INFORMATION TO USERS
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.
University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600
O rder Number 9505146
Children’s drawings in Saudi Arabia: A comparative study between the drawings of Saudi children who have lived in the United States and Saudi children who have never resided outside Saudi Arabia
Aldoyhi, Moharnmed Hussein Abdullah, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University, 1994
Copyright ©1994 by Aldoyhi, Mohammed Hussein Abdullah. All rights reserved.
UMI 300 N. ZeebRd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS IN SAUDI ARABIA: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN THE DRAWINGS OF SAUDI CHILDREN WHO HAVE LIVED
IN THE UNITED STATES AND SAUDI CHILDREN WHO HAVE NEVER RESIDED OUTSIDE SAUDI ARABIA
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Mohammed Hussein Abdullah Aldoyhi
The Ohio State University
1994
Dissertation Committee: Approved by Dr. Kenneth Marantz
Dr. Arthur Efland Dr. Patricia Stuhr Advisor ^ Department of Art Education Copyright© by Mohammed Hussein Abdullah Aldoyhi 1994 To my parents, my wife, and my children
for their love and patience and the joy they bring to my life ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Kenneth Marantz for the encouragement, guidance and direction he provided throughout the process and stages involved in writing this dissertation; without his help the completion of this study would not have been possible. Also, I wish to extend my thanks and appreciation to the members of my advisory committee, Dr. Arthur Efland and Dr. Patricia Stuhr for the council and encouragement they provided. VITA
Oct. 10, 1952 Born - O. Sedain, Saudi Arabia
1979 ...... B.A., King Saud University (previously Riyadh University) Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
1979-1980 .... Teaching Assistant, The Art Education Department at Riyadh University 1981-1994 .... Member of the National Art Education Association (United States)
1984 ..... M.A. Art Education, The Art Education Department of Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
1986 ...... Co-Founding Member of The Saudi Art Education Association
Field of Study
Major Field: Art Education
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii VITA ...... iii LIST OF TABLES...... vi LIST OF PICTURES...... vii
CHAPTER PAGE I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM...... 1
Introduction ...... 1 Need for the S t u d y ...... 2 Significance of the Study ...... 6 Statement of the Problem ...... 7 Research Questions ...... 17 Limitations of the S t u d y ...... 18 Structure of the I n q u i r y ...... 19
II. SAUDI ARABIA: EDUCATION, STATUS OF ART EDUCATION AND ISLAM AND A R T ...... 22 Introduction ...... 22 Education in Saudi Arabia ...... 23 Status of Art Education...... 37 Islam and A r t ...... 38 Role of the Artist and Value of Art . . . 47 Summary...... 52 III. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 54
Introduction ...... 54 Children's A r t ...... 57 Cross-Cultural Studies in Art Education . 65
v CHAPTER PAGE
IV. METHODOLOGY AND DATA T R E A T M E N T ...... 78
Introduction - Content Analysis ...... 78 Study Subjects...... 80 Pr o c ed ure...... 84 M a t e r i a l s ...... 87 V a r i a b l e s ...... 88 Data Collection and T r e a t m e n t ...... 95 Student Data Sheets...... 95 Data Tally Sheets...... 95 Data Collection...... 96 Group/Grade Level Collection Sheet . 97 Group Data Collection S h e e t ...... 97 All Subjects Data Collection Sheet . 97
V. DATA ANALYSIS...... 99 Part One: Statistical Method and Result S u m m a ries ...... 99 Introduction ...... 99 Statistical Method and Hypothesis . . . .102 Part Two: Interpretation of Data by Variable .107
Human Figures...... 107 Male and Female D r e s s ...... 108 R e l i g i o n ...... 114 Celebration...... 123 War and C o n f l i c t ...... 129 Landscape 13 5 Buildings...... 144 M a c h i n e s ...... 154 Leisure...... 158 W o r k ...... 158 Aesthetics...... 164 P l a n t s ...... 168 Animals...... 170 O t h e r ...... 171
VI. REFLECTIONS...... 173 Conclusions...... 173 Commentary...... 180 Suggestions for Further Study ...... 182
vi LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1 Saudis Graduating from the U.S. by Level of Study (1981-1988) ...... 35 2 Saudi Graduates from the U.S. by Field of Study 1981-1989 36
3 Number of Student Subjects ...... 83 4 Student Identification Numbers ...... 83 5 Number of Pictures Drawn ...... 86
6 Statistical Parameters, Values and Definitions . 101 7 Summary of Data Results for All Grade Levels. . 106
vii LIST OF PICTURES
PICTURE PAGE
1 Human Figure (Saudi) ...... 112 2 Human Figure (Western) ...... 112
3 Human Figure (Female) ...... 113 4 Islamic Religious Object (Mosque) ...... 120 5 Islamic Religious Object (Holy Mosque in Makkah) ...... 120
6 Islamic Religious Object (Eid Al-Feter) . . 121
7 Christian Religious Object (Halloween) . . . 121 8 Christian Religious Object (Christmas Day) . 122 9 Christian Religious Object (Easter) .... 122
10 Saudi National Dance and Song Celebration . 127 11 Celebration (Saudi Wedding) ...... 127 12 Celebration (Western Birthday) ...... 128
13 Celebration (Western Wedding) ...... 128 14 War and Conflict (Liberation of Kuwait) . . 132
15 War and Conflict (Liberation of Kuwait) . . 132 16 Conflict (Dangers Surrounding the Islamic Holy Religion) ...... 133 17 War and Conflict (Mosque of the Rock in Jerusalem) ...... 134
18 Saudi Landscape ...... 139 19 Saudi Landscape ...... 140
20 Saudi Landscape ...... 140
viii PAGE
American Landscape ...... 141
22 Landscape (Both Saudi and American) . . . . 141
23 American Landscape ...... 142 24 American Landscape ...... 142
25 Saudi Landscape ...... 143 26 Saudi Building ...... 149 27 Saudi Building ...... 149
28 Saudi Building ...... 150 29 Saudi Tent ...... 150 30 Saudi Traditional (Old) Door ...... 151 31 American Building ...... 152
32 American Building ...... 152
33 American Building (The White House) . . . . 153
34 American Building ...... 153
35 Jet Fighter ...... 154 36 C a r ...... 154
37 C a r ...... 156 38 C a r ...... 156 39 King Fahad International Soccer Stadium . . 157
40 Saudi Soccer Match ...... 162 41 American Leisure (MTV) ...... 162 42 Arabic Calligraphy (Aesthetics) ...... 163
43 Arabic Calligraphy (Aesthetics) ...... 166 Arabic Calligraphy (Aesthetics) ...... 166
ix PICTURE PAGE 45 Pure Color (Aesthetics) ...... 167 46 Saudi Plants (Palm Trees) ...... 169
47 Animals (Horse Race) ...... 172 48 Animals (Camels)...... 172
APPENDICES
APPENDIX PAGE
A Saudi Traditional Dress ...... 184
B Saudi Educational Structure ...... 188
C Koranic Passages ...... 194
D Data Collection Sheets ...... 202
E ' Chi-Square Statistical Data Results . . 216
F Official Correspondence ...... 233
LIST OF REFERENCES...... 243
x Map of Saudi Arabia
ARABIAN PENINSULA
!-Ri*aMCluK (E*p»y Qu*rt«r)
Q I N n t n l Zoae
SAUDI
’- ^ , v ' ^ A r a b i a ; , '• ■ • - . - X
Source: Mackey, S. (1987). The Saudis: Inside the teRprt- Kinadom. New York: Meridian.
x.i CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Thousands of students from Saudi Arabia graduated from colleges and universities in the United States during the last 20 years, and thousands of students are still attending these colleges and universities, and many others will arrive in the coming years. Oliver (1987) said: Between the years 1970-80 and 1983-84, the number of students in the United States grew rapidly and then declined. According to the Ministry of Higher Education figures, the numbers of each year were as follows: 6,896 in 1979-80; 8,691 in 1980-81; 9,534 in 1981-82; 7,838 in 1982-83; and 6,550 in 1983-84 (p. 59).
A large number of those students are married and have children. These Saudi children live in the United States, attend American schools, spend their time with their families and American children, and watch American TV. The Saudi Arabian culture is highly different from the American culture and the life that these children live in the United States is very different from what it would be in Saudi Arabia. Many of the parents of those children are wary about the future of their children in terms of the education, religion,
1 and the influence of the American (Western) culture, and are concerned about the cultural shocks that those children might face when they return home to the Saudi culture.
Need for the Study
There is a need to examine the child art of Saudi children who have resided in the United States in order to add to the body of research regarding child art and the cultural influences represented in their works of art. In addition, there is a need to provide a starting point for further research concerning the influence of American culture on Saudi children who have resided in the United States.
Thousands of Saudi children have been exposed to the American culture since the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia began sending its citizens to study abroad, yet there has been no study which examined if and to what extent the American culture has influenced the drawings of these children. There is no literature addressing the cultural factors influencing the details of Saudi children's' drawings when these children are instructed to draw particular subject matter or when they are given a free choice of subject matter. Consequently, no study has made a detailed content analysis comparing the drawings of Saudi children who have resided in the United
States to those children who have never resided outside of
Saudi Arabia to determine whether differences are reflected in their drawings bases on cultural influence. Since so many
Saudi children accompany their parents to the United States and are subject to the influence of a vastly foreign culture there is a need to provide a measurement and interpretation of this influence. The need for this study is further underscored by the fact that research on art education in Saudi Arabia is sparse. As of the submission date of this study, only nine other Saudi research works are available to the art education departments of Saudi universities. The following is a listing and brief summary of these nine works. Alghamedy's (1986) study Investigation of Conditions Affecting Art Teacher Preparation and Art Education Curriculum Implementation in Saudi Arabia identified and investigated the existing problems facing art education in
Saudi Arabia; specifically problems concerning art teachers' preparation.
Al-Zahrani's (1988) study How Policy Stakeholders Perceive the Value and importance of Art Education in Saudi Arabia's Schools investigated the perception of the value and importance of art education and its policy in Saudi Arabia. Resayes's (1989) work Significance of the Development and Emergence of Art and Crafts Museums in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia investigated the issues which structure a framework for the development of arts and crafts museums in the country including the preservation and displaying of works of Arab and Islamic art and culture. Al-Zayer's (1989) research The Effects of Economic and 4
Social Change on Education and Practice of Crafts in the
Arabic Society focused on the effects of social and economic changes which took place during this century in the Arab- Islamic society and presented a descriptive account of crafts in three sites in the Arab world--no Saudi site was selected. Al-Najada's (19 90) work The Status of Art Education
Curricula in Intermediate Schools in Riyadh Area of Saudi Arabia as Perceived bv Art Education Teachers described the status of art education for these schools and identified and described the art education objectives, content, art teaching methods, evaluation methods and teacher training and development. Almasary's (1990) study The Effect of Discipline-Based
Art Education on Students' Aesthetic Awareness was an examination of this type of art education on the aesthetic awareness of junior high school students. Alamound's (1991) research work A Descriptive Study of
Verbal Statements Made bv Saudi Arabian SJfaLldfiflJLfi A b ,ou .t. Islamic and Western Art Objects investigated the cultural
context of the content of student verbal statements about Islamic and Western art objects, and identified the influence of Islamic culture on the content. Bajouda's (1993) study Analysis of Three Islamic Art Historians' Explanation of the Characteristics and Formation of. Islamic Art: Implicationfor Model Development provided and examination and analysis of the characteristics and formation of Islamic art from the point of view and with explanations of three Islamic art historians. Al-namlah's (1994) work Identifying College Students'
Attitudes Toward the Art World in Saudi Arabia examined aspects of Saudi Arabian college students' attitudes toward the art world and determined the relationship between students' attitudes and certain characteristics. All these works have addressed various important issues regarding art education in Saudi Arabia. However, this body of works does not include even one study addressing the art Saudi children produce. The only study to date that begins to address this issue is Aldoyhi's (1984) master's project The Extent to Which Cultural Differences Affect and Control Children's Similarities and Differences in Choice of Subject Matter in Their Drawings which explored if children's drawings reflect their cultural differences. That study examined the effects of the Saudi culture in the drawings of
Saudi children living in Saudi Arabia, the effects of American culture in the drawings of American children, and the effects of the two cultures in the drawings of the Saudi children living in the United States. The current study builds upon and is an outgrowth of that work. Thus, this study's focus on child art makes it a unique, necessary, and significant addition to the growing body of art education research and helps to facilitate the future improvement and development of art education in Saudi Arabia. Significance of the Study This study is the first attempt to examine the drawings of Saudi children who have resided in the United States and subsequently returned to live in their homeland. It is the first to provide a content analysis and systematic examination of the details of Saudi children's drawings and to classify these details along cultural lines (Eastern or Western). It is also the first to provide an analysis of the content of Saudi children's drawings to gauge the impact of exposure to a foreign culture. This study should offer Saudi art educators, parents, and other interested parties a clearer understanding of the influence of the American culture on children who have resided in the United States and help explain why these children have a tendency to draw Western depictions. This study will help future researchers in the field of art education and other disciplines, because it is the first study made about children's drawings in terms of different cultural backgrounds and their influence on the children's drawings in particular. In addition, this study will help those who want to study the problems of Saudi children who have been raised in cultures other than the Saudi culture and who return to reside in their country. For this reason, this study is the first of its kind in
Saudi Arabia. On an even larger scale, this study can help teachers to understand children from different cultural backgrounds and might help them to understand what they may expect from those who come from different ethnic groups or cultures.
Statement of the Problem The study of cultural, environmental, and educational
influences on the artistic development of children's drawings is important to researchers who seek to contribute to a body of evidence which provides new perspectives and understandings on art education. Although research on cross- cultural differences has been done in the United States and elsewhere, little such research has been done in Saudi Arabia on art education, especially the cross-cultural factors influencing children's art and how these children depict the influences in the details of their drawings. This study addressed these important issues by examining and comparing the details of drawings created by a group of children who had resided in the United States with the details of drawings created by a group of children who had never resided outside of Saudi Arabia.
When we compare the way of life that children live in the United States with the way of life that they would live in Saudi Arabia it can be concluded that there are six important points that need to be discussed: 1. Mass media 2. Children's books 3. Cultural differences
4. Family 5. Peer Group 6. Educational systems
Mass Media Mass media refers to the agents or means of communication in a mass society. It includes the print media and the electronic media. "The print media includes books, magazines, and newspapers; and the electronic media includes television, radio and recordings" (Hess, Markson, Stein, 1988, p. 559). Computer information services such as CompuServe, Prodigy, and others can also be considered as part of the electronic media. In the United States television, newspapers, radios, and books are the primary means of entertainment and information for overwhelming majority of the population. "99 percent of
American homes have at least one radio (average: five), and 90 percent have a television set (average: two), which is typically turned on for almost seven hours per day" (Hess,
Markson, Stein, p. 560). Most criticism of the mass media is based on the assumption that what people see and read and hear strongly affects their attitudes and behavior. "An ongoing debate continues over the effects of the media on attitudes and behavior, but there is little evidence that these effects are direct" (Hess, Markson, Stein, p. 582). Indirectly, the 9 media are important in setting agendas and bringing selected issues to public attention. Whether consciously or not, the media reflect certain views of the world and are thus politically and socially important. Television is very much part of most children's lives today. "Studies by Nielsen indicate that the average household has a TV turned on more than seven hours each day. Much of a child's experience comes to them through television" (Hess, Markson, Stein, p. 565). The mass media by the content alone, teach many of the ways of society. The media teaches, if sometimes misleadingly, the norms, values, status positions, attitudes, and institutional foundations. They provide the child with images of what it might be like to be in various relationships and situations. Since children begin watching TV before they can read and before they go to school, and because they spend many hours watching, the medium has been felt to be more significant than the other media. (Elkin and Handel, 1989. pp. 189-192). The intent here has been to express the socializing ability of television and other mass media, not to recite the various studies, many conflicting, that express the positive and/or negative effects of mass medica exposure.
The children in the United States have a variety of television stations which have numerous children's programs. This variety of television stations that broadcast for the 10 whole day, give the children in the United States the chance to find cartoons, children's shows, and many other children's programs as well as many family programs during the whole day. These programs were designed by American specialists for American children and families not necessarily for educational objectives but for business and marketing goals. Many other programs and commercial advertising represent some messages that either are not accepted by the Saudi culture or prohibited by the Islamic religion. For example, beer, wine and all other alcoholic beverages are prohibited by Islam. Many other regular and popular scenes such as kissing, smoking, talking about sex, religious programs, and many other shows and programs are prohibited by Islamic religion and not accepted by the Saudi culture. The Saudi Arabian children who were born in the United
States and stayed for six or seven years, and those who came to the United States and stayed for at least three years were exposed to those television shows and programs during their stay in the United States. These children were far away from their own culture, and had no chance to learn about their culture except through their parents or through their visits to their country for no more than one and a half months every year during the summer holiday. In Saudi Arabia, there are only two television stations that broadcast for 12 hours everyday with very limited children's programming. Most of the cartoons are Arabic 11
cartoons, but there are some American cartoons, Saudi television stations are not allowed to play any movies or programs where there is alcohol, kissing, hugging, ladies with sport dress or revealing clothing. Most of the Saudi television programs are religious programs, teaching and explaining the Islamic religion to the public. The Saudi children who live in Saudi Arabia and have never left the country are exposed to those Saudi television programs and have been exposed to very limited American television programs. Now the Saudi children who used to live in the United
States and those who have never left Saudi Arabia live under the same situation. The only difference is the early or previous background of those children who used to live in the
United States. The questions now are: How do these two groups of Saudi children draw? Is there any difference between their drawings in terms of the subject matter they will choose to draw, and the details in these subject matters?
Children's books The children's books in the United States are available everywhere and in every discipline and every subject matter, but in Saudi Arabia the children's books are very limited and not always available. The Saudi children who have resided in the United States invariably have had some exposure to 12
American children's books, whether this came in the form of
primary English readers, comic books, etc. These types of literature present and promote the American cultural beliefs, often with Judeo-Christian imagery and thus have the potential to greatly influence the Saudi children who have resided in the United States and this influence may be manifest in the details of their drawings.
Culture Culture as defined by McFee and Degge (1977), "is a pattern of behaviors, ideas, and values shared by a group." McFee (1965) said: Culture is the pattern of interaction within a given group of people. The pattern is determined by the people's shared values, beliefs, and opinions on acceptable behavior. The culture in part determines how children are trained and how beliefs and values are maintained from generation to generation. Culture includes education, religion, science, art, folklore, and social organization. The American culture is very different from that of Saudi culture in almost every aspect of life.
A. In Saudi Arabia, for example, the native language is Arabic. Arabic language is the official language. In the United States, English is the official language. B. Religion: Religion is, "a system of beliefs and practices by which a group of people interprets and responds to what they feel is supernatural and sacred. Religion is found in all societies and is expressed and institutionalized 13
in various ways" (Popenhoe, 1983, 453). Popenhoe (1983) goes on to say that, "religion is a social institution that
relates to society as a whole as a force of social stability and an instrument of change" (p. 453). Islam is the government official religion which is the
basis of the country's laws. Officially all of the Saudi citizens are Muslim. Islamic religion is taught at all school levels in Saudi Arabia. In the United States, there
are no government official religions, and no religions are allowed to be taught at any public school level. The researcher has included this brief section on religion to point out that religion and how it applies to the socialization of children is significant in particular to the study of Saudi Arabian children who are followers of Islam
when they are exposed to a society (United States) where several religions dominate (Christianity -- Protestant and Catholic -- and Judaism), but where the right to practice all
religions is a fundamental social and governmental guarantee. Of particular interest in the drawings of Saudi children will
be representations of religious symbols and the subsequent
interpretations of these representations.
Family The family is, " . . . the oldest and perhaps the most salient reference group for children and adolescents" (Sebald, 1989, p. 939). The family, and more specifically parents, provide the emotional, intellectual, and cultural 14
beginnings and foundations for children. It is from parents that the earliest and possibly the most profound lessons in love and affection, morality, intellectual curiosity and ethnic and national pride are fostered.
Macionis (1989) discusses the importance of the family as follows: The family is the most important setting in which socialization takes place. During at least the first several years of life, for most individuals the family is the social world. Only when children start going to school do they typically spend a great deal of time away from their families (133-134).
The Saudi children who used to live in the United States did not have the chance to spend much time with other family
members, other than their parents. They did not stay with their grandparents, uncles, cousins or other relatives as did those who did not reside in the United States. Most of their
time while in the United States was spent with their parents, and with some American friends' families, which is completely different than the life and relationship between family members in Saudi Arabia. Family relationships in Saudi Arabia are still based on
the tribal relationship. The relationship between the family members such as parents and their children and their nephews are very strong. Older children within their families take care of their parents, grandparents, younger brothers and
sisters. There is a very small number of adult day care 15
centers. The average size of the Saudi family is 6 to 8 members. In the United States the family ties are less strong than in Saudi Arabia; the family size is smaller, and the family members are much more dependent upon themselves for everything they need in the United States than the family members in Saudi Arabia. The clothes that the Saudi people wear are different from the modern clothes worn in most parts of the world.
Most of the Saudi Arabian people still prefer their traditional clothes. Men's traditional clothes consist of:
Thoup, Bisht, Takiah, Ghotrah or Shomgh (See Appendix A).
Women's traditional clothes in Saudi Arabia are different from the Western women’s clothes. Saudi clothes look like the Indian women's clothes. The women's dress consists of a long skirt or a long dress that covers the body from the shoulders to just above the feet. Women's traditional clothes consist of: long dress or long skirt, long sleeve blouse, Hi jab (scarf) to cover the head ( See Appendix A).
Peer Group As a child ages, especially as he/she approaches the teen years, the peer group begins to exert increasingly more influence to the point where it challenges the family influence in importance. A peer group is, "people with common interests and social position who are usually the same age" (Macionis, p. 16
135). It consists of individual of common or similar
interest, social, and or education and/or economic background. According to Elkin and Handel (1989), "the peer group is the only setting in which children are separated from adults in a meaningful sense. This is a unique situation in that
the peer group is governed by the rituals, interests, and logic of children" (p. 183). They go on to list four functions of the peer group:
1. it gives children experience in egalitarian types of relationships that are qualitatively different from relationships with authority figures; 2. it provides a setting within which children develop close relationships of their own choosing; 3. it teaches in areas of sensitive nature or taboo, such as sex; 4. it serves as a step in the developing of independence of the child (pp. 183-184) . Unlike the family and school, the peer group gives its members a way learn without direct adult supervision. It allows its members to learn those things not easily given to the family and school environments. Macionis (1991) says:
Within such groups, children have considerable independence, which offers valuable experience in forging social relationships of their own and developing a sense of themselves apart from their families. Peer groups also provide the opportunity for discussion of interests that may not be shared by adults (such as styles of dress and popular music) as well as topics young people may wish to avoid in presence of parents and teachers (such as drugs and sex) p. 133. 17
Educational System The educational system in Saudi Arabia is very different
from the educational system in the United States. The first and most important difference between these two systems is that, in Saudi Arabia, boys and girls schools are separate and run by two different government agencies. General education for boys is run by the Ministry of Education, while the girls general education is run by the General Presidency
of Girls Education. Co-education in Saudi Arabia is not
allowed at any educational level. In the United States, both boys and girls go to the same schools.
In Saudi Arabia the day care centers for kindergartens are limited and can be found in the cities only. In the United States, day care centers and kindergarten classes are available everywhere in both cities and small towns. In Saudi Arabia, the elementary schools are in separate buildings from the middle schools and the middle schools are in separate buildings from the secondary schools. The elementary schools start from first grade to the sixth grade, middle schools from the seventh grade through the ninth grade, and the secondary schools from tenth to twelfth grade.
Each of these schools has its own administrator.
Research Questions To account for the need and address the statement of the problem several research questions were generated which guided and facilitated this study. 18
1. To what extent is the cultural influence of the United States visible in the drawings of children who resided in the United States?
2. To what degree can the differences and similarities the
in details of the drawings done by children who have lived in the United States with the drawings of those children ' who have never resided outside of Saudi Arabia be discerned and analyzed in a systematic way? 3. Can the collected data be treated in such a manner that will allow for the generation of hypotheses and explanatory exposition?
Limitations of the Study
This study only investigated differences and similarities between Saudi children who resided in the United States and those who have never resided outside of Saudi
Arabia in terms of their choice of subject matter and details and its relationship to Saudi or American culture. In addition, this study was limited to fifth through ninth grade male students attending public schools in Riyadh city. However, no examination was made to determine differences between age or grade levels. Regarding the children who had lived in the United States, this study was limited to only those children who have resided in the United States for a minimum of three years and had since returned to Saudi Arabia for three years or more. No interviews of their parents or teachers were made. 19
This study was limited to the details of the complete
drawings these children made and not on the process of drawing. In addition, this study did not focus on the artistic skills and abilities of the children. The study did not make a subjective judgment as to whether the influence of American culture was positive or negative.
Structure of the Inquiry Chapter One, "Statement of the Problem," serves the following purposes: (a) the introduction sets the foundation for this study; in particular, the pre-existing concern about
the influence of American culture on the thousands of Saudi
children who have resided in the United States and in general the concern regarding the influence of Western cultures on Saudi culture. In addition, the need for and the significance of this study are presented; (b) the remaining body of the chapter presents the "Statement of the Problem" with accompanying background literature; the "Research
Questions" which guided this study; and the "Limitations of the Study" which set the boundaries within which the study was confined. This chapter serves to give direction to the rest of the study. Chapter Two, "Saudi Arabia: Education, Status of Art Education and Islam and Art," provides historical and background literature regarding the emergence of modern education in Saudi Arabia, the centrality of Islam in educational policy and practice, and the growth in number of 20
Saudi students studying abroad. "The Status of Art Education" recounts the recent emergence of the field of art education. "Islam and Art" provides a necessary
understanding of the position Islam holds regarding various types of art, the role of the artist and the value placed on art in Islamic cultures.
Chapter Three, "Review of Related Literature," embodies a collection of literature related to this study. The introduction provides a historical review of the emergence of
the field of child art. The body of the chapter deals with research in children's art and cross-cultural studies in art education that provide the theoretical base and precedents
for examining the collected data and reflecting on the results of this study. Chapter Four, "Methodology and Data Treatment," describes the research methodology used in this study and explains why the chosen method was appropriate. The body of this chapter describes the study subjects, procedure, materials, variables, and how the raw data were collected and treated. Chapter Five, "Data Analysis," presents an analysis of the study's collected data which served to guide the reflections, conclusions, and commentary of Chapter Six.
