all appeared as fiber bundles with differing degrees of separation of bundles into ultimates or a group of ultimates forming a strand. The morphological characteristics of yarn samples of oval-shaped Seip textiles in regard to the morphological features in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology are shown in 166
Table 13.
Separation of fiber bundle. In the yarn samples 14011-
1210, 14012-1210, 14023-121, and 20022-1210, none Of the fiber bundles exhibited separation into either ultimate fibers or strands of groups of ultimates. Figure 25 illustrating a fiber bundle of yarn sample 20022-1210 shows that some groups of ultimates have begun to detach from the bundle in certain areas of the fiber but are not yet fully separated into individual strands.
Figure 25. Unseparated Fiber Bundle, Seip 20022-1210: SEM. Table 13. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Y a m Samples obtained from the Oval-Shaped Stained Seip Textiles
Textile Y a m Sample Bundle Sep. Fibers with Twist Twist Nodes Node Type Length Trans Sur Fibril Trans ail Some Many Many a Few None Direct. Visible Stria Stria face lation verse No. No. Bun. Sep. Sep. Fiber Fiber S Z Reg Irreg a BC D tion tion folds Crack
1401-1210 14011-1210 XX XX XX X X 14012-1210 XX XX X XX X 14013-1210 X X X XXXXX X X
1402-1210 14021-1210 X XX XXX X X 14022-1210 X X XXXX X XX XX 14023-1210 XX X X
1403-1210 14031-1210 X X XXXXXXX X X 14032-1210 X X XX XX XX X 14033-1210 XXXXXXX XXX X
1902-1210 19021-1210 X X XX X XX XX X 19022-1210 XX X XXX XX X 19023-1210 X X XX X
1903-1210 19031-1210 XXXX XX XX 19032-1210 X XX X X 19033-1210 X XXXX XX X
2001-1210 20011-1210 X XXXX X X X X 20012-1210 X X X XX X 20013-1210 X XX XX X
2002-1210 20021-1210 X XX XX XX 20022-1210 X XXX XX X XX 20023-1210 X X XXXX XX X a\ 168
The cross-sectional view of an unseparated bundle in the fiber samples taken from yarn sample 19022-1210 is shown in Figure 26. In this figure, it is notable that what seem to be individual ultimates do not show any evidence of the presence of lumen. A very different form of a near cross- sectional view of a bundle is illustrated in Figure 27.
Here again, the lumen cannot be seen except for a slight evidence of collapsed lumen at the bottom center of the figure. In both figures, it is extremely difficult to determine the ultimate fibers within the bundle.
I
Figure 26. Cross-sectional View of an Unseparated Bundle. Seip 19022-1210: SEM. 169
Figure 27. Cross-sectional view of a bundle, Seip 19022- 1210: SEM.
Fiber twist. Fibers with twist were not observed in the textile sample 1902-1210. Other textile samples had yarn samples which either had a few fibers with twist or no twist at all. None of the yarn samples or textile samples exhibited many fibers with twist. Among the textile samples which had fibers with twist, sample 1403-1210 had fibers with S twist only, while textile samples 1401-1210, 1903-
1210, 20001-1210, and 2002-1210 had fibers with Z twist only. 170
Nodal structure. Almost all the oval-shaped stained textiles exhibited both regularly and irregularly spaced nodal structures in their yarn samples. The plain continuous type of nodal structure was most commonly observed type among the four nodal structures. Except for the textile samples 1902-1210 and 2001-1210, all the other textile samples had yarn samples which displayed either bent and plain continuous types together, or protruding and plain continuous types together in a single microscopic slide.
Figure 28 illustrates an example of a plain continuous nodal structure observed in the yarn sample 19022-1210 with some indication of surface folding occurring at the nodal area.
Figure 28. Plain Continuous Type Nodal Structure Occurring Regularly Along the Fiber Length, Seip 19022-1210: SEM. 171
Surface markings. Like the fibers of blackened textiles, all the yarn samples of oval-shaped stained textiles except for 19023-1210 displayed lengthwise striations along the fiber length. Transverse striations were seen in all the yarn samples of textile sample 1403-
1210 and 1902-1210.
Surface folds were observed most often in the two textile samples also. Especially in the case of the textile sample 1902-1210, all the yarn samples of this textile exhibited this morphological feature.
Fibrillation was observed in the textile samples 1402-
1210, 1403-1210, 1902-1210, 2001-1210, and 2002-1210. In textile sample 2002-1210 all three yarns displayed this phenomenon. Figure 29 illustrates the fibrillation in yarn sample 20021-1210 which occurs in a strand of fiber formed by a group of ultimates.
Among the different types of surface markings it is notable that transverse cracking has been observed in all the textile samples of the oval-shaped staining group.
Except for the textile sample 2001-1210, transverse cracks were seen in all the yarn samples of each textile. Figure
30 illustrates this morphological feature occurring in the yarn sample 20021-1210. 172
Figure 29. Fibrillation in Seip 20021-1210: SEM.
Figure 30. Transverse Cracking, Seip 20021-1210: SEM. 173
Fiber end tips. In the yarn samples of oval-shaped stained textiles, the tapering type of fiber end tips was most often (57.14%) found (Table 49 of Appendix G). Fiber end tips were more readily distinguished from fractured tips among the fibers of unblackened textiles than those of blackened textiles. Observation of fiber end tips were all made employing light microscopy. Fiber end tips were not seen when samples were examined with SEM probably because of the small quantity of fibers per yarn sample prepared in a single SEM stub. An example of tapering type of end tip found in the yarn sample 2011-1210 is shown in Figure 31.
Figure 31. Tapering Type Fiber End Tip Found in Seip 20011- 1210: SEM. 174
Microscopy of Unblackened/ Randomly Stained Seip Textiles
The randomly stained group of Seip textiles is comprised of textiles which are made only of bast fibers and textiles which contain both bast and animal hair fibers.
Animal hair fibers of the textiles which contain both bast and animal hair fibers have already been discussed. Bast fibers of the above mentioned textiles exhibit similar morphological features to those of the textiles of oval shaped stained textiles and those of randomly stained textiles made only of bast fibers. The possible mixture of animal hair and bast fibers in the yarn sample 47051-2220 is illustrated in Figure 32.
I
Figure 32. Illustration of the Possible Mixture of Bast and Animal Hair Fibers in Seip 47051-2220: SEM. 175
The microscopic morphological characteristics of the
Seip textiles in the randomly stained group is shown in
Table 14. The morphological characteristics of the fibers in the randomly stained group are similar to those of oval shaped stained textiles. The differences in the frequencies of the two groups regarding each morphological feature are shown in the Tables 39 through 49 of Appendix G. One notable feature in Table 14 is that transverse cracks have been observed in only four yarn samples, 002003-2220, 15002-
1220, 28001-2220, and 47063-2220, while almost all the yarn samples of oval-shaped stained textiles exhibited this characteristic.
Microscopv of Unblackened/ Unstained Seio textiles
After exclusion of the unstained textiles which are made of animal hair fibers, only two textile samples, 1901-
2230 and 3000-1230 are left in the unstained group (Table
15). None of the fiber bundles in textile sample 1901-2230 were seen to be separated. Bundle separation was difficult to determine in the textile sample 3000-1230 due to extensive surface encrustation. Yarn samples 19012-2230 and
30002-1230 exhibited both S and Z twist in a single microscopic slide.
Like all the other visual groups of the Seip textiles, lengthwise striation was the most commonly occurring surface marking. It is notable that all three of the yarn samples Table 14. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Y a m Samples Obtained from the Randomly Stained Seip Textiles
Textile Yam Sample Bundle Sep. Fibers with Twist Twist Nodes Node Type Length Trans Sur Fibril Trans fill Some Many Many A Few None Direct. Visible Stria Stria face lation verse No. No. Bun. Sep. Sep. Fiber Fiber S Z Peg Irreg A B C D tion tion folds Crack
0200-2220 02001-2220*" 02002-2220 XXXX X 02003-2220#» XX XXXXXX
1500-1220 15001-1220 X X XXX 15002-1220 XXXX XX X 15003-1220 XX X X X X
1600-1220 16001-1220 XXXXXXX 16002-1220 X X X 16003-1220 X X X X X XX X
2100-1220 21001-1220 XXXX XXXX X 21002-1220 X XXXXXXX 21003-1220 XXXXXXXXX
2400-1220 24001-1220 X XXX 24002-1220 X XXXXXXX 24003-1220 X X XX
2800-2220 28001-2220 X XXXXX 28002-2220# XXXX XX XX 28003-2220 X X X X X X XXXX
4701-2220 47011-2220# XXX XXX 47012-2220# XX XXXXX 47013-2220# XX XXX X X X i-> as Table 14 (continued)
Textile Yam Sample Bundle Sep. Fibers with Twist Twist Nodes Node Type Length Trans Sur Fibril Trans All Some Many Many A Few None Direct. Visible Stria- Stria face lation verse No. No. Bun. Sep. Sep. Fiber Fiber S Z Reg Irreg A B C D tion tion folds Crack
4705-2220 47051-2220# XXXX 47052-2220# 47053-2220*#
4706-2220 47061-2220 X X X X X XX X 47062-2220 X X X X XX X 47063-2220 X X X X X X XXX
Data could not be obtained due to surface encrustation or damage. Y a m sample contains animal hair fibers. Table 15. Characterization of Fiber Morphology of Y a m Samples Obtained from the Unstained Seip Textiles
Textile Yam Sample Bundle Sep. Fibers with Twist Twist Nodes Node Type Length Trans Sur Fibril Trans All Some Many Many A Few None Direct. Visible Stria Stria face lation verse No. No. Bun. Sep. Sep. Fiber Fiber S Z Reg Irreg A B C D tion tion folds Crack
1901-2230 19011-2230 XX X X XX X 19012-2230 X X X X X X X X 19013-2230 X X X X X XX XX
3000-1230 30001-1230 7 X X 30002-1230 ? X X X X X X X X 30003-1230 7 X X
I-* V] 00 179
removed from textile sample 1901-2230 display fibrillation
and transverse cracks concomitantly.
In the next section, the chi-square results of the
frequency distributions of different questions
(morphological characteristics) in the Index of Bast Fiber
Morphology regarding different hypotheses are presented for the purpose of statistical comparison of the morphological characteristics among different visual groups of the Seip textiles.
Report of Frequency Distribution and Chi-Square (X') Test
The research hypotheses I, II, and IV presented in
Chapter III are stated in the form of null hypothesis. The sample sizes for the hypothesis tests are shown in Tables 9 and 10. It was decided a priori that the overall alpha level for the Chi-square test of independence is .05. Based on the Bonferroni's simultaneous confidence level (Devore and Peck, 1986), the alpha level for individual hypothesis test of each question then becomes approximately .016 since the data set concerning each question in the instrument is subject to three different hypothesis tests simultaneously.
Therefore, each hypothesis of a single question in the instrument is tested at alpha=.016 for the Chi-square test for independence. 180
Summary of Chi-sauare Tests for Hypothesis I
The null hypothesis for Hypothesis I is stated as
follows:
Ho: The microscopic morphological characteristics of
fibers obtained from the Seip textiles are not associated
with the visual characteristics of blackening and
unblackening of the Seip textiles.
The chi-square tests for different questions in the
Index of Bast Fiber Morphology concerning hypothesis I is
summarized in Table 16. As can be seen in Table 16, 6
questions received a computer warning due to asymptotic
standard error resulting from cell frequencies less than 5
observations. The questions which were significant at
alpha=0.016, were Degree of bundle separation.
Regularity/irregularity of distribution of Node, Presence of
different types of node. Presence/absence of transverse
striation. Presence/absence of surface folds, and
Presence/absence of transverse crack. Among these only four
questions did not receive a computer warning; these are
Degree of bundle separation. Presence/absence of transverse
striations, Presence/absence of surface folds, and
Presence/absence of transverse crack.
