The Art of Christian Egypt with Monuments from The

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THE ART OF CHRISTIAN EGYPT WITH

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Krzysztof Babraj

It must be explained why the title says “the art of Christian Egypt” and not “Coptic art”, particularly considering the fact that some monuments from the Archaeological Museum in Krakow which are discussed later were previously categorised using the broader term of “Coptic art.”

The term “Coptic” has ethnic and religious connotations and is usually used to refer to the Christians of Egypt. The name of this group comes from the Greek name Aigyptos (Arabic: qbt or qft) from which the first diphthong was eliminated (because in the Arabic language, vowels and diphthongs never occur at the beginning of a word). The name was first used in the 7th century by Arabs with reference to all residents of conquered Egypt. Over time, the term was to distinguish the Christian residents of the country on the Nile from the Muslims. The Greek word Aigyptos is undoubtedly a form of the Pharaoh name Het-Ka-Ptah, which literally means “House of the Spirit of Ptah” and refers to an ancient temple in Memphis. Finally, the term “Coptic” reached Europe from Muslim Egypt through travellers of the 17th and 18th centuries and was mainly used to refer to Christians of Egyptian origin. However, the name may also indicate a period in the history of Egypt from the 4th to the mid-7th century (that is, until the Arab conquest) or the Egyptian population of that time, no matter whether Christian or pagan. Another meaning of the term is the Christian ritual of the church in Egypt and Ethiopia1.

Without going into deeper considerations, it should be emphasised that the trend in con- temporary literature is to depart from using the term “Coptic art.” In the 1980s, 1990s and earlier, only this term was used even though it seems not to be so obvious or unambigu- ous. A reference should be made to the research by the outstanding expert on the period, Laszlo Török, who presents a clear view on the matter in the paper entitled Transfigurations of Hellenism, Aspects of Late Antique Art in Egypt AD 250–700, and I agree with his standpo- int. Let us consider this extract from Török’s paper:

“[…] Egyptian art from the period between mid-3rd and late 7th century is quoted in literature as »Late Antique« (ca. 250–800), so the art of the period should be defined with the use of the same term. If we take a closer look at the individual monuments or groups of them and then put them in a historical context, the term »Late Antique« refers to the

1 P. du Bourguet SJ, Sztuka Koptów [The Art of the Copts], Warszawa 1991, pp. 5–6; W. Myszor, Chrześcijaństwo koptyjskie przed inwazją islamu [Coptic Christianity before the Islamic invasion] [in:] Kościoły wschodnie [Eastern churches], J. Drabina (ed.). Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego MCCXXXVII, Studia Religiologica, z. 32, Kraków 1999, pp. 11–12. [Translator’s note: free translation]

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period between mid-3rd and only mid-5th century, and is followed by the Early Byzan-

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LITERY WPISANE SĄ W OTWARTĄ FORMĘ OPARTĄ O KOŁO MAJĄCĄ BUDZIĆ SKOJARZENIA ZE ZNAKIEM @. century to the Arab conquest (639–646) and the culture of Egyptian Christians after the DO ZAPROJEKTOWANIA LOGOTYPU WYKORZYSTANO KRÓJ PISMA FF DIN ROUND PODKREŚLAJĄCY ZWIĄZEK PROJEKTU Z NOWOCZESNĄ TECHNOLOGIĄ. Arab conquest of Egypt is covered by the general term »Coptic« (culture). In etymologi- cal terms, this term comes from Arabic but was borrowed from Greek; the Greek word, in turn, originates from the Egyptian language. »Coptic« is also used to refer to the Monophysite church of Egypt and the art of the period. The author of this

Aleksandria Abu Sir chapter claims that »Coptic art« should relate only to the proper art of the Copts Abu Mena ś th ś ś which reached its peak in the first half of the 20 century. In a different context ś Wadi El Natum ś – with reference to Antiquity – one should use the chronological terminology, Kair Giza so: »the art of Late Antique« / »Early Byzantine art«, without ethnic or religious Sakkar Nil correlations.”2