This chapter was divided into two parts.
"Part One: Statistical Method and Result Summaries" provides the procedure which was employed to analyze the data 21
statistically and ensure validity of results; its includes rational for the chosen statistical method. This part
includes the statements of hypothesis and the null hypothesis which were generated and then tested by the statistical technique. Summaries of the statistical results are presented in tabular form. "Part Two: Interpretation of Data by Variable" presents an interpretation of data results for each of the 15 variables. This involved two steps: (a) the statistical results for each variable were discussed and the statistical and numerical data examined; (b) individual pictures for each of the 15 variables were examined closely in terms of their details and explanations of picture content were generated in regard to the hypotheses.
Chapter Six, "Reflections," summarizes what was accomplished in this study, provides the researcher's commentary about this study, and makes recommendations for further studies in the field of art education with specific attention to the improvement and development of the art education field in Saudi Arabia. CHAPTER II
SAUDI ARABIA: EDUCATION, STATUS OF ART EDUCATION, AND ISLAM AND ART
Introduction The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in the southwest of Asia, with an estimated population of eight million, and an estimated area of 865,000 square miles (2,240,000 square kilometers). It occupies four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula; bounded by the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of
Oman, Arabian Gulf, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates to the east, the Gulf of Aden and Yemen to the south, and Kuwait, Iraq and Jordan to the north (see Saudi Map, p. xi) . The country took its recent form and is named after King
Abdulaziz Al-Saud who unified the country in 1932. Before the discovery of oil in 1938, the country was very poor; desert areas with many villages and small towns populated by Bedouin tribes depended for their livelihood on primitive agriculture, animal grazing, small scale fishing and trading at the western and eastern coasts, and trade in
Makkah. Most Saudi Arabians came down from the land's native
Arab tribes and share similar physical features, a common
22 23
religion (Islam), and a common Arabic language and culture. In the official publication of the Information Office of the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, For The Record (1985) it is written that: Saudi Arabia’s official religion is Islam, which is the basis of the country's laws. There are two major religious holidays: Eid al Filter, celebrating the breaking of the annual Ramadan fast, and Eid al Adha, during the last calendar month, celebrating the pilgrimage to Makkah. Saudi Arabia follows the Islamic calendar which is based upon lunar cycles. Friday is the weekly day of rest and worship; in general government offices and private businesses are closed during this time (p. 22). After the discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia, the country became rich and witnessed a rapid and extensive economic development, particularly during the last twenty years.
Alghamedy (1986) explained the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia after the discovery of oil as follows:
Until the discovery of oil in 1938, Saudi Arabia was considered to be a poor and underdeveloped country. Since then, the country has undergone a breathtaking economic and social change. This change in its economic status has changed the face of the country and has had a considerable impact on every aspect of the life of its people (p. 1) .
Education in Saudi Arabia Before the establishment of the Ministry of Education in
1953, there was the Department of Education which King
Abdulaziz Saud, the founder of Saudi Arabia established in 1924. Before that date, there were no modern public schools 24 all over the country. Before 1924, there were Mosque schools, Kuttab schools and Olema houses. These kinds of schools started from the dawn of Islam, 1400 years ago, and continued as the only kind of schools in the Arabian Peninsula until the year 1875, when the first modern school.
The Saulatiyya, opened in Makkah.
Mosques The Mosque is the Muslim prayer place like the church for the Christian. The mosque has played an important role in educating the people of the Arabian Peninsula for centuries. In a mosque, the teacher usually is the Imam (the leader of the prayers like the priest in the Christian church) or one of the Olema (the Islam Theologians).
Teaching in the mosque was conducted in circles or half-circles. Jan (1984) wrote:
Teaching at the holy Mosque was conducted in circles or half-circles; that is to say the students sat on the floor in one or more circles around the teacher who sat on a chair or on the floor (p. 21).
Al-Shamikh, (1973) described these circles at the mosques, the time of teaching and the subjects taught at these circles as the following:
[Teaching] started at dawn and continued until midnight and after the daily five prayers. The subjects being taught were religious courses, Arabic science and astronomy. The number of students in each circle differed from circle to circle according to the subject being taught, the reputation of the teacher of the circle and the time of day. The number of students ranged between twenty and two hundred 25
(p. 12). At the mosques, education is usually free. The teacher
teaches for the sake of God. Most of teachers teach during
their free time.
Kuttab
The word Kuttab (writers) is the plural of Kateb (writer). Kuttab schools are for children. Jan (1984), Al-Shamikh (1973) and Al-Zahrani (1988) all described the coeducational Kuttab schools. Al-Zahrani (1988) wrote: These schools (Kuttabs) concentrated fully on teaching the youngsters, both boys and girls, reading and writing. The Kuttabs were limited to a small and widely scattered audience, consisting of a few people at different communities; most of what they learned was forgotten soon after they left the class because of scattered literacy which lacked systematic organization, and regulations of learning (p. 20). Attending the Kuttab school was not free. Once the student could read and memorize the Koran, a party called
Iglaba took place. In the Kuttab school, the teacher usually selected the best students to help him as Ora fa (teacher assistant) to teach the younger students. The curriculum was based on writing, and reading and memorizing the Koran.
Olema House Schools In addition to schools at mosques and Kuttabs there were the Olema house schools (Olema is the plural of Alim -- a learned person of the Islamic religion). At the Olema schools there was more specialization in the reading of the 26
Koran, the description and meaning of the Koran, the Hadith,
and Islamic Law. Modern Schools
The Saulatiyya school, founded in 1875, was the first modern private school founded in the Arabian Peninsula. This school was established to teach religious studies and the
Arabic language. The founder of this school was an Indian and he established this school for Indian immigrants in Makkah,
Madinah, and Jeddah. Abd-el Wahab & Abd-el Wassie (1970) wrote: The beginning of the nineteenth-century witnessed a revival in education owing to the efforts of a few individuals and the Islamic missions established in Mecca and Madina. In 1903, Hagg Mohammed Ali-Zeynel founded a regular Arab school in Jeddah and another in Mecca known till this day under the name of the "Falah School." These two pilot schools together with the other private schools carried the message of education to us throughout the years and, in recognition of their efforts, the government has endowed them sufficiently for them to continue and develop their activities (p. 4). Another early modern public school in the Arabian
Peninsula is regarded to be the Arrushdiah Elementary School in Makkah. It started in 1884 with 65 students and three teachers. There are also three other schools named
Arrushdiah in Jeddah, Madinah, and Taif. These schools were opened by the Turks. The language of instruction at these 27
schools was Turkish.
Al-Shamikh (1973) wrote that: An Education Administration was founded, which considered establishing four elementary schools in Makkah for the benefit of the people of Makkah as well as the surrounding area . . . This administration considered adult education also. It decided to open a night school that admitted one hundred students . . . The curriculum of those schools consisted of religious science, as well as civil information . . In 1910, the branch of the Association of Union and Elevation established a school and admitted fifty students. In the same year, 1910, a vocational school was opened in Makkah and its staff was brought from Istanbul, Turkey (pp. 33 -34). Abd-el Wahab and Abd-el-Wassie (1970) wrote:
In 1924 A.D. the Hachemite rulers in the Arab Peninsula revolted against the Turkish Rule in the 'Hijaz'. Among many projects of reform, they established the Hachemite School in Jeddah and the Unity and Development School in Mecca, the objectives in each being to teach the Koran and the elements of reading and writing (p. 4).
In the year 1925, when King Abdulaziz Ben Saud, formed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the number of both private and
government schools increased and they became widely available in the large cities of the kingdom. In 1925, just one year after King Abdulaziz took over
Makkah and the rest of the western region he established the
General Directorate of Education Administration (GDEA).
Al-Zahrani (1988) wrote: 28
The Directorate of Education was founded in 1925. This agency was responsible for opening schools, creating curricula and providing physical and human resources. A year later (1926), a decision was made to form the first board of education. This board holds a prominent place in the history of education in Saudi Arabia because, "it laid down the foundations of the system of education in Hijaz in compliance with the said decision, which called for the unification of education in Hijaz and made elementary education compulsory and free." In addition, the decision included that "education should consist of four stages: preparatory, elementary, secondary and higher" (Educa tional Statistics, 1983/84, p. 67). These systematic stages still guide the current system of education and its organization in Saudi Arabia, (p. 24) By the end of 1926, the new GDEA opened four elementary schools (Al-Asheikh, 1972, p. 3). In the same year the first government post-elementary school called Al-Ma'ahad Al-Elimi Al-Saudi was opened to teach the Arabic language, literature and religious science. When the Department of Education became the first Ministry of Education in 19 54, supported by King Fahd Ibn
Abdulaziz, schooling began to spread systematically and change considerably throughout the kingdom. The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Fahd Bin Abdulaziz, was the first Minister of Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Oliver (1987) wrote: As late as 1946, there were only 65 elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools in the kingdom and no universities. By the year 1983-84 (37 years later) the numbers were as follows: 29
elementary schools, 976; technical -vocational (post secondary) 29; girls colleges 11; military academies 5; and universities 7. During the kingdom's first three five-year plans (1970-1985), school enrollments increased by 192% at the elementary level, 275% at the intermediate level, and 712% at the secondary level. The student population increased from about 597,000 to more than 2,000,000; the number of male university graduates increased from 808 to 6,098; and female graduates increase from 27 to 3,384 (p. 6). The Educational Policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is embodied in the following statement, as Al-Jabr (1990) wrote: The educational policy is the structure on which rests the educational process of fulfilling the duty of acquainting the individual with his god and religion and adjusting his conduct in accordance with the teaching of religion, in fulfillment of the needs of society and in achievement of the nation's objectives.
The purpose of education is to teach Islam in a correct and comprehensive manner, to plant and spread the Islamic creed, to furnish the student with the values, teachings and ideals of Islam, to equip him with various skills and knowledge, to develop his conduct in constructive directions, to develop society economically, socially and culturally, to prepare the individual to become a useful member in the building of his community (p. 109).
Because Islam is the official religion in Saudi Arabia and, officially, every Saudi citizen is a Muslim Islam is central to Saudi culture and Islamic values are encompassed throughout every aspect of educational curriculums. The value of Islam provides cohesion and unity for the Saudi 30
people and culture. According to Imam Razvi (1981), Islam contains four interrelated and inseparable meanings, they are:
1. Revelation of God through the Prophet Mohammed in the form of the Holy Koran and the Sunna. 2. Immediate, existential experience of the individual believer.
3. The sociological reality of the Islamic community; 4. A historical vision of a better, more just and harmonious world (p. 7). Razvi (1981) goes on to say that, "Islam is for us a
faith and a way of life, regulating not only individual lives, but the whole of society." Religious education along with the related content (subject) of formal education play an inseparable and specific role in the development of Islamic culture. Razvi (1981) says that to provide a truly Islamic
education, syllabi and curricula must incorporate the following aspects of Islamic religion and culture:
1. Beliefs: United of God. His most important attributes. The confession of faith, its meanings and implications. Prophethood. Holy books. Koran -- summary of the essential teachings. Man, his place and his responsibility. Life after death, divine justice and recompense for good and evil deeds. 2. Ethics: Love and respect for parents. Obedience to parents and teachers. Cordial relations with friends, relative and neighbors. Social etiquette and manners. Cleanliness of body and dress. Purity of thought and actions. Islamic virtues -- honesty, responsibility, generosity, tolerance, mercy, charity, modesty and chastity. 31
3. Rituals: Purification, obligatory prayers, information about fasting and pilgrimage.
4. The life of the Prophet Mohammed, his companions and prominent Muslims. 5. The lives of other prophets and their teachings. 6. An outline of Islamic history. 7. Essential sociopolitical themes (pp. 8-9).
Curriculum in Saudi Arabia According to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Higher Education, in the publication The Educational Policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1978), the following items must be present at every level of education: a. Spring out of Islam, the nation's needs fundamentals and the nation's system.
b. Be consistent with the nation's needs and obj ectives. c. Suit the level of students. d. Attain the required standard of the student and achieve the objective of education.
e. Be balanced, flexible and suitable to various environments and conditions (p. 38).
Religious education is a basic element in all primary, intermediary, and secondary stages of education in all their branches. Islamic culture is a basic course in all the years of higher education. Four of the most vital general principles of education in Saudi Arabia according to The Education Policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1978) are: 32
1. The faith in God as God, in Islam as religion and in Mohammed (May the prayers and peace of God be on him) as God's Prophet and Envoy.
2. The total Islamic concept of the universe, man and life, and the entire world is subject to the laws of God in order that each creature would fulfill his duty without any interruption or confusion.
3. The Mohammedan message is the soundest program for ideal life and it ensures happiness to man and rescues humanity from all the corruption and misery it has plunged in.
4. The ideals revealed by Islam for the rise of a human, prudent and constructive civilization guided by the message of Mohammed to realize glory on earth and happiness in the other world (pp. 6-9).
The Saudi Arabian Education System is divided into three levels. 1. Elementary schools. The elementary school programs are six years in length, beginning at age 6.
2. The secondary level of education is divided into two stages: A. Intermediate schools for three years.
B. Secondary school program for three years. The last two years at the secondary program,
students major in either science or arts.
Boys schools are separate from girls' schools and the schools are run by two different government agencies. Boys' schools are run by the Ministry of Education while girls' schools are run by the Presidency for Girls Education. 3. Higher Education 33
Higher Education Higher Education in Saudi Arabia consists of universities and colleges. At the present time there are seven universities and eleven girls colleges. Six of the seven universities are under the general oversight of the
Ministry of Higher Education. The seventh, the Islamic University in Madinah, reports to the Council of Ministers. The eleven girls colleges are run by the General Presidency for Girls Education. The total number of students attending those seven universities and eleven girl colleges is 107,528. Of this number there are 91,256 Saudi students and 16,272 non-Saudi students. Both Saudi and non-Saudi students attending those colleges and universities receive free education.
Appendix B includes tables that illustrate the pervasiveness of Islamic ideals and principles in the working educational curriculum in Saudi Arabia and records the number of students in higher education for all levels for the 1986-
1987 term.
Study Abroad The government of Saudi Arabia has been sending large numbers of Saudi students to study in the universities and colleges in the West as well as other Arab and Islamic countries. The Ministry of Higher Education, The Ministry of Education, other Ministry organizations, universities, and 34 private agencies have sent and still send thousands of students to study outside the country, particularly to the United States and Europe. The total of students studying abroad increased from 1,834 in 1969-70 to 11,097 in 1982-83 and 8,362 in 1985-86. Oliver (1987) said: The emphasis in studying abroad has shifted from the bachelor's level to the graduate level from the year 1974 to 1984. The Saudi students studying abroad in 1974-75, 73% were undergraduates, 15% were master's candidates, and 11% were working on their doctorates. Nine years later (1983-84), the proportions were 50%, 20%, and 24% respectively. Currently sponsored students may not go abroad for bachelor's degrees except under unusual circumstances.
The tables that follow record the number of Saudis graduating from the U.S. by level of study and field of study from 1980 through 1989. Table 1
Saudis Graduating from the U.S. by Level of Study (1981-1988)
Year Fellow PhD Masters BA-BS Higher Training Undergrd Total 80-81 1 60 162 229 ------45 497 81-82 --- 110 290 756 --- 455 18 1629 82-83 3 108 337 898 13 --- 445 1804 83-84 --- 60 335 93 --- 798 1 1287 84-85 --- 116 263 546 9 497 1 1414 85-86 3 126 281 407 7 469 1 1299 86-87 2 124 228 300 31 387 1 1705 87-88 --- 100 180 280 8 285 --- 855
Source: Al-Mubadth, July 1989, p. 113.
u > <_n Table 2
Saudi Graduates from the U.S. by Field of Study 1981-1989
Year Human Educa Science Social Engi Medi Agrl - Law Art s Other Total ities tion Science neering cine culture
81-82 59 136 502 150 443 63 19 2 10 303 1629
82-83 14 118 545 121 384 62 31 -- 17 512 1804
83-84 18 79 206 78 100 21 16 1 1 767 1287
84-85 65 103 94 171 341 34 42 4 4 576 1434
85-86 65 106 89 150 326 38 66 4 6 492 1332
86-87 77 74 61 83 233 40 36 4 6 456 1070
87-88 79 57 62 92 168 26 38 3 5 350 880 Total Graduates 9436
Source: Al-Mubtaath, July 1989, p. 113.
u> cn 37
The Status of Art Education The status of the Art Education program in the public schools of Saudi Arabia was and still is lower than other
subjects, such as the Arabic language, Religion, Science, and so on. Art activities were not introduced into the Saudi school system until the year 1954, 28 years after the government schools opened. At that time,' there were no art education specialists; the art activities were taught by volunteer teachers who had no formal training in art education. Also, art activities at that time were considered as an extra activity for children's leisure time. Al-Zahrani
(1988) reports: In 1957, drawing was included as a subject in the Teacher Preparation Institute and Secondary Education Curricula . . . the supervision for this subject was put under direction of the physical education and social education supervisors, (p. 44)
At the elementary, intermediate and secondary school levels, drawing was included in the curriculum, as a subject
t in 1958. It was taught at the elementary level for one and a half hours each week per grade, and at the intermediate and secondary school levels for 45 minutes per week. By the year 1962, the name Art Activities was changed to Art Education and was included in all general education levels.
Since 1979, until now, the number and length of art 38 classes at the elementary schools has been three 45 minute class sessions per week. At the intermediate schools, it is now only two 45 minute lessons per week. At the secondary- level, there are no art classes at all (see Appendix B).
In response to the need for teachers specializing in Art, one Art Education institute was opened in Riyadh and two new art education departments were founded. In 197 4, King
Saud University established its Art Education Department at the College of Education and in 197 6 Umm-Al-Qura University established an Art Eduction Department. Alghamedy (1986) adds that: However, the demand for art teachers being still high, the Ministry of Education has established two-year programs in art education at teacher training colleges (p. 5).[see Appendix B]
Islam and Art
As previously mentioned, Islam is the central core that governs and directs the Saudi people in every aspect of their entire lives. Shariah is the institution by which the government is furnished with its laws and policies and where it gains its power among the Islamic world in general and the Saudi people in particular. Reviewing the relationship between Islam and art in general and Islam and figurative representations in particular and the debate between Muslim theologians and scholars is very important for this study. The reason for this is the simple fact that the Islamic religion dominates 39
the Saudi values and beliefs. The following sections provide some of what has been written by Islamic authorities, Eastern and Western scholars, and how each side has presented and defended its particular point of view.
The relationship between Islam and art has existed since the dawn of Islam 1400 years ago, when the Prophet Mohammed destroyed the 'statues and idols that the people in Makkah used for worshipping around the Kiiabah. The conflict between Islam and Art is therefore tied to factors related to the faith, to the Koran (the words of God) and to the Hadith (the traditions and sayings of the Prophet Mohammed). This relation made the conflict more grievous. Although the conflict depended on the factors of time, place and religious creed, cult, persuasion, and denomination, it generally remained serious.
The Koranic View
In the Koran, the word for painting is Sawrah (in
Arabic) and is defined as the creation and incarnation of animate things, but this definition does not include drawing, calligraphy on cloth, paper or wood. The word for artist or painter in Arabic is Musawwir which literally means giving form. Most Muslims believe that Allah has many names according to His characteristics and abilities and Musawwir or Al-Musawwir which means the fashioner (the Creator) is one of them. Hirsch, Kelt and Trefil (1993) wrote: "Allah. The name for God, the Supreme Being in the Arabic language, the 40 common name for God in Islam." (p. 415). 59:24 He is Allah, the Creator, the Originator, the Fashioner, to Him belongs the most beautiful names: Whatever is in the Heavens and on earth, doth declare His praises and glory' and He is the exalted in might the wise. Jabr (1985), Grabar (1973) and Basha (1979) found the
Koranic passages (3:6 and 40:64) [see Appendix C] that many theologians refer to when they discuss art and Islam. Imam Tabari interpreted the first one as such, "that is. He makes your figure in your mother's womb" and the second passage can be interpreted as the first one including his (Allah) power and abilities in shaping the human and making him in beautiful shapes. When one reads these Koranic passages one finds that all of them show how Allah treats human beings. The Musawwir in these passages talks about Allah's ability and power in the creation and incarnation of animate things, and about his creation of human beings in the wombs. In the Koran there are verses that refer to statues and idols and their prohibition, whereas there is no specific mention or prohibition of pictorial art. Ettinghausen (1977) states that the Koran gives no direct support for the assumption that pictorial art is also prohibited. Even in its most specific pronouncement, the
Koran speaks out only against certain practices, among them 41
the use of images, apparently of a religious nature and hence regarded as idols (p. 12). Crespi (1979) wrote: There is no interdiction of images, either paintings or statues, representing living beings, in the Koran. The only comment relevant to this concerns the pagan use of idols as cult objects. "Believers, wine and games of chance, idols and divining arrows, are abominations devised by Satan. Avpid them, so that you may prosper" (p. 118) .
Many Muslims think that the prohibition of figurative arts comes from the Koran, but as mentioned earlier there is neither direct nor indirect mention of drawing or paintings in the words of God. In the Koran, there are verses that talk about and prohibited statues which were used for worshipping idols. The two passages that are closest to discussing figure representation are 5:90 and 59:24. Grabar (1973) stated:
Finally, it has often been noted that the central theological messages of the Koran is that of the total uniqueness, the total power, of God. He alone is a "fashioner" a musawwir (59:24), the very term used for painter. As the only Creator, He cannot admit of competitors, hence the opposition to idols which by association and by extension could become an opposition to representatives (p. 84).
Grabar (197 3) wrote: "in these passages the emphasis here is on the facts that God alone creates the value to be given to a representation and that such representation belongs to the 'signs' God sends to man" (p. 82). 42
Dr. Hassan Basha (1979) affirms that the Koran's stance about representation is clear. In two different places the Koran has addressed statues. The first is related to Ibrahim
(Peace be upon Him) as mentioned nine times in Al-Anbiyaa's
Sura (verses 51-59), where he said to have broken idols they
worshipped.
The second mentioned in Saba Sura (verses 12-13) is related to Solomon, may peace be upon him, where a mention is made of making "images" of molten brass.
Dr. Basha (1979) affirms that the Koran prohibits the kind of representation mentioned in the first case where
Ibrahim's people had worshipped idols, instead of Allah. The
Koran does not prohibit statues in the second case, and reveals that statue-making had been permitted by Allah as a
sign of His blessings (as a source of enjoyment -- bliss) to Al-Dawood (The offspring of David). Besides, Solomon had not, in the first place, meant by his statue-making to worship them. They worshipped Allah, not the statues. On the other hand, Dandel Jabr (1985) has a quite different point of view. In the beginning of his book Islamic Legislation on Painting and Representation, Dandel
Jabr (1985) recounts thirty of the Prophet's sayings on representation and image-makers as well as four verses from the Koran. Two of the verses referred to by Dr. Basha are interpreted by Jabr in a very different way. Having cited those two verses under the title (Is Legislation of those 43
Preceding us our legislation?) , Jabr then recounts the story of Solomon, where God ordered the Jinns to obey Solomon's wishes to have idols made for him. Jabr, however, does not believe that what goes for Solomon, in his own time, goes also for us in our time. Accordingly, Jabr has to answer his question negatively; namely, the legislation of those preceding us is not our legislation. He bases his answer on
the Islamic belief that what was permitted in Solomon's time has been over-ridden by what has come after it. Therefore,
for Jabr, what was lawful in a previous time may not be lawful thereafter (pp. 11-12).
The Hadith Muslims believe that the Koran is a written record of
Allah's words that He delivered to His Prophet Mohammed. Hirsch, Kelt, and Trefil (1993) in their book The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy wrote: "Mohammed (Mohammad) the Arab founder of Islam. Mohammed is held by Muslims to be the chief prophet of God. He was born in Mecca (Makkah) .
Moslems believes the Koran was dictated to Him by an Angel sent from God" (p. 100) . The Hadith, is not less important than the Koran in the Islamic religion. Hadith is the body of traditions describing the Prophet Mohammed's life, talks, and behavior. The Hadith was collected and written at a later time, after the Prophet died. Ibn Bas (1986-87) and Jabr (1985) showed more than thirty Hadith that have a clearly hostile voice regarding the 44 painter and the figural representation. In Hadith the definition of artist/painter (Musawwir), as addressed by Hadith's interpreters was a broad meaning. It includes not only frescoes and painting on the usual material such as wood, paper, or parchment, but it includes glass and stone mosaic and figural pottery. Ettinghausen (1977) wrote: The term "painting" is here used in its broadest sense. It includes not only frescoes and painting on the usual foundation material such as wood, parchment, and paper, but glass and stone mosaics and figural pottery as well. For the pictorial arts of other civilizations this basic definition would suffice (p. 12) .
Dr. Basha says that the Prophet's sayings (Hadith) can be interpreted in the light of the Koranic standpoint about statues and images. That is the prohibition of image-making in some of the Prophet's sayings is only related to representations made for the purpose of worship. This aspect becomes clear upon knowing that the primary job of an image- maker before the advent of Islam had been the making of idols. There is a clear threat to the maker of the picture on the Day of Judgment. God will ask the Maker of these pictures to breathe life into them. The maker of these pictures will not be able to do so, then the fashioner will be punished severely by God. 45
Sir Thomas Arnold (1928) commented on this:
The futility of the painter's claim will be brought home to him, when he will be made to recognize the ineffectual character of his activity, through his inability to complete the work of creation by breathing into the objects of his art which looks so much like living beings, the breath of life (p. 5). Many Hadith that deal with the drawing of images can be found. All of them have almost the same meaning but are reported by different Hadith reporters. Theologians, including those who believed in the sinfulness of undertaking a representation of a three dimensional living being, allowed the owning and using of children's toys. Some of them based this allowance on the fact that such "girl" dolls help girls to be ready for future household management. Jabr Danda (1985) cited Professor Yousif AL-Gardhawi's
(1985) reference to Al-Halal and Al-Haram (The Lawful and the Forbidden, tenth edition):
According to the Hadith related to painting and painters the possibility may seem that the Prophet (Peace be upon Him) was at first strict because people were close to the period of atheism, the worship of idols, and the sanctification of statues; but when the Faith in the One God became deeply rooted in the souls, hearts, and minds of people, the Prophet allowed flat painting, since it is on engravings and drawings, otherwise he would not accept curtains or cloth in his own home, and he would not allow for paintings that were engraved and inscribed on clothes. And like clothes are the papers, walls, etc (p. 36). 46
Then Al-Gardhawi also says, "Of whose painting or owning is forbidden are those which represent the religiously
sanctified or worldly glorified." The first instance would be painting of prophets, angels, and virtuous humans, such as Abraham, Izak, Moses and others. The activity is wide spread among the people of the holy books (Christians and Jews) and some unorthodox Muslims who followed them and accordingly painted Ali and Fatima among others.