Although the p-values indicate the significance of the test, the chi-square tests of the questions which received the computer warning are not valid due to asymptotic standard error. In the following pages, the frequency Table 16. Results of the Chi-Square Test of Each Question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology Regarding Hypothesis I
Microscopic Fiber Morphology Chi-Square D.F." P-Value* Warning
Presence/Absence of Cellular Elements — — -- —
Degree of Bundle Separation 17.276 3 0 .001“* XX
Presence/Absence of Fiber with Twist 2.104 2 0.349 XX
Type of Twist (S Twist/Z Twist) 1.837 3 0.607
Regul./Irregul. of Distribution of Node 18.480 2 0 .001*“ XX
Presence of Different Types of Node 17.742 5 0.006*** XX
Presence/Absence of Lengthwise Striations 3.988 1 0.046
Presence/Absence of Transverse Striations 12.186 1 0 .000***
Presence/Absence of Bulging 2.672 1 0.102 XX
Presence/Absence of Surface Folds 7.203 1 0.007***
Presence/Absence of Fibrillation 2.779 1 0.096
Presence/Absence of Transverse Crack 31.135 1 0 .000***
Presence/Absence of Fiber End Tip 3.516 1 0.05 Presence of Different Types of End Tip 26.161 7 <0.001* XX Degree of Freedom. P-values with *“ are significant at alpha=0.016 00 182 distributions of only those questions which were significant at alpha=0.016 without any computer warning are presented. The frequency distributions of the remaining questions are included in Appendix G. The frequency distribution of blackened and unblackened textiles regarding the degree of bundle separation is shown in Table 17. 50.67% of blackened textiles fell into the 'some separated' category, while 36.84% of unblackened textiles fell into the same category. The percentage of the number of yarn samples in which many bundles are separated is higher in blackened textiles (40.00%) than unblackened textiles (26.32%). 31.58% of unblackened textiles had fiber bundles which were not separated at all. The non-separation of the bundle was observable among only 9.33% of blackened textiles. The results of the chi-square test for independence was 17.276 (p = 0.001). The null hypothesis Table 17. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Degree of Fiber Separation Black vs Undif- All Some Many Total Unblack inable Bundle Separated Separated Blacken 0 7 38 30 75 0 .00% 9.33% 50.67% 40.00% (1.7) (14.2) (30.1) (29.0) Unblack 3 18 15 21 57 5.26% 31.58% 36.84% 26.32% (1.3) (10.8) (22.9) (22.0) Total 3 25 53 51 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. 183 was rejected in this case indicating that the degree of bundle separation is strongly associated with the visual characteristics of blackening and unblackening. Table 18 shows the frequency distribution of presence and absence of transverse striations in blackened and unblackened Seip textiles. Transverse striations were observed in 29.33% of blackened textiles while 59.65% of unblackened textiles exhibited this morphological feature. The chi-square test for this question was 12.186 (p=0.000) indicating a strong association between the presence or absence of transverse striations and the visual characteristics of the Seip textiles. Table 19 shows the frequency distribution of surface folds on fibers of blackened and unblackened Seip textiles. Surface folds of fibers were observable among 28.00% of blackened textiles and 50.88% of unblackened textiles. The Table 18. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Transverse Striation Black/ Unblack Not Present Present Total Blackened 53 22 75 70.67% 29.33% (43.2) (31.8) Unblackened 23 34 57 40.35% 59.65% (32.8) (24.2) Total 76 56 132 ★Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 184 Table 19. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Surface Folds Black/ Unblack Not Present Present Total Blackened 54 21 75 72.00% 28.00% (46.6) (28.4) Unblackened 28 29 57 49.12% 50.88% (35.4) (21.6) Total 82 50 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. results of the chi-square test for independence was 7.203 (p = 0.007) and suggests that there is a strong association between the presence and absence of surface folds in the fibers of Seip textiles and the visual characteristics of blackening and unblackening of the Seip textiles. Table 20 shows the frequency distribution of the microscopic morphology of transverse cracking among blackened and unblackened Seip textiles. Only 6.67% of blackened Seip textiles exhibited transverse cracking while the characteristic was found among 49.12% of unblackened Seip textiles. The results of the chi-square test for independence was 31.135 (p<0.001). The test suggests that there is a strong association between the presence and absence of transverse cracking and the visual characteristics of blackening and unblackening of the Seip textiles. 185 Table 20. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Transverse Crack Black/ Unblack Not Present Present Total Blackened 70 5 75 93.33% 6.67% (56.3) (18.8) Unblackened 29 28 57 50.88% 49.12% (42.8) (14.3) Total 99 33 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Summary of Chi-Sauare Tests for Hypothesis II Since the sample size of the unstained category was too small to carry out a statistical comparison with the other two stain types only random staining and oval-shaped staining types were included in the testing of Hypothesis II. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: Hg: The microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from the Seip textiles are not associated with the visual characteristics of oval staining and random staining of the Seip textiles. The results of chi-square tests for the questions in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology regarding research hypothesis II are summarized in Table 21. Due to small sample sizes of the oval-shaped staining and random staining categories, many questions received computer warnings indicating asymptotic standard error. Table 21. Results of the Chi-Square Test of Each Question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology Regarding Hypothesis II Microscopic Fiber Morphology Chi-Square D.F." P-Value* Warning Presence/Absence of Cellular Elements 3.576 2 0.167 XX Degree of Bundle Separation 3.598 2 0.165 Presence/Absence of Fiber with Twist 1.444 2 0.486 XX Type of Twist (S Twist/Z Twist) 6.175 3 0.103 XX Regul./Irregul. of Distribution of Node 1.524 2 >0.100 XX Presence of Different Types of Node 4.686 4 >0.100 XX Presence/Absence of Lengthwise Striations 7.675 1 0.006'" XX Presence/Absence of Transverse Striations 6.888 1 0.009*" Presence/Absence of Bulging 0.007 1 0.932 XX Presence/Absence of Surface Folds 0.017 1 0.895 Presence/Absence of Fibrillation 5.818 1 0.016"* Presence/Absence of Transverse Crack 14.412 1 0 .000*** Presence/Absence of Fiber End Tip 0.156 1 >0.100 XX Presence of Different Types of End Tip 1.511 2 >0.100 XX " Degree of Freedom. i-* " P-values with *“ are significant at alpha=0.016. “ 187 The four questions which were significant at alpha=0.016 are Presence/absence of lengthwise striations. Presence/absence of transverse striations. Presence/absence of fibrillation, and Presence/absence of transverse crack. Only the last three questions have valid chi-square tests due to asymptotic standard error of the first question. The frequency distribution of the presence or absence of transverse striations is shown in Table 22. Transverse striation was observed among 48.15% of oval-shaped stained textiles and 83.33% of randomly stained textiles. The result of the chi-square test was 6.888 (p = 0.009) and suggests that the presence and absence of transverse striations is associated with the types of green staining. Table 23 illustrates the frequency distribution of presence or absence of fibrillation among the textiles of oval-shaped stained and randomly stained categories. Table 22. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Transverse Striation Green Staining Not Present Present Total Oval-shaped 14 13 27 51.85% 48.15% Staining (9.5) (17.5) Random 4 20 24 16.67% 83.33% Staining (8.5) (15.5) Total 18 33 51 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 188 Table 23. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Fibrillation Green Staining Not Present Present Total Oval-shaped 17 10 27 62.96% 37.04% Staining (20.6) (6.4) Random 22 2 24 91.67% 8.33% Staining (18.4) (5.6) Total 39 12 51 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Fibrillation was present among 37.04% of oval-shaped stained textiles and 8.33% of randomly stained textiles. The result of the chi-square test was 5.818 (p = 0.016) which indicates that there is an association between the presence and absence of fibrillation and the types of green staining. Transverse cracking was observed in 74.07% of oval shaped stained textiles, while the feature was observed in 20.83% of randomly stained textiles (Table 24). The result of the chi-square test was 14.412 (p <0.001) which suggests that the presence and absence of transverse cracking is strongly associated with the type of green staining. For the frequency distributions of other morphological features listed in Table 21, the readers are referred to Appendix G. 189 Table 24. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Transverse Crack Green Staining Not Present Present Total Oval-shaped 7 20 27 25.93% 74.07% Staining (13.8) (13.2) Random 19 5 24 79.17% 20.83% Staining (12.2) (11.8) Total 26 25 51 ♦Number in ( ) s expected cell count. Summary of Chi-Square Tests for Hypothesis IV The null hypothesis for Hypothesis IV is as follows; Ho: The microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from the Seip textiles are not associated with the fabric structure categories of alternate pair-weft twining and the pooled construction types of the Seip textiles. The results of chi-square tests regarding research hypothesis IV are presented in Table 25. Because the sample size of the Pooled group construction type is small, almost all the questions received computer warnings indicating asymptotic standard error. The two questions which did not receive the warning are Presence/absence of transverse striations and Presence/absence of surface folds. Between the two questions the chi-square test of only the former alone was significant at alpha=0.016. Table 25. Results of the Chi-Square Test of Each Question in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology Regarding Hypothesis IV Microscopic Fiber Morphology Chi-Square D.F.* P-Value* Warning Presence/Absence of Cellular Elements 12.978 2 0 .002*“ XX Degree of Bundle Separation 8.373 3 0.039 XX Presence/Absence of Fiber with Twist 8.663 2 0.013*“ XX Type of Twist (S Twist/Z Twist) 3.825 3 0.281 XX Regul./Irregul. of Distribution of Node 11.405 2 0.00KP<0.1 XX Presence of Different Types of Node 11.787 5 0.042 XX Presence/Absence of Lengthwise Striations 36.042 1 0.000*** XX Presence/Absence of Transverse Striations 6.619 1 0 .010*** Presence/Absence of Bulging 0.260 1 0.610 XX Presence/Absence of Surface Folds 3.519 1 0.061 Presence/Absence of Fibrillation 1.990 1 0.158 XX Presence/Absence of Transverse Crack 4.237 1 0.040 XX Presence/Absence of Fiber End Tip 0.574 1 >0.100 XX Presence of Different Types of End Tip 6.465 6 >0.100 XX " Degree of Freedom. VD P-values with *** are significant at alpha=0.016. O 191 The frequency distribution of the presence or absence of transverse striations among the textiles which are made of spaced alternate-pair weft-twining and the rest of the construction types is shown in Table 26. Transverse striations were observed in 38.46% of Alternate group textiles, while the characteristic was observed in 73.33% of Pooled group textiles. The result of the chi-square test was 6.619 (p =0.010) which suggests that the presence or absence of transverse striations is associated with the type of fabric structures of the Seip textiles. The frequency distributions of other questions in Table 25 are included in Appendix G. Table 26. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Transverse Striation Construction Not Present Present Total Alternate 72 45 117 61.54% 38.46% (67.4) (49.6) Pooled 4 11 15 26.67% 73.33% (8.6) (6.4) Total 76 56 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 192 In summary, the chi-square tests of Hypothesis I, II, and IV indicated a strong association of the presence or absence of transverse striations. Presence or absence of transverse cracking also seems to be a significant morphological feature which distinguishes between different visual categories. An increase in sample size of categories such as oval-shaped stained, randomly stained, and the Pooled group of construction types would be required for carrying out a valid chi-square test for all the questions in the instrument. Logistic Regression Procedure for Fiber Width Variation Logistic regression procedures were carried out for Hypotheses II and IV only since the measurements of fiber width could not be obtained for the blackened textiles (Hypothesis I). The procedure was utilized to examine whether the measurements of width of the fibers obtained from the Seip textiles were in any way related to the visual categories of the Seip textiles represented in different hypotheses. The logistic regression model is stated as follows: Suppose Y {0,1}, then E{Y} = 0 X P[Y=0] + 1 X P[Y=0] = P[Y=1] The model is P[Y=1] = 1/[1 + exp(-a-bx)]. It is easy to see by the basic calculus that i) if b > 0, then P[Y=1] increases with x ii) if b < 0, then P[Y=1] decreases with x. 193 In this study Y = visual or fabrication categories, and X = measurements of fiber width. For Hypothesis II Y = 0 if oval-shaped stained, and Y = 1 if randomly stained For Hypothesis IV Y = 0 if spaced alternate-pair weft-twining, and Y = 1 if other than above The results of logistic regression procedures for Hypothesis II and Hypothesis IV are shown in Table 27. The alpha level for each hypothesis was alpha=0.05. As the table shows b = 0.2597 (p = 0.0000) for Hypothesis II, and b = 0.1613 (p = 0.0011) for Hypothesis IV. Thus in both hypotheses, the higher value of fiber width measurements are related to Y = 1. In other words, it can be stated for Hypothesis II that fibers with greater width measurements are likely to be in the randomly stained category, and for Hypothesis IV that fibers with greater width measurements are likely to be in the Pooled group of construction type. Tcible 27. Logistic Regression Procedure for Fiber Width Measurements Hypothesis a b p-value for b“ Hypothesis II -1.5413 0.2597 0 .0000*** Hypothesis IV -1.9378 0.1613 0 .0011*** P-value with *“ are significant at alpha=0.05. 194 Summary The assessment of the microscopic morphological characteristics of the fibers obtained from the Seip textiles as well as the supplementary results of X-ray analyses were presented in this chapter. Characterization of animal hair fibers contained in several of the Seip textiles and that of bast fibers of the Seip textiles was included. The results of chi-square tests of different questions in the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology for three hypotheses indicated that the presence or absence of transverse striations showed strong association with visual and fabrication categories of the Seip textiles. The logistic regression model for the fiber width measurement indicated that fibers with larger width are likely to belong to the textiles of the randomly stained category for Hypothesis II, and they are likely to belong to the textiles of Pooled group of construction type for Hypothesis IV. CHAPTER VI IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS This chapter discusses the cultural implications of the findings of the investigation of microscopic morphological characteristics of the fibers obtained from the Seip textiles. The model presented in Chapter III serves as a theoretical framework for drawing cultural inference from the results of the investigation. Cultural Significance of the Presence of Animal Hair Fibers among the Seip Textiles The most remarkable finding of the microscopic examination of the Seip textiles was the identification of animal hair fibers, more precisely the hairs of rabbit or hare, in several of the Seip textiles. The animal hair fibers were found either independently or mixed with bast fibers in the fiber samples. The painted textiles were all composed of animal hair fibers only. At the same time, all of these textiles were constructed using the interlacing technique. Mixing of bast and animal hair fibers was observed in four out of five textiles constructed using the oblique interlacing technique. 