U stóp góry Fajum Swietej Katarzyny i góry Synaj

El Naqlun a t o

a The elements that comprise this art include, above all, earlier pagan art which

Nil S u e s k a encompassed components created based on local Egyptian, Hellenistic and Abu Fana Roman traditions. The art of Christian Egypt was not created in isolation but re- Deir Abu Hennes mained an inherent feature of the aforementioned cultures. It is hard to establish to what extent it borrowed from the aesthetics of earlier cultures and to what extent it remained a separate phenomenon. The period between the 4th and the th Deir el-Ahmar 8 centuries saw its heyday. The establishment of Christian monasticism by the Deir el-Abiad Faw Quibli Suchadż Copts is considered to be one of the greatest contributions to the development 3 Teby of Christian culture .

Nil

Between the 3rd and the 4th centuries, Egyptian art experienced competition between two different influences: one originating from the Hellenistic and Roman tradition and the other which was a local Egyptian trend with shades of Nabataean

Asuan Deir Abu Hadra art. It is highly likely that pagan steles from Kom Abou Billou (Greek: Terenuthis),

Nil dating back to AD 268-340, are among the oldest examples of the early stage of development of local Coptic art4. The Archaeological Museum in Krakow has a collection of nine steles belonging to monuments brought from Egypt by the Polish Army soldiers who fought in the Middle East and Egypt during World War II.

2 Ibid., pp.XXV–XXVII. 3 See: map – selected monastic centres – Wadi Natrun, Abu Mena, Medinet-el-Fayum oasis – Naqlun monastery, Deir Abu Hennes, Red Monastery, the White Monastery, Christian cemetery in the Kharga Selected monastic el-Bagawat oasis, the Monastery of St. Simeon near the Philae Island, the Monasteries of St. Anthony centres in Ancient and St. Paul on the Red Sea. An interesting outline of Coptic Christianity is provided by Rev. W. Myszor, Chrześcijaństwo koptyjskie przed inwazją islamu [Coptic Christianity before the Islamic invasion] [in:] Egipt Kościoły Wschodnie [Eastern churches], J. Drabina (ed.), Universitas Iagellonica Acta Scientiarum Litterarumque MCCXXXVII, Studia Religiologica, fasc. XXXII, pp. 11–32. One should also refer to the numerous works by Prof. Ewa Wipszycka-Bravo, a renowned expert on Egyptian monasticism. It should also be added that Polish scientists specialising in this discipline have an esteemed position globally, with other eminent representatives, e.g. Prof. Włodzimierz Godlewski, Tomasz Derda and Adam Łajtar. 4 A description of the cemetery, the time when it was built and dating back to Christian times, cf.: W. Godlewski, Egipskie stele nagrobne z okresu rzymskiego w zbiorach Muzeum Narodowego w Warszawie [Egyptian tomb steles from the Roman period in the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw], Rocznik Muzeum Narodowego w Warszawie 1985, pp. 235–252.

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Three of these steles (Stela of Bes from Kom Abou Billou http://

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LITERY WPISANE SĄ W OTWARTĄ FORMĘ OPARTĄ O KOŁO MAJĄCĄ BUDZIĆ SKOJARZENIA ZE ZNAKIEM @. AS/1447, Stela of woman from Kom Abou Bilou http://muzea. DO ZAPROJEKTOWANIA LOGOTYPU WYKORZYSTANO KRÓJ PISMA FF DIN ROUND PODKREŚLAJĄCY ZWIĄZEK PROJEKTU Z NOWOCZESNĄ TECHNOLOGIĄ. malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/5257090, Fragment of stela with three figures from Kom Abou Bilouhttp://muzea. malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/5257688) were made in the iconographic tradition resembling those of the Kom Abou Billou necropolis. They were purchased from the Museum of Cairo and were probably discovered in Abydos, Upper Egypt. The origin of the other six objects is unknown. However, based on the iconography it can be said that there is high probability that they came from Kom Abou Billou5.