The second instance accounts for the paintings of kings, leaders, and artists in our own age. This activity is less sinful than the previous one. (Al-Gardhawi, 1985). As a result of this pronouncement, threat and prohibitions, the artist tries to find new ways to express himself in a way that will satisfy him, his religion as well as the Muslim community. The muslim artists create new styles in both the Arabic calligraphy technique and the geometrical forms in general and the Arabesque. Because of these conflicts the relationship between Islam and art becomes less satisfying in some types of art and more valuabe and rewarding in others.
Bamborough (1979) said: There has always been a love-hate relationship between Islam and painting. Although closely linked with calligraphy, painting was considered as low art and the painter does not rank with the calligrapher. Painting under Islam was therefore a private art (p. 41). Role of the Artist and Value of Art The role of the artists is described and valued depending on the kind of art he has made. The calligrapher for example, ranked first; the architect second, if not as high as the calligrapher, and the painter and sculpture comes last. The demotion is due to Islam's two most important elements: First, the Koran which is derived and written and must be read during the prayer in Arabic. The second is the Mosque: for Muslims it is the house of Allah (God). The painter and the sculptor ranked the lowest and have been the least respected and valued because of the prohibition of representation. This disrespect has always been reflected in the artist's absence from his work. As a general rule, before 1397, a Muslim artist never cared to put his own signature on his work of art. Potters and copyists were exceptions; they started signing their works around the ninth century. Wilson (1957) asserted:
Here and there a name has been preserved (p. 66). Potters put their names on bowls as early as the ninth century; and copyists often appended their names in the colophons of their manuscripts; but artists' signatures on miniatures are much rarer -- the earliest known examples is in a Persian manuscript of 1397 (p. 10 ) .
The Muslims' sublimation of calligraphy stems mainly from the fact that it was the fundamental means by which the
Holy Koran was kept intact and commemorated. It was well- known that the Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon Him) had 48
chosen calligraphers to inscribe in Arabic the revelations he had received. During the reign of Abu Bakr, after many of the Koran's reciters died, the Holy Koran was collected. And during Othman's reign the Holy Koran was written down and copies were sent to various lands, so as to make sure that no differences occurred. Therefore, calligraphy had played a major role in commemorating the Koran, helping to spread and circulate it, and in providing easy access for worshippers to read the Koran.
In fact, the inscription of the Koran in an Arabic calligraphy, its reading in the copies, and the worshipping
(the mere reading of the Koran is an important form of worship), all these led to the glorification and sublimation of calligraphy. Muslim admiration for calligraphy did not stop at calligraphy's aesthetic value; it related directly to the religious sentiment. Accordingly, Muslims tended to sublimate and glorify calligraphy, and enjoy it spiritually.
In this, calligraphy can be compared to music and theater for Westerners.
Another reason for the cultivation of Arabic calligraphy is the fact that it was the basic medium of learning and education for Muslims. This was very important because Islam encouraged learning and urged Muslims to develop and spread knowledge. God, in fact, related learning to writing and then related both to Himself in the very first verse to be revealed to the Prophet (Peace be upon Him): "Proclaim! And 49 thy Lord/Is Most Bountiful, -- He who taught (the use of) the Pen / Taught man that /which he knew not." Also God has sworn by the Pen and writing when He says: "By the Pen / And by the (Record) which (men) write . . . " God furthermore attributes the ability of writing to His angels when He says they are: "Kind and honorable, -- Writing down (your deeds) . . ." The Prophet himself set the example in emphasizing the importance of calligraphy when he released any war captive if he taught ten Muslim children how to write. Architecture comes second, but is strongly related to calligraphy. Architecture manifested itself in religious areas: mosques, palaces of governors and princes. However, the available means for decorating architecture were calligraphy and Arabesque. As Burckhardt (1976) says: In a sense the central art in Islam is architecture because its function is that of building sanctuaries and because a whole series of other arts is dependent on it. But there is one art which is still nobler, and that is the art of writing, calligraphy, which owes its excellence to the paramount importance of the fact that it transmits the Koran, directly revealed in the arabic language. From this point of view, as the visible record of the divine word, Arabic calligraphy is analogous in function to the painting in the Eastern church (pp. 32-33). Accordingly, calligraphy attained the highest esteem spiritually and aesthetically; an artist, when inscribing
Koran, enjoys two pleasures at the same time: the spiritual and the aesthetically artistic. 50
Moreover, the industry and production of books sustained the importance of the calligrapher during the period of Islamic glory. This fact is best summed up by Fehervari and Safadi (1981): The need of the Arab Muslims of the 7th century to record precisely the divine Revelation which is contained in the holy Qur'an compelled them to perfect the art of writing and the production and embellishment of manuscripts. In a relatively short time, they gained a very high degree of proficiency in all the relevant arts and skills involved in manuscript production such as calligraphy, illumination, gilding, binding, draftsmanship and illustration, thereby establishing an Islamic tradition of great excellence which has spread to most of the Islamic cultural centres and endured throughout the main periods of Islamic history (p. 24). As opposed to calligraphy, painting and painters occupy the lowest place. Worst of all other arts, however, is the sculptor because his art produces three dimensional objects and thus it imitates objects that have life or shadow. And these are the objects that most Muslim theologians and scholars deem highly forbidden. For them, a production of this magnitude imitates the Godly power of creation, or at least is similar to idols and statues that had been worshipped before the advent of Islam. As Burckhardt (197 6) points out:
In the Islamic order . . . the figurative art does not take the first but the last place in the scale of artistic values. Figurative art is excluded from the liturgical domain, which means that it is 51
excluded from the central core of Islamic civilization and that it is only- tolerated at its periphery with the proviso that I must not represent a sacred personage susceptible of being the object of a cult and that it must not have the pretension of imitating the work of the Creator (p. 32).
Whereas this is the lot of artists with figurative ambitions, calligraphers and those who worked in the industry of writing . fared better. Fehervari and Safadi (1981) maintain that: The professional Muslim calligrapher and illuminator found it relatively easy to secure the honored position in which he was held both formally in the courts and among the ordinary members of his society, but the painter in Muslim society at first confront many difficulties, mainly because he was not readily given the dignity and merit which the religious sanction gave to his fellow artists who devoted themselves to the sacred duty of writing and decorating (p. 23) .
The abstract art of arabesque is another major category that ranks high and is respected more than many others.
Based on geometrical and floral design, plants leaves, and sometimes on abstract representation of birds or animals, it was usually employed in arabic calligraphy, ceramics, carpets, carving and tiles. Landau (1955) has noted this importance: The Arabesque has always been the quintessential expression, and it was not limited to any single country or epoch. It emerged quite early in the Islamic era, and was kept alive through more than a thousand years of Islamic history. It 52
was inevitable to the artist of Persia, Turkistan and Egypt as to those in Tunisia, Morocco and Spain (p. 21). In terms of value, the minor arts occupy the middle ground between, on the one hand, the most valued and respected calligraphy, architecture and arabesque, and on the other, those most devalued and defiled such as painting and figurative representation. As identified by Papadopoulo (1979) in his book Islam and Muslim Art. minor arts include ceramics, metal work, wood carving, ivories, enameled glassware, textile and carpets. Papadopoulo (1979, pp. 188- 191) maintains that ceramics and metal works are more popular and thus rank higher than the rest of the minor arts.
Textile, however, comes at the bottom of the hierarchy.
Summary
This chapter has addressed two significant issues which are related to the need and problem of this study: (1) The background to traditional education in Saudi Arabia and the historical context of the emergence of modern education; including the recounting of the recent advent of higher education, students studying abroad, and the status of art education has provided a basis from which to examine the nature and state of the Saudi educational system with respect to the American education system.
(2) The centrality of Islam in the lives of the Saudi people is underscored with the discussion of the role and position
Islam holds in the educational policy and practices of the 53 kingdom. The discussion then centered on the religious position Islam propounds with respect to var,ious types of art, the role of the artist, and the value of art in Saudi society. This has provided a basis to understanding the subjects of this study and a starting point towards examining and explaining the details of their drawings. The next' chapter, "Review of Related Literature," provides a review of the historical foundation of child art, research in children's art and cross-cultural studies in art education that provide the theoretical base for this study. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction The history of studying children's drawings is said to have started in the early nineteenth-century when Ebenezer Cooke wrote his article about children's graphic images. Amr Kayed Mohammed (1982) wrote:
The year 1885 dates the beginning of studies of children's drawings. In this year, Ebenezer Cooke wrote his article about children's graphic images in which he urged schools to conform more to the needs and interests of children as evidenced by their spontaneous graphic productions, (p. 2) After that article many studies took place and more attention was paid to the drawings of children. Ricci in
1887, was the first to publish a collection of children's drawings. He was the first to use the term "child art".
Waldron (1982) cited Viola (1942, p. 8) about Ricci's work : In 1887 the Italian, Ricci, published L'Arte de Bambini. This was the first collection of children's drawings to consider child art as a "separate entity, a milestone in art education". It was also the first publication to use the term, "child art", (p. 38)
54 55
Many studies followed and interest in studying the art activities of children grew. Perez Hall (1884-1924) received the title of "Father of Child Study Movement". Waldron (1982) cited Hall while speaking of the significance of art for the child: The method and matter of art education must be judged by their value and meaning to the child alone. He draws for his own pleasure and not for any satisfaction on the part of the adult. He will develop ability in this life largely according to the degree in which this interest can be kept alive and increased. From this it follows that drawings differ greatly according to the child, its nature, environment, inclination, and changes radically with age, so that we shall never get very far by any of the stock uniform and mass-teaching courses. (Hall, 1910, p. 548) Other researchers took up studying the development stage and the research became more attractive to psychologists and educators. There are numerous well-known figures in the field of child art, including: Lowenfeld (1957) author of The Theory of Child Art As Creative and Mental Growth. Kellogg
(1969), Goodenough (1926) and Harris (1963) originator of the Goodenouah-Harris Draw-a-Man-Test. Many other theories and bodies of research have been published since the birth of the field, but one of the most important, especially to the current study, is McFee's (1961) "Perception-Delineation Theory" presented in Preparation for Art. Waldron (1982) describes this theory as follows: The nature of art was cultural, and it 56
was a visual history of the development of culture and the foundation of man's communication system: it was a means for the individual to reflect on personal and group experiences. Art exhibited ingredients of subjectivity and objectivity simultaneously (p. 118)
Throughout history, every society, whether primitive or most advanced, has employed art as a means of expression.
Every person has expressed ideas and emotions through art.
The production of art forms is a fundamental human process in that they present us with a greater awareness of our world and also they allow us to express love, hate, fear -- all the emotions of life. Lowenfeld and Brittain (1982) express the significance of art as follows:
Art is a dynamic and unifying activity, with great potential for the education of our children. The process of drawing, painting, or constructing is a complex one in which the child brings together diverse elements of his experience to make a new and meaningful whole. In the process of selecting, interpreting, and reforming these elements, he has given us more than a picture or a sculpture; he has given us a part of himself; how he thinks, how he feels, and how he sees (p. 3) . A basic part of the art experience is the creative relationship between the artist and his/her environment. The process of creating artwork "...is a constant process of assimilation and projection: taking in through the senses a vast amount of information, mixing it up with the psychological self, and putting into a new form the elements 57 that seem to suit the aesthetic needs of the artist at the time" (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1982, p. 5).
Children's Art The meaning of "art" for the child is seen as primarily a means of expression. All children are different and as an individual, he or she changes as he/she ages, grows, and has increased perception, understanding and interpreting the environment within which he/she lives. Art then, for a child, is a language to express dynamic changes in thoughts.
It follows then that art education is overtly concerned with the thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and reactions within a given environment (society/culture) of the child. Art educators concern themselves less with the making of art forms than with the effect the art form making process has on the child. "Art education, therefore, is primarily concerned with the effect that the process has on the individual, whereas the so-called fine arts are more concerned with the resulting products" (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1982, p. 11). Art can play a meaningful role in the development of children. The focus of teaching is the development of a changing, dynamic child who becomes increasingly aware of himself and his environment. "Art education can provide the opportunity for increasing the capacity for action, experience, redefinition, and stability needed in a society filled with changes, tensions, and uncertainties (Lowenfeld &
Brittain, 1982, p. 23). 58
Vesta Daniel presented an article titled "Art and Culture in a Technological Society" (in Young, B. 1990 Art. Culture and Ethnicity) in which some personal, political, and cultural functions of art were given. Daniel (in Young,
1990) states these functions as: The personal functions of art include a means of psychological, emotional, and aesthetic expression, as well as a vehicle for spiritual concerns. Political and ideological notions are transmitted by art, as are the human concerns characterizing architecture, community development, crafts, and industrial design. It seems, too, that the new technologies of the mass media of communication permit particular works of art to be disseminated throughout society, increasing the impact of art on people's personalities and modes of experience. . . .Over the ages the power of the visual image has given rise to political movements, social upheavals, and cultural transformation which affected the perceived shape of history.... In a world that is getting smaller because of innovations such as satellite teleconferencing, videotapes, and audiotapes, among others, the opportunity for making cross-cultural connections that expand on commonly held notions of beauty, value, and creativity are limitless (pp. 85-86).
McFee (1961) said, "Art is one of man's means of communciation--of sharing his experience with others. Art can communicate qualities of experience that cannot be put into words. By sharing experience, through verbal language and through art, man is able to build social groups and develop culture. To understand children's art we must first understand the functions of art in culture" (p. 17). McFee 59
(1961) describes three functions of art in culture: 1. to maintain the concepts of reality; 2. to maintain the culture, its organization and
roles; and 3. to enhance the appearance of objects (pp. 20-27).
Culture is the beliefs, values, behaviors, and material objects shared by a particular people. It is a way of life a number of people have in common. Elkin and Handel (1989) defined culture as: A way of life developed by a people in adaption to the physical and social circumstances in which they find themselves. It tends to be passed on from generation to generation but changes as circumstances change (pp. 80-81).
Taba (1962) defines culture as, "a complex of components which form a design pattern in which are involved feelings, norms, material development, manners, morals, and the like" (pp. 48-49). This concept/definition of culture emphasizes
the effect of human environment on man. Man views his world, and acts upon it through the symbolic processes provided him by his culture. Thus, culture is a potent factor in the development of personality. McFee (1961) had this to say about a definition for culture: Culture is the pattern of interaction within a given group of people. The pattern is determined by the people's shared values, beliefs, and opinions on acceptable behavior. The culture in part determines how children are trained and how beliefs and values are maintained 60
from generation to generation. Culture includes education, religion, science, art, folklore, and social organization (pp. 17) Since culture shapes the development of personality, it follows that when one is confronted by two cultures, potentially conflicting in nature, problems are bound to arise. When a child is raised in the foundations of one culture, then exposed or involved in another culture, problems of personal identity and self-worth can arise, in adddition to educational problems. Education can affect a cross-cultural child by providing the child with a different cultural orientation and expectations than his native culture.
Herman & Schild (1960) define cross-cultural education as:
The changes in perception, in evaluation, and in action occurring in individuals socialized in one culture as a result of their sojourn for education purposes in a foreign culture (p. 231) . This definition implies:
a. The host culture is foreign in that the student enters a situation which is new to him;
b. The student is exposed to the norms of the host culture during his sojourn;
c. The fact that the student has been socialized in
values different from those of the host culture
means the sojourn will give rise to situations of 61
conflict between the home culture and the host culture (pp. 231-232).
Guthrie (1975) presented some principles of culture and culture learning that are related to the educational problems of children who grow up in a culture that is different from their own:
1. It is acquired early, and relatively fixed by the age of five; 2. New cultural patterns are learned more easily by children than by adults;
3. First culture determines habits of valuing; 4. A new culture has a new range of gestural and other expressive movements which are interpretable by the participants;
5. The first culture introduces errors in the interpretation of the second culture; 6. Patterns from the first culture continue to distort and influence the expression of patterns from the new; 7. When the life is a difficult one, one reverts to
his childhood or early patterns of relationships;
8. One can express best his deepest values in overt behavior patterns that are long-standing. It is more difficult to learn a new way of expressing
love than to acquire a new style of clothing; and 62
9. One feels most deeply either favorably or unfavorably in terms of his first learned value system. One's first culture determines one's most
profound emotions (pp. 103). Guthrie's principles give rise to questions related to this study. If, as Guthrie stipulates, the first culture is dominant to the new second culture, one must ask; How will the Saudi child born in the United States react to Saudi culture? Will, and to what degree, cultural conflict be present in this child's art work? Will the child born in Saudi Arabia and then transplanted into U. S. society favor his new or native culture? And how will this manifest itself in his art work? And many other related questions. When we remember that a culture is learned through the values and beliefs expressed through the day to day actions of people, their language, the symbols in their visual environment, their art, myths, and music, we should not be surprised that a latecomer can rarely learn it as a child learned it growing up in it. But each child learns his or her own culture somewhat uniquely, learning some aspects and ignoring others.
There has been some debate as to the effect of culture and environment upon children's drawings. A fair amount of literature compares the drawings by children from various 63 cultures on the Goodenough-Harris Draw-A-Man-Test. For the most part, this tends to show that youngsters from other than Western cultures score somewhat lower in mental maturity on this scale. However, the test only deals with the human figure and does not take into consideration other factors in the drawing act. Differences in societies can be seen through their art products not merely through the reproduction of representation of objects, but also through the techniques or methods of reproduction. It is not surprising that children adapt to these cultural patterns, and drawings from eight or nine year olds from various countries show different environmental influences. There do seem to be differences of opinion. On the one hand it appears that the cultural settings play an important role in limiting or directing a young child's drawing. On the other is the view that cultural influences are minimal and that the drawings of young children exhibit a universal reflecting a commonalty of cognitive growth (Brittain, 1985, pp. 34-35). All art, as an artifact originating within particular cultures or subcultures, tells us something about those cultures within which they originate. There is a correspondence between the social structure of a given society and certain formal attributes of its art styles. The 64
products of the school art style as artifacts of a school
culture should be able to tell us something about that culture that may on first look, not be obvious. Thus, the social structure of religion of a vanished people can
sometimes be reconstructed from small fragments of physical
remains such as pot shards or carved bone. Art forms are made in response to a constellation of situations that arise
within a culture, and hence these can be read as evidence
about the culture itself. The products of the school art style, no less than the style of ancient Egypt, can be interpreted as evidence to support claims we might v/ish to make about that culture. If a culture is egalitarian or
hierarchical in its social structure, these facts might show up either in some aspect of a product’s form, or are
explained by the social circumstances for which the particular work was made or by the social conditions under
which it was to be perceived -- when and by whom. If this is true, then it should follow that the school art style is like any other style in that it expresses the culture within which
it originates (Efland, 1976, p. 39). Miller (1973) found that the more experience the individual has with certain objects (such as ones in his or
her own culture) the greater is the probability that this person will recognize that object and its spatial 65
relationship with other objects when a pictorial presentation is made (pp. 135-150). An important question is what role does culture play in
the drawings of children? Wilson and Wilson (1977) note that by adolescence virtually every image drawn from memory could be traced back to previous images, and that many of these previous images had the popular media as their source. In other words it was the symbolic graphic world and not the so- called real world from which the images of older children were derived (pp. 36-39).
Cross-Cultural Studies in Art Education McFee and Degge (1977) say that if you collect drawings from children in most classrooms you will find wide differences in the amount of detail, the organization of objects on a page, the logic of the way the parts go together. Students from different cultural backgrounds may have learned to pay attention to different kinds of details and have learned to see in different kinds of environments
(p. 86). June King McFee (1961) indicates that the particular culture that the child lives in affects his perceptual development and the nature of his art. The culture influences the direction of his perceptual training by giving him many more opportunities and rewards for observing the things important to his group than for observing those that 66
are not stressed. The cultural values act as directors that accelerate the children's drawing ability for some objects and neglect other (p. 84). Each individual is exposed to cultural elements: language, visual symbols, values, and beliefs, the status and roles of people at different ages, and the ways these are symbolized in dress and behavior. Each child learns to talk from what he or she hears. Each child learns to see and discriminate from particular environments. Choices are influenced by what others think is important. Thus, a child
builds up a sense of design based on opportunities, choices,
and the influence of others. The learned design tends to persist, but it can also be modified and changed by new experience (McFee & Degge, 1977, pp. 272-280). As culture influences the form of drawings it also influences their content. In a study of 2,382 boys
comprising 26 cultural groups, Gardener (1969) found marked cross-cultural differences in hostility content of figure drawings as evidenced by the presence of weapons, characters
associated with violent activities. Wilson and Wilson (1977) suggested that in any cross- cultural investigation of children's drawings there ought to be concern for two separate aspects of cultural influence.
First, the manner in which cross- and subcultural factors affect cognitive development and thus impede or facilitate 67 innate graphic developmental patterns and, second the unique configurations that will only be present in drawings if there are specific cultural models for the young to follow.
The differences between cultures will exist in the drawings of children because different cultures exist. Dennis (1966) made a massive cross-cultural study of cultural influence. He studied the responses of 40 different cultural groups in the Draw-a-Man test, ages six and seven. Wilson and Wilson (1980) described Dennis' study as follows:
One of the most important investigations of cultural influences is Dennis' (1966) massive study of the responses of 40 cultural groups to the Draw-a-Man test. In testing subjects, primarily at ages six and seven, he found group scores ranging from highs of 125 and 124 for selected American and Japanese samples, through 94 and 93 for Lebanese and Egyptian samples, to a low of 56 and 53 for Syrian Bedouins and Shellacs of Sudan. Dennis accounts for this 75 point difference in performance among cultures on the basis of two factors -- the degree of modernization in the culture and the extent of the artistic background in the culture. Dennis discounts four other hypotheses that might account for the large group differences. Specifically, he argues that the difference could not be accounted for by (a) heredity and biological factors, (b) differences in the amount of schooling, (c) differences between urban and rural populations, and (d) differences in literacy and education of the parents. [However] It is also possible that, in time, with the same innate unfolding proceeding at different paces, the young people in all cultures would draw figures in essentially the same way. Dennis' general descriptive 68 methods, however, preclude such a conclusion (p. 36). Dennis believed that the drawings of children show not
only the values of the children themselves, but also the values of their societies. He found that whatever the children's own dress or the dress of the community, children
most often draw the costumes which they admire. He mentioned that if children are familiar with a referent, but seldom
draw it, they are either not interested in it or are negative
toward it, or they are inhibited by a social taboo against
its representation. Dennis indicates that the drawings in his study did not show any religious references.
In another study made by Zaidi (1979), five hundred and seventy-five human figure drawings were analyzed in terms of depiction of dress, physical features, work activities, facial expressions, and social roles. These drawings are assumed to project the social values of present-day Nigerian society. The researcher asked 250 boys and 150 girls (8 to 11 years old) to draw a whole man and a whole woman. He also asked them to indicate who the figure represented and why they selected this person for the drawing. He found that both girls and boys drew figures with modern dress and chose people that they drew because they liked them. He concluded that:
The analysis indicated a dominant preference for modern dress, attachment to own-group physical features, a choice of family relatives as subjects of the 69
drawing. In addition, more men than women are drawn as engaged in work, and more women than men are shown with smiling faces. Reasons for drawing a particular person include kindness of the person towards the respondent, his/her wealth, qualities of character, possession of certain skills, and attractive features. The results seem to indicate transition from some of Nigeria's traditional values and an attempt at readjustment in a rapidly changing society (pp. 163-169). Many educators believe that social growth can be seen in youngsters' drawings and as they grow their art reflects their growing awareness and their social environment. Victor Lowenfeld and W. L. Brittain in Creative and Mental Growth (1975, p. 61) stated that, "As the child develops a greater awareness of people and their influences in his life, these assume a larger percentage of his subject matter content."
They also wrote that:
The behavioral psychologist is more concerned with the activities of the child that are reinforcing and shaping his behavior. Basically, he believes that environment is primarily responsible for the making of the child. As we change or build the environment in different patterns, the child will change and will reflect the experiences that he has had. The child's drawings, therefore, will also change and reflect his thinking processes (p. 25). Now the question is, if the child had a previous cultural background for many years and has returned to his own culture for at least three years, does the previous cultural background still have an impact on his choice of 70 subject matter, its details and space organization in his drawings? Hamdi, Knirk, and Michael (1982) made a comparative study between American and Arabic children. The purpose of that study was to determine, in a sample of 33 American children and 30 Arabic children (all between 6 and 7 years of age) the differences in the mean level of performance of each of two short experimental test forms of depth perception.
One form consisted of three pictorial items related to the American culture, and the other form was made up of three items related to the Arabic culture. They hypothesized that: 1. American children would score higher than would
Arabic children on a measure intended to indicate their depth perception of pictorial materials that had been taken from the American culture. 2. Arabic children would score higher than would
American children on a measure designed to portray their depth perception of pictorial materials that had been adapted from the Arab culture.
3. American children would score higher on a measure constructed to represent their depth perception of pictorial materials that had been based on the
American culture than they would on a parallel
measure of the same length depicting the pictorial materials that had been derived from the Arabic 71
culture (two underlying key assumptions being that the two measure represent the same construct and that a score point on one measure is equivalent to a score point on the other). 4. Arabic children would score higher on a measure devised to reveal their depth perception of
pictorial materials that had been borrowed from the Arab culture than they would on a measure that had been utilized from the American culture (the same
two assumptions underlying this hypothesis as those pertinent to the previous one (p. 287).
In their discussion Hamdi, Knirk and Michael wrote:
The outcome related to the third and fourth hypotheses likewise provided a degree of support favoring the position that culture has an important role in determining an individual's perception of the specificity in the content of pictorial materials. It would appear that direct experience with pictures may contribute substantially to the perception of depth cues in pictorial materials. Thus consistent with the position that Miller (1973) has taken, the more experience an individual has had with a certain object (such as one in his or her own culture) the greater is the probability that this person will recognize that object and its spatial relationship with other objects when a pictorial presentation is made (p. 294). They concluded that:
The statistical results lent support to the conclusion that differences in the cultural backgrounds of the subjects relative to their familiarity with 72
pictorial content of test i terns incorporating size and distance cues contributed to significant differences in average level of test performance on the two forms (p. 295). In a longitudinal study, Wilson and Wilson (1980) Studies in Art Education, vol. 21.(1) collected over one thousand American and over one thousand Egyptian drawings from elementary school children to determine the influence of culture depicted in the human figure. From these pools a random sample of 30 American first and third grade sequences; and 60 sixth grade sequences were drawn. Only the drawings that contained human or animal figures were used for this study. The Egyptian samples came from a school near Cairo.