195 196 The presence of both bast and rabbit (or hare) hair fibers among the Seip textiles and the distinctive visual and structural characteristics of the Seip textiles containing rabbit hair suggest some significant cultural behaviors related to the textile production and utilization pattern among the Seip population. The discussion that follows relies upon the model presented in Chapter III to examine the relation between the findings and the Hopewell culture. As already noted, it has four components: the biologic, the systemic, the archaeologic, post excavation contexts. Biologic Context and the Initial Fiber Collecting Stage of Systemic Context The use of hairs of rabbit and hare as sources of textile material among the prehistoric people has been noted in the literature (Whiford, 1941; Willoughby, 1952; King and Gardner, 1981). The presence of hair fibers of these mammals and certain species of bast fibers among the Seip textiles illustrates the variety of natural resources available to the Seip population. Asch, et. al. (1979) and Reidhead (1980) suggest an abundance of dietary items available in the Woodland period. Among these are such animal resources as fish, deer, turkey, squirrel, and muskrat as well as starchy seed plant resources. The presence of hair from rabbit or hare in the Seip textiles not only indicates that rabbits or hares also 197 were available during the Middle Woodland period, but it also suggests the abundance of them in the Woodland ecosystem. Neither Asch, et. al. (1979) nor Reidhead (1980) suggest the usage of rabbits (or hares) as a dietary source by the Woodland population. Although it would not be surprising if they were used for food. Certainly their use in textile production and their selection from among the variety of available animals reflect selective decisions made by the Seip people for a different end-use. Of the 52 Seip textiles, 11 were composed wholly or partially of rabbit (hare) hair fibers whereas 41 textiles were made of bast fibers only. The large difference in the number of textiles containing either rabbit (hare) hair or bast may be reflective of the accessibility of the two resource types in the eastern Woodlands. Here, the term accessibility includes all the resources available in the environmental system as well as the ease of fiber collection, and the ease of fiber processing. The activities concerning the collecting of rabbit (or hare) hair fibers are different from those concerning the collecting of bast fibers. If the environment provides an abundance of fibrous plants, the collecting of fibrous plant parts can be carried out with relative ease. The hunting of rabbits (or hares) would be more time consuming and would require more energetic activities than those used for 198 collecting of plant materials even if they were abundant in the ecosystem. Based on the above statement, it can also be suggested that in comparison to bast fibers more value was placed on the fibers of rabbit (or hare) hair as a source of raw material for textile manufacture. Because of the differential accessibility (as defined above) between rabbit hair fibers and bast fibers, the rarity of the former may have placed a higher value on the textiles made of rabbit hairs than the textiles made of bast fibers. However, the disproportionate occurrence of rabbit (or hare) hair and bast fibers in the Seip textiles may be indicative of an archaeologic environment more favorable to plants than animals. The two fiber types would differ in persistence in long-term burial. The disproportionate occurrence of the two fiber types also may be reflective of the difference in the assigned function among the surviving Seip textiles. The functional consideration is discussed later in the chapter. Systemic Context £iber_and yarn processing and textile fabrication. The processing of animal hair fibers is different from that of bast fibers. Although the exact prehistoric activities relating to the processing of animal hair fibers are not known, logic suggests that the process would involve removing hair from the skin, using a flint or a bone 199 scraper. The presence of fine fur hairs as well as outer guard hairs of rabbit or hare among the Seip textiles mean that the hairs of entire body of these mammals were rather completely removed from the skin. After fibers were collected, a spinning process similar to that of bast fibers would be employed (Chapter III). In a comparison between the fibers of rabbit (or hare) and bast, it is evident that pliability of rabbit hair excels that of bast fibers, whereas the strength of fibers or yarn is higher in bast fibers than rabbit hair. Therefore, one is more likely to produce a finer yet weaker yarn with rabbit (or hare) hair than with bast fibers. In addition, the fabric which is made of rabbit (or hare) hair is lighter in weight and warmer than the fabric made of bast fibers. The intended end-use of the textiles made either of rabbit hair or bast fibers would depend upon the above differences in the physical properties of the two fiber types. It follows that the selection of either rabbit (hare) hair or bast fibers for specific Seip textiles reflects decision making on the part of the Seip people concerning the choice of different fiber types for textiles with different assigned functions. Further, it is plausible that the makers of the Seip textiles selected animal hair fibers over bast fibers for making textiles which needed to be warmer, softer, and lighter weight than the textiles made of bast fibers. 200 The choice of the interlacing technique in preference to other fabrication techniques (spaced alternate-pair weft- twining, oblique interlacing, and spaced 2-strand weft twining) for the textiles made only of animal hair fibers suggests a specific form of decision making regarding textile manufacture. The process of decision making may have been similar to that employed by modern textile producers. The choice of one fabrication technique over others may have been related to the differences in the pliability of the two fiber types. Animal hair fibers such as those of rabbit or hare can be, and must be, used to produce softer fabrics through the execution of fabrication techniques which generate less stress in yarns while the two yarn systems are interworked into a stable fabric. Interlacing is one technique which would meet these requirements. On the other hand, bast fibers can be used to produce a more stable textile (in terms of the stabilization of two yarn systems) in which the yarns can be manipulated under a fair amount of tension to stabilize the two systems within the fabric. Furthermore, mixing of bast and animal hair fibers would have allowed the Seip people to produce a soft yet stronger fabric than that made only of animal hair fibers. The use of the combination of rabbit hair and plant fibers in the Seip textiles has been noted by Willoughby (1938). He describes such a textile as one which is loosely 201 woven with two single vegetable strands twisted into a cord which is wrapped with red stained rabbit hairs (Willoughby, 1938). Willoughby's (1938) description seems to refer to the Seip textiles examined in this study which are made of both bast and rabbit (or hare) hair fibers with the execution of oblique interlacing technique. The researcher was unable to observe the wrapping of bast strands with rabbit hair fibers through microscopy. The degradation of the textiles also makes it unclear whether the rabbit hairs included in these textiles were stained. However, if in fact the SEM image in Figure 30 illustrates the mixture of bast and animal hair fiber in a yarn, it provides evidence that the makers of Seip textiles indeed purposefully mixed the two fiber types during the yarn processing stage, whether the rabbit hairs were wrapped around the bast strands or they were spun into a yarn with bast fibers. The selection of the oblique interlacing technique for the fabrication of textiles which contain both animal hair and bast fibers may have been made in consideration of the relative pliability and strength of the yarns made of both fiber types. However, the decision as to whether to use animal hair fibers, bast fibers, or both would ultimately depend upon the assigned function of the textile. 202 Fabric decoration. Application of color among the Seip textiles made only of animal hair fibers can be interpreted in three ways. First, the painting of textiles might have been carried out in order to enhance or alter the natural color of the animal hair fibers found in the Seip textiles. Second, the painting of textiles might have had a certain symbolic meaning. Third, painting may suggest that the rarer the basic textile element, the more care is taken to ornament the fabric. Whatever the reason for painting the Seip textiles, the painting itself must have added extra value to those textiles and thus would have made them even rarer. The symbolic meaning of the painting of the textiles seems plausible when one considers Shetrone and Greenman's (1931) comment that the painted textiles of the Seip Mound 2 are painted in a characteristic Hopewell design. It is very likely that such a painted design has symbolic meaning, and part of the ritual may have included the placement of painted textiles in the burial upon the death of a significant individual. Use and discard. The decisions concerning the selection of specific types of fiber and those concerning the selection of fabrication technique ultimately depend upon the assigned function of the textile. Considering the differences in fiber properties of rabbit (or hare) hair or bast fibers it is evident that the Seip people selectively 203 used rabbit (or hare) hair for making softer and warmer textiles. The application of painting only on the Seip textiles made of rabbit hair by the interlace technique is indicative of a function unique to the seven textiles. In Willoughby's (1938) description of the Seip textiles, he reports that one textile specimen bearing colored designs was constructed using the hand braiding technique. Willoughby (1938) suggests that the particular piece was probably a fragment of "a sash or loin cloth" (p. 277). It is possible that the fragments of painted Seip textiles examined by the researcher came from the particular piece described by Willoughby (1938). Or they may have been part of a set of specially decorated textiles. Whether or not one agrees with Willoughby (1938) with respect to the presumed function of the painted Seip textiles, it is clear that the seven textile fragments were either pieces of several textiles or were parts of a single textile which conveyed significant social value. Accepting Willoughby's (1938) functional classification of the painted textiles, the sash or the loin cloth made from the combination of rabbit hair, interlace, and painting must have been reserved for special occasions, perhaps religious ceremonies. Further, it is possible that they were reserved for use by only a select group (either socio-structural or religious) within the Seip society. 204 The presence of the painted Seip textiles in the Seip burial context and the evidence of fabrics with colored designs adhering to grave offerings such as copper breastplates (Shetrone and Greenman, 1931) are indications that the painted Seip textiles were utilized by the Seip population as part of the mortuary practice. The projected picture of the Seip mortuary practice involves wrapping a copper breastplate with the painted Seip textiles and placing the entire assemblage beneath the head of an individual at the time of his/her death (Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). Archaeoloqic Context The extensive copper encrustation on the surface of textiles made of animal hair fibers suggests that the textiles had been placed in close proximity to artifacts made of copper in the burial environment. The evidence of infiltration suggests an even closer relationship between the textile and copper artifacts, probably a direct association. The two phenomena confirm Shetrone and Greenman's (1931) report that all the Seip textiles were in a close association with copper artifacts, many directly adhering to copper artifacts. 205 Inference Drawn from the Report of Excavations Although the provenience data on the painted textiles as well as the rest of the Seip textiles are not available, a close examination of Shetrone and Greenman's (1931) report of excavations informs the researcher of the possible placement of the painted textiles upon excavation. As discussed in Chapter II, Shetrone and Greenman (1931) indicate that the textiles bearing colored designs were found under copper breastplates which were placed beneath the head of skeletons in burials 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 28, and 86 of Seip Mound 1. Among the above burials, burials 2, 4, and 5 belong to "The Great Multiple Burial" (Figure 8) which exhibited evidence of elaborate mortuary treatments. The covering of a fabric canopy above the burials of The Great Multiple Burial and its probable ceremonial significance has already been discussed (Figure 10). All the burials in The Great Multiple Burial were inhumations representing both sexes of different age groups including infants (Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). Burial 2, in particular, was the skeleton of a female which displayed evidence of extensive bodily decoration and an abundance of artifacts such as freshwater pearls, the image of a swan cut from tortoise-shells, and artifacts made from copper (Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). Burial 5 was a male of an "unusual" size (Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). 206 Burial 9 and 11 were located just outside The Great Multiple Burial. Burials 28 and 86 were each located in what Greber (1976) called the "lobe 2" and "lobe 3" sections of the Seip Mound 1. Of the two burials, Shetrone and Greenman (1931) comments on burial 28 that it was bordered by "unusually" large log-molds, and that despite the "unusual" size of the platform, it contained a cremated burial of only a single adult individual. The lack of provenience data makes it impossible to assign a certain painted textile to a specific burial among the eleven burials discussed above. However, the description made by Shetrone and Greenman (1931) on each of the above burials indicate that all were given a special mortuary treatment. It also is clear that the eleven burials discussed above represent both sexes and different age groups. The demographic information of the eleven burials which accompanied painted textiles indicates that the occurrence of the combined attributes of rabbit hair, interlace, and painting is not age specific or gender related. Especially in the case of the Great Multiple Burial, both male and female of different age groups were represented in a single burial platform. This suggests the possibility of a kin- based relationship among the individuals of this group (Tainter, 1983). 207 The occurrence of the combined attributes of rabbit hair, interlace, and painting in three out of six burials of the Great Multiple Burial, and the consideration of presumed function of the seven textiles (discussed above) suggest that the Great Multiple Burial may consist of the burials of a kin group which was socially significant during life. The social significance of this group may have been based on the occupational specialty such as priesthood. The information obtained from Shetrone and Greenman (1931) on the burials which contained fabrics with colored design seem to coincide with the previous discussion on the probable manufacture and utilization behaviors related to the painted Seip textiles. It seems evident that the combination of animal hair fibers, interlacing technique, and painting carris significant social meaning. Contrary to the earlier viewpoint that the Seip textiles were constructed using the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining technique which functioned as a means of broadcasting a higher social status (Church, 1983, 1984), the examination of fiber morphology and visual characteristics of the Seip textiles reveals that the combined attributes of the use of rabbit (or hare) hair, execution of the interlacing technique, and painting of the seven textiles are indications that certain of the textiles served as what Binford (1962) labelled as either socio- technic or ideo-technic items among the living population of 208 the Seip complex. Furthermore, the manufacture of textiles with a distinct form by the Seip population is indicative of prehistoric decision making related to textile production and utilization. Cultural Implications of the Variation in Microscopic Morphology of the Seip Textiles Made of Bast Fibers The hypothesis tests concerning the data obtained from the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology examined the interdependence between a single microscopic morphological feature and each of the visual and structural categories of the Seip textiles. The microscopic morphology of bast fibers observed among the Seip textiles reflects the evidence of the accumulated effects of processing, use, and discard. The presence of one morphological feature cannot be explained by the factors in a single context alone. It should be explained by the accumulated effects of all the treatments which could have occurred in the four contexts. Considering that the majority of the Seip textiles were made of bast fibers incorporated into the spaced alternate- pair weft-twining technigue, it is suggested that the two attributes in a Seip textile reflect an assigned function of the textile which was different from the presumed function of the painted Seip textile. As Shetrone and Greenman (1931) suggested, the Seip textiles of the above type may have served as burial shrouds or as wrappings for copper breastplates to be placed in the burials. The textiles may 209 either have been fabricated for these purposes only or they may have been used by a individual and subsequently interred as burial accompaniments at the time of his/her death. The following pages deal with the discussion of the probable factors relating to different morphological features observed among the bast fibers of the Seip textiles. Biologic Context The presence and distribution of fibers with two different twists suggest that the Seip textiles may be composed of at least two different types of bast fibers, one displaying S-twist and the other displaying Z-twist resulting from the twist of fibrils. The presence of different types of nodal structures in a single yarn suggests the presence of different species of bast fibers. However, it is also indicative of different growing conditions for the same bast species or fibers obtained from different areas of a single plant. The possibility of having at least two different types of bast fibers among the Seip textiles allows one to draw cultural inferences concerning the availability of natural resources during the Seip occupation. If the identification of the different species of bast fibers present among the Seip textiles can be made, then it would be possible to draw a more complete picture of the environmental factors which affect the textile manufacture of the Seip population. 