July-September 2017 Volume 26: Number 3

An Economic Fair Housing Act Richard D. Kahlenberg

A century ago, the U.S. Supreme The first troubling reality is that positive effect on reducing racial seg- Court struck down racial zoning laws existing tools to fight racial segrega- regation. The Black-white dissimilar- that prohibited Black people from buy- tion in housing have been far less suc- ity index (in which zero is perfect in- ing homes in majority-white neighbor- cessful than have efforts to reduce dis- tegration and 100 is absolute segre– hoods. About a half-century later, the crimination in a number of other ar- gation), has shrunk from a high of 79 Fair Housing Act of 1968 outlawed eas of American life. The major un- in 1970 to 59 in 2010, according to explicit racial in the sale finished business of the civil rights researchers John R. Logan and Brian and rental of housing units. These ad- movement, writes Richard Rothstein J. Stults (Logan and Stults 2011). But, vances represent significant landmarks in his devastating new book, The Color as William Julius Wilson of Harvard in the march for human dignity but in of Law, is housing. Over the past fifty has documented, civil rights laws that reality both left untouched economi- years, we have made considerable reduced discrimination against cally discriminatory government zon- progress reducing discrimination in middle- and upper-class African ing policies that exclude low-income restaurants, hotels, transportation, Americans who could afford to move and working-class Americans— includ- voting, and employment, he writes, out of ghettoes left behind a truly dis- ing substantial numbers of people of but progress on reducing residential advantaged group of African Ameri- color—from entire neighborhoods. As has been much more cans who live in highly concentrated the nation prepares to celebrate the fif- muted (Kahlenberg 2017a). To be . tieth anniversary of the 1968 Fair sure, the Fair Housing Act did have a (Please turn to page 2) Housing Act next year, it is an oppor- tune time to reflect on how housing policies can be updated to address two Stewards of Tolerance important new realities that have emerged in the past half-century. John King

This fall, teachers and students all through the streets of an American Richard D. Kahlenberg, kahlenberg across the country are returning to city, chanting anti-Semitic slogans, @tcf.org,is a Senior Fellow at The school. But it’s not the typical start of and lifting up racist sentiments. They Century Foundation. He is the author the school year. Amid the usual prepa- witnessed domestic terrorism that re- of All Together Now: Creating rations of setting up their classrooms, sulted in people losing their lives. Middle-Class Schools through Public planning lessons, and getting to know They have heard—on television and School Choice (Brookings, 2001); and children and families, educators also the Internet, and through conversations the editor of The Future of School In- are confronting the need to help stu- with their families—about the Trump tegration: Socioeconomic as dents process the violence and hate that administration’s ban on travel to the an Education Reform Strategy (Cen- manifested on the streets of United States for citizens from pre- tury Foundation, 2012). He is now Charlottesville, Virginia before most dominantly Muslim countries. They working on a book on housing segre- schools opened their doors. have heard about the reversal of the gation. This essay is adapted from a Students throughout the nation wit- Deferred Action for Childhood Arriv- 2017 Century Foundation report, “An nessed armed militiamen, neo-Nazis, als (DACA) program, which protects Economic Fair Housing Act.” and members of the KKK marching (Please turn to page 6)