They indicated that it is difficult to ignore the central role that culture plays in artistic development and noted that by adolescence virtually every image drawn from memory could be traced back to previous images and that many of these previous images had the popular media as their source (pp. 36-43). In their book, Art. Culture and Environment. McFee and Degge (1977) said:
If we collect drawings from children in most classrooms we will find wide differences in the amount of details, the organization of objects on a page and the logic of the way the parts go together. Students from different cultural backgrounds may have learned to pay attention to different kinds of details and have learned to see different kinds of environment (p. 86). 73
They also said that:
Social position and group image are communicated by the drawings, painting, sculpture, and crafts with which people surround themselves. Children learn to see and to discriminate from particular environments, their choices are influenced by what other think is important (p. 86). McFee (19 61) in Preparation for Art indicates that the particular culture that a child lives in affects his perceptual development and the nature of his art. The culture influences the direction of his perceptual training by giving him many more opportunities and rewards for observing the things important to his group than for observing those that are not stressed. The cultural values act as directors that accelerate the children's drawing ability for some objects and neglect others. McFee notes that an anthropologist studied the tribe of Orotchen (a nomadic tribe in Northern Siberia who liveby herding reindeer) whose children had received no drawing training, but all their subjects showed the influence of sharpened visual perception and keen observation. All these studies show how cultural values and beliefs affect children's drawings and how different groups from different cultures draw differently. To sum up, Louise Korn Waldron, in her (1982) dissertation Theory of Child Art pointed out that the nature of art was cultural and it was "a visual history of the development of cultures, and the 74
foundation of man's communication system." It was a means
for the individual to reflect on personal and group experiences. "Children's drawings" is one of the topics which has attracted the attention of many scholars. Psychologist, sociologists and educators have devoted a great deal of study to children's art. In spite of these studies there are some aspects which have received scant attention. Cross-cultural studies in the field of art education is one of those areas. Most of the psychological and sociological studies use only the human figure as an object, while differences in values and beliefs can be expressed through art forms such as dress, religious holidays, celebrations, landscapes, architecture, decoration and so forth. As Nelson Goodman (1978) says these are:
"versions that are visions, depictions rather than descriptions." Through the graphic and plastic arts, humans recall their collective past, record their present, reflect upon possible future, and contemplate their conceptions of good and bad (p. 102).
The question is do any of those two groups in my study depict such past cultural backgrounds, particularly those who used to live in a culture which is completely different than their own? 75
A cross-cultural study by Wilson and Wilson (1983) included 93 drawings and themes reflected in story-drawing by children aged 9-12 years. Middle class children from America, Finland, Australia, and Egypt were studied. From the analysis of the story drawings of the four groups Wilson and Wilson (1983) wrote:
In the first narrative drawings, collected from children in the United States, we were able to observe how pervasively the contemporary culture of the United States was reflected -- the superheroes, space creatures, anthropomorphized animals, and perhaps too often, the view of the world as a threatening and violent place in which difficulties are to be overcome by more violence. Indeed, it was not surprising that the worlds drawn by children and the "many stuffs" of those worlds were created from worlds "already on hand," from familiar worlds, worlds that necessarily reflected the culture in which the children were ensconced (p. 32) .
As culture influences the drawings of the children, the environment might influence them too. Things such as geography, climate, and other human phenomena might be reflected differently according to the nature of the environment where the child lives. In another study made by Wilson and Wilson (1977) entitled An Iconoclastic View of the Imagery Source in the Drawings of Young Children they wrote: 76
Virtually every image drawn by our subjects could be traced back, with their help, to some previously existing graphic source. These sources were, however, extremely varied. They ranged from images borrowed from drawings that had been done by parents, older brothers or sisters, or peers, to images from the popular media, especially comics and television, but also from illustrations that the fine arts played so minimal a role; only occasionally did these images have as their sources fine-arts-derived imagery and then only from the "how-to- draw" books (p. 7).
In a study entitled Cultural and Environmental
influences reflected in Children's drawings from Urban and Rural Elementary Schools in and around Baghdad, Iraq. Al-
Allaq (1989) compared the drawings of fifth grade children (boys and girls) . The study was designed to determine the cultural, environmental and political/military factors which influence their visual imagery drawn by Iraqi children.
Other factors included are Eastern Tradition influences and Western influence, gender, and socio-economic level. Al-
Allaq (1989) wrote:
In general, children drew traditional themes more than Western themes. Western influences dominated the drawings of children from urban areas while traditional images appeared most often in the drawings of rural children In a review of drawings and paintings of free subject choices drawn by six- to twelve-year-old children from 41 countries, Anastasi and Foley (cited 77
in Lark-Horovitz, Lewis & Luca, 1967) found that the subjects selected depicted much of the same elements and activities of everyday life: people, animals, plants, etc. However, the prominence given to certain objects differs according to the country. The researchers found, for example, that American Indian children as well as children of Greece, Brazil, and Chile favor outdoor settings in their drawings. Children of Denmark and Japan are more interested in interiors. Drawings with imaginative content tend to reflect the religion, mythology, fables, or fairy tales of a particular country. Tradition also influences subject matter in a given cultural group (pp. 64-65) . Summary The cumulative findings of such research as is above reported points out the need for a close examination of the effect of culture and environment on children who have, for some formative years, been raised in an alien society. How this examination was conducted and the resultant findings are presented in the chapters that follow. The next chapter, "Methodology and Data Treatment" presents the research methodology employed by this study and includes a discussion of the study subjects, procedure, materials, variables and the ways the data was collected and treated. CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY & DATA TREATMENT
Introduction - Content Analysis Content Analysis was chosen as the type of qualitative research methodology for this study. What follows is a brief recounting of why content analysis was employed and appropriate for this research. According to Gay (1987) content analysis is:
The analysis of the written or visual contents of documents which include books and magazines of different kinds. Content analysis is the systematic, quantitative description of the composition of the object of the study. Typical subjects for content analysis include books, documents, and creative productions such as musical compositions, works of art, and photographs (p. 207).
People's points of view in terms of their religious and social beliefs, etc. are usually reflected in the documents they produce. For content analysis, the researcher must take the following steps in sequential order. First, the researcher must identify his/her problem. It could be one problem or two or a multi-sided question -- i.e, a problem that raises multiple questions. Second, the content analysis that the researcher wants to do will
78 79
therefore have to be designed to provide answers to these questions. Third, the researcher must determine how the selection and ordering of the content is available for
analysis are to be done. Fourth, the development of particular categories that will enable the researcher to
identify whatever is considered important and compare the presence of these categories among the various documents or books he/she is analyzing. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (1990):
This is the point of the content analysis of defining as precisely as possible those aspects of a document's contents that the researcher wants to investigate and then formulating relevant categories that are so explicit that another researcher who uses then to examine the same material would find essentially the same proportion of topics emphasized or ignored (p. 371).
It should be noted that the nature of the issues to be investigated or analyzed will determine the kinds of categories to be formulated. These categories can then be broken down into smaller coding units. A coding sheet can then be prepared to tally the data in each of the categories as they are identified in each unit selected for analysis in the document. Comparison can then be made. The units can be entries, such as words, sentences, paragraphs, chapters, themes, examples, exercises, and test questions.
Fraenkel and Wallen (1990) make this final point: Information that might be difficult or even impossible to obtain through direct observation or other means can be gained through analysis of textbooks and other available communication material without the author or publisher being aware that the material is being examined. Furthermore, replication of a content analysis by another researcher is relatively easy (p. 371).
The researcher considered the nature of qualitative research in a broad sense -- that is the general definitions and characteristics. The various forms of qualitative research were also examined -- ranging from participant, non participant to ethnographic forms. The purpose of this analysis was to enable the researcher to have an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of qualitative research and to determine which is the best suited to the conducting of this research. The researcher, therefore considered non participant observation, in general, and content analysis in particular to have been the most suitable for successfully attaining the goals and objectives of this research.
What follows then, is how the methodology was employed and how the data was treated.
Study Subjects
Since the subjects of this study were provided with the materials (crayons and paper) and given instructions as to what was required of them, invariably they will be aware of the special nature of this activity. This worx did not involve a detailed recording of the details of their drawing processes or styles. It was concerned with the finished 81
products and these are what have been analyzed. In general, the drawings are analyzed in terms of the number of drawings created by each group, the kind of subject matter that the children chose to draw, the details in the drawing and its relation to the Saudi (Eastern) culture, American culture (Western), or (Both) culture. Two groups of Saudi male children were selected for this study. Female students were not selected ■ for this study because in Saudi Arabia there are separate schools for boys
and girls; and male teachers and researchers are not permitted to enter girls' schools. The first group are Saudi children living in Saudi Arabia attending Saudi public
schools who never left the country or attended any other schools other than the Saudi public schools.
The second group are the children of the Saudi families who used to live in the United States, had spent at least three years in the United States, and had attended American schools at the kindergarten, preschool, elementary school, or
intermediate school level for at least two years. All the children in this group have spent at least three years back
in Saudi Arabia after leaving the United States. The children for this study were selected from four (4) Saudi schools in the city of Riyadh. Those schools were: King Saud University Campus Elementary school, King Saud
University Campus Intermediate School, Manarat Al-Riyadh Elementary School, Manarat Al-Riyadh Intermediate School. The children's demographics are similar in that they resemble
one another in terms of parents' education level, socio economic status, region in which they live. All of the fathers of these children have higher educational degrees,
i.e., doctorates or master's degrees. The educational background of the children's mothers varied. The children were selected from Grades 5, 6 , 7, 8 , and 9. Within each of
these grade levels the children closely resemble one another in terms of age. The following tables show the number of subjects and the identification numbers for these subjects. 83
Table 3
Number of Student Subjects
Grade Level Group 1 Group 2 Totals (grade level)
5 2 0 17 37
6 29 39 6 8
7 6 14 2 0
8 15 6 2 1
9 9 1 2 2 1
Totals 79 8 8 --- (Group)
Total Number of Subjects 167 (Groups 1 and 2 All Grade Levels)
Table 4
Student Identification Numbers
Group 1 ID Numbers Group 2 ID Numbers
Grade 5 1 - 2 0 Grade 5 80-96
Grade 6 21-49 Grade 6 97-135 Grade 7 50-55 Grade 7 136-149
Grade 8 56-70 Grade 8 150-155 Grade 9 71-79 Grade 9 156-167 84
In addition, each student was given his own identification number which allowed for easier movement and
manipulation of data.
Procedure The researcher asked each child to draw both at school and at home, but did not compare the drawings done at school to those drawn at school. At the school, the researcher was able to observe the children naturally and take some notes, and additionally answer questions raised in the classroom. At home, without the presence of the researcher, the children may have felt more freedom to draw subject matter that he was afraid or shy to draw in front of his teacher, the researcher, and his classmates.
The researcher visited each school (each group and grade
level of children) four (4) times. At school the children were given a box of 8 crayons and 4 sheets of white drawing paper. On each visit the researcher asked the students to draw something along the following lines: Week 1: Draw a Religious Celebration or Occasion
Week 2: Draw any celebration (social gathering other
than religious Week 3: Draw to tell a story (using Al-Allaq's 1989 approach). "I would like you to draw a story about something in your": a. your family or hour home b . work
c. celebration - marriage, parties, national celebration, etc. d. religious occasions
e. other ideas you can think of Week 4: Draw anything that you like (free choice of subject).
At the school, the researcher waited and observed while the students made their drawings. Since I employed the non participant observation method of qualitative research extensive use of gadgets such as equipment like videotapes, recorders, and cameras was not employed. I was in the presence of the children while they drew and I observed naturally by taking notes -- I did not attempt to influence or affect the children in the drawing activities'. Running concurrently with the drawing activities at school the children were asked to draw pictures at home.
They were given an additional 8 sheets of white drawing paper and were asked to use the provided crayons to make drawings of anything they wished (free choice). They were given 3 weeks to complete up to 8 drawings at home. The children were asked to submit their drawing made at home to the researcher one week prior to the researcher leaving the schools. The number of pictures drawn by each grade level for both groups and the total number of pictures drawn is presented in the following table. 86
Table 5
Number of Pictures Drawn
Grade Level Group 1 Group 2 Totals (grade level) 5 173 124 297
6 228 264 492
7 49 8 8 137
8 72 28 1 0 0
9 44 78 1 2 2
Totals 566 582 --- group)
Total Number of Pictures Drawn (Groups 1 and 2 ALL Grade Levels) 1,148 87
Materials The following materials were selected for the study. 1. Twelve sheets of 9 x 12 inch white drawing paper
per subject.
2. Two boxes of 8 colored crayons - one to use at
school and the other at home. Each child in each group received 12. sheets of white drawing paper and a box of crayon colors. The drawing paper was chosen because (a) it is popular and used in the schools,
(b) it is strong enough to be good for the use with color
crayons. Color crayons were chosen because (a) they are easier to use than any other colors such as water or oil colors, (b) they are the same as those the children use at school, which may have made them easier to use than other types of colors, (c) it is easier for children of this age to produce a clear
color picture with this kind of color, and (d) the 8 colored crayons will help the researcher to find out if there is any possible cultural differences in range of color. Finally,
the research can analyze and examine the children's drawings more easily because the greater degree of control possible with crayons, makes the subject matter clearer than would be
the case with paint or chalk. 88
Variables When we look at children's drawings, whether produced at school or at home, we can see that the children draw a variety of subject matter. For this reason, the researcher has examined the children's drawings by categorizing them in terms of subject matter, then each subject matter is discussed in terms of its details. The drawings were then examined for subjects to see their relationship to either the
Saudi or American culture or both. The researcher has worked
specifically on how these children draw their choice of subject matter and what details they have presented in order
to determine to what extent their cultural perspectives or experiences are reflected in their drawings. The fifteen variables that were examined were further differentiated into additional details that were more closely scrutinized in the detailed content analysis. Fifteen (15) variables were looked for when scoring the children's drawings. Under each variable was a listing of specific subject matter (details) that may have been present and this was also recorded including the number of such items. The fifteen variables were: (1) human figures, (2) male dress, (3) female dress, (4) religion, (5) celebration,
(6 ) war & conflict, (7) landscape, (8 ) buildings, (9) machines, (10) work, (11) leisure, (12) aesthetics, (13) plants, (14) animals, (15) others -- not easy to categorize under other 14 variables. Under each of these major 89
variables, more specific subject matter was looked for -- to
see what these were -- the variables and their accompanying details will be discussed below also -- (see blank Tally Sheets in Appendix D).
These fifteen variables were chosen beforehand. The
rationale for the selection of these variables comes first from the researcher's success employing similar variables for
a previous study. The selection of these variables was further supported by the the classification of variables in the works of Al-Allaq (1989) and Dalton (1991) . Generating a
scheme for categories of variables seemed to emerge and be common to child art studies and cross-cultural studies that
looked at the details of drawings. Horovitz, Lewis, and Luca
(1973) present a distribution table of detail variables in children's drawings that was of great help in the selection of the detail variables of this study. (1) Human Figures
Human figure drawing is not encouraged at the Saudi School's curriculum, and prohibited by the Saudi Islamic
Authorities (see Chapter Two). Statues of humans are not allowed. Some Islamic authorities allowed the drawing of the human figure if we separate the head from the rest of the body. This study investigated which kinds of human figure each group will depict, male, female alone as portrait, in environment, in group, personal statement and other as well as which kind of clothes, to what extent does the American 90 cultural background affect these children's drawings if there is any. (2) Male Dress The dress of males may include specific details identified as either Eastern, like Dishdashah Augall- ghotraho-shorgh, Bisht, or Western such as trousers, suit, shirt, t-shirt, and tie. (3) Female Dress Female dress is similar to male dress for it also can give insight into influence on children's drawings; however, this variable and its accompanying details also lets one see if male subjects chose to draw identifiable female figures and in what way they treated the women's clothing for the dress of women in Saudi Arabia like Dishdashah, Foota, Abayah, Hijab and the United States such as blouse, skirt, t- shirt, trousers, hat, baby suit is dramatically different and worthy of further study.
(4) Religion Officially, all Saudi citizens are Muslim, and the practice of any activities of any other religion is prohibited in the country. The Islamic religion classes start from the kindergarten and continue through all the public school levels including the universities. The Saudi children who used to live in the United States were exposed to many Christian religious activities while those who live in Saudi Arabia have not had the chance to 91
observe any kind of religious activities other than Islam.
What kind of religious symbols will be featured by each group was examined, i.e., Islamic symbols such as Mosques, Koran, Prayer, Haj, Domes, Minnaret, and pilgrims; or
Christian symbols such as churches, Bible, Thanksgiving, Temple, Santa Claus, Easter and crosses, etc. (5) Celebrations
The Saudi children who used to live int he U.S. were exposed to many important celebrations which have never been celebrated in Saudi Arabia, such as New Years Day, Halloween,
Western dance, Birthday parties, Thanksgiving, 4th of July, etc. The Saudi culture celebrates such other celebrations as, Ramadan Eid (The Ramadan celebration), Saudi Zafaf
(wedding) Saudi National Day, Ardah on Dabkah, social gathering, graduation party and so on and so forth.
(6 ) War and Conflict
The Middle East in general and the Gulf States in particular went through many wars and conflicts, such as Arab-Israeli Wars, Iraq-Iran wars, and the last war between
Iraq and the allied forces to liberate Kuwait. These wars and the role of the mass media might play a significant role in the representation of war and conflict objectives.
Wilson B. and Wilson M. (1980) cited Harry Gardiner
(1969) as follows: As culture influences the form of drawings it also influences their content. In a study of 2,382 boys 92
comprising 26 cultural groups, Gardiner (1969) found marked cross-cultural difference in the hostility content of figure drawings as evidenced by the presence of weapons, characters in occupations associated with violent activities and figures preparing for physical struggle. Thirty-five percent of the drawings from Thailand contained such content but no such content was found in the drawings of American, Cambodian, and Mexican samples. Gardiner hypothesized that the drawings from Thailand would be highest in hostility content because of the extreme prohibition of outward hostility in the Thai culture. The drawings were assumed to be symbolic expressions of cultural repressions (p. 37). (7) Landscape Saudi Arabia is very warm, sunny and desert where you cannot see forests, rivers or even grass almost all over the country except for the Southern part. Farms are very limited. In contrast, most of the U.S. land is filled with trees, forests, rivers, and the weather in many parts has snow during the winter and rain during the rest of the year.
The landscape elements of the East were compared with the landscape elements of the West.
(8 ) Buildings
Houses in Saudi Arabia are different than those in the
U.S. both from the inside and from the outside. Almost all houses and other buildings are built from concrete and look different from those in the U.S. Houses in Saudi Arabia were designed to fit the cultural and religious role as well as the weather. Decoration inside the house also is different. 93
For this reason, cultural background differences between the
two groups might and might not be reflected in their drawings in this study. The research examined the similarities and differences between the two groups in their drawings of buildings both from the buildings' interior and the exterior
and their relation to Eastern or Western culture. (Examples of comparisons will include building such as concrete houses,
brick houses, government buildings, apartments, tents and Bedouins homes, mud houses, furniture, wall hanging, door and window treatment, appliances, rugs, and decorative items and
its relation to Eastern and Western culture.)
(9) Machines Machinery is another variable that can be culturally specific, although it is likely that the number of similarities in machinery between East and West is greater than the differences; however, they may show various methods of employment of machinery which are different. (10) Work This category investigated the kind of work which each group reflects in their drawing and the effect of the Eastern and Western culture in such work activities like farming, factory, office,home-making, school and so forth.
(11) Leisure Leisure is another category which includes games; sports such as soccer in Saudi Arabia or football; shopping in Saudi environment or American; T.V., (Arabic programs or English); 94 movies, (Arabic movies or English); cartoons, (Arabic cartoons or English); etc. Since the Saudi Group who used to live in the U.S. are familiar with all these kinds of leisure activities in the U.S. before their return to Saudi Arabia, this research sought to find to what extent the previous experiences affected the children's drawings.
(12) Aesthetics Aesthetics were also looked at specifically under this category a more detailed examination was given to Arabic calligraphy and other aesthetic design drawings, in that if one adopts a strict interpretation this is one, if not the only, truly respected area of art to the Muslim. For this study "Aesthetics" was defined as Arabic calligraphy, design and pure colors.
(13) Plants
Plants, flowers, trees, palm trees (which can be found all over Saudi Arabia) and such other trees that cannot be found in Saudi Arabia but can be found in the United States like Christmas trees and Arizona tree (cactus). (14) Animals
Cultural specific animals would tend to include the camel for Eastern culture and the pig, or pets such as cats and dogs in the Western culture. Horses, highly' prized traditionally in the Eastern (Saudi) culture, could have been a sign attributable to both cultures. 95
(15) Others
The Other variable included details that could not be fit into any of the previous 14 categories.
Data Collection and Treatment
Data Collection Forms
Two preliminary types of data collection forms were designed for 'this study, and others were added for data analysis, the two are: (1) Student Data Sheets, and (2) Data Tally Sheets.
Student Data Sheets
Two different student data sheets were produced; one for Students Who Have Not Lived Outside of Saudi Arabia (Group 1) and another for students Who Have Lived in the USA (Group 2).
The purpose of the student data sheet was to record certain general details of each student. Information on both sheets included: Student name, student number, student age, school name, grade level, father's educational background and mother's educational background. For those who lived in the United States, additional information was asked for number of years in the U.S., student age while in the United States, and the number of years in Saudi Arabia since leaving the U.S.
Data Tally Sheets Data Tally Sheets were designed to identify and record the number of pictures, variables, and subject matter drawn by each student. The charts were divided into Eastern and 96
Western halfs which means that drawing characters were identified as predominantly Eastern (Saudi) or Western (U.S.)
in nature. For each major variable, a mark was placed if that variable was visible (incidents of occurrence) in a picture. Then below the major variable, the detailed items were marked to record their occurrence in a picture and the number of such details (see Appendix D).
Data Collection Each drawing was identified as being a representation of
Eastern, Western, or both cultures. Both were recorded when the drawing contained variables and details representative of both cultures and/or it contained variables and details that can be considered neutral -- valid to both cultural descriptors.
For each individual subject, the number of drawings he produced was recorded first. Once this was accomplished, each subject's drawings were scrutinized by employing the
Data Tally Sheets. Then all the Data Tally Sheets for each student in each grade level and group was scored and recorded on the Group/Grade Level Data Collection Sheet. After this was completed, the totals for each grade level were tabulated to produce the Group Data Collection Sheet. Finally, the All Subjects Data Collection Sheet was produced to record data for all subjects from both groups and all grade levels. The other data collection forms and what they recorded and why they are designed as they were is presented below. 97
Group/Grade Level Data Collection Sheet
This sheet was designed to record totals gathered from the Data Tally Sheets. For example, Group 1 Grade Level 5,
included the total drawings of the 2 0 students who produced 173 drawings. The sheet includes a recording of Group, Grade Level, Number of Pictures Drawn, Number of Drawings of only
Eastern Content, Number of Pictures of Western Content only, and Number of Drawings which contain content of Both cultures. In addition, a breakdown of the number of variable occurrences was included. What this breakdown accomplished was a recording of how many times a particular variable was drawn, differentiated by culture. Also the percentage of occurrence measured the percentage of times that a particular variable was drawn. Group Data Collection Sheet The Group Data Collection Sheet is a recording of the tabulations from each grade level (5 through 9) for each group (1 or 2). Correspondingly, there are two of these sheets. This sheet is similar to the Group/Grade Level Data Collection Sheet in terms of its elements -- except it is a record for the entire group instead of each grade level. All Subjects Data Collection Sheet
The All Subjects Data Collection Sheet is a record of all totals for all study subjects -- thus it includes all the total information for all subjects, all grade levels, and both groups. It is similar in elements to the Group/Grade Level Data Collection Sheet and the Group Data Collection Sheet. An example of each of these sheets is available in Appendix D, and their records are more closely examined in the Data Analysis. The next chapter, "Data Analysis" is divided into two parts. Part One provides the procedure which was employed to analyze the data statistically and ensure validity of results; and the collected result summaries themselves. Part Two is an interpretation of data for each of the 15 variables of the study and includes 48 individual drawings which are described by the researcher and two trained graduate students (one Saudi and one American) and analyzed in terms of their details. CHAPTER V DATA ANALYSIS Part One: Statistical Method and Result Summaries
Introduction This work was designed to determine whether differences are reflected in the drawings of Saudi Arabian children based on having lived in the United States or having never lived outside of Saudi Arabia. The subjects of this study were 167 male students from grades 5,6 ,7, 8 and 9 from schools in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. In order to analyze the data statistically and ensure the validity of results, it was necessary to follow scientifically sound procedures. First, the data had to be defined and tabulated in a format that can be readily processed by a statistical package (SPSS). Second, a hypothesis had to be stated and a suitable statistical technique chosen. Third, results had to be examined and interpreted. Lastly, conclusions regarding the results had to be drawn and supported with third party findings and literature. The data was originally summarized in tables (see Appendix D) and the counts of Eastern, Western and Both
99 100 occurances for each variable by a given group and given grade level were tabulated. Each picture was rated with values of one and zero for each of the categories Eastern, Western, and
Both. The following table shows each parameter (children, level [grade], variable, background, and count) its value and its definition. For example, the parameter children with a value of (1 ) is defined as children who have never lived outside Saudi Arabia; known throughout this work as Group
One. 101
Table 6 Statistical Parameters, Values and Definitions
Parameter Value Definition children 1 never lived outside Saudi Arabia
- 2 lived in US level 5 grade level five - 6 grade level six - 7 grade level seven - 8 grade level eight - 9 grade level nine variableX 1 Human Figures - 2 Male Dress - 3 Female Dress - 4 Religion - 5 Celebration - 6 War & Conflict - 7 Landscape
- 8 Building - 9 Machines - 10 Work - 11 Leisure - 12 Aesthetics - 13 Plants - 14 Animals
- 15 Other background 1 Eastern - 2 Western
- 3 Both count > 0 the count or weight of the data 102
Statistical Method and Hypothesis The purpose of the statistical analysis is to show whether there is a dependency between the groups of children
(Group One, Group Two) and the weights of the nominal nature
of the parameters. The cross tabulation technique with Chi- Square was selected as the most suitable for this purpose. The data were analyzed by using the CrossTabs program in the SPSS (SPSS, 1990, version 4.0 for Macintosh). This program was suitable because the variables employed were categorical and data in each category consisted of frequencies. Chi-Square Test for Independence was calculated. This statistic tests whether or not there is a relationship between two variables. The chi-square was used to decide whether to accept the hypothesis; inversely to reject the null hypothesis. The level of significance used throughout was . 1 0 . The Chi-Square value is a measure of the discrepancy between the data weights and the expected values. The latter are computed based on the averages of the counts of both groups for each category. Larger values of the Chi-Square implies a lower probability of accepting the Null Hypothesis, the assumption that the column parameter background (1,2,3) weights are not dependent on the row group children (1 ,2 ). Values of probability lower than .10 are selected as the range for the rejection of the Null Hypothesis. The results 103
from SPSS for each variable X!...Xi5 are listed in Appendix
#D. The chi-square formula measured the discrepancy between the data (observed) and the hypothesis (expected). Large discrepancies produced large values for chi-square and indicated that the null hypothesis be rejected. In order to determine if the chi-squares were significantly large, the degrees of freedom was determined for the statistic and the chi-square distribution was consulted. This was all conducted by employing the CrossTabs program in SPSS.