210 While the above mentioned morphological features suggest the usage of at least two different types of bast species by the Seip population, they may also be indicative of the possible degradative forces in archaeologic context. For instance the regularity and irregularity in the distribution of nodal structures throughout the length of fibers may in fact be due to the effect of surface encrustation of fibers in the burials which obscures the surface morphology. Surface encrustation might have interfered with an accurate observation of surface structures by the researcher. Different types of surface markings, lengthwise striations, transverse striations, and surface folds are indicative of disruption in growing conditions. The disruption suggests some form of interaction with environmental conditions which may have resulted in the morphological changes. Systemic Context The activities of fiber collecting and fiber processing carried out by the Seip population can be inferred by the presence and distribution of twisted fibers and the different types of nodal structures. The presence of fibers with both S and Z twist within a single yarn suggest the mixing of different types of bast fibers. The differing degrees of bundle separation among the Seip textiles suggest variance in the type and the degree of fiber processing. 211 The presence of cellular elements in the majority of the fibers of Seip textiles is an indication that whatever type of fiber processing was employed by the Seip population, it was not extensive enough to remove extraneous plant parts from the fiber bundle. The presence of surface markings also is indicative of the degree of fiber processing and (or) yarn processing. Fibrillation or transverse cracking of the fibers may indicate fiber damage resulting from different treatments of fiber processing. Yarn processing also may induce the fibrillation of surface fibers. Lengthwise striations may suggest early forms of fibrillation while transverse striations may suggest early forms of transverse cracking of the fibers. The effect of utilization is represented in the microscopic fiber morphology in the form of localized fibrillation or transverse cracks. The fibrillation and transverse cracking of the fibers of Seip textiles may be indications not only of damage due to fiber processing, but also of damage caused by use. It is possible that yarn samples which contain fibers with the above morphological features have come from the parts of the fabric which were subject to greater mechanical damage due to use. Depending on the type of activities related to discarding the textiles, a differential rate of fiber damage can occur among different textiles. It has been noted that 212 both cremations and in-flesh burials were practiced by the Seip population (Mills, 1909; Shetrone and Greenman, 1931). The blackening of the Seip textiles supports Mill's (1909) description of the Seip cremation practices. The extensive degree of fiber fracture and embrittlement of fibers observed among the fibers of blackened Seip textiles are results of carbonization. Localized cracking of fibers may also have resulted from the activities related to discarding the Seip textiles. As discussed previously, Shetrone and Greenman (1931) assert that a number of textile fragments of the Seip complex were found wrapped around a copper breastplate. The transverse cracking of fibers may be the result of the localized change in fiber morphology in the area where the textiles were flexed due to the wrapping of copper breastplates. The long-term deposit in the archaeologic context in this condition would have had a worsening effect on the fiber damage of this type. It is interesting to note that the EDS results showed the absence of copper among the fibers of blackened textiles. The absence of copper may indicate either that the blackened textiles were not placed in a close proximity to artifacts made of copper or that in spite of their close association with copper, the carbonized state did not allow the mineralization process to take place. Considering Mill's (1909) description of the placement of textile 213 fragments within the pile of bones, leaves, and artifacts such as those made from copper at the time of excavation, the latter case is most likely. Among the textiles related to in-flesh burials, certain morphological differences in fibers may be indicative of the degree of association between the textile and copper artifacts. Morphological features such as the degree of copper encrustation or infiltration may serve as a measure of the closeness of the textiles to copper artifacts. If the degree of the above phenomenon can be quantitatively measured, then it might be possible to determine the type of copper association among the textiles related to in-flesh burials. Archaeologic Context The factors (treatments) in the archaeologic context which affect variations in fiber morphology are the effect of the micro-environment and the effect of association with artifacts such as those made from copper. Therefore, the degradative forces in the archaeologic context largely depend upon the placement and the treatment of textiles at the time of discard. Morphological features such as encrustation or infiltration of copper in fibers are especially dependent upon the burial treatment. The initial effect of deposition would force the textiles to react and adapt to the new micro-environment. Once the initial adaptation has taken place, the effect of 214 micro-environment on the textile would be subtle. It is difficult to determine the effects of chemical compositional changes on fiber morphology which take place during the initial adjustment period. Morphologically, the consequences of fiber damage in the archaeologic context are the change in forms such as color change, fibrillation, transverse or longitudinal cracks. These features also are the result of fiber degradation in the prior contexts. Post-excavation Context Removal from the equilibrium state entails catastrophic climatic change. This initiates an adjustment with the new environment and new degradative consequences on the part of the textiles. Many chemical changes are started. The first form of physical change of textile artifacts which occurs at the time of excavation is probably the breakage of textiles. This results from the fragmentary state of the textiles due to accumulated damage. Breakage would occur while handling the artifact at the site or in the laboratory. The breakage of textiles seems to have occurred more extensively among the blackened textiles considering the small sample sizes of most blackened textile fragments. Further damage to fibers may have occurred during storage or handling. 215 Inference Drawn from the Hypothesis Tests Based on the above discussion, it seems evident that the variations in microscopic morphological characteristics of the Seip textiles observed by the researcher reflect the accumulated fiber damage which has occurred in the four contexts. Although the exact cause for each microscopic morphological phenomenon cannot be determined, the possible causes can be inferred. The difference in the degree of fiber bundle separation between blackened and unblackened textiles seems to suggest a difference in the mortuary treatment of the two groups of textiles. The variations in morphology between the two groups of textiles in regard to transverse striations, surface folds, and transverse cracking suggest diverse growing conditions of the plants from which the textiles are made. Differing degrees of processing or use may also have resulted in the different morphological traits noted above. A similar distinction may be observed between the textiles of oval-shaped stained and randomly stained categories. Transvere striations, fibrillation, and transverse cracking may all be indicative of differing growth conditions of the plants used for these textiles. They may also suggest the differences in the degree of processing or use. Through the morphological features observed in this study, a difference between the two groups of textiles due to different types of copper association was 216 not detected. The difference in the fiber morphology between the Alternate and Pooled groups was reflected in the transverse striations on the fiber surface which is indicative of the same conditions described above. Consideration of the Spatial Component of the Model One of the most outstanding cultural characteristics of the Hopewell was the presence of widespread interregional trade which is evidenced by the placement of "exotic" raw materials or finished goods in the Hopewell burials. Following the model it is possible to consider the geographic relocation of the textile elements of the Seip textiles while they were in the systemic context. The relocation of textile elements might have occurred in the form of interregional exchange at any point in the manufacture or utilization stages including the transfer of raw fibrous materials. However, if rabbits or hares and certain species of fibrous plants used in the Seip textiles were readily available to the Seip population in the surrounding environment, then it is doubtful that the Seip people obtained the raw fibrous materials of these types through trade. If in fact any one of the Seip textiles were obtained through trade, it is more likely that the relocation of the textile element took place after the textile fabrication stage. The painted Seip textiles, for instance, may have come to the Seip population through trade 217 after the textile fabrication was completed but before painting was applied, or they may have come after painting was completed. The evidence that any one of the Seip textiles was available to the Seip population as a result of trade might be reflected in its microscopic fiber morphology through a different pattern of accumulated fiber damage than the rest of the Seip textiles. In the case of the painted Seip textiles, this pattern in the microscopic morphology of the painted textiles as a whole cannot be compared with those of the Seip textiles made of bast fibers because of the initial difference in fiber types. Among the seven painted textiles, the difference in the pattern of the accumulated fiber damage in their microscopic morphology was not observed. The same case holds for the comparison of fiber morphology among the Seip textiles made of bast fibers. Therefore, based on the present analyses, the possibility that any one of the Seip textiles was available to the Seip people as a result of trade seems to be a doubtful inference. Conclusion The identification of rabbit (or hare) hair and bast fibers in the Seip textiles allows the researcher to develop cultural inferences relating to textile production and utilization behaviors of the Seip population. The microscopic morphological characteristics of the Seip 218 textiles made of rabbit hair or bast fibers, together with their visual and structural characteristics, suggest that the Seip population assigned different functions to different textiles. It is evident that each stage in the production of the Seip textiles (fiber and yarn processing, fabrication, decoration, use, and discard) reflect differing forms of decisions made by the prehistoric people of the Seip Group of Mounds. The above inference suggests social implications for the textile production and utilization pattern of the prehistoric population of the Seip Group of Mounds. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The focus of this research was to investigate the cumulative effect of textile production, utilization, and discard behaviors of the Seip population as they are reflected in the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from the Seip textiles. A theoretical model was proposed which served as a framework for drawing cultural inferences on the basis of the observations of fiber morphology. The textiles examined in this study were from the burials of the Seip Group of Mounds which are associated with the prehistoric Hopewell culture (ca. 100 B.C. to À.D. 500). The Seip Complex is located 17 miles southwest of Chillicothe, Ohio. The Seip textiles which are currently held at the Ohio Historical Society are the result of two series of excavations which took place intermittently from 1906 to 1926. Summary of Previous Chapters The previous chapters included the discussion of the following stages of research: identification of the problem, review of related literature, construction of a theoretical framework, development of research methods, presentation of 219 220 findings, and the discussion of implications of findings. Statement of Problem Textile elements pass through stages of manufacture, utilization, and discard before they become part of the archaeologic record. The effects of the interaction of textile elements with humans and with the micro-environment are accumulated in the final form of a textile artifact. The interaction results in chemical and physical variations in textile elements. One way in which these variations are displayed is in the variations of the microscopic morphological characteristics of the fibers. It was the intent of this research to investigate the consequences of these interaction of fiber with humans and the environment through the examination of fiber microscopic morphology. This research was the first attempt in the study of prehistoric textiles of North America which has focused primarily upon the analysis of fibers by employing extensive usage of the techniques of scanning electron microscopy as well as those of light microscopy. The investigation was carried out under the premise of what Binford referred to as a "hypothetico-deductive" approach. The two purposes of the research were; 1) to investigate the variations in the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers due to the differences in the accumulated effects of treatments among the Seip textiles, and 2) to employ the proposed model as a framework for 221 inferring textile production and utilization behaviors of the Seip population. Based on the preliminary investigation of the Seip textiles, the researcher was able to categorize the Seip textiles according to their visual characteristics. The first set of visual categories was blackened versus unblackened Seip textiles based on the visual evidence of carbonization. The second set of visual categories was the oval-shaped green stained group, the randomly distributed green stained group, and the unstained group of the Seip textiles. Different types of staining are probably due to different types of association between textiles and copper artifacts in the burial context. The third set of visual categories was the painted group and the unpainted group. The fourth set of visual categories was based on the fabrication structures: spaced alternate-pair weft-twining, oblique interlacing, spaced 2-strand weft-twining, and interlacing. Among the four fabric construction types the spaced alternate-pair weft-twining was found the most predominant among the Seip textiles. The objectives of this research were as follows: 1) to assess the microscopic morphological characteristics of the fibers obtained from the Seip textiles through the techniques of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. 2) to determine whether there is a relationship between the microscopic morphological characteristics of 222 fibers obtained from different visual and fabrication categories of the Seip textiles and the visual evidence of carbonization, copper association, coloration, and the variation in the fabrication structures among the Seip textiles. 