Mediated Memories of the USSR: Reconstruction and Critical Re-evaluation of the Soviet Past through Internet Images ____________________________________________________________ A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Cultural Studies Department of Global, Cultural and Language Studies by Valeriya Kalkina University of Canterbury 2016 ____________________________________________________________ Abstract Browsing Russian websites, one encounters dozens of images that attribute to the former USSR. Manifold representations of Soviet leaders, depictions of hammer and sickle, collections of Soviet cars, watches, postcards, as well as computer games, blogs and anime stylised as Soviet – this is far from a full list of images presenting the Soviet epoch on the Web. Yet, there are even more similar instances that may at first sight look absurd to the viewer, such as, for example, “Stalin vs. Hitler” comic strip or the online mini-series “Epoch: Made in USSR.” While the diversity of digital Soviet images is striking, their presence on the Web is not accidental: they generate and support public memory of the Communist era in the new media sphere. This thesis studies digital Soviet imagery as a form of remembrance, reconstruction and re-evaluation of the Soviet past. In other words, it explores different ways of how one recalls, understands and reinterprets that fascinating and controversial period of Russian history through web-based representations. The project also answers broader questions of why, in the twenty-first century, Soviet memory entered the digital field and, subsequently, how new communication technologies have turned into a suitable means for circulating notions related to the Communist epoch. As users bring more and more Soviet images online, the number and variety of digital commemorative practices related to the Soviet period increases. In this thesis, I test the limits of such ‘memoryscape’, while investigating different patterns of remembrance of the Communist legacy on the Internet. For this purpose, I examine four hitherto unexplored vehicles of digital Soviet memory: online visual archives of the Soviet past created and contributed to by common users, the Virtual Museum of the Gulag set up by the Memorial Society, Soviet propaganda posters appropriated as Internet memes, and the series of images Stalin is like created for a campaign to promote knowledge of Stalinist terror. Using these ii examples, I inquire into how images construct different visions of the Soviet past, ranging from its idealistic portrayal to ironic and even traumatic representation. iii Acknowledgements Completing this thesis would not have been possible without support of many people and institutions that helped me throughout my doctoral journey. I am immensely grateful to my supervisors Dr Evgeny Pavlov and Dr Sue Tait. I can’t express how fortunate I was to have these professors, who encouraged me all the time and helped staying on the right track whenever I was in doubt. Not only were our meetings always productive, but also inspiring: they gave me extra motivation, so that I felt enthusiastic about my work after leaving the discussion room. My sincere appreciation goes to my senior supervisor Evgeny for his guidance and continuous support, which enabled me to complete this project on time. With his expertise in Soviet history and cultural studies, Evgeny helped me to develop my own approach to the subject, as he provided invaluable feedback at all stages of my research. I am also deeply thankful to my supervisor Sue for her kind assistance, thoughtful comments and advice that she gave throughout my project. With her knowledge of new media and visual culture, Sue contributed greatly to many aspects of this thesis, which is very much appreciated. I am grateful to my parents Victoria and Vladimir, and to my grandparents Nina and Jury for their unconditional love and support of everything that I do or aspire to do in life. I know how much they miss me when I am that far, but I appreciate the freedom of choice that they always been giving me. Their help, understanding and persistent optimism mean a lot for me. My warmest thanks goes to my friends in Russia. Ira, Kolya, Chris, Olya, Nina, thank you for being so true, compassionate and caring about my problems all these years. I can feel your support over thousand miles. A special thanks to Ira, who flew over to see me here in Christchurch in March 2014 and whom I have been knowing for more than ten years now. My PhD would have never been such a positive and joyful experience without friends that I made in New Zealand. While being away from home, I was lucky to meet people who iv kept me motivated, uplifted and happy overall. Michelle, Jessica, Claire, Philip, Angela, Jasmine, Sonam, Ganesh, Manuel, Kathy, Larry, Ann, thank you for all the awesome get- togethers, trips, hikes and laughter that we had. I draw much of my energy and inspiration from you. I am appreciative to the University of Canterbury for the doctoral scholarship that it granted to support my research. I would also like to thank this institution for all its wonderful facilities, including the library, the RecCentre, postgraduate study rooms and student services. It was a pleasure doing the project in such lively and supportive environment. v Note on Transliteration Russian names and titles have been transliterated in accordance with the Modified Library of Congress system, except for well-known names (e.g. Trotsky, Yeltsin, Nevsky, Yaroslav the Wise, Pozharsky, Gennady Zyuganov, Felix Dzerzhinsky, Lubyanka Square, Yury Luzhkov, Isaak Dunayevsky, “Yabloko,” Grigory Yavlinsky, Mayakovsky, Solzhenitsyn, Yezhov, ‘stiob’, etc.) in which case the common English spelling has been used. vi Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... iv Note on Transliteration .................................................................................. vi Introduction i. Soviet Images on the Web .............................................................. 1 ii. Research Objective .......................................................................... 4 iii. Research Questions and Hypotheses ............................................... 8 iv. Theoretical Framework ................................................................. 12 v. Originality of Research .................................................................. 20 vi. Thesis Overview and Structure ..................................................... 24 Chapter One | Public Recall in the Age of Digital Communication: Media Memory 1.1. Memory and Postmodern Society ............................................ 27 1.2. On Media Memory 1.2.1. The Problem of Definition .................................................. 36 1.2.2. New Media .......................................................................... 42 1.2.3. The Dynamics of Media Memory ....................................... 51 1.2.4. Media Memory and the Collective Pasts ............................. 61 Chapter Two | Soviet Memory 2.1. The Current State of the Soviet Memory ................................. 76 2.2. The Past under State Control: The Politics of Memory during the First Half of the USSR’s Existence ............................................................... 81 2.3. Late Socialism and the Emergence of Counter-Memory ....... 92 2.4. Denouncing the Soviet Past during the Yeltsin Era ............... 103 2.5. Creating a Usable Past in Today’s Russia ............................. 114 Chapter Three | Online Visual Archives of the Soviet Past 3.1. Introduction ............................................................................ 132 3.2. Interactive Remembering ....................................................... 136 vii 3.3. The Power of Images .............................................................. 142 3.4. Idealisation, Mythologisation and Nostalgia for ‘All Things Soviet’ ................................................................................................ 151 3.5. Archiving Post-Soviet Memory Online .................................. 158 Chapter Four | The Virtual Museum of the Gulag 4.1. Introduction ............................................................................. 169 4.2. The Soviet Tragedy ................................................................ 175 4.3. The Museum’s Functions ....................................................... 184 4.4. The Museum’s Collections ..................................................... 187 4.5. Images of Trauma ................................................................... 192 4.6. Preserving Evidence of the Soviet Terror .............................. 196 4.7. Reconstructing Narratives of the Gulag ................................. 202 4.8. Conclusion .............................................................................. 212 Chapter Five | Creative Transformations of Soviet Memory 5.1. Introduction .............................................................................. 216 5.2. Transforming the Soviet Past on the Web ............................... 219 5.2.1. The Drive of Post-Soviet Memory .................................... 220 5.2.2. The Drive of Digital Culture ............................................. 224 5.3. Soviet Propaganda Posters