The general steps followed to test the hypothesis to determine whether the sample data supported or refuted the hypothesis about this population were:
1. The hypotheses were stated and the level of significance
(.1 0 ) was selected. 2. Value for degrees of freedom were computed and critical values located. 3. Expected frequencies were determined and chi-squares computed. 4. Decisions were made regarding the null hypothesis. If
the significance was less than . 1 it was considered to be reliable. If the obtained chi-square exceeded the
critical value the decision was to reject the null hypothesis. 5. A positive or negative correlation for the observed and expected values also indicated whether the data supported or rejected the hypothesis for this 104
population.
Hypothesis: Test whether there is a dependence between the Groups and Eastern/Western Counts.
Null Hypothesis: There is no relationship between Groups and Eastern/Western Counts, i.e. the variables are independent.
The steps involved in this process were: 1) a sample was selected and each individual was classified and categorized. Each subject matter was classified on both variables and the resulting frequency distribution was presented as a matrix. The observed frequencies were identified. 2 ) the frequency distribution that would be predicted from the null hypothesis was found, these are identified as the expected frequencies which specify how the sample would be distributed if the null hypothesis were correct. Once the expected frequencies were obtained, chi- square statistics were computed to determine how well the data (observed) fit the hypothesis (expected). The next stage of the statistical analysis consists of the interpretation of the data. This stage has three steps. First of all, looking at the tables in Appendix E, determine the value of the nominal variable background that has higher count than the expected for children (1 ) and children (2 ).
This will pinpoint the tendency of each group. It is apparent that children(1) who never lived outside of Saudi
Arabia, have higher counts for background (Eastern=l) while 105 children(2) who lived in the United States manifested higher counts for the background (Western=2). This result was consistent for all variables X 1....X1 5 . In the second stage the following table, a summary of the SPSS results from Appendix D is used to assert whether the Null Hypothesis was statistically rejected. In the next stage, individual pictures for each variable
(X;l _ _ _Xx5 ) were examined closely in terms of their detail and explanations of picture content were generated in regard to the hypothesis and with respect to Group (One or Two) and the background tendency (Eastern, Western, Both). Several drawings for each variable were discussed.
Lastly, (in Chapter 6 ) conclusions regarding the results were drawn and supported with third part findings and literature. The commentary of this section focused on how related data and findings from other researchers are pertinent to this study. This work adds to the body of literature regarding culture, background, and influence on the drawings (art) of children. Table 7 is a summary of results for all grade levels of the individual variable Chi-Square statistical results which can be found in Appendix E. When the significance of the Chi-Square was less than the 0.1 threshold the results were considered to statistically be supporting the hypothesis. 106
Table 7 Summary of Data Results for ALL Grade Levels
Variable Total Chi- Value Signif Corre Xi. . .x15 Count Square icance lation
Human 303 Pearson 17 .15 0.00019 pos Figures
Male Dress 150 Pearson 10 .22 0.006 pos
Female 29 Pearson 10 .87 0.0004 pos Dress
Religion 264 Pearson 17 .81 0.00002 pos
Celebra 173 Pearson 17 .88 0.00013 pos tion
War/Con 42 Pearson 1.91 0.38 neg flict
Landscape 399 Pearson 15.32 0.00047 pos
Building 291 Pearson 11.68 0.0029 pos
Machines 164 Pearson 7 .65 0.02 pos
Work 5 -- — — --
Leisure 76 Pearson 4.36 0.11 pos
Aesthetics 72 Pearson 4.08 0.12 pos
Plants 282 Pearson 27 .84 0.00 pos
Animals 145 Pearson 23 .43 0.00 pos
Other 179 Pearson 1.48 0.45 neg
Significant at the 0.10 level. CHAPTER FIVE DATA ANALYSIS Part Two: Interpretation of Data by Variable (Xx. . .X15)
1 . Human Figures
The subjects from Group One and Group Two drew a total of 3 03 human figures. Group One children drew 146 human figures (48.2%) while Group Two children drew 157 human figures (51.2%). There was no significant difference between the two groups in terms of number of human figures drawn; however, there were differences between the two groups in terms of cultural background (Eastern or Western) and male or female figures and dress. The Chi-Square Test (hereafter "C/S Test") shows that
Group One subjects drew more Eastern-type human figures (13 6 ) than was anticipated (122.9) by the C/S Test and less
Western-type human figures (8 ) than the anticipated (19.3). C/S Test also shows that . Group Two children drew less Eastern-type human figures (119) than expected (132.1) and more Western-type figures (32) than was expected (20.7). A small number of human figures could be classified as both (or either) Western and Eastern. This seems to indicate that Group One subjects (those who had never lived outside of
107 108
Saudi Arabia) had a greater tendency to draw Eastern human figures and a lesser tendency to draw Western human figures. Conversely, Group Two children (those who had lived in the United States) had a greater tendency to draw Western-type human figures and a lesser tendency to draw Eastern-type human figures. It might therefore be concluded that the cultural background of the children did have a influence on the type (Eastern or Western) of human figures drawings the children produced.
Interpretation
Drawings that were interpreted for the Human Figure variable are included with the Male and Female Dress variable.
2. Male and 3. Female Dress For Male Dress the total drawn by both Group One and Group Two was 150. Group One drew 60 (40.0%) while Group Two drew 90 (60.%). Group One drew (50) Eastern-type male dress which was more than expected (42.8) by the C/S Test and (7) Western-type male dress which was less than the anticipated (15.2). Group Two drew (57) Eastern-type male dress which was less than the expected value of (64.2) and (31) Western- type male dress which was greater than the anticipated
(22.8). A small number of male dress were classified as either or both.
For Female Dress the total drawn by both groups was 29.
Group One drew 19 (65.5%) while Group Two drew 10 (34.5%). 109
Group One drew (17) Eastern-type female dress which was greater than expected (13.8) and only (1) Western-type female dress less than the (4.6) expected. Group Two drew (4) Eastern-type female dress which was less than the expected
(7.2) by C/S Test and (6 ) Western-type female dress which was more than the anticipated (2.4). The results for male dress and female dress for Groups One and Two seems to be similar. Group One appeared to be more interested in drawing human figures in Eastern-type dress and had very little interest in drawing human figures in Western-type dress. Conversely, Group Two seemed more interested in depicting humans in Western garb and was less interested in presenting them in Eastern-type dress. For the variables Male and Female Dress, as was the case with Human
Figures, cultural background was seen to influence the content of drawings for the two groups. Interpretat ion
Picture #1 (p. 112) is of a human figure drawn by a seventh grade student from Group One (never left Saudi Arabia) . It is not, therefore, surprising that the child drew this figure with the traditional Eastern (Saudi) male dress. The majority of the Saudi people continue to wear traditional clothing at work and home. The Saudi Ministry of Education prohibits the wearing of Western dress in the public schools. This child drew a young man with full Saudi costume 110 which consists of 1) the Okal (part of the head dress), 2) the Ghotrah, 3) the Takiah (head dress), 4) the Thoub (long undershirt), and 5) the Bisht (long over garment). This style of costume is representative of what the child sees other people wearing and what he himself wears in Saudi Arabia. The manner in which this portrait is presented reveals an attitude that Saudi people hold, namely they wish to be photographed when they are properly attired. Traditional Saudi costumes are highly respected and valued by all Saudi citizens and the government; they are a symbol of
Saudi identity. Picture #2 (p. 112) contains three human figures who are attired in Western dress. The Group Two child who submitted this work had lived for five (5) years in the West (Britain) and has since been back in Saudi Arabia for the past three (3) years. The Western environment and lifestyle is very evident in this picture. The scene is set at a park or other open green area where the figures are having a picnic. In the background, there are two western-type structures (possibly a barn and farm house), green leafy trees and bushes, and one auto on a paved blacktop highway. The picnic table and chairs are very representative of Western culture. Of particular interest is the dress of the three figures. One figure is outfitted in casual slacks and T-shirt and black shoes. The other two figures are attired in more formal Western dress including suit coat, vest, ties, Ill trousers, and black dress shoes. The influence of Western culture is very prominent for this child as represented by this picture.
Picture #3 (p. 113) is of a female drawn by a Group One seventh grade student. This picture can identified as either Eastern and Western. In Saudi Arabia, a young women might dress in this manner -- heavy makeup, short sleeve blouse, open flowing hair -- in her family's home, but never in public where she would have her hair, face, and body covered. It is an everyday occurrence in the West to see young women in public, at work, or at home dressed in this manner and wearing makeup. This child drew the young women in a green and pink blouse adorned with a red, heart-shared locket. Her face is made-up with red lipstick, blush, mascara, and highlighting over the eyes. This drawing does not necessarily indicate a Western influence in female dress because the student may have seen members of his family adorned this way at his home. Several of the drawings included with this chapter obviously were done with materials other than the crayons that were provided the students. Some subjects asked the researcher if they could use their own drawing materials. This was allowed because use of pencils, pens, makers, etc. did not affect the conducting of this study nor did their employment hamper data collection and analysis. 112 Picture Number 1
w
Picture Number 2 113
Picture Number 3
k 114
4 . Religion Both groups of children showed a strong interest in depicting religious objects, ideas and/or representations in their drawings. The total number of religious representations for both groups was 264. Group One drew 115 (43.6%) while Group Two drew 149 (56.4%).
Group One drew (113) Eastern religious representations more than the expected (102.4) and only (2) Western religious representations significantly less than the C/S Test expected
(12.6). Group Two drew (122) Eastern religious representations which was less than the expected (132.6) and (27) Western religious representations which was greater than the anticipated value of (16.4). No drawings were found to have elements of both Eastern and Western religious representations. The Islamic religion appears to have a very strong affect on Saudi children regardless of whether or not they have lived outside of Saudi Arabia (i.e. in United States or the West). Only two drawings from Group One depicted Western religious representations -- these will be looked at in more detail below. Thus, Group One children were considerably less likely to depict Western religions than was expected. Group Two however did draw more Western religious representations than was expected. It seems very apparent that the cultural background of Group Two children (having 115 lived in the United States) influenced them to draw Western religion. The universal centrality of Islam in the lives of the Saudi people makes this cultural influence of the West a point of extreme interest. Islam appears to have a very strong affect on Saudi children whether they have resided in the West or have never lived outside of Saudi Arabia. Islamic symbols and representations can be found in a large number of drawings. Almost every student from both groups depicted Islam in some manner in at least one drawing. Highly featured were mosques (prominently the two holy mosques in Makkah and Madenah) Haj (pilgrimage), Koranic passages, Ramadan (fasting) month, and Eid-Ramadan. The impact of the Islamic religion on these children originates from Saudi mass media, circumstances involving the Islamic Awakening including Islamic record stores, books about Islam, awareness of Islamic people around the world, lectures at Friday prayer, world events involving Islamic people (i.e. war in Bosnia, plight of the Palestinian people, etc.), parents, friends, schools, and other sources.
These vehicles of Islamic teachings apparently have a very strong effect on the lives of Saudi children. When we look at the drawings of the Saudi children, we find the mosques or other religious depictions as parts of cities, towns, the landscape, celebrations, in events of war and conflict, aesthetics (Arabic calligraphy), or as part of any other type of subject matter. The centrality of Islam is 116 not something strange because Saudi children are raised in the heart of the Islamic world where the Muslim holy places are located and where the Islamic religion had its beginning. Interpretation Picture #4 (p. 120) was drawn by a sixth grade student from Group One. Pictured is an example of modern Arabian architecture. The Saudi government, members of the royal family, wealthy people, and other private agencies, have built and continue to build mosques in a style that is both costly and beautiful. These structures are scattered throughout the kingdom and they attract the interest of children and adults. This particular child was influenced by modern mosques. It has one dome and one minaret, both ornately decorated and topped by the crescent moon. There is a door and many large windows (which are shaped similar to the minaret) to let in the sunlight. Surrounding the mosque is a garden with many small green plants and a palm tree. The palm tree was once the primary source of food for Saudis and is still important today. It is also part of the official government seal of the kingdom. Picture #5 (p. 120) was drawn by a sixth grade Group Two student. This is a drawing of the Holy Mosque in Makkah. In the center of the mosque is Al-Kabah, where Muslims all over the world must face during their five daily prayers. It is also where every Muslim must, at least once during his life, visit for Haj. In the drawing, Al-Kabah is covered with a 117 black cloth called "Al-Kabah cloth". The yellow area on the top of Al-Kabah represented the Koranic passage inscribed there in gold. In addition, the doors are painted gold. The Holy Mosque in Makkah is a two-story structure with six minarets. This child drew only two minarets which would be visible from the point of view (position) he has taken. The fact that this child had lived in the West certainly did not deter him from drawing one of the most holy sites of Islam.
Picture # 6 (p. 121) was drawn by a sixth grade student from Group Two. He has depicted the religious celebration of Eid Al-Feter. During the Ramadan month Muslims all over the world fast from dawn until dusk. At the end of Ramadan
Muslims celebrate the breaking of the fast; this is called Eid Al-Feter. There are two Eid religious celebrations for Muslims the other being Eid Aladha. This representation of Eid Al-Feter shows the gathering of people in the morning to break the fast. Families bring food and at a chosen place, usually a quiet street, they greet one another and begin to eat. This child drew a big feast on a side street with six men dressed in the traditional Saudi attire. He also drew a car passing by and colorful fireworks exploding in the distance. Saudi children who had lived in the United States (Group
Two) drew both Islamic religious representations and Christian religious representations. The Christian religious representations included Christmas, Easter, Halloween, the 118 church, crosses and others. A total of twenty-seven (27) Christian religious depictions were found. Several examples of Christian religious depictions follow. Picture #7 (p. 121) is another example of a Western
(Christian) religious representation. This work was created by a seventh grade Group Two student who spent six (6 ) years in the United States and has since been back in Saudi Arabia for the last four (4) years. This picture depicts Halloween. Halloween while often considered a secular celebration does certainly have historical, religious connotations. In the left hand corner is a multi-colored banner with "Holloween" written in English. In the center of this drawing is a jack- o-lantern (carved pumpkin) that has been pierced with an arrow on a small table. A male figure dressed in the costume of a pirate (waist coat, peg leg, pistol, parrot or bird on shoulder) is removing the top of the pumpkin with a dagger. Interestingly, it seems as though the pumpkin is bleeding from the arrow wound and its facial expressions are one of fright/terror. From the drawing, this child seems to have been greatly influenced by Western culture in that he could draw such a detailed Western scene even after four years back in Saudi Arabia. It is concevable that the children could have access to magazines which show Western events, but this is highly unlikely. The number of Western magazines available in Saudi Arabia is very, very small and finding a
Western magazine requires considerably time and effort. 119
Picture # 8 (p. 122) was produced by a seventh grade
Group Two student who spent eight (8 ) years in the United States and has since been in Saudi Arabia for the past five
(5) years. He produced a depiction of Christmas Day. The detail includes a brick fireplace with roaring fire, a snowman visible through a four-plane window, two Christmas trees mounted in tree stands and ornately decorated with yellow and red bulbs, four ribboned presents and one jack-o- lantern (pumpkin) and two small packages hanging from the trees. The impact of cultural background is clearly visible in that even after having returned to Saudi five (5) years prior, this child still chose to draw such a detailed accounting of Christmas day. Picture #9 (p. 122) was drawn by a ninth grade Group Two student. His Western religious depiction is of a ribboned
Easter basket sitting on a table. Inside the basket are numerous multi-colored and decorated Easter eggs. Pictures which contain religious messages will be discussed in the War and Conflict section later in this work. 120 Picture Number 4
Picture Number 5 121 Picture Number 6
r ? M t'-W **"w •;
Ai V\’ *.* »•' i
Picture Number 7 122 Picture Number 8
Picture Number 9 123
5 . Celebration For Group One and Group Two a total of 173 drawings of the variable Celebration were produced. Group One produced
6 8 (39.3%) while Group Two drew 105 (60.7%). Group One drew (67) depictions of Eastern celebrations more than the expected (57.0) and (1) depiction of Western celebrations considerably less than the expected (10.6). Group Two, on the other hand, drew (78) Eastern celebrations which was less than the anticipated (88.0) and (26) Western celebrations which is more than the expected (16.4). Only one drawing was classified as being both or either Eastern or Western. As has been the case for the previous variables, the C/S Test results for Celebration are significant and follow a similar interpretation. Group One had a greater tendency to produce Eastern celebrations and had a lesser tendency to produce Western celebrations. Conversely, Group Two children were more likely to produce more Western celebrations and less Eastern celebrations. Again, cultural background plays a part in influencing drawing content for these two groups. Interpretation Picture #10 (p. 127) was made by a fifth grade Group Two student who lived in the United States for at least three (3) years. This picture depicts Al-Ardhah Al-Najdeah (the Saudi
National Song and Dance for Men). It is traditional part of Saudi folklore story about the central part of the Arabian peninsula which has been transferred into a war song. Today 124 this folklore is still used during all kinds of occasions and celebrations. The child drew eight (8) singing and dancing male figures dressed in traditional costumes. Several men are carrying swords, the weapons of war and symbols of victory, two men are beating drums, and three men are playing the cymbals. The surroundings are decorated with colorful lights suspended from above.
Picture #11 (p. 127) was drawn by a ninth grade student from Group One. The scene is set in an old Saudi village which reflects the traditional way of life in the kingdom. The child has draw a wedding celebration. The details of the drawing include eight mud houses decorated with lights. The door and window styles of the houses also are a reflection of the old style. This child drew what he has seen and knows about these old villages. The child drew eleven (11) males in traditional dress and one female in traditional black dress. The bride and groom walk along and pass eight (8) men singing and dancing the Al-Ardah Al-Najdeah dance. Two men are sitting on a mud seat observing the proceedings. This student's drawing may underscore his interest and attraction to the old traditional Saudi lifestyle. Picture #12 (p. 128) was produced by a fifth grade Group
Two student who had spent four (4) years in the United States. The picture is of a birthday party. In general, birthday parties are not celebrated by Saudi citizens. Some religious authorities consider birthday parties to be 125 prohibited. This drawings reveals a Western cultural influence. The details of the drawing include seven (7) human figures, at least one of which is female, a decorated table, four (4) plates and one birthday cake with one burning candle. Two of the male figures are discernably dressed in shirts, one in pants, and the female figure is wearing a dress with an open neckline. During one of the meetings with the children, one student asked the researcher if he could draw a birthday party. At the time the researcher was speaking with one of the school administrators (the Student Advisor). The advisor who had heard what the child had asked later called the student and questioned, "You drew a birthday party?! I thought someone else would do that, but not you." After the advisor chastised the child, he was surprised to find how and why the child had drawn the birthday party. He had assumed that drawings of birthday parties would be prohibited.
Later, after finding out about the conversation between the advisor and the student, the researcher called the advisor and informed him that he wanted the children to draw,
"whatever they wished to draw" and that he was not to interrupt any child from performing this task. Picture #13 (p. 128) was drawn by student #149, a 13- year old Group Two seventh grader. This student lived in the United States for eight (8) years (the longest of any student 126 in this study) and has since been residing in Saudi Arabia for the past (5) years. He seems to have been one of the students most affected by his Western cultural exposure. He drew many pictures, almost all of which contain Western representations. For example, in this drawing the child depicts a Western wedding.
Two females are drawn and three males. The bride is wearing a white wedding gown with a long train while the groom is wearing a black tuxedo. The most significant feature of this picture is the church with a steeple and Christian cross on top. The influence of cultural background on religion has been previously discussed. A number of the students expressed negative feelings toward other students depicting Western representations and often confronted those children (especially the ones who drew Western religious representations) by asking, "Are your
Christian?" "Don't you know that this is prohibited?" The responses of the children who drew Western depictions generally were along the lines, "We are Muslims; we pray, we fast, we go to Makkah, but have you seen Christmas; have you seen Halloween; or the Fourth of July?" "We are sure that if you lived in America and saw those celebrations, you would like the ways Americans celebrate them, even if you are a Muslim -- to like something does not mean to believe in it."
Many of these children were under pressure, both from peers and adults, not to draw Western pictures. Picture Number 10 127
Picture Number 11 128 Picture Number 12
■' >•' JS i } •!’• * • fi* * v "/I C; V * , J * ■ v ‘\ \ :-..V-3:S J •! ' •• , * , $ v j V, •:
Picture Number 13 129
6 . War and Conflict Only a total of 42 drawings of War and Conflict were presented by Groups One and Two. Group One drew 14 (33.3%) while Group Two drew 28 (66.7%). Unlike the aforementioned variables, the C/S Test revealed that the results appear not to be or are less statistically significant. Group One was expected to produce (9.7) Eastern depictions of War and
Conflict and produced only slightly more (10) and Group Two was expected to produce (19.3) Eastern depictions of War and Conflict and they produced only slightly less (19). Since the C/S Test expected frequencies matched the observed frequencies for both Groups the statistical significance of the results for this variable is suspect. However, it is still possible to discuss several of the drawings in depth. The pictures of War and Conflict by these two groups reflect the Middle East conflict (Arabian Gulf War), the Arabian Gulf, and situations that have occurred in Afghanistan, Bosnia and Sarajevo. The drawings seem to generally reflect what is depicted by the mass media, daily newspapers, and discussions at Friday prayers.
Interpretat ion Picture #14 (p. 132) was drawn by a fifth grade Group
One student. This drawing is a depiction of tanks involved in the liberation of Kuwait. The details include desert landscape and mountain ranges which are typical of the Saudi 130
countryside. Also, there are five (5) tanks loaded with weapons; three of which are flying the Saudi flag, and two of which fly the Kuwaiti flag. The child clearly shows the Saudis coming to the aid of the Kuwaitis. In the upper left hand corner the child wrote in Arabic "Kuwait's Liberation. (The child related the particulars of his drawing/story to the researcher'. ) Picture #15 (p. 132) was drawn by a Group Two eighth grade student. This picture is concerned with the liberation of Kuwait. Obviously the child drew his personal reflections of the Gulf War. The details include one (1) Patriot
("Patroot" by the student) missile aiming at one (1) Scud missile, three (3) fighter jets, one firing its weapons, one fleeing, and one crashing in a trail of fire. In addition to this, there is a hand holding an arrow and a statement written in Arabic meaning, "God is great, we won!" Picture #16 (p. 133) was drawn by a ninth grade student from Group Two. This picture illustrates Islam and some of the dangerous, threatening surroundings of the holy religion.
Islam was symbolized by a Minaret with loud speakers proclaiming "God is Great" which was repeated eight times. In addition, this child drew an Islamic symbol of a hand carrying a sword and arrow with one finger raised and pointing to the sky. The hand is protecting the holy Koran.
The hand is impaled by a sharp-edged cross. At the top right hand corner the child drew five satellite dishes as 131 representative of non-Islamic cultural invasion into the Islamic land. The Star of David is depicted as being the origin of the satellites' messages of invasion. In the lower right hand corner this child drew a human skull just below pork meat which is prohibited by Islam and thus is shown as another representation of cultural invasion. It seems clear that this child is acutely aware of the outside cultural influences (invasion) pressing on the
Islamic world and he takes a very negative stance towards these influences. Picture # 17 (p. 134) was submitted by a sixth grade child from Group Two. Contained in this picture is a representation of the Mosque of the Rock in Jerusalem with a Palestinian flag painted or hung on the dome. A group of people are gathered outside the mosque and they are also holding a Palestinian flag. Two men carrying a third
Palestinian flag are approaching the mosque. An Israeli tank and two helicopters are seen to be observing or attempting to disperse the gathered crowd. Saudi children are very familiar with these types of scenes in that they are discussed and presented by the mass media almost every day. 132 Picture Number 14
Picture Number 15 Picture Number 16
■'^rrrnp. 134
Picture Number 17 135
7 . Landscape For the Landscape variable the results of the C/S Test were statistically very significant; and Landscape was the most popular subject for children of both groups to draw.
The combined total for both groups was 399. Group One drew 223 (55.9%) while Group Two drew 176 (44.1%). Group One produced (17 5) Eastern-type landscapes which was more than the expected (161.5) and these children produced (15) Western-type landscapes which was less than the anticipated (27.4). Group Two children drew (114) Eastern-type landscapes which was less than expected (127.5) and they drew
(34) Western-type landscapes which was higher than the expected (21.6). For this variable one can see a positive correlation between cultural background and the frequency of drawing Eastern- Western-type landscapes. A rather large number (61 or 15.3%) of the drawings were classified as being representative of both Eastern and Western landscapes.
Interpretation
Picture #18 (p. 139) was produced by a fifth grade Group
One student. This landscape is reminiscent of the Saudi landscape. The child drew a small village at the top of a hill and at the bottom of the hill he drew a palm tree farm bordered by a small pool of water. Two light billowy clouds dominate the sky and on the horizon the sun is setting over a 136 desert and mountain range. The village reflects the traditional village walls and mud houses with traditional windows and roof designs. The overall feeling is of a warm sunny desert with pockets of water, flora, and inhabitants. Picture #19 (p. 140) was drawn by a sixth grade Group Two student. This student drew a flowing river which is winding through huge mountain ranges. With the exception of the green grass no vegetation was drawn. This landscape is very familiar in Saudi Arabia during the winter season. Picture #20 (p. 140) was submitted by a seventh grade
Group Two child who had lived in the United States for eight (8) years and has been residing back in Saudi Arabia for the last five (5) years. This child drew a Saudi-type landscape.