3) to employ the proposed model as a structure for inferring textile production and utilization behavior of the Seip population based on the results obtained from the analysis of textiles. The research was conducted under the assumption that the fiber morphologies observable through different microscopic techniques represent the total effect of the sequential treatments which a textile received in the biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post-excavation contexts. Review of Related Literature Hopewell culture is characterized by mound burials and earthworks, and the presence of elaborate grave offerings such as pan pipes, "ritual" knives, artifacts made from copper, and an abundance of other materials which came from sources scattered over thousands of miles. Mortuary ceremonies and mound construction activities which were already practiced in the previous Adena culture were elaborated by the Hopewellians. Social structure of the Ohio Hopewell was extensively examined by Greber (1976, 1979a, 1979b). She noticed a "tri-partite" pattern in the floor plans of the Seip Mounds 1 and 2 of the Seip complex and suggested that this pattern in the burial complex 223 reflects the tri-partite division of the living society. The reports of excavations indicate that the Seip burial practices included both cremations and in-flesh burials, both of which showed that the textiles were placed within the burials with the dead and grave offerings along with such artifacts as made from copper. In the case of cremations the body and the mass composed of textiles and other grave offerings were burned. The textiles of Ohio Hopewell were first examined by Willoughby (1938) who identified six different structural variations. Recently, Church (1983) examined the textiles from the three major Ohio Hopewell sites, including the Seip Group of Mounds, and identified 12 different structural variations. Certain visual characteristics and the artifact association of the Seip textiles have been reported by Shetrone and Greenman (1931). Construction of a Theoretical Framework The proposed model was derived from a modification of Schiffer's (1972) cultural flow model and an expansion of Sibley and Jakes' (1989) model of the textile element transformation process. The model utilized the microscopic morphological characteristics of fibers as indicators to aid in inferring cultural behaviors related to textiles through the examination of the accumulated effect of treatments on textiles. The incorporation of both time and space dimensions allowed the model to serve as a general framework 224 for examining the variations in fiber morphology of textiles from any given culture. The incorporation of a spatial dimension allows one to examine the interaction with other cultures such as that resulting from interregional trade. The post-excavation context was added to Sibley and Jakes' (1989) three contexts, biologic, systemic, and archaeologic, in order to be able to examine the variations in fiber morphology which could occur after the excavation. In order to construct the model, the variations in fiber morphology which may occur due to the conditions and activities of different stages of textile procurement, manufacture, utilization, and deposition in the four contexts were discussed. Based on the visual categories of the Seip textiles noted during the preliminary investigation, and in consideration of the model, four research hypotheses were developed. Each of the four research hypotheses concerned the investigation of the association between the microscopic morphological characteristics of the fibers obtained from the Seip textiles and one of the sets of visual categories of the Seip textiles. Development of Research Methods An instrument named the "Index of Bast Fiber Morphology" was developed to measure the variations in fiber morphology of bast fibers of the Seip textiles. From the 226 Seip textiles, 52 textile samples were systematically 225 selected to represent each visual category. Among the four fabrication types, oblique interlacing, spaced 2-strand weft-twining, and interlacing were pooled. Three yarn samples were collected from each of the 52 textile samples, which resulted in 156 yarn samples for this study. For each yarn sample different techniques of light and scanning electron microscopy were conducted. Supplementary X-ray analyses were necessary in several of the yarn samples to verify fiber type or the presence of copper. Data analyses included chi-square tests for quantitative questions in the instrument and a logistic regression procedure for fiber width measurement. The chi-square test was conducted separately for each question in the instrument for each of the hypotheses. Presentation of Findings Two major fiber types were identified in the microscopic examination. These were bast fiber and animal hair fiber, specifically that of rabbit or hare. Of the 52 Seip textiles, 11 were composed wholly or partially of rabbit (or hare) hair fibers, and 41 textiles were made of bast fibers only. SEM and EDS analyses of rabbit (or hare) hair fibers indicated the encrustation of the surface and infiltration of the medulla with copper and other inorganic compounds. Bast fibers in the Seip textiles were examined in terms of the morphological features of presence of cellular elements, degree of separation of bundle, presence 226 of fibers with twist amd the twist type, presence of different surface markings, and presence of fiber end tips. The presence of rabbit (or hare) hair fibers eliminated one hypothesis from statistical testing. Only Hypotheses I, II, and IV were statistically tested. Due to the nature of the fibers of blackened textiles, the presence of cellular elements could not be verified among the yarn samples of the blackened Seip textiles. In addition, the fiber width of the blackened Seip textiles could not be measured. Small sample sizes in the oval-shaped staining group and the pooled group of textiles resulted in computer warning of potentially invalid chi-square tests in many questions due to asymptotic standard error. For Hypothesis I , the presence or absence of transverse striations, surface folds, and transverse cracks separately showed statistically strong association with the visual characteristics of blackening and unblackening. In the case of Hypothesis II, the morphological features of association were the individual presence or absence of transverse striations or fibrillation. In case of Hypothesis IV, only the presence or absence of transverse striations showed significant association with the fabric structural categories. The result of the logistic regression analyses of fiber width measurements indicate that fibers with larger width tend to be in the randomly stained category rather than in the oval-shaped stained category, and also tend to 227 be in the pooled group of construction type than in spaced alternate-pair weft-twining group. Implications of Findings The presence of two fiber types in the Seip textiles, hair of rabbit or hare and bast fibers, either used independently or by mixing of the two, and the distinctive visual and structural characteristics of the Seip textiles containing rabbit (or hare) hair suggest some specific cultural behaviors related to textile production and utilization among the Seip population. The presence of two fiber types suggests that rabbits or hares and certain species of fibrous plants were available and were probably abundant in the Middle Woodland ecosystems. The selection of rabbit (or hare) hair fibers or bast fibers for producing textiles with different physical properties, and the selection of different fabrication techniques for textiles with different fiber content, reflect prehistoric decisions relating to the production textiles with different assigned functions. Rabbit (or hare) hair was probably used by the Seip people for making softer and warmer textiles. The application of painting only on the Seip textiles made of the combination of rabbit hair and interlacing technique is indicative of an isolated function assigned to these textiles. As Willoughby (1938) suggests, the painted Seip textiles may have come from the textiles which were used as 228 sash or loin cloth. Or, they may have been part of a set of garments. Whatever was the intended function, it is evident that the painted Seip textiles were either pieces of several textiles or were parts of a single textile which conveyed a social message. The textiles of this type may have been reserved for special occasions such as religious ceremonies, or they may have been reserved for the use among only the privileged members of the Seip society. A close examination of Shetrone and Greenman's (1931) report of excavations informed the researcher of the possible placement of the painted textiles when excavated. Shetrone and Greenman (1931) suggest that the burials which contained textiles with colored designs exhibited evidence of extensive mortuary treatment. The demographic information of these burials indicates that the occurrence of the combined attributes of rabbit hair, interlacing, and painting is not age specific or gender related. Especially, the Great Multiple Burial seems to represent the burials of a kin group which was socially significant during life. Considering the presumed function of the painted textiles, it is possible that the social significance of this group was based on the occupational specialty such as priesthood. The combined attributes of the use of bast fibers and the execution of spaced alternate-pair weft-twining technique on almost all of the Seip textiles made of bast fibers, and the presence of greater number of Seip textiles 229 exhibiting the above attributes than the Seip textiles containing rabbit hairs suggest a different assigned function for the former. It seems likely that the Seip textiles of the above type served as burial shrouds or as wrappings for copper breastplates to be placed in burials. The textiles may either have been fabricated for these purposes only or they may have been used by an individual and subseguently interred as burial accompaniment at the time of his/her death. Variations in microscopic morphological characteristics among bast fibers of the Seip textiles are indicative of variations in the extent of fiber damage or modification which have occurred in the four contexts due to differential treatments. By employing the model to explain the occurrence of a single or a group of morphological features, it can be seen that the fiber damage or modifications which may be examined through microscopy are the result of the accumulated effect of growth, collecting, processing, use, deposition, or post-excavation handling of bast fibers. Limitations of the Research The greatest limitation of this study arose from the nature of the Seip textiles. The limitation due to the differential survival rate of the textiles in the archaeological environment and that arising from the lack of provenience data of the Seip textiles have been discussed in Chapter I. 230 Microscopy of the fibers of blackened textiles was difficult due to the appearance of the blackened fibers themselves and the nature of these fibers when examined with reflected light. As a result, the question on the presence or absence of cellular elements could not be answered for blackened Seip textiles. Measurements of fiber width were impossible to obtain among the fibers of blackened textiles. Even among the fibers of unblackened Seip textiles, characterization of fiber morphology of many yarn samples was difficult due to extensive surface encrustation of inorganic matter. Especially, the measurement of fiber width was difficult to obtain because the determination of a single ultimate fiber within a fiber bundle could not be made with certainty. Another limitation was the small sample size of several visual categories of the Seip textiles. While conducting the chi-square tests on Hypotheses II and IV, the small sample size of oval-shaped stain category and the Pooled group of construction types resulted in many cells with cell counts less than five observations. This resulted in asymptotic standard error and thus the chi-square tests were not valid. For statistical purposes, a much larger sample size is required for all the visual categories of the Seip textiles. 231 Although the effects of different activities of manufacture and use induce chemical compositional changes as well as changes in microscopic morphologies, this study was limited to the examination of microscopic morphological changes in fibers. This study was also limited to the examination of fiber morphologies of bast fibers without carrying out the identification of actual bast species. The identification of actual species of bast fibers would provide a more complete picture of the availability and the utilization behaviors of fibrous plants during the occupation of the Seip Group of Mounds. Such an identification was impossible due to the lack of a comparative collection of fibrous plant materials. Recommendations for Future Research The collection of Seip textiles examined in this study has a great potential for future research. The painted Seip textiles, in particular, render themselves to research questions of various types. The question concerning the functional dimension of the painted Seip textiles needs to be answered if one wishes to draw a more accurate cultural inference on the textile related behaviors of the Seip population. For example, if one can determine the size of what may be the actual painted piece by connecting the pieces examined in this study (if they all came from one piece of a textile), Willoughby's (1938) functional categories can be either supported or refuted. 232 In order to examine the effects of degrading forces on the microscopic morphology of rabbit hair found in the Seip textiles, an instrument measuring the variations in fiber morphology of animal hair fibers, comparable to the Index of Bast Fiber Morphology designed for this study, needs to be developed. The differing degrees and forms of degradation of rabbit (or hare) hair of the Seip textiles may reveal information which can be used to determine whether the fragments of painted Seip textiles came from different pieces of textiles or were part of a single textile. For the same purpose, chemical compositional analyses also need to be conducted on the painted textiles to examine whether there are differences in the chemistry of pigment among different fragments. A re-examination of microscopic fiber morphology of the Seip textiles is needed for the purpose of identifying the plant species used in the Seip textiles. In order to carry out the investigation, two prior conditions should be met. First, a standard reference collection of the fibrous parts of ethnohistoric plants from eastern North America is necessary. A study such as this which examines the morphological characteristics of fibers obtained from plant materials requires an access to the collection of fibers or microscopic specimens which would display all the variability in the morphology of each fiber type. The comparison of fiber morphology between the fibers obtained 233 from samples and those obtained from standard collection could standardize the observations and would reduce random errors which can result from observer bias. Second, a larger size of a single yarn or fabric sample is needed with a greater degree of tolerance towards the destruction of the samples in order to conduct the identification of fiber species. Analytical procedures such as ashing would require a far larger sample size than that used in this study, yet if conducted, ashing would yield significant information which could be used to identify the bast species. Provided with a larger size of a sample, one can also employ cleaning procedures which would allow for a more precise microscopic observation. The evidence of utilization behaviors of the Seip textiles containing bast fibers can be investigated if an extensive microscopy is performed on the yarn samples of the Seip textiles exhibiting different forms of fibrillation. Chemical compositional analyses should be carried out to examine the differing effects of degradation in the archaeological environment. A way to measure the extent of impregnation and surface encrustation of copper ion compound needs to be developed to examine the types of association between the textiles and copper artifacts of the Seip complex. Such a method can be utilized to determine, tentatively, the provenience of several of the Seip textiles. For example, the method can 234 be used to determine the contextual difference between the Seip textiles of the oval-shaped stained group and the randomly stained group. The last and probably the most important recommendation for future research deals with the need for continuation of the present research. 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Anthropological Papers. 38, Part I. Wildman, A. B. (1954). The microscopy of animal textile fibres: Including methods for the complete analysis of fibre blends. Leeds, London: Wool Industries Research Association. Willey, G. R. (1966). An introduction to American archaeology (Vol. 1). Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall. Willey, G. R . , & Sabloff, J. A. (1980). A historv of American Archaeology. W. H. Freeman and C Willoughby, C. C. (1952). Textile fabrics from Spiro Mound. In H. W. Hamilton, The Spiro Mound. Missouri Archaeologist. 14, 107-276. Willoughby, C. C. (1938). Textile fabrics from the burial mounds of the great earthwork builders of Ohio. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly. 47. 273-287. Wilson, K. A historv of textiles. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Wobst, H. M. (1977). Stylistic behavior and information exchange. In C. E. Cleland (Ed.), Papers for the Director: Research essavs in honor of James B. Griffin (pp. 317-342). 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APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATED TO MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER 247 248 Bulging; Some ultimate fibers may show this appearance after the delignifying (or retting) process possibly due to the pressure (Rahman, 1978). Cross marking: '• Attached wall remains of neighbouring cells" or "impressions on the fibre cell wall made by neighbouring cells which have been removed during processing" (Catling and Grayson, 1982, p. 4). Crystal: Regularly shaped inorganic deposit within certain fibers. Some scholars have identified them as calcium oxalate or lignin-based (Rahman, 1979). These are also called phytolith and the presence and the distribution of them is useful for the identification of vegetable fibers (The Textile Institute, 1975; Catling and Grayson, 1982; Jakes and Angel, 1989). Dislocation: Term synonymously used as the term, "node," in this study. The area in fiber cells where the wall has suffered damage by compression (Catling and Grayson, 1982). Epidermis: Outermost layer of cells of primary plant body constituting floral parts, fruits, and seeds (Raven, Evert, and Eichhorn, 1986). Fiber bundle: Bundle of schlerenchyma cells which forms a single unit. A fiber bundle is known commercially as a technical fiber (Rahman and Sayed-Esfahani, 1979). Fiber's natural end-tip: The natural ends of a single ultimate fiber. Often said to be useful in the identification of the species (Catling and Grayson, 1982). Fibril: Long cell or fiber of very small diameter, or a component of a cell wall (Mauersberger, 1954). Fibrillation: Breakdown or separation of fibrils from the fiber. At the early stage of fibrillation, fibrils, not yet separated from the fiber, appear to form a criss-cross network on the surface of the fiber (Mukher j ee, Mukhopadhyay, and Mukhopadhyay, 1986). Fine Hair: Inner coat hair of mammals. Guard hair: Relatively coarse outer-coat hairs of mammals which often project above the finer inner coat (Wildman, 1954). 