Poverty & Race Research Action Council • 1200 18th Street NW • Suite 200 • Washington, DC 20036 202/906-8023 • FAX: 202/842-2885 • E-mail: [email protected] • www.prrac.org Recycled Paper (FAIR H0USING ACT: Cont. from p. 1) through choice within the public of these market forces is harmful gov- school system (particularly magnet ernment regulation that aids and abets The second reality—related to the schools and diverse charter schools) segregation. Many localities have first—is that skyrocketing levels of and by redrawing neighborhood school adopted exclusionary zoning ordi- income segregation in housing are com- boundaries (Kahlenberg 2016b). nances—sometimes referred to as pounding racial segregation. As These policies, in one hundred tradi- “ zoning” rules—that forbid build- Harvard University’s Robert Putnam tional public schools and charter school ers from developing apartment build- notes in his book, Our Kids, “while organizations, educate 4.4 million stu- ings or townhouses in certain areas, race-based segregation has been slowly dents in thirty-two states, and are hav- reserving them instead for detached, declining,” we have seen the rise of ing a very positive effect on student single-family homes. While this prac- “a kind of incipient class ” achievement (Potter 2016b). tice may seem harmless upon first con- (Putnam 2016). President Barack These public school choice and re- sideration, some of these ordinances Obama, likewise, has noted, “what districting policies remain a critical actually had racist origins and were used to be racial segregation now mir- tool for promoting school integration. designed to exclude low-income Afri- rors itself in class segregation” But in a country where roughly three- can Americans specifically. Other zon- (Boschma 2015). quarters of students attend neighbor- ing laws go further, imposing mini- This worsening housing segregation hood schools—that is, are simply as- mum residential lot requirements. In by class is extremely troubling, be- signed to the school nearest their extremely wealthy neighborhoods, cause it affects the lives of Americans homes—public school choice is a lim- with very large lot requirements, poli- in profound ways. Where people live ited device (National Center for Edu- cies can effectively exclude virtually affects so much else in their lives— cation Statistics 2016). Policymakers, all families not in the top 1 percent by access to transportation, employment income and wealth. Critically, these opportunities, access to decent health Because income and policies that exclude families from care, and, perhaps most important, neighborhoods by requiring minimum access to good schools. This last point racial segregation are so lot sizes—purportedly in the name of is critically important, because in commonplace, it is easy preserving some sort of aesthetic uni- American society, education has long to consider them the formity—also exclude children in aspired to be “the great equalizer.” Re- natural state of affairs. those families from attending high- search dating back five decades sug- performing schools. gests one of the most powerful ways How important is public policy in to improve the life chances of disad- researchers, and advocates have long driving economic segregation? It is a vantaged students is to give them the noted that it is important to pursue a major player. “The physical segrega- opportunity to attend high-quality parallel set of housing strategies that, tion of the upper-,” writes schools that educate rich and poor stu- if successful, could help integrate Richard Reeves in his book, Dream dents under a single roof. Denying neighborhood schools. As scholar Hoarders, “is, for the most part, not all children access to these schools by David Rusk has put it, “housing policy the result of free workings of the hous- allowing our educational system to is school policy” (Rusk, 2007). ing market” (Reeves, 2017). In a stun- tolerate separate and unequal learning Where did this rising segregation by ning 2010 study Jonathan Rothwell of environments is a threat to economic class come from? It stems in part from Brookings (who is now at Gallup), and mobility, and the it- society’s growing income divide. The Douglas Massey, a sociologist at self. free market discriminates based on Princeton, found that “a change in And so, for twenty years, The Cen- price and the ability to pay; not ev- permitted zoning from the most re- tury Foundation, in a series of books eryone can afford a $200,000 house, strictive to the least would close 50 and reports (Potter 2016a), has out- much less one that costs $500,000 or percent of the observed gap between lined a number of ways to reduce eco- $1 million, which is the way a capi- the most unequal metropolitan area and nomic segregation in our schools talist system works. But layered on top the least, in terms of neighborhood inequality” (Rothwell and Massey 2010). Nevertheless, economic zoning Poverty & Race (ISSN 1075-3591) is published four times a year by the Poverty and has grown considerably over time; Lee Race Research Action Council, 740 15th Street NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20005, Anne Fennell of the University of 202/906-8052, fax: 202/842-2885, E-mail: [email protected]. Megan Haberle, editor; Tyler Barbarin, editorial assistant. Subscriptions are $25/year, $45/two years. Foreign Chicago Law School calls such ordi- postage extra. Articles, article suggestions, letters and general comments are welcome, nances “a central organizing feature in as are notices of publications, conferences, job openings, etc. for our Resources Section- American metropolitan life” (Fennell —email to [email protected]. Articles generally may be reprinted, providing PRRAC 2002). gives advance permission. In this sense, class segregation, like © Copyright 2017 by the Poverty and Race Research Action Council. All rights reserved. racial segregation, is widely misunder- (Please turn to page 11)