The details include four large mountains, blue sky, huge setting sun, a palm tree, other trees found in Saudi Arabia, lots of green vegetation on the sandy ground, and a small pool of water from which a camel is drinking. This might be termed an "oasis" scene. While observing the children draw in the classroom, the researcher noticed that he was very happy and excited. He appeared to be concentrating on his picture. After the child finished his drawing, the researcher asked him, "Could you tell me something about this picture?" The child replied, "Yes. A young Saudi citizen wished that the desert land of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia would become a green land of forests and rivers like the United States and Europe." When 137
this child referred to a young Saudi citizen he was probably referring to himself, but was too shy to say so. It is possible that it was simply his imagination and wishes that took him back to his experiences in the United States; or it might be that he still prefers the natural environment of the
United States, i.e. the green forests, rivers, and parks. Picture #21 (p. 141) was drawn by a ninth grade Group Two student. This student clearly presented an American landscape. He depicted this American landscape with lush green grass covered rolling hills, a forest of green pine or evergreen trees, a vibrant flowing river or stream and three
structures which can be clearly seen as Western by they slanting roofs. This child spent a number of years in the United States and it is clear that he was attracted to and
influenced by this type of scene. Picture #22 (p. 141) was submitted by a ninth grade
Group Two student. This drawing is not clearly identifiable as either Western or Eastern. Western aspects include the
lush green hills, many full green trees and a large flowing river not present in Saudi Arabia. Eastern aspects include the two palm trees which are only geographically specific to a few states in America. As with a previously discussed picture, this child may have mixed elements of both types of landscape in order to express his wish that the Saudi landscape had more features common to American landscapes. Picture #23 (p. 142) was produced by an eighth grade 138
Group Two student. This child has depicted a clearly identifiable Western landscape because there is no place in Saudi Arabia which resembles this drawing. The details of this drawing include two large green mountain ranges in the
distance, numerous green rolling hills, a huge dark cloud
possibly a storm cloud, a figure (a farmer or rancher) leading five animals (horses or cows). The structure
resembles a log cabin or farm/ranch house with a fence that serves as a corral. This is a pasture or western open-range scene.
Picture #24 (p. 142) was done by a sixth grade student from Group Two. This landscape might be considered to be more related to Western than Eastern, because there are numerous trees, lots of green grass, and wild flowers. However, many of these trees can be found in the Eastern landscape. A large flock a birds is flying through the cloudy sky. The most prominent feature of the drawing is the pile of rocks or boulders which might be more representative of an Eastern landscape.
Picture #25 (p. 143) was drawn by a seventh grade Group
Two student. This child drew an old Saudi village that reflects the traditional Saudi landscape. He drew five mud houses which were appropriately decorated. The distinctive decoration is visible on the top walls and in the doors and windows. Each house has a number of palms trees in its garden keeping with the traditional fashion. The grassy 139 plain has four large hills or mountains approaching the horizon. In the distance was drawn a mosque somewhat removed from the rest of the village. The mosque is of brick and concrete, with one dome, one minaret, roof architectural decoration and the traditional door and window treatments. This student is obviously familiar with and attracted to the quiet beauty of the old Saudi villages.
Picture #18
■ . ..fl ft* <&{' &('£ I
er * Picture Number 19 140
Picture Number 20 Picture Number 21 141
$ m m k Picture Number 23 142
Picture Number 24 143
Picture Number 25 144
8. Buildings Both groups produced a total of 291 building drawings. Group One drew 184 (63.3%) while Group Two drew 107 (36.8%).
Group One drew (159) Eastern-type buildings which was higher than the expected (148.0) and (19) Western-type buildings which was lower than the expected (28.5). Group Two drew (75) Eastern-type buildings which was lower than the expected (86.0) and (26) Western-type buildings which was more than expected (16.5). For buildings there is a positive correlation between cultural background and the Eastern or Western classification of the subject matter content. According to the results of the C/S Test the statistical significance is very high. Twelve (12) drawings, six by each group, contained a combination of both Eastern- and Western-type buildings.
Interpretat ion Picture #26 (p. 149) was drawn by an eighth grade Group One student. This child clearly drew three Eastern (Saudi) buildings. Two of the houses were made from mud and the third from stone and brick. This child was very detailed in his representation of the building materials for these homes. In addition, the homes were nicely adorned with decorative features including the shape of the roof wall, several of which had step-like parapets, the doors which were heavy with wide frames and prominent doorknobs, and the shape and style 145 of the windows. The sky is crystal clear blue with the sun setting between two mountains. These houses are connected with what appears to be a paved common sidewalk and lush green lawn. Picture #27 (p. 149) was produced by a Group One eighth grade student. This picture reflects the building and housing style of the southern region of Saudi Arabia. These houses are built from mud, stone and plaster so that they survive the rain and elements. This child did an effective job of showing the building materials of the houses and their wide strong stature. He showed the designs and decorations that are consistent with the southern region of the kingdom.
Door and roof treatments are traditionally Eastern in style. At the horizon there are large rolling mountains or hills which are scarcely covered with plant life. The sky is clear and blue. Picture #28 (p. 150) was submitted by a seventh grade
Group One student. This is a scene of a modern Saudi city.
This curb-side street scene shows a number of people (probably a family) in traditional attire stepping off the sidewalk and beginning to cross the street. The street is wide with curb markings that might denote whether parking is permitted or not. Parked in front of the building is a large luxury automobile, possibly a limousine. The building is set off the street with a sidewalk in front. There is a set of wide concrete steps leading to the railed entrance. This 146
scene could be found in any large urban area in Saudi Arabia.
Picture #29 (p. 150) was submitted by a Group One sixth grader. This drawing is of a Bedouin wool house (wool tent). Bedouin tribes and their lifestyle still compromise an
important segment of the Saudi population and culture. Bedouins and their encampments can be found in all parts of the kingdom. The Bedouin lifestyle and culture is one of
nomadic travel from place to place, following the rain to grazing areas with their animals (camels, sheep, goats, and
donkeys -- their main economic sources). Bedouins make their
homes (tents) from the wool of sheep and goats. These tents are usually huge in size and are often divided into three or four rooms. This drawing is an accurate depiction of the Bedouin dwelling. The tent is large, suspended from wooden poles, and anchored in place by large spikes. Other elements
reflective of the Bedouin lifestyle in this picture include the cooking fire, the hunting dog, and the two falcons
(sakers) perched on wooden poles.
Picture #30 (p. 151) was drawn by a seventh grade Group One student. This child drew an old traditional door which is
usually made from "Athel" wood -- a wood from a type of tree
that grows all over Saudi Arabia and does not need much water. These kinds of doors were very popular in the mud houses in old villages. The child who drew this picture did not pay attention to the house, but he concentrated on and 147
was interested in this old door, its details, colors, and decoration. At the top of the drawing this child wrote, "traditional house door." Picture #31 (p. 152) was drawn by a fifth grade Group
Two student. This child drew a very large Western wood
house. It is identified as Western by its peaked, slanted roof, working fireplace chimney, and its window and door treatments. It seems possible that this child remembered the
type of houses he had seen in the United States and drew this from memory. The lack of landscape detail might indicate that he can no longer recall the types of trees and plants
that he was exposed to when he lived in the United States. Picture #32 (p. 152) was produced by a sixth grade Group
Two student. In this picture, this child mixed elements of the East and West. The house is definitely of Western style with it peaked roof, working chimney, and window and door treatments, the huge red flower and the green lawn. From the
East is the huge palm tree. This child seems to have synthesized the Western houses he could remember from the United States with the palm tree that he sees everyday.
Picture #33 (p. 153) was produced by a ninth grade Group
Two student. This child drew his representation of the U.S. Capitol building in Washington, D. C. He has clearly drawn the distinctive dome and columns of this structure. He has also shown the arched entranceways and window treatments characteristic of this building. Additionally, the structure 148
is surrounded by what appears to be a barbed security fence and gate. The landscaping includes evergreen trees and oak or possible cherry trees that are prominent at this sight. The fine detail of the drawing seems to indicate that this child has been strongly affected by this Western American architectural work. Picture #34 (p. 153) was drawn by a Group Two student of the fifth grade level. This drawing is reminiscent of a historical castle that might be seen throughout Europe or a fantasy castle as part of an amusement part in the United
States. This work is clearly Western in nature. The two towers are brightly colored with distinctly pointed or sloped roofs topped by weather vanes and small square-paned windows. The other structure also has a sloped roof with two chimney ducts and square-paned windows. No structures of this type can be found in Saudi Arabia, thus this child was obviously attracted to this type of uniquely Western architecture. 149 Picture Number 26
Picture Number 27 Picture Number 28 150
s^ A - > m Picture Number 30 152 Picture Number 31
Picture Number 32 153 Picture Number 33
t a r o s a a s ® 1J Til jUT- II I’l II ' n “ 0 3 L * * ' - Q0 08B Q;y4irL!dnd 9 e 0 0 ^ jajaJyulLjOifiiBnnRl'I'j ■ v \ ijuEpfo ft ft $ y=$
Picture Number 34 154
9 . Machines Typical machines that these two groups of children drew included cars, trucks, boats, and planes. The total number of machine drawings is 164. Group One drew 99 (60.4%) and Group Two drew 65 (39.6%). Group One drew (74) Eastern machines which was more than the expected (68.2) and (18)
Western machines which was almost equal to the (18.1)
expected. Group Two drew (39) Eastern machines which was less than the expected (44.8) and (12) Western machines which was only slightly more than the anticipated (11.9). Twenty- one (21 or 12.8%) total pictures were classified as being representative of both Eastern and Western. The statistical significance according to C/S Test results was not as reliable as for many of the other variables, but there was still a positive correlation between cultural background and the tendency to draw Eastern or Western machines.
Interpretat ion Picture #35 (p. 156) was drawn by a seventh grade Group
One student. This picture is of a military jet fighter fully armed with missiles and bombs. On the jet's tailfin there is the flag of Saudi Arabia. The desert camouflage of the jet might be an indication this child was influenced by the events of the Gulf War conflict.
Picture #36 (p. 156) was drawn by an eighth grade Group 155
one child. He drew a very detailed representation of a General Motors (GMC) Suburban car. This kind of car is a very popular family vehicle in Saudi Arabia. This child drew the car very carefully paying close attention to the lighting package, wheel covers, and radio antenna. What seems to be most important to this student is the GMC brand name; he wrote GMC and the model year in English in large capital letters and also below the car in Arabic. Many children in Saudi Arabia begin driving their parent's car at about this
child's age level. What seems of most significance is that even though this child never resided in the West, he still was exposed to a symbol of Western culture by the mere fact that American cars, and those from Japan, England and other countries are imported into Saudi Arabia. Picture #37 (p. 157) was done by a Group One seventh grade student. This student drew a GMC truck. However, this is no ordinary truck. Its a sport or rally racing truck with wide mag wheels, extended light package, roll bar, lowered body skirting, and a racing number (79) on the windshield. This is not a typical family or personal vehicle in Saudi Arabia. The significance for this drawing appears similar to
Picture #31. Picture #38 (p. 157) was produced by a sixth grade Group
Two student. He depicts a sports car, possibly a Honda or other Japanese import. This type of car is usually driven by teenagers or young adults. 156 Picture Number 35
Picture Number 36 157 Picture Number 37
Picture Number 38 158
10 . Work Only five (5) total drawings were produced from both groups depicting work. It seems apparent that neither group
had an interest in drawing any kind of work activity or factory. The total count was too low to produce reliable or
significant C/S Test results.
Interpretation
The total count for the variable Work was too small to allow for interpretation.
11 . Leisure Leisure as subject matter for drawings was found to be less important for the children of both groups compared to
some of the other variables. A possible explanation for this might be that leisure and entertainment places in Saudi
Arabia are very limited even in the major cities.
These two groups drew a total of 7 6 depictions of leisure. Group One drew 39 (51.3%) whereas Group Two drew 37 (48.7%). Group One drew (31) Eastern leisure representations which was more than the expected (27.2) and they drew (5)
Western leisure representations which was less than the expected (8.7). Group Two drew (22) Eastern leisure representations which was less than the expected (25.8) and they drew (12) which was greater than the expected (8.3). Six (6) drawings, three (3) from each group, were classified as depicting both Eastern and Western leisure. 159
According to the C/S Test, the results were not highly significant for this variable nor can one reliably state that there is a positive correlation between the cultural background and the Eastern or Western classification. Most of the leisure drawings involved soccer. The game of soccer (football) is the most popular game all over the world with the exception of the United States. In Saudi
Arabia, all types of rallies and demonstrations are prohibited. The only exception to this are the rallies held for the national soccer team or one of the many local teams.
Interpretat ion
Picture #39 (p. 161) was drawn by a seventh grade student from Group One. The child drew the King Fahad International Soccer Stadium in the Saudi capitol of Riyadh. There are many other soccer stadiums, but this one is the largest and most modern, the most beautiful and most expensive. It is one of the most beautiful pieces of modern architecture in the kingdom. This child drew a fine representation of the stadium; also he drew one young soccer player, one male basketball player and two male karate fighter outside the stadium. At the top of the drawing he wrote "Arabic". The soccer stadium and the soccer player are certainly Eastern representations; however, the basketball player and karate fighters might also be considered representative of the West. Picture #40 (p. 162) was created by a fifth grade Group 160
Two student. This child drew an action story of a soccer match -- the most pervasive sport in Saudi Arabia, a sport he can watch on TV or in a stadium and play both at school and when he is at home. The game in the picture is between two of the best teams -- Al-Helal and Al-Etehad. This child is an Al-Helal fan. He drew one of his favorite team's players in the process of scoring a goal and winning the match.
Picture #41 (p. 162) was drawn by a ninth grade student from Group Two. This child clearly drew a picture that represents American culture. Specifically, this drawing is representative of American pop culture aimed at teens and young adults. This work is the symbol for the MTV music video channel. It is all but impossible that this child was exposed to MTV in Saudi Arabia, so it can be assumed that this particular part of American culture had a very powerful influence on him. Picture #42 (p. 163) was drawn by a fifth grade Group Two student. His representation is of the Teenage Mutant
Ninja Turtles cartoon. This cartoon was one of the most popular American cartoons of the past few years both on television and as a merchandising product. This child also titled, in English, this work "Turtles". American cartoons seemed to be well remembered and had a strong impact on the Saudi children who had resided in the United States. Some foreign cartoons are also imported into Saudi Arabia and shown on television. The content of these cartoons can be 161 seen to be culturally specific -- espousing the values, beliefs and behaviors of a specific culture.
Picture #39 162 Picture Number 40
Picture Number 41 163
Picture Number 42 164
12 . Aesthetics Group One and Group Two drew a total of 72 aesthetic depictions and neither group showed much interest in drawing
Western Aesthetics, however a large number of drawings were classified as being both Eastern and Western. Group One drew 37 (51.4%) arid Group Two drew 35 (48.6%) of the total
aesthetic drawings. Group One drew (24) Eastern aesthetic representations which was more than the expected (20.6) and these children did not draw any Western aesthetic
representations although they did produce (13) classified as both which was less than the expected (15.4). Group Two drew (16) Eastern Aesthetics which was less than the anticipated (19.4), (2) Western aesthetic representations which was more
than the anticipated (1.0) and these children also drew (17) classified as both which was higher than the anticipated
(14.6). Although it does seem that Group One had a greater
tendency to draw Eastern Aesthetics and Group Two had a greater tendency to draw Western Aesthetics, the C/S Test results are not highly statistically reliable. The term "aesthetics" as defined on page ?? in this study was used to refer to Arabic calligraphy, design, and pure colors. Drawings that depicted these elements were classified under the Aesthetics variable. The two groups showed much interest in aesthetics, in particular pure colors 165 and Arabic calligraphy. Interpretat ion Picture #43 (p. 166) was done by a ninth grade student from Group One. This work consists of three statements done in Arabic calligraphy as a greeting card for Eid Al-Feter.
One of the statements is "Happy Eid" the other two are ["Hope you are healthy when we see you next Eid" and "Good health to you"]. These three statements are usually employed when people greet each other for both the Eid Al-Feter celebration and Eid Aladha. This child showed a very good understanding of the style and usage of Arabic calligraphy. Another work depicting Arabic calligraphy is Picture #44
(p. 166). This was done by a seventh grade student from Group Two. This child wrote, "There is no God but Allah" with red, orange, green, blue and white colors. This child was also strongly influenced by the traditional Eastern artform of calligraphy. Arabic calligraphy is the most highly respected type of art in Saudi Arabia. Picture #45 (p. 167) is a work of pure colors. It was presented by a fifth Grade student from Group 2. He showed a strong interest in playing with colors in an abstract form.
It is difficult to classify this work as either Eastern or Western. However, this type of work is a popular art style in
Saudi Arabia. Picture Number 43 166 167
Picture Number 45 168
13. Plants Plants was another popular subject matter for the two groups and they combined to draw 282 pictures. Group One drew 121 (42.9%) of the total and Group Two drew 161 (57.1%).
The C/S Test results for this variable were very highly significant and reliable. Group One drew (108) Eastern plant pictures which was much higher than the expected (89.2) and they drew (10) Western Plant pictures which was considerably lower than the expected (18.0). Group Two produced (100)
Eastern plant drawings which was much lower than the anticipated (118.8) and they produced (32) Western plant drawings which was higher than the anticipated (24.0). A total of (32) drawing were made depicting both Eastern and
Western plants and most (29) of them were produced by Group
Two. There is definitely a positive correlation between the cultural background for each group and the classification
(Eastern or Western) of the plant subject matter. This does seem to indicate that those students who had lived in the United States were influenced to draw more Western plants. When classifying plants along Eastern or Western lines, the Eastern plants included palm tress, Athel trees (a tree which requires extremely little water), wild flowers, and other vegetation that dot the Saudi landscape. Western plants included fir, evergreen, oak or other American type 169
trees, full green bushes, and flowers which require much water and care. Interpretation Picture #46 (p. 169) was done by a sixth grade student from Group Two. This drawing is a reflection of the Saudi natural environment. An isolated palm tree is seen standing
strong and tall under the blistering heat and clear sunny sky of the dessert landscape-. Other examples of plants, both Eastern and Western, can be seen in drawings classified under the Landscape variable. Picture #46 170
14 . Animals A total of 145 animal drawings were produced by the two groups. Group One produced 97 (66.9%) of the total and Group
Two produced 48 (33.1%). Group One drew (78) Eastern animals which was considerably higher than the expected value of (67.6) and they only produced (4) Western animals which was much less than the expected (12.7). Group Two produced (23) Eastern animal drawings which was much lower than the anticipated (33.4) and they produced (15) Western animal drawings which was more than the anticipated (6.3). Twenty- five (25 or 17.2%) drawings were depicting both Eastern and Western animals. The C/S Test indicates that these results are statistically significant and that there is a positive correlation between cultural background and cultural classification of the animal drawings.
For the variable Animals the children of the two groups drew many birds, horses, donkeys, and camels. Of particular interest was the fact that neither group drew any animals that could be described as house pets (dogs or cats). Generally, Saudi people do not keep house pets. Many religious scholars deem house animals as prohibited because animals are seen as food, or work animals not pets. Even those children who lived in the United States, where the keeping of house pets, dogs and cats, is very widespread, did 171 not produce any works containing pets.
Interpretation Picture #47 (p. 172) was drawn by a sixth grade Group
Two student. His depiction is of a horse race -- a very popular type of sport in Saudi Arabia. This student drew three horses approaching the finish line of the race. The horses are employed as sport or working beasts. Picture #48 (p. 172) was drawn by a Group One ninth grade student. This work is a representation of a herd of camels. Camels are the traditional form of transportation and work animal is Saudi Arabia. This work is typical of what can be seen in many parts of the kingdom. This student has obviously been attracted to and influenced by the traditional and continuing role the of the camel in Saudi culture. 15. Other During the course of data collection and continuing throughout the data analysis the researcher found that the variable "Other" was not useful in that all of the drawings done by the two groups of children were able to be identified and classified as having elements of one or more of the other
14 variables. The last chapter, "Reflections" summarizes what was accomplished in this study and provides suggestions for future studies. 172 Picture Number 47
Picture Number 48 CHAPTER VI
REFLECTIONS
Conclusions The findings of this study in general showed that the cultural background of the children (Group 1 or Group 2) played an important role in terms of choice of the subject matter and its details. Both Saudi children who have always lived in Saudi Arabia and those who have resided in the
United States showed very strong interest in drawing objects that are indicative of the Saudi culture. The Saudi children who have never lived outside of Saudi Arabia did not show much interest in drawing Western subject matter; however, those children who have lived in the United States seem to be very affected by the American (Western) culture. In this study no examination was made to determine differences between age or grade level, but the data showed that the older children, those at higher grade levels, tended to be more influenced by the American culture than the younger Saudi children. The null hypothesis of this research: "There is no relationship between groups and Eastern/Western cultural background counts," has been rejected. For all test results,
173 174 it was found that Group One's observed frequencies for Eastern-type subject matter is higher than the expected frequency, and the observed count for Western subject matter is always less than the expected frequency at all grade levels. On the other hand, Group Two always drew more
Eastern pictures than Western, but statistically less than the expected frequencies. This group's observed frequency for Western subject matter was always higher than the expected frequency. This study will help future researchers in the field of art education and other related areas because of its approach to the children's drawings in terms of different cultural backgrounds and their influence on the children's drawings in particular. In addition, this study will help those who want to study the problem of Saudi children who have been raised (resided) in different cultures other than the Saudi culture and who return to reside in their country. For this reason, this study is the first of its kind in Saudi Arabia. This study is another step in the long journey toward building research and literature in this field which can be beneficial to future studies on the child's world. What might make this study unique and different from many others is that this study dealt with a group of children who were raised in a culture which is extremely different from their own culture. Many parents have complained when they return home to Saudi Arabia about the difficulties that 175
their children face before they get adjusted to their
country's culture. A study of great relevance to the current research is Guthrie's (1975) Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Learning (see Chapter Three, pp. 61-62) where he presents some principles of culture and culture learning that are related to the educational problems of children who grow up in a culture
that is different from their own. Guthrie's work has given’ rise to many of the research questions that this study has addressed (see Chapter One, pp. 17-18). My findings indicate that the cultural conflict of the children who resided in the United States did indeed manifest itself in the subject
matter, content and details of their drawings. It has been
concluded that the degree of this influence on children who have lived in the United States is considerable; and this influence can be seen even after three or more years of
returning to their homeland. The impact of the American culture, society, and
educational system and their potential negative influence on
Saudi children has been the subject of much debate. In the
Saudi educational magazine Al-Mubtaath (June 1987) a Saudi
graduate student in the United States suggested that when a student goes to the United States his children should be left behind in Saudi Arabia. He suggested that the Saudi universities build shelters for these kids until their parents return home. He explained that he was aware of the 176
danger and damage the American culture can cause, and the subsequent difficulties these children have upon returning to
Saudi Arabia, socially, educationally, and within the religion. He argues that it would be better for the children if they did not go with their parents (pp. 18-22). Obviously, the harm created by being separated for years from the parents would be a great concern and the major reason for
rejecting his suggestion. In this study, the impact of the American culture was found even with those who left the United States eight years ago: the duration of the influence is long. This study did not try to assess if these influences were negative or positive for the child. However, if the researcher were to speculate, influences that would be considered negative were those that were contrary to Islam, and any that attracted the traditional roles of men, women and family to Saudi society. In research with reference to religious depictions, like Dennis' (1966) Group Value Through Children's Drawings which found that only one Jewish student drew a religious object. Dennis investigated the cultural influence between 40 different groups from different cultures with children ages six and seven using the Draw-A-Man-Test. Dennis proposed that "children generally draw the men whom they admire and who are thought of favorably by their societies. If this is true, children's drawings will reveal the values of their respective groups in so far as they can be reflected 177 visually" (p. 2) . However, in this study, both groups showed strong interest in drawing Islamic religious objects and that is not surprising if we know that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the heart of the Islamic world and the most conservative society. What is more striking is the representation of Christian religious objects which are prohibited in Saudi
Arabia. When children drew Western religious objects or
Western celebrations in the class room there was always discussion and criticism between those who drew it and those who criticized it as mentioned earlier (Chapter Five, Part
Two) . Some of the children were afraid to draw Western even if they wanted to. Many of the children asked the researcher if they could draw such Western objects as religious objects and celebrations before they started drawing. The reason for that might be the influence of the parent and the teacher as mentioned earlier (see Chapter Five, Part Two) in the case of the child who wanted to draw a birthday object but was interrupted by the student advisor. Children from Group 2 who drew Western subjects, particularly religion and celebration, always tried to tell the other children that they are Muslim and very strong believers; they always tried to tell that these things are just for fun to see, things that they like to see Americans celebrating. When the two groups drew Saudi Eastern objects they seem 178
to be affected very strongly by the Saudi mass media such as the TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, video and audio tapes, as well as school, lectures and Islamic movements and activities.
These two groups showed no interest in drawing female
figures and that might be due to the fact that boys have separate schools from girls, and the Saudi women do not stay or gather with males other than their relatives. When those two groups drew celebrations. Group 2 drew more Eastern and Western celebration objects than Group 1 and that might be related to the fact that the group who lived in the U.S. drew both Eastern and Western objects and were less conservative in celebrating such occasions like birthday parties.
The fact that Saudi Arabia is a very peaceful country which never engaged in a massive war before the Gulf War might be the reason why Saudi children paid less attention to drawing war and conflict objects.
For other variables that have no conflict with the religion nor to the culture such as landscape, buildings, leisure, aesthetics, plants, and animals, the cultural influence depicted in these variables also seems to be clear in the drawing of these two groups.
Both groups showed no interest at all in drawing work situations/objects and showed no appreciable difference in drawing machines which might be due to the fact that there are no Saudi/Eastern machines. 179
The variable "Other" showed no differences. Most of the
drawings for this variable were of awareness weeks, such as traffic week, clean week, tree week, health week, as well as
flags and maps. For "Telling a Story" none of the two groups drew a Western story. Both groups drew either a ■soccer game or
camping story. This might be related to the fact that it was the soccer season during the collection of this data and to the winter and spring break in Saudi Arabia which is the
rainy season; the country weather becomes fair and the desert becomes green. Families in this season go camping for
several days until school starts. Some school teachers were complaining when they talked with the researcher about those children who lived in the United States that these children are Americanized and their parents do not take this problem seriously. This complaining raised a very important question that needed to be put to consideration. Does that complaining affect the relationship between those teachers and those children in a positive or negative way? And consequently, how can a problem such as this be resolved? The results of this study suggest that teachers should be trained and taught to be qualified to deal with these situations in a constructive educational manner that helps both the teachers and the children to trust and understand each other. In the United States, the parents of these children 180 often, in social gatherings, debated and mused about the cultural influence and the problems resulting from them and the time it takes the child to get through such cultural shocks. This study showed that the influence of the American culture on the Saudi children engaged in this study is strong and can be seen in all variables used in this study.