Architecture

The oldest known sacred Christian buildings in which liturgy was performed date back to the late 4th and early 5th century. Basilicas with a triple apse presbytery arranged in various configurations were predominant among them. The interior was divided into three aisles with a colonnade. Over the presbytery, there may have been a cupola. The oldest such examples of structures of this type can be the Red Monastery (Deir el-Ahmar) and the White Monastery (Deir el-Abiad) near Sahag. Other examples worth mentioning include the church in the Ptolemaic temple in Taposiris Magna in Arab Abou Sir near Ale- xandria and the church built into the temple of Amon in Luxor and other. It seems that the most important sacred facility was the architectural complex in Abu Mena situated close to the coast near Alexandria. In this complex, a martyrium based on a tetrapylon, which was incorporated into a three-aisle basilica constructed during the time of Bishop Athanasius the Great, was built above the hypo- geum of St. Menas.

Monastic art

Initially, anchorites6 lived in hermitages in desert rocks in Egypt. They sometimes adapted Egyptian tombs or rooms in temples. Up until today, traces of their activity have been left

5 H. Szymańska-Wasylewska, Stele z Kom Abou Billou w Muzeum Archeologicznym w Krakowie [Steles from Kom Abou Billou in the Archaeological Museum in Krakow], Studia Archeologiczne 4, Uniwersytet Warszawski 1985, pp. 279–292. 6 Anchoretism (Greek: ἀναχωρέω – to retire from the world) was an ascetic movement popular in the period of early Christianity. Anchorites were hermits who spent their lives in total seclusion as a form of mortification and unity with God.

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in the form of various graffiti paintings, inscriptions or papyrus. They often painted on

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LITERY WPISANE SĄ W OTWARTĄ FORMĘ OPARTĄ O KOŁO MAJĄCĄ BUDZIĆ SKOJARZENIA ZE ZNAKIEM @. related to Christianity. Some of the most famous monastic complexes include, for example, DO ZAPROJEKTOWANIA LOGOTYPU WYKORZYSTANO KRÓJ PISMA FF DIN ROUND PODKREŚLAJĄCY ZWIĄZEK PROJEKTU Z NOWOCZESNĄ TECHNOLOGIĄ. Kellia on the western side of the Nile Delta or the monastery of St. Apollo in Bawit dating back to the late 5th or early 6th century. The latter is characterised by a large number of paintings diversified in iconographic terms, which are found in numerous prayer niches. One should also mention the monastery of St. Jeremiah in Sakkara dating back to the 5th– –6th century, which no longer exists. It contained an interesting representation of Christ’s Ascension with the Mother of God presented centrally. Maria sat on a throne with Baby Jesus and was shown breast-feeding. A tall bishop’s throne made of limestone, is currently being exhibited at the Coptic Museum in Cairo, and also comes from this monastery.

Bishop’s throne, Coptic Museum in Cairo, drawing by Jaro- sław Dobrowolski, Cairo 1986.

Starting from the 7th century, monastic architecture was unified and did not see considerable change. Thus, it did not surprise us with innovative developments. One should also mention the interesting monuments of Coptic Cairo, including the Church of Virgin Mary (“The Hanging Church”), the Church of St. Sergius with the grotto of the Holy Family, the Church of St. Barbara and the monastic complex of St. George.

Sculptures

This kind of art is characterised by a lot of architectural details (capitals, columns, cornices, conchs [semi-domes), friezes, lintels, door frames, etc.). They were mostly made from various types of stone and were characterised by deep relief. Patterns for individual elements were derived from nature. A wide array of floral motifs were used, for example lotus flowers, grapevine, acanthus leaves, foliated scrolls, or palmettes. The heyday of these elements was during the period of the 4th-6th centuries and later this form of art was schematised. Also, tomb steles can be categorised as architectural details. A fragment of such a monument can be found in the Archaeological Museum in Krakow (http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/5257752 and MAK/ AS/1445)7. It presents a large number of symbolic motifs used in tomb art. The stele is ornamented with a dove with a branch, a frequent motif in the Christian art, symbolising the Holy Spirit.