2 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 (STEWARDS: Continued from page 1) rooms rarely—if ever—encounter a Teachers of color, for example, teacher of color. often have higher expectations for stu- from deportation those youth who A new survey shows that most teach- dents of color, are more likely to use have been brought to this country as ers—about 80 percent of the country’s culturally relevant practices to connect children. And they have heard rheto- nearly 4 million public school educa- with and teach diverse students, and ric that targets people because of their tors—are white. Just 9 percent of teach- have a greater tendency to confront religion, their race, and their families’ ers are Latino, 7 percent are Black, in their lessons. A recent study country of origin, and they wonder if and 2 percent are Asian (National Cen- also shows that Black students from they are safe. ter for Education Statistics 2017). low-income families are more likely As school begins, many teachers to graduate from high school and con- will have tough conversations with sider enrolling in college if they are their new classes about current events. The unfortunate reality taught by just one Black teacher in el- Teachers will help young people to today is that many stu- ementary school. (Johns Hopkins Uni- understand the historical context of our dents in our public versity 2017). And research shows that nation’s struggles with racism, preju- elementary and second- Black students are less likely to be sus- dice, , and bigotry, as well pended or expelled by Black teachers as our continued, sometimes painful ary classrooms rarely— and more likely to be identified for journey toward equality and opportu- if ever—encounter a gifted programs by educators of their nity for all. Teachers will ensure that teacher of color. same race (Blad 2016), Nicholson- students understand they are valued and Crotty et al. 2016). loved—no matter their race, religion, This lack of diversity in our nation’s But it’s not just students of color sexual orientation, immigration status, educator workforce is striking, by com- who experience positive effects by be- or how much money their parents parison, when we look at our youth. ing taught by diverse educators. We make. And teachers will help students Today, our public school population know that all students benefit when to recognize the responsibility they is made up of a majority of students of they learn from adults with a variety have—as young people—to be knowl- color, with the percentage of white stu- of backgrounds, perspectives, and ex- edgeable and active citizens. dents projected to decline over the next periences (Anderson, 2015). For white Teachers are critical in shaping who decade. What’s more, an overall trend students, it is important to see people our students become and, in turn, what toward greater diversity throughout of color in leadership positions and as our nation represents. America is predicted to continue. Ac- mentors and role models in their class- In fact, I am convinced that the con- cording to some estimates, by the year rooms and communities. tinued conflicts in this country with 2055, no racial or ethnic group will And for all students, exposure to racism and intolerance would be pro- constitute a majority in this country diversity can help to reduce and foundly reduced if our children regu- (Pew Research Center 2016). increase empathy. These positive re- larly encountered and learned from We need a teaching force that is as sults occur when children learn in class- teachers who embody America’s grow- diverse as our students. rooms alongside peers who have dif- ing diversity. Excellent teachers come from all ferent backgrounds, who come from To be sure, the weight of solving backgrounds, yet there also is substan- families along varying degrees of the America’s societal ills cannot be placed tial evidence that exposure for students socioeconomic spectrum, who practice entirely on the shoulders of educators. of color to teachers who share their different faiths, who are immigrants, But, given the country’s current cli- background and experiences can have and who represent the many other mate and the urgency both to educate a profound effect. (Please turn to page 4) our children and ensure that they are prepared to reject harmful and hate, it’s beyond time to take CONTENTS: teacher diversity efforts seriously in our schools. An Economic Fair Housing Act ...... 1 The unfortunate reality today, Richard D. Kahlenberg. A federal role in zoning? though, is that many students in our Stewards of Tolerance ...... 3 public elementary and secondary class- John King. Teacher diversity and an inclusive society. A Reply to Kahlenberg ...... 5 Sheryll Cashin. The risks of submerging race. John King, John.King@edtrust. Mass Incarceration and Child Trauma ...... 7 org, @JohnBKing on Twitter, is the Mary Kelly Persyn. Children “do time” too. president and CEO of The Education PRRAC Update ...... 9 Trust, and served as the U.S. Secre- Resources ...... 12 tary of Education from 2016 to 2017.

Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 • 3 (STEWARDS: Continued from page 3) Are you a federal employee? characteristics of our diverse Ameri- can tapestry. Please consider contributing to PRRAC through the To be sure, in our multicultural so- Combined Federal Campaign (CFC). ciety and global economy, we do our Our CFC designation code is 11710. students a major disservice if their first encounter with a person of a different We appreciate your support! race or ethnic background isn’t until they reach college or the workforce. Department of Education under the gest challenge (Bond et al. 2015). Unless we act, as a country, the mis- Obama administration revealed large In fact, more teachers of color are match between the diversity of our stu- completion rate gaps for college stu- being hired now than in years past, but dents and our teaching force only will dents majoring in education. The gap these educators also are leaving the continue to grow. between white and Black students was profession more frequently than their In fact, a 2016 report found that— approximately 30 percentage points White counterparts early in their ca- without major changes to our nation’s (73 percent versus 42 percent) and the reers. It is critical to ensure that once educator pipeline—teacher diversity gap between white and Hispanic stu- teachers of color are hired, they stay gaps likely will not close through at dents was more than 20 percentage in the classroom. least the next half century (Putnam et points (73 percent versus 49 percent) Part of doing that work thoughtfully al. 2016). (U.S. Department of Education, entails listening to the experiences and To address this pressing issue, we 2016). perspectives of people of color who need action at every level—from pub- are currently teaching. lic schools and institutions of higher Many Black teachers The Education Trust’s efforts are education, to policymakers and admin- instructive here. Our recent qualitative istrators, to advocates and whole com- reported they felt study, Through Our Eyes, reveals that munities. limited to only teaching many Black educators feel their voices Encouraging a wider array of young Black students. are not heard and their development is people to consider teaching as a career stifled by systemic and school is a start. And while state and local policy– cultures that do not recognize their But funneling more students into makers can make it a priority to re- expertise. A companion report, to be education majors won’t address cruit diverse teacher candidates, cre- issued this fall, will examine the per- teacher diversity gaps unless our K-12 ate more innovative pathways into spectives of Latino teachers (The Edu- public schools do a better job of pre- teaching, and examine whether their cation Trust, 2016). paring all students for the rigors of teacher licensure policies or teacher Through Our Eyes showed that in- college, and institutions of higher edu- pay rates produce unintended barriers stead of being offered opportunities to cation do even more to support stu- for people from underrepresented teach diverse students and college-level dents through to graduation. groups, research shows that attracting courses or take on leadership roles A seminal report from the U.S. teachers of color may not be the big- within their schools, many Black teachers reported that they felt limited to teaching only Black students and Join us at the 2017 Conference of that they were expected to act as the the National Coalition on School Diversity! school’s disciplinarians. And while Black teachers relished the opportunity to use their cultural A Struggle We Must Win: Advancing capital to connect with children of School Integration Through Activism, color, these educators expressed frus- tration at being pigeon-holed. , and Policy Reform Not surprisingly, this “invisible tax” and diminished opportunities for October 19th & 20th, 2017 professional growth can lead teachers New York City of color to experience burnout and de- creased job satisfaction—which can See the conference agenda and register at cause these educators to leave teach- school-diversity.org/2017-conference. ing (King 2016). ($100 registration; $50 for students) Advocates and communities can (Please turn to page 6)