Commentary The researcher experienced several problems while collecting the data for this study. Quite a long time was required to receive official permission to enter the Saudi schools and once permission was given the country was in the middle of the Eid Ramadan holiday -- a time when the researcher was unable to begin working with the children. Once the researcher was able to begin working with the children he found that arranging time for the children to draw at school was more difficult than expected; and one of the school principles was unwilling to help the researcher arrange time to conduct the study saying that he did not want the children to miss their regular classes. Assembling the children from different classrooms and different grade levels into the small art classroom also was a problem. However, these were all very minor compared to the problems the researcher encountered when children wished to draw Christian objects or imagery that is widely considered to be prohibited by Islam (see Chapter Five). This problem boiled down to a discussion between the children who drew these types of 181 pictures, the school administrators and the researcher as to what is prohibited and what is allowed as art in Islam. Notwithstanding the problems that the researcher encountered, the experience proved to be quite enjoyable, especially when the researcher worked directly with the children. It also seemed that the children enjoyed being part of this study. Most of the children wished to spend more time together and many other children (not included in the study) wished to participate. When the children started drawing they always talked about what they were drawing, but those who lived in the United States always talked about the lifestyle they experienced in the United States, the cities they lived in, the celebrations they remember such as Christmas with its trees and decorations, Halloween and the costumes and so forth. The children's memories reverted to their previous life experiences in the United States. The children's imaginations took them back, almost as if they were still in the United States. The children were sometimes afraid to draw some Western subject matter and asked the researcher if they could do so; mostly they were afraid to draw human figures before getting permission from the researcher. What was surprising about this study, was that both groups drew many human figures which seems unusual because of the common belief that figurative representations are prohibited by Islam. What is more striking in the findings 182
of this study is the presence of drawings of many Christian objects such as churches, cross, Easter, and Christmas trees. The children seemed to have been influenced by either their teachers or parents not to draw human figures or American
celebrations, because they were afraid to. But when the researcher allowed them to do so, most of them drew human figures and most of those who had lived in the United States drew Christian objects and Western celebrations even if they
had been told that this was prohibited.
Suggestions for Future Study Generally, research in art education in Saudi Arabia and
in the Arab world is still very limited. In Saudi Arabia, there are only two Art Education departments and one art
education institute. In these departments there are only seven Saudi faculty with doctorates in different areas of art education. The need for researchers and studies in the field of Art
Education is extremely strong in order to enhance the position of Art and Art Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and to prepare more qualified teachers for the public schools. This study might help many teachers to understand children from different cultural backgrounds and might help them to understand what they may expect from those who came from different ethnic groups or different cultures. A study examining the differences between male and females from rural and urban Saudi children is suggested. 183
Conducting a research that includes parents, teachers, and children like those who lived in different countries other than Saudi Arabia is suggested to find out the problems and difficulties that both children, parents, and teachers face in such situations like this and to find a suitable solution for these problems.
It is suggested that additional studies can be done to determine if these affects go the other way -- if United States children living or who used to live in Saudi Arabia
tend to draw more Arabian objects than their counterparts who have not lived outside the United States. Also, studies that examine the negative or positive effects of life in the
United States on the adult Saudi students is suggested. Appendix A
Saudi Traditional Dress
184
Source: Binzagr, S. (1979). Saudi Arabia: An Artist's View of the Past. Lausanne, Switzerland: Three Continents, p.18. 187
Source: Rose, H. C. (1981) . The Art of Arabian Cosr.nmp; A Saudi Profile. Appendix B
Saudi Educational Structure [Art Education, Higher Education, and Curriculum]
note: The following data illustrate the prevalence of Islamic religious teaching in Saudi education at all levels; and highlight the position that Art Education holds.
188 189-
Structure of the Art Education Programs at College and University Levels
Two Year and Four Year Programs Levels Required Education Art Major Electives Total Basics Education Two Year College 10 20 30 10 70 (Diploma) Four Year University 14 38 60 18* 130 (B.A.) * In Art Education Department Source: Alghamedy, Ahmed (1986) Students in Higher Education (All Levels) by University 1986/87
Non-Saudi Saudi Total
University Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male
| Total 4897 11375 16272 38327 91256 91256 43224 64304 107258 | King Saud 1603 3921 5524 4996 16299 21295 6699 20200 26819 I Islamic 1 (Madinal) ___ 1900 1900 _ _ _ 519 519 __ 2419 2419 8 King Fahad 1 U.P.M ___ 571 571 _ _ « 3847 3847 ___ 4418 4418
Imam Mohammed 52 1336 1388 1347 9305 10652 1399 10641 12040 King Faisal 130 138 268 1775 2123 3898 1905 2261 4166 Ummal-Qural 696 1726 2422 5920 7111 13031 6616 8837 15433 Girls College 1312 -- 1312 17906 -- 17906 19218 -- 19218
Source: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Higher Education, Directorate General for the Development of Higher Education, Data Center (Statistics), Statistical Index of
Progress of Higher Education from 1969-70 to 1986-87, issue No. 5, 1989, p. 5. 190 191
Elementary School Curriculum
(Subjects and Hours per Week)
V//////////A Grade Level Subjects First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth
Islamic 9 9 9 9 9 9 Studies
Arabic Studies 9 9 9 8 8 8
Social Studies 0 0 0 2 2 2
Science 2 2 2 1 1 1
Mathematics 4 4 4 5 5 5
Art Education 2 2 2 1 1 1
Physical Ed. 2 2 2 2 2 2 (Boys Only)
Home Economics 0 0 0 2 2 2 | (Girls only)
Total Boys 28 28 28 30 30 30 I Hours per Week Girls 30 30 30 30 30 30
Source: Education in Saudi Arabia, 1991, p. 28 | 192
Intermediate School Curriculum (Subjects and Hours per Week)
Grade Level Subjects First Second Third
Islamic Studies 8 8 8
Arabic Studies 6 6 6
English 4 4 4
Science 4 4 4
Mathematics 4 4 4 I
Art Education 2 2 2 Physical Education 1 1 1 (Boys only)
Home Economics 1 1 1 (Girls only)
Total Boys 33 33 33 Hours per Week Girls 33 33 33 jSource: Education in^Saudi Arabia, 1991, p. 30. H93.
Regular Secondary School Curriculum (Subjects and Hours per Week) General Humanities Science Program Secion Section Grade Level Subject Islamic Holy Koran Studies Recitation Hadith Towhd Total Grammar Arabic Rhetoric Studiies Literature Composition Reading
Total 11 11 Social History Sciences Geography Psychology Sociology
Total 12 12 Physics Sciences Chemistry Biology Geology Total 12 12 Math English Physical Ed. (Boys only) Home Economics (Girls Only) Total Hours Boys & Girls 33 27 26 32 30 Source: Education in Saudi Arabia, 1991, p. 33 Appendix C
Koranic Passages [Arabic with English Translation]
194 195
S.J9. A.24 •A V j- ••• «A« qA» •*• ••• qAo •*• »Af •*> ••• q*« •*• • *• «A« oA« *•< »#• *>• • *• ••• «Af ••• ••• J4.* .«.• o •••%•>, .••• •. , « •*«. .i; •,rVs*v
I'd
, . v Kdr •> I'd
5405. Allah's attributes of Goodness and Power having been referred 60. s c ere now told of His creative energy, of which three aspects are here mentioned, as explained in the following note. The point is emphasised that He does not merely create and leave alone; lie goes oa fashioning, evolving new forms and colours, and sustaining all the energies and capacities which He has pul into His Creation, according to various laws which He has established. 5406. The act or acts of creation have various aspects, and the varitm words used in this connection are summarised in a. 120 to H. It?, as supplemented by a. 916 to vi. 94 and e. 923 to vi. 93. Khelaoa is the general term for creation, and the Author 0 } sfi Crxstksa is Kki&a. Beraa fen plies a process of evolving from previously created matter or state: the Author of tins process is BSri-o, the Originator. Saunnere implies giving definite form or colour, so as to make a thing exactly suited to a given end or object: bene* the title Musawvm, Fashioner for this slu m the completion of the visible stage of erealien. 3407. Cf. vu. IS), a. 1154; and avii. 110, n. 2322. 5403. Thus the argument of the S&rs is rounded off on the same note as was struck at the beginning fix. I. The first verse and the last verse of the SOra are the same, except as regards the tense of She verb sabbehs. In the first verse it is the optative form of the preterite tabbeha: everything declares the Glory of Allah!' After the ifiustrsliora given, the declaratory form of the aorist is appropriate, puabbthm: ‘ everything doth declare the Glory of Allah'.
- 1726- 196
S.3A.5-7 J. 3 vU U l .;JLl r ji^-s Ji
From Alliih. verily Nuthing is hidden On earth or in the heavens.
lie it is Who shapes you In the wombs as lie pleases.1"' There is no god hut lie . The Exalted in Might. The Wise.
He it is Who has sent down To thee the Book: In it are verses Basic or fundamental Gear (in meaning); They arc the foundation'47 »4-y\3 l&Sj Of the Book: others Are not entirely clear. But those •£*:&$**U^I» OjJyu Ujv>j»a-o)(g In whose hearts is perversity follow The part thereof that is not entirely dear. Seeking discord, and searching For its interpretation. But no one knows Its true meanings except Allah.
344. Who can penetrate the mystery of life when a new life is just being born, except Allah? The reference to the mystery of birth prepares us for the mystery of the birth of Jesus mentioned in its. 41 and the following verses. 347. This passage gives us an important clue to the interpretation of the Holy Our-an. Broadly speaking it may be divided into two portions, not given separately, but intermingled: vtr. (1) the nucleus or foundation of the Book, literally ’'the mother of the Book". (2) the part which is not entirely dear. It is very fascinating to take up the latter, and exercise our ingenuity about its meaning, but it refers to such profound matters that are beyond human language and though people of wisdom may get some light from it, no one should be dogmatic, as the final meaning is known to Allah alone. The Commentators usually understand the verses “of established meaning" Imuhkamf to refer to the categorical orders of the Sharrti (or the Law), which are plain to everyone's understanding. But perhaps the meaning is wider: the “mother of the Book" must include the very foundation on which all Law rests, the essence of Allah's Message, as distinguished from the various illustrative parables, allegories, and ordinances.
- 140- \
197
| • yU iy_
63. Thus ire deluded those4,11 Who ire wont to reject 3 The Signs of Allah.
64. It is Allib Who his*411 Mtde for you the earth As a resting p lace." * And the sky as a canopy. And has given you shape-4"0 And made your shapes Beautiful,-and has provided For you Sustenance,4" 1 Of things pure and good ;- Such is Allah your Lord. So Glory to Allah, The Lord of the Worlds!
65. He is the Living (One):4"1 There is no god but He: Call upon Him, giving Him Sincere devotion. Praise be To Allah. Lord of the Worlds!
*4.17. See the Iasi I wo notes. If men are deluded hy Falsehoods, it is because they reject Revelation and refuse to learn from the Signs of Allah all around them. 4438. The argument in the last two verses was from man's personal experiences of his physical life. In this and the neat verse a parallel argument is addressed to man on a much higher plane: 'look at the spacious earth and the canopy of the sky; look at the special position you occupy above other animals that you know, in shape and form, and moral and spiritual capacities; consider your refinements in food and fniits and the higher spiritual Sustenance of which your physical food is a type; would you not indeed say that the Lord is good, and would you not glorify llis holy name?' 44.79. A resting place: I understand this to imply a temporary place of rest or sojourn, a period of probation, to be followed by the eternal Home. 4440. Cf. vii. II and n. 996. The shape and form refer to the physical form as well as to the inhom moral and spiritual capacities of man. As regards physical form. Cf. Milton's description of Adam and Eve, "Two of far noble shape, erect and tall* (Paradise Lost. iv. 288). At regards moral and spiritual capacities, they ace typified by the breathing of Allah's spirit into man: av. 29. 4441. *S u ste n a nall ce that is necessary for growth and development, physical, moral, and spiritual. Cf. n. 2105 to avi. 73.
4442. The real, self-subsisting Life is only in Him: Cf. ii. 255. and n. 296.
- 1444 -
I 198
•M, a .iimi nL 4 %** T,*' • &**>*• ''t.4
(Atm)! And Wc made The iron soft for him;-*"1
(Commanding). “Make thou Coats of mail, balancing well'"" J C - JI ■!, . m The rings of chain armour. And work ye righteousness:''*"2 JV4v For be sure 1 see (Clearly) all that ye do.”
lo Solomon (Wc Made) the Wind (obedient):3®5 Its early morning (stride) C D j Was a month’s (journey). .And its evening (stride) Was a month’s (journey); if %f * • & 9 * *Xn3 Wc made a Font'®* A-S41 Of-molten brass to (low
3800. Iron or steel is hard stuff: but in the hands of a craftsman it becomes soft and pliable, and with it can be made instruments for the defence of righteousness. These, in the literal sense, arc coats of mail, ami defensive armour, and the manufacture of them is traditionally attributed to David.
3801. Coats of chain armour have to be made with cunning art, if the chains are to fit into each other and the whole garment is to be worn in comfort in fierce warfare. £ 3802. Note the transition from the singular, ‘make them coats of mail”, to the plural 'and work ye righteousness'. The first a addressed to David, who was the artificer of defensive armour; and die second is addressed to him and his whole people. He made e the armour, but it was to be worn not only by him but all the warriors. But he and li* all his people were to be careful to see that they did not deviate from the paths of righteousness. Fighting is a dangerous weapon and may well degenerate (as it so often does) into mere violence. They were to see that this should not happen, and they were told that Allah was watching over them all with the personal solicitude implied in the singular pronoun "I". 3803. Cf. a si. 81-82, n. 2736. and axaviii. 36-38. See also sxvii. 38-39. The winds are swift and can cover in a short morning’s or evening's flight the distance which it takes a whole month to cover on foot or by bullock cart. In our own day, with air speeds of *00 miles and more per hour, this seems a moderate statement. $ 3801. In the Old Testament, II. Chronicles, Chapters iii., and iv.. are described the various costly materials with which Solomon's Temple was built, and it was furnished with vessels, candle-sticks, lamps, censers, etc. "Solomon made all these vessels in great abundance: for the weight of the brass could not be found o u t' (II. Chronicles, iv. 16). 199
21. A.SO-SS J-17 » > ' T> *WVl hi r 50. And litis is a lilcsscd Message which We have § . a l i i #
Scni down: will ye then * Reject it?” "
SE C T IO N 5.
Sir We bestowed aforetime S "On Abraham his rectitude” 11 Of conduct, and welt were We J ■'Acquainted with him.” ,J i 52r Behold! he said I To-his father and his people,” 14 ! “What are these images. < 5 > y g j a ; y T o which ye arc (So assiduously) devoted?" I " t 1 $L-Thcy said, "We found —Our fathers worshipping them."
M_He said, “Indeed ye Have been in manifest Errbr-yc and your fathers." 1 55." They said, “llavc you Brought us the Truth.
2711. Here is a Prophet and a Book, greater than Moses and his Book. Are you going to reject him and it? 2712. Rushd: right conduct, corresponding in action to the quality expressed in the epithet Hanif (sound or true in Faith) applied to Abraham in ii. 135 and elsewhere. 2713. Hence Abraham's title “Friend of Allah" (KhatO-ullahi: iv. 125. 2714. Reference is made to Abraham in many places. In xix. 42-49 it was with reference to his relations to his father: the problem was how a righteous man should deaf with his father, when his duty to his father conflicts with his duty to AJIah. Here the problem is: how a righteous man should deal with evil and overcome it; how he should fight against evil, and if he is subjected to the fire of persecution, how his firmness draws Allah's Mercy, and the very troubles he is placed in become his comfort and joy. . j - --- .------
-9 3 0 - ^00
S.2I, A.55-59 J-17 A * g S - 71 *Ir*VI yy
Or arc you one Of (hose who jest?"171’ ! 56. He said, “Nay. your Lord is the 1/trtl of llic heavens And the carlh. He Who Created tltcm (from nothing):171* And 1 am a witness To this (truth). * 57. “And by Allah, I will cerujnly Plan against your idols- After ye go away And turn your backs"...1,17
58. So he broke them to pieces, (All) hut the biggest of them, Ihat they might turn (And address themselves) to it.nw
59. They said. “Who has Dime this to our gods? lie must indeed be One of the unjust one.
2715. Abraham looked at life with a serious eye, and his people took it tight, heartedty. He was devoted to Truth, and they cared more for ancestral custom, la Iks conflict he seemed to be in their power. But he was fearless, and he triumphed by Allah's Grace. 2716. For the various words for “creation" see n. 120 to K. 117, where feiera b eiplained and differentiated from other words of similar meaning. 2717. He wants to convince them of the poweriessness of their idols. But be does not do it underhand. He tells them that he is going to do something when once they ate gone and their backs are turned to the idols.-es much as to say that the i>Soh are dependent on their care and attention. Apparently the people are amused and want to see what he does. So they leave him to Ns own devices. 2718. He was enacting a scene, to make the_people ashamed of worshipping senseless stocks and stones. He left the biggest idol untouched and broke the others to pieces, h if a fight had taken place between the idols, and the biggest had smashed the others. Would they turn to the surviving idol and ask him how it all happened? •: i«i i 931 • S .34. A . . 12-14 A .34. S it?" 3 Te“wre fr him for worked They“ 13. 4 Te, hn e decreed We when Then, 14. As ag a wells. w as large s A r A h dsrd (aig Arches, * ,* s e h c r A Basons (making) ages. .Im desired, he >As elevated, spacious architectural structure. As the reference here is to the Temple of of Temple the to is here reference the As structure. architectural spacious elevated, Ornaments in the Temple. Images would be like the images of oxen and Cherubim Cherubim and oxen of images structural the be like would be “Arches" would Images appropriate. most Temple. think the I in is “arches* Ornaments word the Solomon, mentioned in II. Chronicles, iv. 3 and Hi. 14; the Basons (II. Chronicles iv. 22) were were 22) iv. Chronicles (II. Basons the 14; Hi. and 3 iv. Chronicles, II. in mentioned (n ter lcs: Eecs thanks' “Exercise places): their .(In perhaps huge dishes round which many men could tit together and eat, according to to according eat, and together tit could men many which round dishes huge perhaps fixed in one place, being so large in capacity that they could not be moved about.Indian about.Indian moved be not could were 16). they iv. that Chronicles, capacity in (II. Pou large or so being Cauldrons place, cooking one the in while fixed custom, Eastern ancient edr wl gt oe da f hm rm h hg coig hc te ue n the in use they which cooking huge the from them of idea festivals. some get will readers asked to be thankful without which all that glory and power would he out of (place,'and of (place,'and out he would power and glory that all in which away fell without it thankful be to asked back. f i Itd ml f any if mul Ijtrd. hi* Of front®05 in worked that Jinns f hm und asiili* turned them Of leave the by him. Of te lzn Fire. Blazing the f O Chastisement the Of Wc mand. com Our l:rom were there and him; For ae i taste him Made os David, f o Sons n (okn) alrn Fixed Cauldrons (cooking) And j M servants grateful!" My Are f o w tje u B Slmo') et, ohn so ed show nothing death, on's) (Solom 85 Se xi. 7 ad . 3257. n. and 17. xxvii. See 3805. 38116. 3807. The building of the Temple was a great event in Israelite history/They (ere history/They Israelite in event great a was Temple the of building The 3807. MihrSh a e gnrto* wt te eln o te oa sii wih a a its at was which spirit moral the of decline the with generation*, few “(Plural “(Plural
MoMrlb).