249 Lengthwise striation: Striations which run longitudinally along the fiber length. Rahman and Sayed-Esfahani (1979b) attribute these to the fibrillation. Lumen: Central core of vegetable fibers. Generally, immature fibers has large lumen, and mature fibers have small or collapsed lumen (Joseph, 1986). Medulla: Central cannai of animal hair fibers through which the nutrition is tranported during growth. Contains pigment that gives color to fiber (Joseph, 1986). Node: Term synonymously used as the term, "dislocation," in this study. Nodes are generally believed to act as a mechanical coupling for holding the ultimates together to form a bundle (Rahman and Sayed-Esfahani, 1979). Parenchyma cell: Commonly occur as continuous mass in the cortex of stems and roots, and leaf (Raven, Evert, and Eichhorn, 1986). Phloem: Principal food conducting tissue of a vascular plant (Raven, Evert, and Eichhorn, 1986) Retting: Process of separating cellulose fibres from the cortex and the secondary phloem (Morvan, Jauneau, Morvan, Demarty, and Ripoll, 1988). The four types of procedures for the retting are; dew retting, pool retting, tank retting, and chemical retting (Joseph, 1986). Shields: The "shield-like" (or flattened) portion of the tip end of coarse guard hairs of mammals (Wildman, 1954). Surface fold: Folds which occur on ultimate fibers due to the loosening of the bonding (and thus the volume change) between the fibrils and the cementing materials (Rahman, 1979). Transverse crack: Breakage of fiber which occur on the crosswise direction of the fiber. Ultimate fiber: Also called "ultimates," "fiber cells," or "schlerenchyma cells." The individual fibers within the fiber bundle. APPENDIX B INDEX OF BAST FIBER MORPHOLOGY 250 251 INDEX OF BAST FIBER MORPHOLOGY This instrument is designed to measure the additive effect of the variations in the morphology of bast fibers resulting from the different treatments the textile element received during its stay in the biologic, systemic, archaeologic, and post-excavation contexts. The variations will be measured by examining fibers selected from each yarn sample with the techniques of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. One copy of this instrument will be provided for each yarn sample. Each question will be answered while examining the fibers from the yarn sample using light and scanning electron microscopy. The light microscopic techniques include bright field (H), dark field (DF), polarized light (Pol), differential interference contrast (DIG), and phase contrast (Phase) using transmitted light and also DF, and Pol using the reflected light. Both the light and the scanning electron microscopy techniques will be used in most cases for the confirmation of the results. When only one technique gives the appropriate image for the question, the particular technique will be used to answer the question. The number before each item within a question denotes the points for each item. Each question is supposed to represent a distinct type of variation and is independent of one another. The items within a question, which are all independent, are supposed to list every possible variations within a variation type. The focus of this instrument is on the examination of the variations in fiber morphology present among the bast fibers. The distinction of different types within the bast fiber is not attempted with the present instrument. The measurements of "Quantitative Attributes" will be made using the eyepiece micrometer. 252 Textile No.______ I. SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS PRESENCE OF NON-FIBROUS ELEMENTS 1. Presence or absence of cellular elements 1 ) cellular elements present in many (all) fibers (or fiber bundles) >go to Question #2, then to #3 2 ) cellular elements present in a few fibers (or fiber bundles) >go to Question #2, then to #3 3) cellular elements not present in any fiber (or fiber bundle) >Question #3 (If item 1 or 2 was selected for Question #1, go to Question #2. Otherwise, go to Question #3.) Type of cellular elements present (Check all that apply) 1 ) cells from plant tissues other than bast fiber 2 ) inorganic inclusions such as silica or other crystals DEGREE OF FIBER SEPARATION 3. Presence or absence of fiber bundle 1 ) undefinable 2 ) all fibers are of a bundle form 3) single ultimate fibers (cells) present 4) both elements co-exist (Go to Question #4) 253 Textile No.______ TWIST 4. Presence or absence of twist 1) Twist present in many fibers ---> go to Question #5, then to # 6 2) Twist present in a few fibers (fiber bundles) >go to Question #5, then to # 6 3) Twist not present in any fiber (or fiber bundle) >go to Question # 6 5. Direction of twist (Check all that apply) 1) S twist 2) Z twist SURFACE MARKINGS 6 . Presence or absence of surface markings 1 ) surface marking present in many fibers (fiber bundles) >go to Question #7 2 ) surface marking present in a few fibers (fiber bundles) >go to Question #7 3) surface marking not present in any fiber (fiber bundle) >go to Question #9 254 Textile No.______ 7. Type of surface markings present (Check all that apply) 1 ) nodal structure occurring at regular intervals >go to Question #8 , then to Question #9 2 ) nodal structure occurring at irregular intervals >go to Question #8 , then to Question #9 3) lengthwise striation 4) transverse striation 5) bulging 6 ) surface folds (transverse) 7) fibrillation 8 ) transverse crack (Except for items 1, and 2, go to Question #9 after Question #7) 8 . Type of nodal structure present (Check all that apply) 1 ) discontinuous 2 ) bent 3) protruding 4) plain continuous 255 Textile No.______ FIBER END TIPS 9. Presence or absence of fibers' natural end tips 1) Fibers' natural end tips present in many fibers >go to Question #10, then to Question #11 2) Fibers' natural end tips present in a few fibers >go to Question #10, then to Question #11 3) Fibers' natural end tips not present in any fiber >go to Question #11 10. Type of fibers' natural end tips present (Check all that apply) 1) tapering (either pointed or rounded 2) pointed (including bluntly pointed) 3) rounded 4) spatulate 5) square 6) bifurcated 7) unequally bifurcated 8) scimitar-like 9) constricted [Adapted from Catling, D., and Grayson, J. (1982). Identification of vegetable fibres. London: Chapman and Hall.] 256 Textile No.______ II. LENGTHWISE CHARACTERISTICS REGULARITY OF FIBER/LUMEN DIAMETER (QUALITATIVE) 11. Fiber width variation 1 ) most fibers have uniform width along length 2 ) most fibers have irregular width along length 3) about equal number of 1 and 2 types present (A consistant variation in lumen width due to the regularly spaced nodes is considered to be a uniform lumen width) 12. Lumen width variation 1 ) most fibers' lumen have uniform width along length 2 ) most fibers' lumen have irregular width along length 3) about equal number of 1 and 2 types present (A consistant variation in lumen width due to the regularly spaced nodes is considered to be a uniform lumen width) 257 Textile No.______ III. QUANTITATIVE ATTRIBUTES Measurements of the fiber width and the lumen width will be made using the eyepiece micrometer. For each fiber, three measurements will be taken at the approximate center, and two other locations equal distance from the approximate center in the opposite direction of the fiber. FIBER WIDTH Fiber 1 Fiber 2 Fiber 3 LUMEN WIDTH Fiber 1 Fiber 2 Fiber 3 MEAN LUMEN WIDTH/FIBER WIDTH RATIO Fiber 1 ______ Fiber 2 ______ Fiber 3 ______258 COVER LETTER FOR THE VALIDITY TEST Dear members of the panel of experts; Attached is a copy of the instrument Index of Bast Fiber Morphology. Please review the following after reading the introduction of the instrument: (Please keep in mind that this instrument is primarily designed to examine the bast fibers of archaeological textiles) 1) Are the questions representative of all the possible variations, which might occur on the morphology of bast fibers, while the textile element passes through the following stages?; stages of procuring, collecting, processing, use, burial discard, long-term deposit in the archaeological context, excavation activities, and the post excavation conservation. 2) Is each question independent of the others? (i.e. are the questions mutually exclusive?) 3) Do the items within a question list all possible variations within a variation type? 4) Is each item independent of the others? Please indicate your comment directly on the instrument. Thank you for your patient cooperation. The instrument will be revised based on the result of this test. APPENDIX C TEXTILE CHECKLIST FOR THE SEIP GROUP OF HOUNDS 259 Table 28. Preliminary Survey of the Selp Textiles (N=226) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction Fabric Y a m Excavation Hound Preliminary Y a m Ho, >3cm' <3on' Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No. Survey Ply Single 0100 yes Random A" thin 1 yes A, B 1401 yes Oval A thin 1 A, B 1402 yes Oval A thin 1 A, B 1403 yes Oval A thin 1 A, B 1200 yes Random A thin 1 yes A, B 1500 yes Random A thin 1 A, B 0301 yes Random A thin 1 yes A, B 0302 yes Random A thin 1 yes A, B 1600 yes Random A thin 1 A, B 0600 yes Random A thin 1 yes A, B 1101 yes Random A thin 1926 2 yes A, B 1102 yes Random A thin 1926 2 yes A, B 1700 yes Random A thin . A, B 0700 yes Random A thin . yes A, B 1800 yes Random A thin 1957 A, B 1901 yes C* thin 1 A B 1902 yes Oval A thin . 1 A, B 1903 yes Oval A thin . 1 A, B 2001 yes Oval A thin , A, B 2002 yes Oval A thin .. A, B 2100 yes Random A thin 1902 . A, B 2201 yes Oval A thin 1902 • A, B 2202 yes Oval A thin 1902 . A, B 2300 yes Random A thin 1902 . A, B 2400 yes Random A thin •. A, B 2501 yes Random A thin 1926 central A, B 2502 yes Random A thin 1926 central A, B 2600 yes Random A thin . 1 A, B to 2700 yes Random A thin . 1 A, B o Table 28 (continued) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction Fabric Y a m Excavation Hound Preliminary Y a m No. X k m f <3cm* Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No. Survey Ply 0200 yes Random yes D' thin 1926 2 yes A 2800 yes Random yes D thin A 2900 yes yes D .. 3000 yes yes A thick B 1001 yes yes yes B' thick only 7 1002 yes yes yes ? thick stray 7 1003 yes yes yes B thick y a m 7 1004 yes yes yes 7 thick taken 7 1005 yes yes yes B thick from 7 1006 yes yes yes B thick glass 7 1007 yes yes yes B thick case 7 3101 yes yes yes 7 thick 2 7 3102 yes yes yes 7 thick 2 7 3103 yes yes yes B thick 2 7 3104 yes yes yes 7 thick 2 7 3105 yes yes yes B thick 2 7 0401 yes Random yes yes 7 thick A, B 0402 yes Random yes yes B thick A, B 0403 yes Random yes yes 7 thick 7 0404 yes Random yes yes 7 thick 7 0405 yes Random yes yes B thick A, B 0406 yes Random yes yes B thick A, B 0407 yes Random yes yes B thick yes A, B 0408 yes Random yes yes B thick A, B 0409 yes Random yes yes 7 thick 7 0410 yes Random yes yes B thick A, B 0411 yes Random yes yes 7 thick 7 0412 yes Randcxn yes yes B thick A, B ro 0413 yes Random yes yes 7 thick 7 Table 28 (continued) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction Fabric Yam Excavation Hound Preliminary Y a m No. > 3a f <3cnf Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No. Survey Ply Single 0414 yes Random yes yes ? thick .. 7 0415 yes Random yes yes ? thick . 7 3301 yes yes A V.thick 1908 2 Y a m with 3302 yes yes ? V.thick 1908 2 little or no 3303 yes yes ? V.thick 1908 2 twist. May 3304 yes yes ? V.thick 1908 2 be swollen? 3305 yes yes ? V.thick 1908 2 All the 3401 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 blackened 3402 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 ones are the 3403 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 same. 3404 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 3405 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 3406 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 3407 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 3408 yes yes ? thick 1908 2 3409 yes yes 7 thick 1908 2 3410 yes yes 7 thick 1908 2 3411 yes yes 7 thick 1908 2 3412 yes yes 7 thick 1908 2 3501 yes yes A thick 2 3502 yes yes A thick 2 3503 yes yes A thick 2 3601 yes yes A thick 2 3602 yes yes A thick 2 3603 yes yes A thick 2 3604 yes yes A thick 2 3701 yes yes A thick 2 3702 yes yes A thick • 2 to o\ to Table 28 (continued) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction Fabric Yam Excavation Hound Preliminary Yam No. >3mf <3cmf Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No. Survey Ply Single 3703 yes yes a thick 2 3704 yes yes a thick 2 3705 yes yes a thick 2 3801 yes yes a thick 2 3802 yes yes a thick 2 3803 yes yes ? thick 2 3804 yes yes a thick 2 3805 yes yes a thick 2 3806 yes yes a thick 2 3807 yes yes a thick 2 3808 yes yes ? thick 2 3809 yes yes ? thick 2 3810 yes yes ? thick 2 3811 yes yes 7 thick 2 3812 yes yes ? thick 2 3813 yes yes ? thick 2 3814 yes yes ? thick 2 3815 yes yes a thick 2 3816 yes yes a thick 2 3817 yes yes ? thick 2 3818 yes yes a thick 2 3819 yes yes ? thick 2 3820 yes yes a thick 2 3901 yes yes a thick 2 3902 yes yes 7 thick 2 3903 yes yes 7 thick 2 3904 yes yes a thick 2 3905 yes yes 7 thick 2 to 7 CTv 3906 yes yes thick 2 w Table 28 (continued) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction Fabric Yam Excavation Mound Preliminary Yarn <3cm' Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No Survey Ply SingleNo. 3907 yes yes A thick 2 3911 yes yes 7 thick 2 3912 yes yes 7 thick 2 3913 yes yes 7 thick 2 4001 yes yes 7 thick 2 4002 yes yes 7 thick 2 4003 yes yes 7 thick 2 4004 yes yes 7 thick 2 4005 yes yes 7 thick 2 4006 yes yes 7 thick 2 4007 yes yes 7 thick 2 4008 yes yes 7 thick 2 4009 yes yes 7 thick 2 4010 yes yes 7 thick 2 4011 yes yes 7 thick 2 4012 yes yes 7 thick 2 4013 yes yes 7 thick 2 4014 yes yes thick 2 4101 yes yes 7 thick 2 4102 yes yes 7 thick 2 4103 yes yes A thick 2 4104 yes yes 7 thick 2 4105 yes yes A thick 2 4106 yes yes A thick 2 4107 yes yes A thick 2 4108 yes yes A thick 2 4109 yes yes A thick 2 4110 yes yes A thick 2 to 4111 yes yes A thick 2 o> Table 28 (continued) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction Fabric Y a m Excavation Hound Y a m No. >3cm* <3cm' Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No. Survey Ply Single 4112 yes yes A thick . 2 4113 yes yes ? thick . 2 4114 yes yes A thick . 2 4201 yes yes A thick 1908 2 4202 yes yes A thick 1908 2 0501 yes yes A thick 2 0502 yes yes 7 thick 2 0503 yes yes 7 thick 2 0504 yes yes 7 thick 2 0505 yes yes 7 thick 2 0506 yes yes A thick 2 0507 yes yes 7 thick 2 0508 yes yes 7 thick 2 0509 yes yes A thick 2 0510 yes yes A thick 2 0511 yes yes A thick 2 0512 yes yes 7 thick 2 4300 yes yes C thin A, B 4401 yes yes A thin 4402 yes yes A thick 4403 yes yes A thick 4404 yes yes A thick 4405 yes yes A thick 4406 yes yes A thick 4407 yes yes A thick 4408 yes yes A thick 4409 yes yes A thick 4410 yes yes A thick to thick 4411 yes yes A U1 Table 28 (continued) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction Fabric Yam Excavation Hound Preliminary Y a m No. >3cm* <3cm* Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No. Survey Ply Single 4412 yes yes A thick 4413 yes yes A thick 0901 yes yes 7 thick 0902 yes yes A thick 0903 yes yes A thick 0904 yes yes 7 thick 0905 yes yes 7 thick 0906 yes yes 7 thick 0907 yes yes 7 thick 0908 yes yes 7 thick 0909 yes yes 7 thick 0910 yes yes 7 thick 4501 yes yes A thick 4502 yes yes A thick 4503 yes yes A thick 4504 yes yes A thick 4505 yes yes A thick 4506 yes yes A thick 4507 yes yes A thick 4508 yes yes A thick 4509 yes yes A thick 4510 yes yes A thick 4511 yes yes A thick 4512 yes yes A ■ thick 4513 yes yes A thick 4514 yes yes A thick 4515 yes yes A thick 4601 yes yes 7 thick to 7 4602 yes yes thick o\ Table 28 (continued) Sample Sample Size Visual Distinction FabricYam Y a m Excavation Hound Preliminary Yam No. >3cm' <3cm* Stained Blacken Dirt Painted Const. Size Date No. Survey Ply Single 4603 yes yes ? thick 4604 yes yes ? thick 4605 yes yes ? thick 4606 yes yes ■? thick 4607 yes yes ? thick 0801 yes Random A thin yes A, B 0802 yes Random A thin yes A, B 0803 yes Random A thin yes A, B 4701 yes Random D thin A, B 4702 yes Random D thin A, B 4703 yes Random D thin A, B 4704 yes Random D thin A, B 4705 yes Random D thin A, B 4706 yes Random D thin A, B 4801 yes Random A thin A, B 4802 yes Random A thin A, B 4900 yes Random A thin A, B 5100 yes Random A thin Attached to 5201 yes Random A thin copper 5202 yes Random A thin breastplate. 5300 yes Random A thin 5400 yes Random A thin 5501 yes Random A thin 5502 yes Random A thin ^ Spaced altemate-pair weft-twining * Spaced 2-strand weft-twining ^ Oblique interlacing to * Interlacing V] APPENDIX D SAMPLE NUMBER SPECIFICATION, SAMPLING FRAME, AND LIST OF TEXTILE SAMPLES SELECTED FOR THE STUDY 268 269 SAMPLE NUMBER SPECIFICATION 00000 - 0000 A B: number of glass plate or copper breastplate (01 to 55) C D: number of individual fabric fragment within each glass plate or copper breastplate (numbers run from anywhere between 0 0 to 2 0 ; the number 0 0 is given if only one piece of fabric fragment is in the glass plate or copper breastplate) E: number of yarn sample taken from each textile sample selected for the study (1 to 3) F: construction type (1 if Alternate, 2 if Pooled) G: blackened vs. unblackened (1 if blackened, 2 if unblackened) H: type of copper staining (0 if blackened, 1 if oval stain, 2 if random stain, 3 if unstained/unblackened) I: painted vs. unpainted (0 if unpainted including all the blackened, 1 if painted) Note: The sample number differs from the sample code used in the statistical analysis. The sample code is introduced in Appendix E. The numbers used to refer to the samples throughout the study is the sample number. When referring to a textile sample, the number in column E (the number of yarn sample) is omitted. 