4 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 A Reply to Kahlenberg

Sheryll Cashin

Richard Kahlenberg is correct in mented implicit associations of black- flight of others with choices to per- asserting that the unfinished business ness with criminality. While the ste- ceived higher ground. Families with of the civil rights movement is hous- reotype of the Black male sexual children are especially motivated to ing. His call for an Economic Fair predator helped justify the old Jim avoid high poverty schools or neigh- Housing Act is useful and important. Crow, I believe a modern borhoods. Elsewhere I have described In selling this idea, however, he may of the “ghetto” dweller or “ghetto the intentional public policies that cre- 1 create a misleading impression. Eco- thug” is part of the spoken and unspo- ated concentrated Black poverty. Had nomic segregation is growing, with ken subtext of fair housing debates. governments not intentionally created awful consequences for anyone who There is a spatial dimension to anti- Black ghettoes, I suspect we would be cannot afford to buy or lease a home black stereotyping that goes beyond much further along in the project of in a high opportunity neighborhood. class. Residents of hyper-segregated dismantling Jim Crow. Policies and But levels of Black-white segregation neighborhoods are more likely than preferences of avoidance might be less remain very high. other groups to be Black. Hyper-seg- common and individuals and institu- Nationally, about sixty percent of regation facilitates a unique form of tions less risk averse, more willing to all Black people would have to move othering. To be “ghetto” has a wide- try to enter or invite robust diversity. in order to be evenly distributed among spread negative connotation in Above all, poor Black people might whites in this country. Only about 30 America, one that many if not most be more apt to be seen as three-dimen- percent of Black and Latino families people of all colors disassociate from. sional human beings, worthy of the reside in middle class neighborhoods Demographers use a threshold of moniker “citizen.” where less than half of the people are 40% poverty to define concentrated I appreciate Kahlenberg’s project, poor. Meanwhile, more than 60 per- poverty and the number of these cen- acknowledge that many whites and cent of white and Asian families live sus tracts has risen from about 2,500 non-black people of color suffer the in environs where most of their neigh- in the year 2000 to 4,400 census tracts consequences of geographic isolation, bors are not poor. The majority of in 2009-2013. Not all of the most dis- and heartily support amending the Fair whites and Asians live in neighbor- tressed, concentrated poverty census Housing Act to ban exclusionary zon- hoods with a poverty rate below 14 tracts are predominantly Black though ing and . I percent. much of them are. Such places, small also believe that his proposal sidesteps Race, then, plays an outsize role in in number, loom large in the Ameri- what truly ails us in housing markets housing markets. Expectation of ra- can psyche and in American race rela- and as a nation. I, too, once hoped cial comfort, of white dominance, may tions. There are codes of the street, that a coalition of struggling people explain why most whites still state participated in by a small subset of of all colors might force to sup- preferences for majority white neigh- Black urban residents, glorified in port policies that create more oppor- borhoods. In 2001, the threshold at gangsta’ rap, propagated in near-con- tunity for everyone. But the success which whites would likely avoid pur- stant news stories about urban crime, of candidate and President Trump’s chasing a home in a neighborhood was that may explain widespread fear of divide-and-conquer politics has tem- 15% Blackness. Hopefully in 2017 Black males. And sometimes middle- pered my hope for a unifying class whites’ capacity for neighborhood ex- and upper-class Black people are par- among the mutually locked posure to Black people has risen. But ticipating in the othering. Even in out. I believe all proposals for a more whatever the threshold for avoidance Washington, D.C., where Democrats just and inclusive society would ben- is today, it is important to consider the outnumber Republicans by about 12- efit from the disinfectant of light reasons for such avoidance. Black 1, and where African-Americans for shown on the virulent, ugly racism that people remain the group all non-Blacks many years controlled government, undergirds the structures of exclusion. are least interested in integrating with. political leaders pursued punitive laws I do have faith that a coalition of cul- Why? Allow me to speculate. that fueled mass incarceration and turally dexterous allies—those that see Social psychologists have docu- filled DC prisons with young Black and name racism—may yet rise to lance men. The same Black political leader- the boil of supremacy in this country, Sheryll Cashin, cashins@law. ship was also slow to adopt an and wipe away the stench. ❏ georgetown.edu, is of Law inclusionary zoning ordinance and 1 at Georgetown University, and the au- pursued policies that displaced many Sheryll Cashin. 2004. The Failures thor of Loving: Interracial Intimacy poor residents from the city. of Integration: How Race and Class are and the Threat to Concentrated poverty, particularly Undermining the American Dream. Pub- (Beacon 2017). of the Black kind, contributes to the lic Affairs. Chapter 7.

Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 • 5 (STEWARDS: Continued from page 4) Doing so will require that we ac- played in Charlottesville. Doing so knowledge the ways in which our also will require us to act. We can be- help to address this situation by en- schools reflect America’s complex his- gin with a focus on our children’s couraging their schools to provide tar- tory and continued challenges around teachers. And together, all of us can geted professional supports to teach- race. Doing so will require that we do ensure our children receive an excel- ers of color, offer training to all edu- more than just simply reject the most lent education that equips them to help cators on cultural competency and cul- virulent expressions of intolerance and build the most inclusive, diverse, and turally affirming curricula, and create hate, such as those that we saw dis- tolerant America in history. ❏ and maintain schoolwide cultures that value efforts to expand diversity. One way in which communities across the country—from Denver to References - Stewards of Tolerance Kansas City to Boston to Portland, Maine—are taking action to increase Bond, Burnie et al. 2015. The State of Teacher Diversity in American Edu- the number of teachers of color in their cation. Albert Shanker Institute. schools is by cultivating their own pool of “homegrown” educators. Districts Anderson, Melinda D. 2015. “Why Schools Need More Teachers of Color— implementing these “grow-your-own” For White Students.” The Atlantic. August 6. initiatives advise students from underrepresented groups as early as in Blad, Evie. 2016. “Black Students Less Likely to Be Disciplined by Black middle school about careers in teach- Teachers, Study Says.” Education Week. September 18. ing. They also develop young people’s leadership skills, guide them toward The Education Trust. 2016. Through Our Eyes: Perspectives and Reflec- tions From Black Teachers. higher education, and encourage them to return home to teach as adults. Johns Hopkins University.2017. With Just One Black Teacher, Black Stu- In Philadelphia, school principal dents More Likely to Graduate. Press Release. Available at: http:// Sharif El-Mekki founded The Fellow- releases.jhu.edu/2017/04/05/with-just-one-black-teacher-black-students- ship, which seeks to inspire more men more-likely-to-graduate/ of color in the city—and even nation- ally—to enter into the teaching pro- King, John. 2016. “The Invisible Tax on Teachers of Color.” Washington fession as a means of increasing social Post. May 15. justice (Thomas, 2016). And just this year, 11 states—with National Center for Education Statistics. 2017. Characteristics of Public the help of the Council of Chief State Elementary and Secondary School Teachers in the United States: Results From the 2015–16 National Teacher and Principal Survey. Available at: School Officers (CCSSO)—took a sig- https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2017072. nificant step toward increasing educa- tor diversity. These states are commit- Nicholson-Crotty, Sean et al. 2016. “Disentangling the Causal Mechanisms ting to work toward parity between of Representative Bureaucracy: Evidence From Assignment of Students to their students of color and their teach- Gifted Programs.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. ers of color. CCSSO, a national non- Vol. 26, No. 4, pp 745-757. October 1. profit organization of officials who head state systems of public schools, Pew Research Center. 2016. It’s Official: Minority Babies are the Majority will provide technical assistance and a Among the Nation’s Infants, But Only Just. Available at: forum for states to share best practices. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/23/its-official-minority-babies-are- This is a vital effort that all states the-majority-among-the-nations-infants-but-only-just/?utm_content=buffer 43d97&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer can choose to take on as they imple- ment our nation’s new education law, Putnam, Hannah et al. 2016. High Hopes and Harsh Realities: The Real the Every Student Succeeds Act. To ad- Challenges to Building a Diverse Workforce.Brown Center on Education vance this work, Congress also has a Policy, Brookings Institution. responsibility to fund Title II, part of the law that can be used to support Thomas, Brian. 2016. “Philly Organization Hopes to Recruit 1,000 Black teacher recruitment efforts that expand Male Teachers by 2020.” Philly Magazine. Available at: students’ equitable access to effective www.phillymag.com/news/2016/06/17/philly-fellowship-recruit-black-male- and diverse educators. teachers/#08OCicdMxflVtV7c.99 As the new school year gets under- way, all of us can be champions for equity and diversity.

6 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 Mass Incarceration and Child Trauma