J-22 them translated “arch*, may be applied to any fine, fine, any to applied be may “arch*, translated
*'/?' j i i » * v » * • f » , r * ••• • * • ' • * » • ' V j t y > j | 3 $ 3 LV ,L * V x-i'r a Appendix D
Data Collection Sheets
[Student Data Sheets #1 and #2 include Arabic version]
202 STUDENT DATA SHEET #1
Students Who Have Lived in the United States
Student Name:
Student Number: Student A g e :___ School Name: _
Grade Level: Father's Educational Background:
Elementary School [ ] Middle School [ ] High School
Bachelor Degree [ ] Master Degree [ ] Doctorate Mother's Educational Background:
Elementary School [ ] Middle School [ ] High School
Bachelor Degree [ ] Master Degree [ ] Doctorate Number of Years in the United States: _____
Student Age While in the United States: _____
Number of Years in Saudi Arabia (since leaving US) 204
(T) ifimrn
: 1 ^aN u||yi >e ...... r u J I W I j J j ...... : « _ J I U I j* & ...... : 4utjill^tfl : A 1 ^>u -I ] .t ] • I ] * l u ^ J • [ ] j a«- » U • [ ] (dli ) [ ] • t ] J*-yu .[ ] ^U*l • [ ] tljjiSi . [ ] Ji~.m»t* . [ ] Ltm<)JKj ( dJi gJ»j » : l&jyil 2_aU^I oXa : U * jAkJI^ : ^ Ja/ 4&JLJI OljXJI : 4-jjil^^.^loL jU I i»m /ilo-UI STUDENT DATA SHEET #2 Students Who Have Not— fr&vefl Qutfiifle Saudi Arabia Student Name: ______ Student Number:______ Student Age: _____ School Name: ______ Grade Level: _____ Father's Educational Background: Elementary School [ ] Middle School [ ] High School [ ] Bachelor Degree [ ] Master Degree [ ] Doctorate [ ] Mother's Educational Background: Elementary School [ ] Middle School [ ] High School [ ] Bachelor Degree [ ] Master Degree [ ] Doctorate [ ] 206 tt) J S - S , : 2^i«4|l i u|)lall ^ uU ^JLca 2ij j ...... U U d lp ij ...... :uJU *J \ j ^ ..... ! |f -"^ : t-a^aJI • t ] • I ] . I ] ^/Lujl • [ 1 J • [ ] j*i'ii»U . [ ] 1 %0*j iJKj : ( *jU5gJ»j . [ ] . [ ] ^JUi ( ) amjJ H ^ a^ wjIIo U j UI ijf — ( ) ol>^UI jju " la < / k^>LII 207 INDIVIDUAL DATA COLLECTION SHEET Student Number Group 1 or 2 Grade Level 5 6 7 8 9 Number of Pictures Drawn Eastern Content Western Content Content of Both Number of Variable Occurrences Delineated by Cultural Descriptor Variables Eastern Western Both Human Figures Male Dress Female Dress Religion Celebration War & Confict Landscape Buildings Machines Work Leisure Aesthetics Plants Animals Other NOTE: 208 GROUP DATA COLLECTION SHEET Group 1 or 2 Number of Pictures Drawn Eastern Content Western Content Content of Both Number of Variable Occurrences Delineated by Cultural Descriptor Variables Eastern Western Both Human Figures Male Dress Female Dress Religion Celebration War & Confict Landscape Buildings Machines Work Leisure Aesthetics Plants Animals Other NOTE: GROUP/GRADE LEVEL DATA COLLECTION SHEET Group 1 or 2 Grade Level 5 6 7 8 9 Number of Pictures Drawn Eastern Content Western Content Content of Both Number of Variable Occurrences Delineated by Cultural Descriptor Variables Eastern Western Both Human Figures Male Dress Female Dress Religion Celebration War & Confict Landscape Buildings Machines Work Leisure Aesthetics Plants Animals Other NOTE: 210 ALL SUBJECTS DATA COLLECTION SHEET All Subjects INumber of Pictures Drawn j Eastern Content Western Content Content of Both Number of Variable Occurrences Delineated by Cultural Descriptor Variables Western BothEastern Human Figures Male Dress Female Dress Religion Celebration War & Confict Landscape Buildings Machines Work Leisure Aesthetics Plants Animals Other NOTE: Data Anal #1 PICTURE NUMBER PICTURE NUMBER Eastern Subject Western Matter Subject Matter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota Human Figures Human Figures Male 0 Male 0 Female 0 Female 0 Alone as portrait 0 Alone as portrait 0 In Environment 0 In Environment 0 In Groups 0 In Groups 0 Personal State. 0 Personal State. 0 Unknown 0 Unknown 0 Other 0 Other 0 Male Dress 0 Male Dress 0 Dishdash 0 Trousers 0 Agall/Kafllyeh 0 Suit 0 Bisht 0 Shirt 0 — Sandals 0 Shoes 0 Other 0 Tie 0 — — — 0 T-Shirt 0 0 Other 0 0 0 Female Dress 0 Female Dress 0 Dishdash 0 Dress 0 Foota 0 Blouse 0 Abayeh 0 Skirt 0 hijab 0 T-Shirt 0 Other 0 Trousers 0 0 Hat 0 0 Other 0 Student Name Student # ______Student Age Group t 2 211 Page 1 Data Anal #2 PICTURE NUMBER PICTURE NUMBER Eastern Subject Western Matter Subject Matter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota Religion Religion Mosque 0 Church n Koran 0 Temple Hadith 0 Santa Claus 0 Hal 0 Thanksgiving n Domes 0 Christmas Day n Minaret 0 Cross o Prayers 0 Easter n Other 0 Other 0 Celebration 0 Celebration n Zufaf 0 Wedding 0 Dabka 0 Westren Dance 0 Ramadan 0 New Years Day n Feast 0 Social Gathering 0 Social Gathering 0 Birthday o Saudi Nat. Day 0 Fourth of July in__ Other 0 Other n War & Conflict 0 War & Conflict n Parades 0 Parades n Posters 0 Posters n Jet Fighters 0 Jet Fighters n Tanks 0 Tanks 0 Mass Media 0 Mass Media n Soldiers 0 Soldiers n War Machines 0 War Machines n Destruction/Fire 0 Destruction/Fire n 212 Other 0 Other 0 Data Anal #3 PICTURE NUMBER PICTURE NUMBER Eastern Subject Western Matter Subject Matter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota Landscape Landscape Farm 0 Farm 0 Village 0 Village 0 Towen.Clty 0 Towen.Clty 0 Mountains £ Valley 0 Mountains, Park n Sun,and Rainbow 0 Sun.and Rainbow 0 Other 0 Other n Buildina 0 Building 0 Brick House 0 Brick House 0 Govern't House 0 Govern't House n Apartments 0 Apartments 0 Tents-Bedouin Homes 0 Wood Houses n Mud House 0 0 Windows/Doors.Decr 0 Windows/Doors 0 Furniture 0 Furniture n wall Hanging 0 wall Hanging n Appliance 0 Appliance n Rugs 0 Rugs n " Decorative Itams 0 Decorative Itams 0 Other 0 Other 0 Machines 0 Machines 0 Factories 0 Factories 0 Cars, Trucks 0 Cars, Trucks n Cycles, Boats 0 Cycles, Boats 0 Planes, Heli. 0 Planes, Heli. 0 213 Other 0 Other 0 Data Anal #4 PICTURE NUMBER PICTURE NUMBER Eastern Subject Western Matter Subject Matter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota Work Work Farm 0 Farm 0 Factory 0 Factory n Office/Business 0 Office/Business n School 0 School n Other 0 Other n Leisure 0 Leisure 0 Games 0 Games n Sport 0 Sport n Shopping 0 Shopping 0 TV 0 TV n Movies 0 Movies n Cartoons 0 Cartoons n Other 0 Other n Aesthetic 0 Aesthetic n Design 0 Design 0 Abstract 0 Abstract 0 Playing w/Color 0 Playing w/Color n Arabic Calligraphy 0 Planes, Hell. n Other 0 Other 0 Other 0 Other 0 Flag 0 Rag n Map 0 Map n Awareness WKs 0 Awareness WKs 0 214 Telling a Story 0 Telling a Story 0 Data Anal #5 PICTURE NUMBER PICTURE NUMBER Eastern Subject Western Matter Subject Matter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tota Plants Plants Trees 0 Trees 0 Flowes 0 Flowes 0 Gardens 0 Gardens 0 Palm Tress 0 0 Other 0 Other 0 Animals 0 Animals 0 Land 0 Land 0 Sea 0 Sea 0 Birds 0 Birds 0 Insects 0 Insects 0 Other 0 Other 0 215 Appendix E Chi-Square Statistical Data Results 216 217 Chi-Square statistical results were computed using the SPSS statistics! package, Release 4.0 for Macintosh. WEIGHT BY cnt. VARIABLE LABELS X 'Subject Matter' level 'Grade Level' Backgrnd 'Cultural Background' VALUE LABES 1 'Human Figures' 2 'Male Dress' 3 'Female Dress' 4 'Religion' 5 'Celebration' 6 'War & Conflict 7 'Landscape' 8 'Building' 9 'Machines' 10 'Work' 11 'Leisure' 12 'Aesthetics' 13 'Plants' 14 'Animals' 15 'Other' /backgrnd 1 'Eastern' 2 'Western' /level 5 'Grade Five' 6 'Grade Six' 7 'Grade Seven' 8 'Grade Eight' 9 'Grade Nine' /children 1 'never lived outside Saudi Arabia' 2 'lived in the United States' CROSSTABS/TABLES = children BY backgrnd BY X/CELLS=COUNT EXPECTED STATISTICS = CHISQ 218 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 1 Human Figures Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total 1 136 8 2 146 122.9 19.3 3.9 48.2% 2 119 32 6 157 132.1 20.7 20.7 51.8% Column 225 40 8 303 Total 84.2% 13 .2% 2.6% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 17.15661 2 .00019 Likelihood Ratio 18.24732 2 .00011 Mantel-Haenszel 14.53748 1 .00014 Minimum Expected Frequency - 3.855 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 - 2 OF 6 (33.3%) 219 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 2 Male Dress Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 50 7 3 60 42.8 15.2 2.0 40.0% 2 57 31 2 90 64.2 22.8 22.8 60.0% Column 107 38 5 150 Total 71.3% 25.3% 3.3% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 10.22483 2 .00602 Likelihood Ratio 10.99157 2 .00410 Mantel-Haenszel 3.73121 1 .05340 Minimum Expected Frequency - 2.000 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 - 2 OF 6 (33.3%) 220 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 3 Female Dress Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val ROW 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 17 1 1 19 13.8 4.6 .7 65.5% 2 4 6 0 10 7.2 2.4 .3 34.5% Column 21 7 1 29 Total 72.4% 24.1% 3.4% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 10.87318 s 00435 Likelihood Ratio 11.17081 2 00375 Mantel-Haenszel 4.36904 2 03660 Minimum Expected Frequency - .345 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 4 OF 6 (66.7%) 221 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 4 Religion Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 113 2 n/a 115 13.8 4.6 n/a 43 .6% 2 122 27 n/a 149 132.6 16.4 .n/a 56.4% Column 235 29 n/a 264 Total 89.0% 11.0% n/a% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 17.81307 1 .00002 Continuity . Correction 16.17713 1 .00006 Likelihood Ratio 21.60098 1 .00000 Mantel-Haenszel 17.74560 1 .00003 Minimum Expected Frequency - 12.6333 222 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 5 Celebration Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total 1 67 1 0 68 57.0 10.6 .4 39.9% 2 78 26 1 105 88.0 16.4 .6 60.7% Column 145 27 1 173 Total 83.8% 15.6% .6% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 17.88754 2 .00013 Likelihood Ratio 23 .12259 2 .00001 Mantel-Haenszel 17.24098 1 .00003 Minimum Expected Frequency - .393 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 - 2 OF 6 (33.3%) 223 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 6 War & Conflict Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val ROW 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 10 1 3 14 9.7 2.3 2.0 33 .3% 2 19 6 3 28 19.3 4.7 4.0 66.7% Column 29 7 6 42 Total 69.0% 16.7% 14.3% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 1.91010 2 .38479 Likelihood Ratio 2.04502 2 .35969 Mantel-Haenszel .08714 1 .76784 Minimum Expected Frequency - 2.000 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 - 4 OF 6 (66.7%) 224 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 7 Landscape Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 175 15 33 223 161.5 27.4 34.1 55.9% 2 114 34 28 176 127.5 21.6 26.9 44.1% Column 289 49 61 399 Total 72.4% 12.3% 15.3% 100.0% * Chi-Squareh . Value DF Significance Pearson 15.32897 2 .00047 Likelihood Ratio 15.39790 2 .00045 Mantel-Haenszel 3.91007 1 .04800 Minimum Expected Frequency - 21.614 225 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 8 Buildings Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val ROW 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 159 19 6 184 148.0 28.5 7.6 63 .2% 2 75 26 6 107 86.0 16.5 4.4 36.8% Column 234 45 12 291 Total 80.4% 15.5% 4.1% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 11.68640 00290 Likelihood Ratio 11.31145 000350 Mantel-Haenszel 8.92005 00282 Minimum Expected Frequency - 4.412 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 - 1 OF 6 (16.7%) 226 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 9 Machines Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 74 18 7 99 68.2 18.1 12.7 60.4% 2 39 12 14 65 44.8 11.9 8.3 39^.6% Column 113 30 21 1*4 Total 68.9% 18.3% 12.8% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 7.65424 2 .02177 Likelihood Ratio 7.50760 2 .02343 Mantel-Haenszel 6.62575 1 .01005 Minimum Expected Frequency - 8.323 227 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 10 Work Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total 1 2 n/a 3 5 2.0 n/a 3.0 100.0% 2 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Column 2 n/a 3 Lfi Total 40.0% n/a 60.0% 100.0 dP Warning # 10307 Statistics cannot be computed when the number of non-empty rows or columns is one. 228 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 11 Leisure Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val ROW 1 2 3 Total 1 31 5 3 39 27.2 8.7 3.1 51.3% 2 22 12 3 37 25.8 8.3 2.9 48.7% Column 53 17 6 76 Total 69.7% 22.4% 7.9% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 4.36104 2 .11298 Likelihood Ratio 4.45298 2 .10791 Mantel-Haenszel 1.98819 1 .15853 Minimum Expected Frequency - 2.921 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 - 2 OF 6 (33.3%) 229 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 12 Aesthetics Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 24 0 13 37 20.6 1.0 15.4 51.4% 2 16 2 17 35 19.4 1.0 14.6 48.6% Column 40 2 30 72 Total 55.6% 2.8% 41.7% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 4.08093 12997 Likelihood Ratio 4.86279 08791 Mantel-Haenszel 1.97645 1 15976 Minimum Expected Frequency - .972 Cells with Expected Frequency < 5 2 OF 6 (33.3%) 230 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 13 Plants Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 108 10 3 121 89.2 18.0 13.7 42.9% 2 100 32 29 161 118.8 24.0 18.3 57 .1% Column 208 42 32 282 Total 73.8% 14.9% 11.3% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 27.84293 2 .00000 Likelihood Ratio 31.18289 2 .00000 Mantel-Haenszel 27.16450 1 .00000 Minimum Expected Frequency - 13.730 231 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 14 Animals Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 78 4 15 97 67.6 12.7 16.7 66.9% 2 23 15 10 48 33.4 6.3 8.3 33 .1% Column 101 19 25 145 Total 69.7% 13.1% 17.2% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 23.43671 2 .00001 Likelihood Ratio 22.54112 2 .00001 Mantel-Haenszel 7.69401 1 .00554 Minimum Expected Frequency - 6.290 232 19-MAR-94 SPSS Release 4.0 for Macintosh CHILDREN by BACKGRND Cultural Background Controlling for.. X Subject Matter Value = 15 Other Page 1 of 1 BACKGRND Count Exp Val Row 1 2 3 Total CHILDREN 1 74 6 6 86 71.1 8.2 6.7 48.0% 2 74 11 8 93 76.9 8.8 7.3 52.0% Column 148 17 14 179 Total 82.7% 9.5% 7.8% 100.0% Chi-Square Value DF Significance Pearson 1.48483 2 . .47596 Likelihood Ratio 1.50545 2 .47108 Mantel-Haenszel .84633 1 .35759 Minimum Expected Frequency - 6.726 Appendix F Official Correspondence [Arabic with English Translations] 233 234 T • H • I Dfpjrlmcnl of Art Lducjtion 340 Hopkins H j II I2fi North Oval Mall OHIO Columbus, OH 43210-1363 I’hone 614-292-7183 KAX 614-292-4401 UNIVERSITY November 12, 1992 To Whom It May Concern: Mr. Mohammed Aldoyhi is a doctoral candidate in good standing in this Department and I am his advisor and dissertation chairman. He has passed his General (quali fying) Examinations and is now collecting data for his dissertation. We would value whatever cooperation you can offer him in these efforts so that his investigation may be as fruitful as possible. Thank you for your consideration. Kenneth Marantz Professor Emeritus KM:ljs 235 In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful The honorable Dr. and Dean of the College of Education May peace and God's compassion and blessings be upon you, I Mohammed Ben Hussein Aldoyhi, am a student sponsored by the Department of Art Education--College of Education for master and doctoral studies in the United States of America. Having completed a research project plan for my doctoral program and having passed the comprehensive exam, I need to collect data related to the doctoral dissertation from a number of public schools (boys) at both the elementary and intermediate levels. And given that at the current time I am present in the Kingdom to follow up on my request to extend the sponsorship of my studies, I hope your excellency would facilitate my data collection mission by providing me with a letter in connection with this to those concerned. Regards, Mohammed Ben Hussein Aldoyhi 236 . JaLmJI o*ii>j i ol i^jJI ^jLjJ l^xJI ^jj**a (jjjLU ,j-* JJj: Jjo olj^xM iJL jj i^ lA I CjL j UII jiu y £*l» ^1 l»l* ^ UJ . a JI jix/^I J*»li L^iIjjJI Ju Ja J AJO'IjjiJ &L1I y i J^U-* jJsli-l tUjJI ^ ,^1 . < JjJI oLfjJU ,j<5j-aJ-l Li^j olk» ^ J lk tlj C)L*^Lk1I ,>* jw» jj iA^b* : aaJJLa ^USf/V/VC : £jU/» ; ■» • ^ 237 COU.ECK o r F.l/H( a n o s Dean's OfFnv X m J| Win 7u’m£ Saud Univeiiitij isi/t * <• A V ^ /^ f «■« i. i-.n The honorable Dr. Assistant Deputy tor Education Development, Ministry of Education May peace and God's compassion and blessings be upon you, Mr. Mohammed Ben Hussein Aldoyhi, who is sponsored by the college of Education Department of Art Education for doctoral studies abroad, is currently on a trip to collect some data in connection with his dissertation. Given that he needs to collect some data from a number of public schools (boys) at both the elementary and intermediate levels, I urge that you would be kind to facilitate his task so he can complete his dissertation. You have our sincere regards. College Dean Dr. Sulaiman Ben Muhammad Aljabr 238 — J1 *-,» ja J 1 j .Ci^J I COLLEGE OK F.lill( .Vl lO,N .f l lj l 4-&<,L=>- i-JS Dean’s Office *-i*—* w «n>v x^Ji ,_3L. %iny Sand llnivenily No.: Vc^N1 Dale: VlVC^>v>^ f ^ 1 U U - i j l A I i> "l IJ tULtil CJ jUJll *jl jj JjS j AjllLui : j a j j » oISj-jj IjK ^aJU Jjk i ^ % jjxA J 1 |j|W ^ (jj J a.%i a / I jj| (itioaJ ^ V l a I jjJ j j a A v " ! 1 O j I I I Lu^pJI • ilJLku^j (ijdj) pUJI jul.ftllI j^-A JJX jj-a o L j L J I ^ ypll Ol vlni'tij • i L u i ^ l i l j ^uLb^4U p£Jj . i « i l j j L o ^ & J U i «JI>i i Riyadh li:. '■ I « : Ml -x ri«A ._. «».\>to\ -iL.Ji 239 In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education Educational Department General Directorate for Research Subject: With Regard to Permission to Conduct Research The honorable general director of education: May peace be upon you and God's compassion and blessings, Mohammed Hussein Aldoyhi, a researcher sent by King Saud University for doctoral study in the United States of America, has approached us with a request to conduct a study on children's drawings in the Kingdom, in accordance with the attached copy of the research statement and instrument. We hope you will permit him to conduct his research, while noting that the researcher (or researchers) assumes full responsibilities relating to all aspects of the research. The permission by the ministry's General Directorate for Research does not necessarily imply its endorsement of the research problem or the methodologies and approached used to study it and treat it. We also hope you will refer all papers to the research supervisor in your directorate to complete the necessary. Please accept my regards, Dr. Abdelkhaliq Saleh Khalaf General Director of Educational Research 240 ii./.lAk.C: #ls>» _ ..... : & u ^ J i cX&l/*-^-^1^' jMjVil^^saaiJ ^jUVt f;.-*y ii-db". thrrtriL ykrr.: &<*** f J** ‘if1 X... lu-ZKXeJL, f « U.~*JI (it— S j I J A J J I *j *- jl.U.II I a a U* ^ ,Uft< /*i>tfJl ! Ui j^l • Iu^Sh^ 3.1 ,p > 1 ‘i»Jl CiLfiV^Jl A t 5 j J l X® 1 3^^'4 «■ I X, . H Ull |I| Jlw JlllI J S V> . 1___ *j*—+ oMj+-H XlaSljc*-KtJI J*»*j (^Anl>tl J|l) W&IJI jl Uuk^ ^dl UftJI tfl^SkL 4 ] ^UiJI J«tj l*UJl Sjlj^jl ^UbAi 1 uaoll wul^& *u i&laXjl IJ^muII J«K 4^4 jl eLfltijl l&LLa IjjjiaIL l^Ul^a Xtl'ipJU 9^ijXil * l|!LlljJ IjmJImiVIj • j w y u j ^ji a ^ ^ ji jijjVi jai£ u u i j»b us »^5Us^ I^U23j ^AR**® AiHM* f11* ji*&« * A» J 1A gJLfc* J-IUJ **(& • 4 Ijljjl jySl lilUJ l^|lA * g«Uyi (ft u) ^ 9 O a^) SjUU *1 ij*^ *•'" 1 / ' B1 ■•toJ**- « • *»!• * t * li 4rf.«o lV1A«|*l^Ur TATWIR/105MOSQ M t M iv> »>»! tQhr 241 s ^ i j g s B s e i (Jj L- a II Sj I J j aolojTi! gUsQ liUI ?^l»VI W a ^ l s'- i» Subject: Faciliti.wJ.ng the task of a researcher Dear School Principal, Peace be upon you as well as God's compassion and blessings. In accordance with the letter from the General Director for Educational Researcher (number 555/14/17 dated 2/9/1413) about the researcher Mohammed Hussein Aldoyhi (from King Saud University) conducting a study concerning the drawings of children in the Kingdom in accordance with the statement of research, and given that there is no objection to conducting the study, we hope you would facilitate his task as per the attached list of schools. Please accept my regards. Dr. Nasir Ben Abdalaziz Aldouod General Director of Education— Riyadh District 242 ^ n " U X»Ui1 8j b V l Ajl^uIaXII £,l' or “** - ^ l uHa J P>/CJI —: *JUI '■*>■ jj (Xile Jl )OT / A / T ^ )Y / t / oao jjj iii^>oJI ^Lc ^ jJ-» ^JLt »0-^ fj— j J>«- »l>rj — * y ~ S' <£•>*>) I ‘ATJ5** S*^SU • y» tiJUU * y REFERENCES Abd-el Wassie & Abd-el Wahab. (1970). Education in Saudi Arabia. London: MacMillan. Alamoud T. I. (1991). A Descriptive Study of Verbal Statements Made by Saudi Arabian Students about Islamic and Western Art Objects.(Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1991). Dissertation Abstracts International. 52. 2378A. Al-Allaq, T. A. (1989). Cultural and Environmental Influence Reflected in Children's Drawings from Urban and Rural Elementary Schools in and around Baghdad, Iraq. (Doctoral Dissertation, Florida State University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International. .‘iQ# 856A. Al-Asheikh, H. (1972). History of Education Movements in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia: Kafelat Azziat. Aldoyhi, M. (1984). The Extent to Which Cultural Differences Affect and Control Children's Similarities and Differences in Choice of Subject Matter in Their Drawings. Unpublished master's thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing. Al-Gardawi, Y. (1985). Al-Halal and Al-Haram in Islam. (3rd ed.). Beirut, Lebanon: Islamic Office. Alghamedy, A. G. (1986). Investigation of Conditions Affecting Art Teacher Preparation in Saudi Arabia. (Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1986). Dissertation Abstracts International. 47. 3639A. Alireza, M. (1987). Women of Saudi Arabia. National Geographic. 122.(4), 423-453. Al-Jabr, S. (1990). Social Education in Saudi Arabia. Social Education. 54.(2), 109-111. 243 244 Almasary, N. A. (1990). The Effect of Discipline-Based Art Education on Students' Aesthetic Awareness. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of California, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International. 51. 387A. Al-Misned, A. A. (1985). Statistical Index on Progress of Higher Education from 1970-1984. Saudi Arabia: General Directorate for the Development of Higher Education. Al-Mubta'ah Magazine. Washington, D.C.: Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission in the United States of America. Al-Najada, A. R. (1990). The Status of Art Education Curricula in Intermediate Schools in Riyadh Area of Saudi Arabia as Perceived by Art Education Teachers. (Doctoral Dissertation, Southern Illinois University, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International. 52. 1619A. Al-Namlah, M. A. (1994). Identifying College Students' Attitudes Toward the Art World in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Purdue University. Al-Shamikh, M. A. (1973). Altaleem Fi Makkah Wa al-Madina Fi Akher Al-Ahd Al-Otmani. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: National Publisher for Offest. (Arabic] Al-Zahrani, A. (1988). How Policy Stakeholders Perceive the Value and Importance of Art Education in Saudi Arabia's Schools. (Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International. 49., 703A. Al-Zayer, S. H. (1989). The Effects of Economic and Social Change on Education and Practice of Crafts in the Arabic Society. (Doctoral Dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International. 51. 387A. Amr, M. K. (1982). The Interaction of Cultural and Natural Factors in the Drawings of Jordanian Children. (Doctoral Dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1982) . Dissertation Abstracts International. 43. 52A. Arnold, T. (1928). Painting in Islam: A Study of Art in Muslim Culture. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Bajouda, H. (1993). Analysis of Three Islamic Art Historians Explanation of the Characteristics and Formation of Islamic Art: Implication for Model Development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus. 245 Bamborough, P. (1979). Treasures of Islam. New York: Blanford. Basha, H. (1979). Al-Athar Al Islameah. Egypt: Dar Al Nadhah Al-Arabiah. [Arabic] Behhensi, A. (1980). The Modern Art in the Arab Countries. Tunisia: Dar Al-Janob. [Arabic] Binzagr, S. (1979). Saudi Arabia: An Artist's View of the Past. Lausanne, Switzerland: Three Continents. Brittain, W. (1985). Children's Drawings: A Comparison of Two Cultures. Journal of Multi-Cultural and Cross- Cultural Research in Education. 3.(1). Buckhardt, T. (1976). Introduction to Islamic Art In The Arts of Islam. New York: Harry Abrams. Crespi, G. (1979). The Arab in Europe. New York: Rizzoli International. Dalton, R. C. (1991). Gender and Genre: A Study of Children's War Drawings. (Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1991). Dissertation Abstracts International. 52. 87A. Dandel, J. (1985). Islamic Legislation on Painting (Drawing) and Representation. Al-Zarka, Jordan: Al- Minar Library. [Arabic] Dennis, W. (1966). Group Values Through Children's Drawings. New York: John Wiley. Education in Saudi Arabia. (1991). Washington, D.C.: Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission in the United States of America. Educational Policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (1978). Washington, D. C.: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Higher Education. Efland, A. (1976). The School Art Style: A Functional Analysis. Studies in Art Education. 17.(2). Elkin, F. & Handel, G. (1989). The Child & Sociology: The Process of Socialization. New York: Random House. Ettinghausen, R. (1977). Arab Painting. New York: Rizzoli International. 246 Fehervari, G. & Safadi, Y. (1981). 1400 Years of Islamic Art: A Description Catalog. London: Khalili Gallery. For the Record. (1985). Washington, D. C.: The Information Office of the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia in the United States. Fraenkel, J. & Wallen, M. (1990). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill. Gardiner, H. W. (1969). A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Hostility in Children's Drawings. The Journal of Social Psychology. 79. 261-263. Gay, L. R. (1987). Educational Research Competencies for Analysis and Application (3rd ed.). Columbus, Oh: Merrill. Goodenough, F. (1926). Measurements of Intelligence bv Drawings. New York: World. Goodman, N. (1978). Wavs of Worldmaking. Cambridge: Hackett. Grabar, 0. (1973). The Formation of Islamic Art. New York: Yale UP. Guthrie, G. M. (1975). A Behavior Analysis of Culture Learning. Cross Cultural Perspectives on Learning. 95- 155. Hamdi, N. (1982). Differences Between American and Arabic Children in Performance on Measures of Pictorial Depth Perception. Education Psychological Measurement. 42., 258-295. Harris, D. (1963). Children's Drawings as Measures of Intellectual Maturity. New York: Harcourt, Brace, World. Herman, S. & Schild, E. (1960). Contexts for the Study of Cross-Cultural Education. The Journal of Social Psychology. 52. 231-250. Hess, B., Markson, E. & Stein, P. (1988). Sociology. New York: Macmillan. Hirsch, E., Kewt, J. & Trefil, J. (1993). The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. 247 Ibn Bas, A. (1987). The Useful Legislation Concerning Painting. Journal of Islamic Research. 17., 362-374. [Arabic] Jan, M. (1984). An Investigation of the Problem of the English Program in the Intermediate Boy's Schools of Saudi Arabia. (Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1984). Dissertation Abstracts International. 44. 3557A. Kellogg, R. (1969). Analyzing Children's Art. Palo Alto, CA: National Press. Landau, R. (1955). The Arabesque: The Abstract Art of Islam. The American Academy of Asian Studies. Lark-Horovitz, B., Lewis, H. & Luca, M. (1973). Understanding Children's Art for Better Teaching. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Lowenfeld, V. (1957). Creative and Mental Growth. New York: MacMillan. Lowenfeld, V. & Brittain, W. (1975, 1982). Creative and Mental Growth. New York: Macmillan. Macionis, J. (1991). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Macionis, J. (1989). Sociology (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Mackey, S. (1987). The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom. New York: Meridian. McFee, J. & Degge. (1977). Art. Culture and Environment. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. McFee, J. (1961). Preparation for Art. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Miller, R. (1973). Cross-Cultural Research in the Perception of Pictorial Materials. Psychological Bulletin. 80. 135-150. Ministry of Higher Education. (1989). Data Center (Statistics) Statistical Index of Progress of Higher Education from 1969-1970 to 1986-87. Saudi Arabia: Directorate General for the Development of Higher Education. 248 Oliver, E. (1987). Saudi Arabia: A Study of the Educational System of Saudi Arabia and a Guide to the Academic Placement of Students in Education in the United States. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 285 471). Papadopoulo, A. (1987). Islam and Muslim Art. New York: Harry Abrams. Popenhoe, D. (1983). Sociology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. The Holy Quran. Madina, Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Holy Koran Complex. Razvi, I. (1981). Cultural Values and Education in a Multicultural Society --.A Muslim View. In The Training of Teachers of Children of Migrant Workers: Cultural Values and Education in a Multi-Cultural Society. F. R. Germany. Resayes, M. A. (1989). Significance of the Development and Emergences of Arts and Crafts Museums in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International. 50. 856a . Ross, H. C. (1990). The Art of Arabian Costume: A Saudi Arabian Profile. Switzerland. Saudi Arabia. Washington, D. C.: Information Office of the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia in the United States of America. Saudi Arabia in Pictures. (1989). Minneapolis, MN: Lerner. Sebald, H. (1989). Adolescent's Peer Orientation: Change in the Support System During the Past Three Decades. Adolescence. XXIV(96). SPSS Version 4.0 for Macintosh. (1990). [Computer software], Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt, Brace, World. Viola, W. (1949). Child Art. Peoria: Bennett. 249 Waldron, L. K. (1982). Theory of Child Art. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of New Mexico, 1982). Dissertation Abstracts International. 43. 1016A. Wilson, B. Sc Wilson, M. (1983). The Themes of Children's Story Drawings: A Tale of Four Cultures. In R. W. Ott (Ed.), Art in Education: An International Perspective. London: Pennsylvania State UP. Wilson, B. Sc Wilson, M. (1980) . Figure Structure, Figure Action and Framing in Drawings by American and Egyptian Children. Studies in Art Education. 21.(1) . Wilson, B. Sc Wilson, M. (1977). An Iconoclastic View of the Imagery Sources of Young Children. Art Education. 2.(1), 5-12 . Wilson, R. (1957). Islamic Art. New York: MacMillan. Young, B. (1990). Art Culture and Ethnicity. Reston, VA: NAEA. Zaida, H. (1979). Values Expressed in Nigerian Children's Drawings. International Journal of Psychology. 14. 162- 169. Zakaria, Z. T. (1979). The Malavsian School Art Curriculum: An Islamic View. Unpublished master's thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus.