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Species and Community Profiles 1 Plants Plant Communities marsh areas. As these tidal waters recede, organic mate- Plants of Shallow Subtidal Habitat rials are transported downslope to tidal flats where they become food sources for millions of detritus-feeding in- and Tidal Flats vertebrates. (with an emphasis on eelgrass) The environmental conditions of shallow subtidal areas and tidal flats are stongly influenced by suspended Laura A. Hanson sediments. In general, the San Francisco Bay Estuary has high concentrations of suspended sediments (Hanson Introduction and Walton 1988). This suspended particulate matter There are about 200,000 acres of shallow subtidal habi- is comprised of 70 - 97% non-organic sediment made tat and tidal flats in San Francisco Bay, San Pablo Bay, up of silty clay; the remaining content is comprised of and Suisun Bay. Of this area, approximately 171,000 living and other organic matter (Conomos and Peterson acres are subtidal habitat and about 29,000 acres are tidal 1977). Suspended sediment concentrations are influ- flats. While relatively simple in terms of species diver- enced by wind speed, substrate, particle size, wave ac- sity, the plant communities that occur in these areas are tion, current velocity, tidal action, water depth and sea- important components of the estuarine ecosystem. sonal runoff (Cyrus and Blaber 1987). Human activities Although this paper describes the plant commu- such as type of land use (Kemp et al. 1983), channel nities of shallow subtidal habitat and tidal flats, it focuses dredging (LaSalle 1988, Hanson and Walton 1988), on the eelgrass (Zostera marina) community. For more construction and use of marinas and ferry terminals, and detailed information on the other plant communities propeller wash (Walker et al. 1989, Thom and Shreffler (primarily microalgae and macroalgae) that occur in the 1995) can also affect water clarity. shallow subtidal areas and on tidal flats of the San Fran- Total suspended solids (TSS) in Suisun and San cisco Bay Estuary, please refer to Silva (1979), Nichols Pablo bays average between 50 mg/l in the summer to and Pamatmat (1988), Meiorin et al. (1991), and Her- 200 mg/l in the winter (Nichols and Pamatmat 1988). bold et al. (1992). In North Bay and Central Bay, tides can have a signifi- cant influence on sediment resuspension, particularly Environmental Setting during spring tides and during the ebbs preceding lower low water when the current speeds are highest. Shallow subtidal areas and tidal flats are defined by their Central Bay – characterized by cold, saline, and rela- elevation in relation to tidal height. The shallow subtidal tively clear ocean water – has the lowest TSS concen- range includes the areas between mean lower low water trations, at 10 to 60 mg/l. South San Francisco Bay (MLLW) and the approximate bathymetric contour 18 has slightly higher TSS concentrations than Central feet below MLLW. Tidal flats generally occur between Bay (O’Connor 1991). the mean tide level (MTL), or the lower elevation limit Salinity levels vary depending on season, weather, of Spartina (cordgrass) flats, to about 2.5 feet below amount of diverted fresh water, and location in the Bay. MLLW. Tidal flat composition can include various com- In general, salinity levels within the water column and binations of clay, silt, sand, shell fragments, and organic within tidal flats increase along a gradient from the Delta debris. Daily tidal cycles submerge and expose tidal flat to the Golden Gate. For example, the salinity in Suisun surfaces twice every 24.8 hours. During each tidal cycle, Bay averages about seven parts per thousand (ppt), and tidal flats are also exposed to fluctuating wave action, in Central Bay it averages about 30 ppt (Fox et al. 1991). current velocities, and nutrient supply. Where tidal During dry years, South Bay averages salinity levels up marshes still exist, incoming tides flood into the upper to 35 ppt. Chapter 1 — Plant Communities 1 Intertidal and Subtidal Plant Communities The shallow subtidal areas and tidal flats of the San Fran- cisco Bay Estuary support relatively few plant commu- nities. These communities include diatoms and other Plants microalgae, macroalgae, and eelgrass. Microalgae form the basis for the estuarine food web. These algae, consisting of diatoms and blue-green algae, often form dense patches on tidal flats, creating a brown hue to the substrate surface during low tide. Mi- croalgae and settled phytoplankton represent a readily available food source for creatures, such as worms and clams, within the mudflats (Nichols and Pamatmat 1988). Shorebirds and waterfowl then consume these creatures. Macroalgae (seaweeds) are also found throughout the Estuary, particularly in the more saline areas. Few macroalgae can make the necessary adjustments in in- Laura Hanson ternal water and mineral content to survive at low salin- Uprooted Zostera marina from intertidal zone off of ity levels. The exceptions include Gracilaria sjoestedtii, Alameda shroreline. Leaves may be 1.5–12 mm wide Enteromorpha spp. and the closely related Ulva spp. G. and up to 15 meters in length. sjoestedtii is usually found from the mid-intertidal to the shallow subtidal zone attached to rocks partially buried system functions to stabilize the soft bottom. Its leaves in coarse sand. It also grows attached to small bits of clam slow currents and dampen wave action, causing sedi- and oyster shell in muddy portions of the Bay. In such ment and organic material to accumulate. Z. marina situations, the plants and associated substrata are easily is found in intertidal areas, becoming exposed during moved by currents and wave action. Enteromorpha and the lower spring tides; it also occurs in subtidal areas Ulva form bright green patches and can occur in great at depths less than one to two meters below MLW abundance throughout the intertidal zone, often grow- (Kitting 1994). ing on any available hard substrate. Enteromorpha can be found occupying higher tidal zones where shade is Historic and Modern Distribution (of available. It is especially prevalent on boat hulls, buoys, Eelgrass) docks, and woodwork. Ulva occupies the lower tidal zones, completing its life cycle in a few weeks and vary- Information on historic distribution of Zostera marina ing its distribution over a short time period. These kinds in the San Francisco Bay Estuary is very limited. San of macroalgae often undergo seasonal cycles of abun- Francisco Bay may have supported extensive Z. marina dance, becoming common in the warmer months and meadows in the past. (Setchell 1929, Wyllie-Echev- virtually disappearing in colder months. Maximum erria and Rutten 1989). Low light availability within abundance occurs in late summer and early fall (Jones the water column has been found to limit the devel- and Stokes Associates, Inc. 1981). Many species of Ulva opment of extensive eelgrass meadows and may be the are often common in heavily polluted areas because they principal cause of eelgrass decline in San Francisco can use ammonia as a nitrogen source and are generally Bay (Alpine and Cloern 1988, Zimmerman et al. tolerant of organic and metal pollution (Dawson and 1991). Foster 1982). In the absence of eelgrass, Ulva can pro- In 1989, Wyllie-Echeverria and Rutten pub- vide a preferred habitat for several invertebrate species lished the first survey on the distribution of Zostera ma- (Sogard and Able 1991). rina in San Francisco Bay (including San Pablo Bay) and Eelgrass (Zostera marina) is currently the only mapped a total of 316 acres (Table 1.1). As Table 1.2 seagrass found in San Francisco Bay. Belying its com- and Figure 1.1 show, the per area abundance of eelgrass mon name, it is not a grass but is a flowering plant that within San Francisco Bay is much less than that of has adapted to living submerged in the shallow waters Humboldt Bay or Tomales Bay, two other northern Cali- of protected bays and estuaries in temperate regions of fornia estuaries. the world (Den Hartog 1970, Phillips and Menez 1988). The 1989 Wyllie-Echeverria and Rutten survey de- Z. marina reproduces both sexually through pollination scribed the Zostera marina populations as “ patchy” and of seeds, and asexually through a rhizome meristem that some as “ stressed.” Since that time a few of these beds extends through the sediments (Setchell 1929). Where have increased in size, and new patches have been sited abundant, Z. marina’s dense, matted root and rhizome (Kitting 1993 and pers. comm.). 2 Baylands Ecosystem Species and Community Profiles Table 1.1 Acreage of Individual Eelgrass Beds in Macroalgae and eelgrass provide food, shelter, and San Francisco/San Pablo Bay in 1989 spawning grounds for many Bay fish and invertebrates. The major subtidal spawning areas for Clupea harengus Plants Location Acres (Pacific herring), recently the most valuable fishery in California, are Richardson Bay and the large shallow area San Pablo Bay 124 between Richmond and Oakland. In these areas, spawn- Point Orient 3 ing occurs predominantly on Gracilaria ssp. and small Naval Supply Depot 12 patches of Zostera marina (Spratt 1981). When available, Point Molate Beach 26 C. harengus preferentially uses Z. marina habitats for Toll Plaza, East 0.5 spawning (Taylor 1964, Spratt 1981). Toll Plaza, West 0.5 Zostera marina beds support a variety of organisms, Point Richmond, North 7 more than that of non-vegetated areas (van Montfrans Point Richmond, South 4 et al. 1984, Kitting 1993, Hanson 1997). Z. marina Richmond Breakwater, North 18 roots and leaves provide habitat for many plants and Richmond Breakwater, South 7 animals. For example, the long blade-like shoots provide Emeryville 13 shelter and serve as a nursery ground for many fish spe- Alameda 55 cies. Small plants (epiphytes) and animals (epizoites) at- Bay Farm, North 2 tach to the leaves, motile animals find cover between the Bay Farm, South 4 leaves, and burrowing animals live among the roots.
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