7 E.g. K. Babraj, H. Szymańska, Bogowie starożytnego Egiptu (The gods of Ancient Egypt), Muzeum Archeologiczne w Krakowie, Kraków 2000, gloss no. 132.

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Fabrics

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LITERY WPISANE SĄ W OTWARTĄ FORMĘ OPARTĄ O KOŁO MAJĄCĄ BUDZIĆ SKOJARZENIA ZE ZNAKIEM @. Fabrics were well preserved from the areas of central and so- DO ZAPROJEKTOWANIA LOGOTYPU WYKORZYSTANO KRÓJ PISMA FF DIN ROUND PODKREŚLAJĄCY ZWIĄZEK PROJEKTU Z NOWOCZESNĄ TECHNOLOGIĄ. uthern Egypt thanks to the dry climate and they are particularly well represented works of art in museums. They were made using the following techniques: kilim weaving, reed weaving, comb weaving and soumak weaving. The predominant motif in the oldest fabrics dating back to the late 4th and early 5th century was the representation of mythological themes. Later, a whole array of motifs borrowed from the Bible (both the Old and the New Testament) was used. Decorations also used floral patterns abundantly or variations thereof. The Archaeological Museum in Krakow is in the possession of a small collection of fabrics gathered in Egypt by the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade; the most precious of these are the exhibits with inven- tory numbers MAK/AS/2244 http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/ obiekty/-/a/26804/11398668 and MAK/AS/1469 http://muzea. malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/11837604 9.

The development of the Christian art of Egypt after the Arab conquest significantly weakened or even experienced a regres- sion. Artists were isolated and worked in closed enclaves. Yet new cultural centres or centres known from the earlier times were reactivated. This art also embraced a folk character. Due to the limited size of this paper, I will not mention icons, illuminated manuscripts or ceramics which had interesting forms and decorations. The aforementioned art had a huge influence on the Christian art of Ethiopia or Nubia.

Selected bibliography:

• Babraj K., Szymańska H., Bogowie starożytnego Egiptu (The Gods of Ancient Egypt), Muzeum Archeologiczne w Krakowie, Kraków 2000. • Capuani M., Meinardus O.F.A., Rutschowscaya M.-H., Gabra G. (ed.), Christian Egypt: Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2002. • Farag L.M. (ed.), The Coptic Christian Heritage. History Faith and Culture, Routledge, New York 2014. • Gabra G., Coptic Monasteries: Egypt’s Monastic Art and Architecture, The American Universi-

8 E. Jastrzębowska, Mythological and Biblical Heroes of Christians in Egypt [in:] Etudes et Travaux XXVI, 2013, pp. 339-345, questions the interpretation of this scene presented by K. Babraj in: K. Babraj, H. Szymańska, op. cit., gloss no. 133. Jastrzębowska claims that here we probably have God speaking to Adam shown in a gesture of prayer and this was to be a scene from Paradise before Adam committed the original sin. Babraj sustains his opinion included in the catalogue mentioned above. A broader response is prepared in a separate article. 9 K. Babraj, H. Szymańska, op. cit., gloss no. 125.

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ty in Cairo, Cairo 2002. • Gabra G., Christianity and Monasticism in the Fayoum Oasis, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2005.

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LITERY WPISANE SĄ W OTWARTĄ FORMĘ OPARTĄ O KOŁO MAJĄCĄ BUDZIĆ SKOJARZENIA ZE ZNAKIEM @. University in Cairo, Cairo 2007. DO ZAPROJEKTOWANIA LOGOTYPU WYKORZYSTANO KRÓJ PISMA FF DIN ROUND PODKREŚLAJĄCY ZWIĄZEK PROJEKTU Z NOWOCZESNĄ TECHNOLOGIĄ. • Gabra G., The Illustrated Guide to the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2007. • Gabra G., Treasures of Coptic Art in the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2007. • Gabra G., Historical Dictionary of the Coptic Church (Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philo- sophies, and Movements…), American University in Cairo, Cairo 2008. • Gabra G. (ed.), Coptic Civilization. Two Thousand Years of Christianity in Egypt, American Uni- versity in Cairo, Cairo 2014. • Gabra G., Ludwig C. (eds.), Sherif S. (photographer), The Churches of Egypt: From the Jour- ney of the Holy Family to the Present Day, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2007. • Gabra G. (author), Ludwig C. (ed.), Jackson M. (ed.), Sherif S. (photographer), The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2013. • Gabra G., Abdel S., Cairo: The Coptic Museum & Old Churches, American University in Cairo, Cairo 1993. • Gabra G., Takla H.N. (eds.), Christianity and Monasticism in Upper Egypt, vol. 1: Akhmim and Sohag, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2008. • Kamil J., Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide (2nd ed.), American University in Cairo, Cairo 1999. • Meinardus O.F.A., Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (2nd ed.), American University in Cairo, Cairo 1999. • Meinardus O.F.A., Christian Egypt Ancient and Modern, American University in Cairo. Cairo 1977. • Perry P., Jesus in Egypt: Discovering the Secrets of Christ’s Childhood Years, Ballantine Books, New York 2003. • Aziz S.A. (ed.), The Coptic Encyclopedia, vol. 1–8, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York 1991. • Török L., Transfigurations of Hellenism: Aspects of Late Antique Art in Egypt AD 250–700, Brill, Leiden, Boston 2005. • Zibawi M., Images de l’Egypte chrétienne. Iconologie copte, Paris, Picard 2003. • Zibawi M., Préface de Christian Cannuyre, Paris, Picard 2005.

Links to the Christian art of Egypt [Retrieved: 14.07.2014]: • Selected monuments of Coptic art from the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw, a history of the collection: http://www.mnw.art.pl/kolekcje/zbiory-studyjne/zbiory- sztuki-starozytnej-i-wschodniochrzescijanskiej/kolekcja-sztuki-koptyjskiej/ • The website of the Museum of Coptic Art in Cairo, information on the history of the museum and the culture of the Copts: http://www.coptic-cairo.com/museum/museum. html • A presentation of the Coptic Museum and its exhibits: https://www.youtube.com/wat-

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ch?v=suiFcUHUa1E http://easternchristianbooks.blogspot.com/2013/10/coptic-christian-heritage.html • A presentation of the book which is a comprehensive introduction to Coptic heritage:

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LITERY WPISANE SĄ W OTWARTĄ FORMĘ OPARTĄ O KOŁO MAJĄCĄ BUDZIĆ SKOJARZENIA ZE ZNAKIEM @. 1: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coptic_Egypt_in_the_Louvre_-_ DO ZAPROJEKTOWANIA LOGOTYPU WYKORZYSTANO KRÓJ PISMA FF DIN ROUND PODKREŚLAJĄCY ZWIĄZEK PROJEKTU Z NOWOCZESNĄ TECHNOLOGIĄ. Room_1 • Selected bibliography on the Copts and Coptic fabrics: http://www.iub.edu/~iuam/onli- ne_modules/coptic/biblio.html • Various monuments of Coptic art: https://www.google.pl/search?q=metropolitan+mu seum+of+art+new+york+coptic&newwindow=1&sa=N&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=u niv&ei=rxqjU5qhB5Cp7Ab8zICQAw&ved=0CIsBELAEOAo&biw=1366&bih=651 • Extensive bibliography for studies on the culture of the Copts: Coptic_Studies_Biblio- graphy.Title_List_Owned_by_AUC.c.3.LM.LATEST

• Projekt graficzny i wykonanie: Anna Zabdyrska • Prezentacja interaktywna: Igor Szelest • Redakcja: Kinga Kołodziejska

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