270 LIST OF TEXTILES IN THE SAMPLING FRAME Blackened 3301-1100 3502-1100 3503-1100 3603-1100 3604-1100 3701-1100 3702-1100 3703-1100 3802-1100 3901-1100 3904-1100 3907-1100 4014-1100 4103-1100 4106-1100 4201-1100 4202-1100 0501-1100 0506-1100 0509-1100 4402-1100 4404-1100 0902-1100 4501-1100 4512-1100 Unblackened Alternate 0100-1220 1401-1210 1402 -1210 1403- 1210 1200- 1220 1500-1220 0301-1220 0302 -1220 1600- 1220 0600- ■1220 1101-1220 1102-1220 1700 -1220 0700- 1220 1800- 1220 1902-1210 1903-1210 2001 ■1210 2002- 1210 2100- 1220 2201-1210 2202-1210 2300 -1220 2400- 1220 3000- 1230 0801-1220 0802-1220 0803 -1220 5201- 1220 5202- 1220 5300-1220 5400-1220 5501 -1220 5502- 1220 5100- 1220 Unblackened Pooled 1901-2230 0200-2220 2800-2220 4701-2220 4705-2220 4706-2220 1001-2231 1003-2231 1005-2231 1006-2231 1007-2231 3103-2231 3105-2231 (Note: The textile samples in bold are painted) 271 LIST OF TEXTILE SAMPLES SELECTED FOR THE STUDY Blackened 3301-1100 3502-1100 3503-1100 3603-1100 3604-1100 3701-1100 3702-1100 3703-1100 3802-1100 3901-1100 3904-1100 3907-1100 4014-1100 4103-1100 4106-1100 4201-1100 4202-1100 0501-1100 0506-1100 0509-1100 4402-1100 4404-1100 0902-1100 4501-1100 4512-1100 Unblackened Alternate 1401-1210 1402-1210 1403-1210 1902-1210 1903-1210 2001-1210 2002-1210 1600-1220 1500-1220 2100-1220 2201-1210 2202-1210 2400-1220 3000-1230 Unblackened Pooled 1901-2230 0200-2220 2800-2220 4701-2220 4705-2220 4706-2220 1001-2231 1003-2231 1005-2231 1006-2231 1007-2231 3103-2231 3105-2231 (Note: The textile samples in bold are painted) APPENDIX E COMPUTER CODE FOR EACH SAMPLE AND DATA ENTRY FOR CATEGORICAL VARIABLES 272 273 COMPUTER CODE FOR EACH SAMPLE FOR CATEGORICAL VARIABLES Coding Scheme Columns 1,2: Glass case or copper breast plate No. Columns 4,5: Sample textile No. Columns 7,8,9: Sample yarn No. Column 11: Fabrication structure (1= Alternate Pair Weft Twining, 2=Shet C, 3=Shet D) Column 13: Stain (l=Blackened, 2=0val, 3=Random, 4=None) Samole No. Computer Code Samole No. Computer Code 0 2 0 0 1 - 2 2 2 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 3 3 19032-1210 19 13 038 1 2 0 2 0 0 2 - 2 2 2 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 2 3 3 19033-1210 19 13 039 1 2 02003-2220 0 2 0 1 003 3 3 2 0 0 1 1 - 1 2 1 0 2 0 14 040 1 2 05011-1100 05 0 2 004 1 1 20012-1210 20 14 041 1 2 05012-1100 05 0 2 005 1 1 20013-1210 2 0 14 042 1 2 05013-1100 05 0 2 006 1 1 20021-1210 20 15 043 1 2 05061-1100 05 03 007 1 1 20022-1210 20 15 044 1 2 05062-1100 05 03 008 1 1 20023-1210 2 0 15 045 1 2 05063-1100 05 03 009 1 1 21001-1220 2 1 16 046 1 3 05091-1100 05 04 0 1 0 1 1 21002-1220 21 16 047 1 3 05092-1100 05 04 Oil 1 1 21003-1220 2 1 16 048 1 3 05093-1100 05 04 0 1 2 1 1 22011-1210 22 17 049 1 2 09021-1100 09 05 013 1 1 2 2 0 1 2 - 1 2 1 0 2 2 17 050 1 2 09022-1100 09 05 014 1 1 22013-1210 2 2 17 051 1 2 09023-1100 09 05 015 11 22021-1210 22 18 052 1 2 14011-1210 14 06 016 12 22022-1210 22 18 053 1 2 14012-1210 14 06 017 1 2 22023-1210 2 2 18 054 1 2 14013-1210 14 06 018 1 2 24001-1220 24 19 055 1 3 14021-1210 14 07 019 1 2 24002-1220 24 19 056 1 3 14022-1210 14 07 0 2 0 1 2 24003-1220 24 19 057 1 3 14023-1210 14 07 0 2 1 1 2 28001-2220 28 2 0 058 3 3 14031-1210 14 08 0 2 2 1 2 28002-2220 28 2 0 059 3 3 14032-1210 14 08 023 1 2 28003-2220 28 2 0 060 3 3 14033-1210 14 08 024 1 2 30001-1230 30 2 1 061 1 4 15001-1220 15 09 025 1 3 30002-1230 30 2 1 062 1 4 15002-1220 15 09 026 1 3 30003-1230 30 2 1 063 1 4 15003-1220 15 09 027 1 3 33011-1100 33 2 2 064 1 16001-1220 16 1 0 028 1 3 33012-1100 33 2 2 065 1 16002-1220 16 1 0 029 1 3 33013-1100 33 2 2 066 1 16003-1220 16 1 0 030 1 3 35021-1100 35 23 067 1 19011-2230 19 1 1 031 2 4 35022-1100 35 23 068 1 19012-2230 19 1 1 032 2 4 35023-1100 35 23 069 1 19013-2230 19 1 1 033 2 4 35031-1100 35 24 070 1 19021-1210 19 1 2 034 1 2 35032-1100 35 24 071 1 19022-1210 19 1 2 035 1 2 35033-1100 35 24 072 1 19023-1210 19 1 2 036 1 2 36031-1100 36 25 073 1 19031-1210 19 13 037 1 2 36032-1100 36 25 074 1 274 Sample No, Computer Code Sample No, Computer Code 36033-1100 36 25 075 1 1 41061-1100 41 36 106 1 36041-1100 36 26 076 1 1 41062-1100 41 36 107 1 36042-1100 36 26 077 1 1 41063-1100 41 36 108 1 36043-1100 36 26 078 1 1 42011-1100 42 37 109 1 37011-1100 37 27 079 1 1 42012-1100 42 37 1 1 0 1 37012-1100 37 27 080 1 1 42013-1100 42 37 1 1 1 1 37013-1100 37 27 081 1 1 42021-1100 42 38 1 1 2 1 37021-1100 37 28 082 1 1 42022-1100 42 38 113 1 37022-1100 37 28 083 1 1 42023-1100 42 38 114 1 37023-1100 37 28 084 1 1 44021-1100 44 39 115 1 37031-1100 37 29 085 1 1 44022-1100 44 39 116 1 37032-1100 37 29 086 1 1 44023-1100 44 39 117 1 37033-1100 37 29 087 1 1 44041-1100 44 40 118 1 38021-1100 38 30 088 1 1 44042-1100 44 40 119 1 38022-1100 38 30 089 1 1 44043-1100 44 40 1 2 0 1 38023-1100 38 30 090 1 1 45011-1100 45 41 1 2 1 1 39011-1100 39 31 091 1 1 45012-1100 45 41 1 2 2 1 39012-1100 39 31 092 1 1 45013-1100 45 41 123 1 39013-1100 39 31 093 1 1 45121-1100 45 42 124 1 39041-1100 39 32 094 1 1 45122-1100 45 42 125 1 39042-1100 39 32 095 1 1 45123-1100 45 42 126 1 39043-1100 39 32 096 1 1 47011-2220 47 43 127 3 3 39071-1100 39 33 097 1 1 47012-2220 47 43 128 3 3 39072-1100 39 33 098 1 1 47013-2220 47 43 129 3 3 39073-1100 39 33 099 1 1 47051-2220 47 44 130 3 3 40141-1100 40 34 1 0 0 1 1 47052-2220 47 44 131 3 3 40142-1100 40 34 1 0 1 1 1 47053-2220 47 44 132 3 3 40143-1100 40 34 1 0 2 1 1 47061-2220 47 45 133 3 3 41031-1100 41 35 103 1 1 47062-2220 47 45 134 3 3 41032-1100 41 35 104 1 1 47063-2220 47 45 136 3 3 41033-1100 41 35 105 1 1 275 DATA ENTRY FOR CATEGORICAL VARIABLES 1 3 4 5 B 2 B C D EFG H 8 B Ç D 9 0 B ç D 02 01 002 3 3 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 02 01 003 3 3 1 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 05 02 004 1 1 4 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 05 02 005 1 1 4 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 05 02 006 1 1 4 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 05 03 007 1 1 4 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 05 03 008 1 1 3 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 05 03 009 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 05 04 010 1 1 4 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 05 04 Oil 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 2 2 05 04 012 1 1 4 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 09 05 013 1 1 4 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 09 05 014 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 2 2 09 05 015 1 1 4 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 2 2 14 06 016 1 2 3 2 3 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 14 06 017 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 14 06 018 12332011 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 14 07 019 12232101 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 14 07 020 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 14 07 021 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 14 08 022 1 2 2 3 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 14 08 023 122332201 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 14 08 024 1 2 2 4 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 0 15 09 025 1 3 2 3 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 15 09 026 1 3 3 2 3 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 15 09 027 1 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 2 2 16 10 028 1 3 1 3 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 16 10 029 1 3 1 2 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 2 2 16 10 030 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 19 11 031 2 4 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 19 11 032 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 19 11 033 24123221 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 19 12 034 1 2 2 4 3 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 19 12 035 1 2 1 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 19 12 036 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 19 13 037 1 2 3 3 3 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 19 13 038 1 2 2 3 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 19 13 039 1 2 1 3 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 20 14 040 1223201111 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 20 14 041 1232322101 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 20 14 042 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 20 15 043 1 2 1 4 3 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 20 15 044 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 01110011001 1 3 2 2 2 2 20 15 045 1 2 1 3 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 21 16 046 1 3 2 3 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 21 16 047 1 3 1 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 21 16 048 1 3 3 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 22 17 0491222210 1 1 0 0 1 0 3 2 2 2 2 LJ w w W CJ W W W w VO VOVOVOVO VO VOVOVOVOVOVOVO VO VO VOVOVOVOVO VO VOVOVOVOVO VO VO VO VO to to to to to to to to to to to o O VO VO VOVOVOVOVO VO VO 00 COCO V] «o V] vj >0 >0 ■v] >0 >0 CT> ov a\ OVOV OV VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl VO VOVO O o o CO CO CO 4» 4» to to to to to w W W OJ w W w w W W VO VO VO VO to to to to to to t o to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to t o to H H h* H M H •C» W w w to to to H* l-> o o o VOVOVO COCOCO ■o <] OV cnov VJ1 v;i VJ1 VO VO VO to to to H* M o o o VO VO VO C9 CO 03 •O H H O o o O o o O O o o o o O o o O O o o o o O o o o o O o o o ooooooOOOoo oOOOOO O O O OOVOVOVOVOVOVOVOVOVO VO CO COCOCOCOCOCOCOCO CO V] •v] ■o >o ■o >o ■o >0 •o OV OVOVOVOVOVOVOVOVOV VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl VJl M OVO 00 cri Ü1 W to H* o VO 00 OV VJ1 fk VO to o VO 00 vj OV VJl VO to H o VO 00 V] OV VJl VO to H o V O CO OV VJl 4^ VO to H O H l-> M H I-* M H t-* l-> M H M H H H M H (-* h* t-> H H t-» H H* t-* H I-* H t-> I-» H VO V O VO H H H H H H I-* M •F^ •F>' VO V O VO VO VOVO to to to to to to H H M H totototo VO to to w w w W W VO w VO fk •F^ t o VO VO .F^ VO VO VO VO •F^ >1^ VOVO to H H H 4 ^ VO to VO VO 4^ VO VO to to to to u> w w w w to to W VOVOVO VO VO to VO to VO to to to VO VO VO VO to to to VOVO to to to to to VOVOVO to VO to M to VO to VOVO to to VO VO o o to to to to to OO to to to to to to o to H to t-* I-* o to to to to I-* M I-* to to o !-> H O o to to to M to H O O to o to to I-* to to !-> I-* to to to to to H I-* to to to to to to H to O to M OH to to to to o H o to to O o H to to to !-> to 1-* H * I-* to I-* to to O o to to O O o o o O o o o o o O O O O o O O O o H H H H o o O O O o O O H o O H O H O H o M H MMM H (-• I-* H (-> I-* I-* H* !-> I-* (-• t-> t-» t-> H (-* I-* I-* M H M I-* H I-* M H> I-* l-> H I-* O I-* M l-> M M l-> HH M I-* t-* H* t-* H H MM H H o H H MMHHHH O M !-> HH MM H H O H * H !-> !-> I-* H H M OOOOH* o O O H t-* o t-> O O t-* O o o O O O H l->H M O o O o O O O H*O o O O O H t-> O H H H H (->H OO OOOOOoOOOOOoO o O O O O o O o O o O O O OOOoOoOoOOO o OOO OO OOOOOOOOO M OOO M o O O o o O O M l-> M O o O o M H O MOMOOoOoOHoOOoO h> O M O O (-> OO MMMM O H* OO M o O M o O OO OOO O O HOoOOOOOOOOo oOOoOO o O O O O O H O O O OO OOO OOOOO o OOO o O M O OOOO O o t-* o O O H OOOOO o O o OO o OO o OOO H O H O O o OO H OO o o OOOO o O O OO OOOO o o o OOOOOO o o O o OO o OO o O O o H OO o M O M O (-> M O M O o t-* O h* o H > I-* M OO H O o o O (-> !-> I-* (-> o H» OO o OOO M l-> O OO H O O O O o o H H H O o O H H OOO O o HHOO o OHOO o O o OOO I-* (-* I-* I-* H I-* !-> I-* h-> H* H*M OH M I-» H I-* I-* I-* M H-»HHH H H*M H l-> M H I-* l-> I-* W (jJ W w to w to to to W to VO VO to to to to VOVOVO VO I-» VO VO VOVOVOVOVOVOVO VO VOVO VO VO VO VO VO VO U> VO V O VO VO VO VO to VO VO VOVO to to to to O to O O o to O to to o OOO to to to to VO to to to to to to to to to to to to to t o to to to to to to t o to to to to (-> to to to to to to to to o to OO o to O to to o o OO to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to t o to to to to to to to to to to to O to to to to to to to to o to OO M to o to to o o O o to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to t o to to to to O to to to to to to to to to I-* H H to to to (-> H to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to t o to to to to O to to to to to (T i 4^ 4^ 4» 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k v3 •o >0 vj V] v3 Vj ÜI U1 Ut (01 (01 101 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k to to to to to to H l-k M l-k H l-k o 4^ 4& 4». 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to U1 U1 U1 4^ W W W to to to H H !-> O O o VOVOVO00 COCO kj vj vj ONON ON Ul tJI (01 4k M M H H H M (-» H (-* H H I-* H l-> l-k l-k H l-k H l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k HH l-k H l-k l-k WW W W to to to to to to to to to to H t-k H l-k H l-k HHH l-k O O O O o O o o ONW O VO 00 vj ON U1 4k to to H O VO 00 ON tJ1 4k to to M o VOCO ON tJI 4k to to W w w w w 10 W M M t-k H l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k W u> w w w lO W HH H H M 4^ 4& to 4& 4» 4k W 4k 4k to to to 4k to to to to to 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k 4k to to to to to to to W to to U) to to U 10 lO 10 to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to O to o to to to to H H to H O l-k to l-k to o l-k o O o O to l-k to to O o H to H to M O to to to to O O to O l-> o to O to l-k o l-k l-k H l-k to l-k to to l-k l-k o HHO OHoOoOOOOO o o O H o o o o H H M l-k t-k l-k o o OO H* O HHH !-> H HH t-k l-k l-k l-k H l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k H H o o l-k H OO OMO O O I-" !-> H H H O M H l-k l-k l-k H l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k o I-* H !-> H H H O O O H O O H O O O o O l-k oooOOoOOoooo O o O O O O O o O O O O OOOOOoOOoooOOoOOoooo MH O M OO oOoOOOoOOOoOO HH o H H o l-k l-k o o o o M O O O O O O o 1-* o O t-k M o O O O o O O O l-k l-k O O o O o o o o o H*OOOOOO o o o O o O o O o o o OOOO o O O H o o o o o o O O o O O O o o o O oOoOoo oOoOoOO oooo o o M O o H»H*MHl-> OoooOoo oOoO l-k o O o o o o o l-k OO o O O O HH o O H o o H* H o o l-k o O o o O l-k l-k o o l-k l-k H H H H* HH*HH I-* H> H t-k HH l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k H l-k l-k H l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k l-k to W U w W to W W to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to (O to to to to to to to O to to to to O O to to to to to to to to to to to to to to o to to to to to O to to to to H> to to to to o O to to to to to to to to to to to to to to o to to to to to O to to to to O to to to to M M to to to to to to to to to to to to to to o to to to to to M to to to to O to to to to (-* H to to to to to to to to to to to to to to l-k to to to to to to 'O APPENDIX F COMPUTER CODE FOR EACH SAMPLE AND DATA ENTRY FOR CONTINUOUS VARIABLE 278 279 CODING SCHEME FOR CONTINUOUS VARIABLE Coding Scheme Columns 1,2: Glass case or copper breast plate No. Columns 4,5: Sample textile No. Columns 7,8,9: Sample yarn No. Column 11: Fiber No. Column 13; Measurement No. Column 15: Fabrication structure (1= Alternate Pair Weft Twining, 2=Shet C, 3=Shet D) Column 17: Stain (l=Blackened, 2=0val, 3=Random, 4=None) Columns 19-21: Measurement DATA ENTRY FOR CONTINUOUS VARIABLE 02 01 001 1 1 3 3 4.0 02 01 001 1 2 3 3 4.5 02 01 001 13 3 3 5.5 02 01 001 2 1 3 3 4.0 02 01 001 2 2 3 3 3.5 02 01 001 2 3 3 3 4.0 02 01 001 3 1 3 3 02 01 001 3 2 3 3 02 01 001 3 3 3 3 02 01 003 1 1 3 3 7.0 02 01 003 12 3 3 8.0 02 01 003 1 3 3 3 7.0 02 01 003 2 1 3 3 4.0 02 01 003 2 2 3 3 5.0 02 01 003 2 3 3 3 3.0 02 01 003 3 1 3 3 6.5 02 01 003 3 2 3 3 7.0 02 01 003 3 3 3 3 6.5 14 06 016 1 1 1 2 5.0 14 06 016 1 2 1 2 4.0 14 06 016 13 1 2 5.0 14 06 016 2 1 1 2 5.0 14 06 016 2 2 1 2 5.5 14 06 016 2 3 1 2 5.0 14 06 016 3 1 1 2 4.0 14 06 016 3 2 1 2 4.5 14 06 016 3 3 1 2 4.5 14 06 018 1 1 1 2 2.0 14 06 018 1 2 1 2 3.0 14 06 018 13 1 2 3.0 14 06 018 2 1 1 2 10 14 06 018 2 2 1 2 10 14 06 018 2 3 1 2 1.0 14 06 018 3 11 2 4 14 06 018 3 2 1 2 3 o CO in in in in in in in in in in in -a* 4' lO in in tv tv tv VO tv tv tv CO in VO tv tv tv VOVOVOVOVOVO VO CMCM CO CO Tf VO VO in 'a* in «a- «a- COCOCO OJ«NCH MCMCMCMCMCMCM CMCM CMCMCM CMCMCMCMCMCM CM CMCMCM CMCMCM CM CMCMCM CM CMCMCMCM CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM r 4 p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H pH p H p H p H p H p H p H p H pH p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H H p H p H pH p H p H H p H p H p H pH m p H CM n p H CM CO p H CMCO p H CM CO p H CM CO p H CM CO p H CMCO p H CM CO p H CM CO p H CMCO p H CMCO p H CM CO p H CM CO p H CM CO p H CMCO p H CM CO p H CM CO m p H p H p H (N CMCMCO CO CO p H pH p H CM CM CM CO CO CO p H p H pH CM CM CM CO COCO p H p H p H CMCMCMCO CO CO p H p H p H CM CM CMCOCOCO p H p H p H CM CM CM CO 0> OV OV (Tl a\ CJV OV cn CTV O O o O O O o O O p H p H pH p H OO p H p H p H CMCMCMCMCM CM CM CMCM COCO COCOCOCO CO CO CO 'a* «a- 4" Tf ■«a' *—1 p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM CM CM CM CM CM CM CMCMCMCM CM CM CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM CMCM CM o OOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOO OO O O O OOO OOOO o VO tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv tv CO CO CO 0 0 CO 0 0 0 0 CO 0 0 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 CO 0 0 CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 o OO O o O o O o O O OOOOOOOO O O O O O O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O O O OOOOO o OO o >5f ■■a*«a* «a* 'a* Tf 4" «a* ■«a* ^a* 'a- << 4' ■«a*•sj' «a" sf ^a*«a*^a*■«a*'a* ■«a* Tf •«a* «a* «a- H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H H p H p H H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H p H H p H 00 CM in in in in in in in in in in in in . in in in m in in in in in in in O CO CO o CO H rH CM CO CM CO CO in CO VO VO VO rH cn CO rH rH rH CO CO CM CO CM VO in in 00 rH rH in VO in in in in in in m VO VO CO CO CO VO in in in VO in VO m n cn M CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO Tf Tf CMCM CM CM rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH CMCM CM CMCM CM CMCMCMCMCMCMH rH rH rH (—i CM M rH CM CO rH rH CM rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CMCO rH CMCO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CMCO rH CM CO rH «—IrH rH CM CMCM CO CO CO rH rH rH CM CM CM CO CO CO rH rH rH CMCMCM CO CO CO rH rH rH CM CM CM CO CO CO rH rH rH rH rH rH CM CM CMCOCOCO rH rH rH CM in in in in in in in in in CO 0> cn CO CO CO CO CO CO OV o> OV a\ m cn OV OV cn o OOOOOOOO rH rH rH CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM (M CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO o O o o O o O o O OO o OOOOOOOOO o O o O O o o O OOOOO o OOOO OOOOOOOOO o o O o H h» t-» H HM H t-> HH H H t-* H* HH H t-> t-» H M !-> H H H H H l-> H h-> H M t-> H H H t-> H t-» M H M HH H H HH U1 U1 U1 U1 U1 yi 4^ 4& 4>. 4» 4> 4^ 4> 4> 4w 4»' 4> 4& 4- 4> 4^ 4> 4& 4> 4» 4> 4» 4& 4& 4> 4^ W UWU)W W W W u W W W W W WW U WWWW O o o O O o OOOO O O OO OO OOOO OOOOOO OO OOOOOO O O O O O o O O O O O O OOO O O O 4^ 4^ 4^ 4^ 4> 4» 4^ 4> 4> 4» 4- 4»' 4» 4» 4». 4» 4» 4- 4^ 4^ 4>. 4>. 4^ 4^ 4» 4^ 4& 4»' 10 U> W W WWWWwwWWWWWWWwWWW W w w W W w to to to to to to to to to HH H HMHH H HOOO O OOO VO VO VO VO vo vo VO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 oo -0 •o •O v3 V] to to to H (-> HWWW to to to M (-* I-* W W W to to to H I-* H U to to to MHLJ to to t o h-> H w w w to toto M I-*w w W to to W to W to M W to M W to H W to H W to H CJ to (-* W to H W to H W to H w to I-* W to H w to !-> W to HW to H* w to H W to M t-* H !-> H* H H HMHHH H H t-* HHHH H H H M l-> HH M H H H I-* M HH H HHH*HHHHH H HMHM to to to to t o to M to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to t o to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to U1 U1 U1 4& LO W W W to kO vo vo 4^ 4> 4» 4^ 4» 4^ Ü1 4>^ 4> 0\ W W to H H 01 U1 01 00 H 00 to to to 4^ 4» U1 4>> 4» 4>' 4» U 1 U1 to to to 01 U1 H U1 U1 U1 U1 Ü1 Ü l U1 U1 oi U1 U1U1U1 Ü1 oiU1 Ü1 U1 U1 Ü1 U1 Ul U1 M 00 to 283 2 0 15 043 3 1 1 2 2 0 15 044 1 1 1 2 5 2 0 15 044 1 2 1 2 4 2 0 15 044 1 3 1 2 4 2 0 15 044 2 1 1 2 1 0 2 0 15 033 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 0 15 033 2 3 1 2 9 2 0 15 044 3 1 1 2 9 2 0 15 044 3 2 1 2 8.5 2 0 15 044 3 3 1 2 7.5 2 1 16 048 1 1 1 3 5 2 1 16 048 1 2 1 3 4 2 1 16 048 1 3 1 3 5 2 1 16 048 2 1 1 3 2.5 2 1 16 048 2 2 1 3 3.5 2 1 16 048 2 3 1 3 3.5 2 1 16 048 3 1 1 3 3 2 1 16 048 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 16 048 3 3 1 3 2.5 2 2 17 049 1 1 1 2 6 2 2 17 049 1 2 1 2 6.5 2 2 17 049 1 3 1 2 7 2 2 17 049 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 17 049 2 2 1 2 5.5 2 2 17 049 2 3 1 2 5 2 2 17 049 3 1 1 2 4 2 2 17 049 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 17 049 3 3 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 1 1 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 1 2 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 1 3 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 2 1 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 2 2 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 2 3 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 3 1 1 2 5 2 2 17 051 3 2 1 2 5.5 2 2 17 051 3 3 1 2 6 24 19 055 1 1 1 3 8 24 19 055 1 2 1 3 7 24 19 055 1 3 1 3 5 24 19 055 2 1 1 3 7 24 19 055 2 2 1 3 8 24 19 055 2 3 1 3 7 24 19 055 3 1 1 3 6 24 19 055 3 2 1 3 7 24 19 055 3 3 1 3 7 24 19 056 1 1 1 3 13 24 19 056 1 2 1 3 1 2 24 19 056 1 3 1 3 1 1 24 19 056 2 1 1 3 6.5 24 19 056 2 2 1 3 7 24 19 056 2 3 1 3 7 sf 00 CM in in in in in in in in in in in in rH O O O O o o in (O in o CO o 00 00 rH rH rH rH rH 00 cn cn cn in in rH cn cn CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO COCO CO CO CO CO rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO COCOCO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO rH CM CO CO CO CO rH rH rH CM CM CM CO rH rH rH CM CM CM CO CO CO rH rH rH CM CM CM CO CO CO rH rH rH CM CM CM CO CO CO rH rH rH CM CM CM CO CO CO rH rH rH CM CM CM VO C^ O O O O o o O o o CO 00 CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO C\ cn cn m cn cn cn cn cn cn O O o o o o o o o CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO in in in in in in in in in in in in in in in H rH rH rH rH rH H rH rH rH CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM sT 00 00 00 00 CO CO CO 00 CO rv C^ cv C^ rs Cv CV CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM sr sr 285 47 45 134 3 1 3 3 5 47 45 134 3 2 3 3 6 47 45 134 3 3 3 3 8.5 47 45 136 1 1 3 3 6 47 45 136 1 2 3 3 5 47 45 136 1 3 3 3 6 47 45 136 2 1 3 3 9 47 45 136 2 2 3 3 9.5 47 45 136 2 3 3 3 9.5 47 45 136 3 1 3 3 5 47 45 136 3 2 3 3 5 47 45 136 3 3 3 3 6 APPENDIX G TABLES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF EACH QUESTION IN THE INDEX OF BAST FIBER MORPHOLOGY FOR RESEARCH HYPOTHESES I, II, & IV 286 287 HYPOTHESIS I Table 29. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Unblackened Textiles Regarding Cellular Elements Black/ Unblack Many A Few None Total Blackened 0 1 0 1 0 .0 0 % 1 0 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % (0.5) (0.4) (0 .2 ) Unblackened 26 18 8 52 50.00% 34.62% 15.38% (25.5) (18.6) (7.8) Total 26 19 8 53 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. ♦Frequency missing = 79 Table 30. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Presence or Absence of Twist Black/ Unblack Many A Few None Total Blackened 0 42 33 75 0 .0 0 % 56.00% 44.00% (0 .6 ) (39.2) (35.2) Unblackened 1 27 29 57 1.75% 47.37% 50.88% (0.4) (29.8) (26.8) Total 1 69 62 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. 288 Table 31. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Direction of Twist Black vs None Z twist S twist Both Total Unblack Only Only Present Blacken 33 2 2 15 5 75 44.00% 2 0 .0 0 % 6.67% 29.33% (35.2) (20.5) (13.1) (6.3) Unblack 29 14 8 6 57 50.88% 14.04% 10.53% 24.56% (26.8) (15.5) (9.9) (4.8) Total 62 36 23 1 1 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. Table 32. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Unblackened Textiles Regarding Regularly and Irregularly Spaced Nodal Structure Blackened vs. Regular Irregular Both Total Unblackened Only Only Present Blackened 2 51 1 2 65 0.30% 78.46% 18.46% (7.5) (41.8) (15.6) Unblackened 1 0 16 13 39 25.64% 41.02% 33.33% (4.5) (25.1) (9.3) Total 1 2 67 25 104 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. ♦Frequency missing = 28 Table 33. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Unblackened Textiles Regarding Four Types of Nodal Structures Type A: Discontinuous, Type B: Bent Type C: Protruding, Type D; Plain Continuous Carbonization Type D Types A Types B Types B Types C Types B Total Only & D & C & D & D & C & D Blackened 28 1 14 1 1 1 1 65 43.07% 1.53% 21.53% 16.92% 16.92% (30.0) (0 .6 ) (14.3) (9.3) (7.5) Unblackened 2 0 5 9 4 1 39 51.28% 12.82% 23.07% 10.25% 2.56% (18.0) (1 .8 ) (8 .6 ) (5.6) (4.5) Total 48 5 1 23 15 1 2 104 *Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. ♦Frequency missing = 28 M 00 vo 290 Table 34. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Lengthwise Striation Black/ Unblack Not Present Present Total Blackened 4 71 75 5.33% 94.67% (7.4) (67.6) Unblackened 9 48 57 15.79% 84.21% (5.6) (51.4) Total 13 119 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 35. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Bulging Black/ Unblack Not Present Present Total Blackened 75 0 75 1 0 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % (73.9) (1 .1 ) Unblackened 55 2 57 96.49% 3.51% (56.1) (0.9) Total 130 2 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 291 Table 36. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Textiles Regarding Fibrillation Black/ Unblack Not Present Present Total Blackened 64 1 1 75 85.33% 14.67% (60.2) (14.8) Unblackened 42 15 57 73.68% 26.32% (45.8) (1 1 .2 ) Total 106 26 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 37. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Un blackened Seip Textiles Regarding Presence or Absence of Fiber's Natural End Tips Black/ Unblack Not Present Present Total Blackened 60 15 75 80.00% 2 0 .0 0 % (59.7) (15.4) Unblackened 45 1 2 57 78.95% 21.05% (45.3) (1 1 .6 ) Total 105 27 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 38. Frequency Distribution of Blackened and Unblackened Selp Textiles Regarding Type of Fiber's Natural End Tips Present A: Tapering, B: Pointed, C: Rounded, D: Square Carboni Type A Type B Type C Type D Types Types Types Types Total zation Only Only Only Only A & B A & D C & D A,B&C Blackened 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 3 0 15 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % 6 .6 6 % 73.33% 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % 2 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % (3.8) (0.5) (0.5) (6 .1 ) (1 .1 ) (0.5) (1 .6 ) (0.5) Unblacken 7 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 1 2 58.33% 8.33% 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % 16.66% 8.33% 0 .0 0 % 8.33% (3.1) (0.4) (0.4) (4.8) (0 .8 ) (0.4) (1.3) (0.4) Total 7 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 27 *Number In ( ) Is expected cell count, and % Is row %. vo to 293 HYPOTHESIS II Table 39. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Cellular Elements Green Staining Many A Few None Total Oval-shaped 1 0 1 2 5 27 37.04% 44.44% 18.52% Staining (13.2) (9.4) (4.4) Random 14 5 3 2 2 63.64% 22.73% 13.64% Staining (1 0 .8 ) (7.6) (3.6) Total 24 17 8 49 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. ♦Frequency missing = 2 Table 40. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Degree of Fiber Separation Green Staining All Some Many Total Bundle Separated Separated Oval-shaped 1 0 5 1 2 27 37.04% 18.52% 44.44% Staining (7.9) (7.9) (1 1 .1 ) Radom 5 1 0 9 24 20.83% 41.67% 37.50% Staining (7.1) (7.1) (1 2 .2 ) Total 15 15 2 1 51 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 294 Table 41. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Presence or Absence of Twist Green Staining Many A Few None Total Oval-shaped 0 1 2 15 27 0 .0 0 % 44.44% 55.56% Staining (0.5) (12.7) (13.8) Radom 1 1 2 1 1 24 4.17% 50.00% 45.83% Staining (0.5) (11.3) (1 2 .2 ) Total 1 24 26 51 *Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 42. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Direction of Twist Green None Z twist S twist Both Total Staining Only Only Present Oval 15 5 6 1 27 55.56% 18.52% 2 2 .2 2 % 3.70% Staining (13.8) (7.4) (3.7) (2 .1 ) Random 1 1 9 1 3 24 45.83% 37.50% 4.17% 12.50% Staining (1 2 .2 ) (6 .6 ) (3.3) (1.9) Total 62 14 7 4 51 295 Table 43. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Stained and Randomly Stained Seip Textiles Regarding Regularly and Irregularly Spaced Nodal Structure Green Staining Regular Irregular Both Total Only Only Present Oval-shaped 4 9 8 2 1 19.04% 42.85% 38.09% Staining (5.6) (8.5) (6 .8 ) Random 6 6 4 16 37.50% 37.50% 25.00% Staining (4.3) (6.4) (5.1) Total 1 0 15 1 2 37 *Nu3 iber in ( ) is expected cell count « and % is row %. ♦Frequency missing = 14 Tcible 44. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Stained Textiles and Randomly Stained Textiles Regarding Type of Nodal Structures Present Type A: Discontinuous, Type B: Bent Type C: Protruding, Type D: Plain Continuous Green Type D Types Types Types Types Total Staining Only A & D B & D C & D B,C&D Oval 1 1 2 5 3 0 2 1 shaped 52.38% 9.52% 23.80% 14.28% 0 .0 0 % Staining (1 0 .2 ) (2 .8 ) (5.1) (2 .2 ) (0.5) Radom 7 3 4 1 1 16 43.75% 18.75% 25.00% 6.25% 6.25% Staining (7.7) (2 .1 ) (3.8) (1.7) (0.4) 18 5 9 4 1 37 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %, ♦Frequency missing = 14 296 Table 45. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Lengthwise Striation Green Staining Not Present Present Total Oval-shaped 1 26 27 3.70% 96.30% Staining (4.8) (2 2 .2 ) Random 8 16 24 33.33% 66.67% Staining (4.2) (19.8) Total 9 42 51 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 46. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Bulging Green Staining Not Present Present Total Oval-shaped 26 1 27 96.30% 3.70% Staining (25.9) (1 .1 ) Random 23 1 24 95.83% 4.17% Staining (23.1) (0.9) Total 49 2 51 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 297 Table 47. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Surface Folds Green Staining Not Present Present Total Oval-shaped 13 14 27 48.15% 51.85% Staining (13.2) (13.8) Random 1 2 1 2 24 50.00% 50.00% Staining (1 1 .8 ) (1 2 .2 ) Total 25 26 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 48. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Staining and Random Staining Regarding Fiber's Natural End Tips Green Staining Not Present Present Total Oval-shaped 2 0 7 27 74.07% 25.93% Staining (2 0 .6 ) (6.4) Random 19 5 24 79.17% 20.83% Staining (18.4) (5.6) Total 39 1 2 51 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 298 Table 49. Frequency Distribution of Oval-Shaped Stained and Randomly Stained Seip Textiles Regarding Type of Fibers Natural End Tips Present Type A: Tapering, Type B: Pointed, Type C; Rounded Green Staining Type A Types Types Total Only A & B A,B&C Oval-shaped 4 2 1 7 57.14% 28.57% 14.28% Staining (4.9) (1.4) (0.7) Random 3 0 0 3 1 0 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % Scaining (2 .1 )(0 .6 ) (0.3) Total 7 2 1 1 0 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. 299 HYPOTHESIS IV Table 50. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Non-Fibrous Elements Construction Many A Few None Total Alternate 14 18 8 40 35.00% 45.00% 2 0 .0 0 % (19.6) (14.3) (6 .0 ) Pooled 1 2 1 0 13 92.31% 7.69% 0 .0 0 % (6.4) (4.7) (2 .0 ) Total 26 19 8 53 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. ♦Frequency missing = 7 9 Table 51. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Degree of Fiber Separation Constr Undif- All Some Many Total uction inable Bundle Separated Separated Alternate 3 2 0 44 50 117 2.56% 17.09% 37.61% 42.74% (2.7) (2 2 .2 ) (47.0) (45.2) Pooled 0 5 9 1 15 0 .0 0 % 33.33% 60.00% 6.67% (0.3) (2 .8 )(6 .0 ) (5.8) Total 3 25 53 51 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 300 Table 52. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Presence or Absence of Twist Construction Many A Few None Total Alternate 0 60 57 117 0 .0 0 % 51.28% 48.72% (0.9) (61.2) (55.0) Pooled 1 9 5 15 6.67% 60.00% 33.33% (0 .1 ) (7.8) (7.0) Total 1 69 62 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 53. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Direction of Twist Constr None Z twist S twist Both Total uction Only Only Present Alternate 57 31 2 1 8 117 48.72% 26.50% 17.95% 6.84% (55.0) (31.9) (20.4) (9.8) Pooled 5 5 2 3 15 33.33% 33.33% 13.33% 2 0 .0 0 % (7.0) (4.1) (2 .6 ) (1.3) Total 62 36 23 1 1 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. 301 Table 54. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Group of Seip Textiles Regarding Regularly and Irregularly Spaced Nodal Structure Construction Regular Irregular Both Total Only Only Present Alternate 9 63 23 95 9.47% 66.31% 24.21% (10.9) (61.2) (2 2 .8 ) Pooled 3 4 2 9 33.33% 44.44% 2 2 .2 2 % (1 .0 ) (5.7) (2 .1 ) Total 1 2 67 25 104 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row %. ♦Frequency missing = 28. Table 55. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding the Presence of Four Types of Nodal Structures A: Discontinuous, B: Bent, C; Protruding, D: Plain Continuous Structure Type C Type D Types Types Types Types Total Only Only A & D B & D C fie D B,C&D Alternate 1 44 3 2 0 15 1 2 95 1.05% 46.31% 3.15% 21.05% 15.78% 12.63% (0.9) (42.9) (4.5) (21.9) (13.7) (10.9) Pooled 0 3 2 4 0 0 9 0 .0 0 % 33.33% 2 2 .2 2 % 44.44% 0 .0 0 % 0 .0 0 % (0 .0 ) (4.0) (0.4) (2 .0 )(1 .2 ) (1 .0 ) Total 1 47 5 24 15 1 2 104 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % is row ♦Frequency missing = 28 u o to 303 Teible 56. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Lengthwise Striation Construction Not Present Present Total Alternate 5 112 117 4.27% 95.73% (11.5) (105.5) Pooled 8 7 15 53.33% 46.67% (1.5) (13.5) Total 13 119 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 57. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Bulging Construction Not Present Present Total Alternate 115 2 117 98.29% 1.71% (115.2) (1.8) Pooled 15 0 15 100.00% 0.00% (14.8) (0.2) Total 130 2 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 304 Table 58. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Surface Folds Construction Not Present Present Total Alternate 76 41 117 64.96% 35.04% (72.7) (44.3) Pooled 6 9 15 40.00% 60.00% (9.3) (5.7) Total 82 50 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 59. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Fibrillation Construction Not Present Present Total Alternate 96 21 117 82.05% 17.95% (94.0) (23.0) Pooled 10 5 15 66.67% 33.33% (12.0) (3.0) Total 106 26 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. 305 Table 60. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Transverse Crack Construction Not Present Present Total Alternate 91 26 117 77.78% 22.22% (87.8) (29.3) Pooled 8 7 15 53.33% 46.67% (11.3) (3.8) Total 99 33 132 ♦Number in ( ) s expected cell count. Table 61. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Presence or Absence of Fiber's Natural End Tips Construction Not Present Present Total Alternate 92 25 117 78.63% 21.37% (93.1) (23.7) Pooled 13 2 15 86.67% 13.33% (11.9) (3.1) Total 105 27 132 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count. Table 62. Frequency Distribution of Alternate and Pooled Structures Regarding Type of Fiber's Natural End Tips Present A: Tapering, B: Pointed, C: Rounded, D: Square structure Type A Type C Type D Types Types Types Types Total Only Only Only A & B A & D C & D A,B&C Alternate 7 2 10 2 0 3 1 25 28.00% 8 .00% 40.00% 8 .00% 0 .00% 12.00% 4.00% (6.4) (2.7) (9.2) (1.8) (0.9) (2.7) (0.9) Pooled 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 .00% 50.00% 0 .00% 0 .00% 50.00% 0 .00% 0 .00% (0.5) (0.2) 90.7) (0.1) (0.0) (0.2) (0.0) Total 7 3 10 2 1 3 1 27 ♦Number in ( ) is expected cell count, and % Is row %. W o G\