Mary Kelly Persyn

Attorney General Jefferson at the highest risk (Murphey and Coo- are re-incarcerated for their failure to Beauregard Sessions is rapidly per 2015). African-American children meet work requirements associated deconstructing the bipartisan federal face twice the risk of experiencing with probation, fueling a cycle of dep- criminal justice reform movement that parental incarceration (1 in 9 children, rivation for their children (Morsy flourished during the Obama years. compared with 1 in 17) (Murphey and 2017). Though entirely innocent, the Criminal justice reform has also been Cooper 2015). By the time they are children of the incarcerated too often one of the few areas of bipartisan agree- 14, twenty-five percent of African face a system that takes little account ment in recent years, gaining a foot- American children have experienced of their existence. Moving through hold even in “tough on crime” Texas. parental incarceration—but only four awareness to action on behalf of these In the face of over thirty states pro- percent of white children have. “Of vulnerable Americans is critically im- ceeding with reforms to reduce sen- imprisoned fathers of African Ameri- portant in our era of mass incarcera- tences and jail populations, Sessions can children, only one-third are in tion. Criminal justice reform is not op- has declared his support for imprison- prison because of a violent crime. An- tional where two-thirds of incarcerated ing more people and has ordered his other third have been convicted of drug parents are serving time for a non-vio- attorneys to press courts for the high- offenses. The remainder have commit- lent crime and one percent of all Ameri- est criminal sentences (Oppel 2017). ted property crimes or technical viola- can children have a parent currently Supporting states’ efforts to continue tions, such as failure to show up for a incarcerated for a drug crime (West- reform is critically important. The ern and Pettit, 2010). pressing need to reduce the number of Criminal justice reform Given the urgency of the need and children suffering parental incarcera- is not optional when the glacial pace of criminal justice re- tion is a leading reason why. two-thirds of incarcer- form, we must better support the chil- Consider the skyrocketing numbers. dren of incarcerated parents now. Rais- America now incarcerates 700 in ev- ated parents are serving ing public awareness of the hardships ery 100,000 people—a rate that is the time for a non-violent faced by these children is the first step. highest in the world (Morsy 2017). In crime. Trauma-informed care must become the 1970s, the number was 170. For the rule in school and other child-serv- African-American men, the number is court date or probation officer appoint- ing settings. We must make it easier 1,700 per 100,000 (Morsy 2017). The ment; failure to meet other conditions for families to maintain strong ties American penchant for incarceration of release, like steady employment; or while parents are incarcerated, and pro- piles a heavy burden on our most vul- failure (usually from inability) to pay vide far better support upon release so nerable children. At least five million traffic or similar fines” (Morsy and parents can return to work and active American children have had at least Rothstein 2016). For African-Ameri- involvement in their children’s lives. one parent incarcerated (Murphey and can children born between 1994 and Cooper 2015). Since 2007, the num- 1999, the number is nearly 1 in 7, or Impact of Incarcerated ber of incarcerated people in the United 13.6 percent. The number may under- Parent on Children States has increased considerably. In state the issue, because it doesn’t con- 2007, 1.4 million people were incar- sider nonresidential parents (Murphy When a child loses a parent to in- cerated; currently, that number is 2.2 and Cooper 2015). In the long run, carceration, the impact is uniquely million, an increase of over 50%. By these children often suffer hardships damaging. To the burden of absence, that measure, about 2.5 million Ameri- including food insecurity, financial in- add economic and food instability; can children have a parent currently security, and trouble with school. They stigma, stereotyping, and shame; dif- behind bars. have a higher risk of homelessness— ficulty in communicating with and vis- Pew Research findings estimate that especially if they are African-Ameri- iting the absent parent; and loss of 2.7 million American children have a can children (Carter and McCarthy home and community for those chil- parent who is currently incarcerated 2015). dren who must move after the incar- (Western and Pettit 2010). African In many ways, these children “do ceration. The impact of parental in- American, poor, and rural children are time” with their incarcerated parents, carceration can damage physical, men- suffering the pain of separation and, tal, and emotional health and well-be- Mary Kelly Persyn, mkpersyn@ often, deprivation while they wait. ing and reduce financial, academic, hannacenter.org, is director of the Upon release, their parents face steep and professional prospects for millions Hanna Institute. odds against employment, and often (Please turn to page 8)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 • 7 (INCARCERATION: Cont. from page 7) incarceration is “distinguished from incarcerate fewer parents. Criminal other ACEs by the unique combina- justice reform must continue. of children. tion of trauma, shame, and stigma. That said, we have a responsibility Studies show that children of par- Parental incarceration increases the to children whose parents are already ents who have been incarcerated are at risk of a child living in poverty or ex- behind bars. The research on tools to a higher risk for many negative out- periencing household instability, inde- help the children of incarcerated par- comes, including emotional and men- pendent of any other factors present ents is limited, but experts have pro- tal health problems and delayed aca- in that child’s life” (YouthGov). The vided extensive advice. Better public demic progress. Associated health ACE of incarceration, in other words, awareness of these issues can help fo- problems can extend into adulthood is often uniquely impactful. cus attention on, and promote protec- (Murphey and Cooper 2015). When Compounding these risks, incar- tion of, these vulnerable children. demographic variables are held con- ceration very rarely occurs in the ab- Schools and other caretakers can help stant, the negative impact on children sence of other significant risk factors to reduce the stigmatizing effects of of the current or former incarceration and adversities (Wright and Seymour having an incarcerated parent. Prisons, of a parent remains significant 2015). Though some children may social workers, and family members (Murphey and Cooper 2015). For ex- have enjoyed a fairly stable and nur- can improve communications between ample, one study found that “23 per- turing preincarceration family life, the child and incarcerated parent and cent of children with a father who has most will have experienced consider- work to make visits more child- served time in a jail or prison have been able instability and possibly maltreat- friendly (Murphey and Cooper 2015). expelled or suspended from school, ment, with the problems related to in- Better support for the formerly incar- compared with just 4 percent of chil- cerated upon re-entry can reduce the dren whose fathers have not been in- We need to raise the risk of economic and food insecurity carcerated” (Western and Pettit 2015). general public’s aware- and homelessness for their children. Emotional and developmental dam- ness of the issues faced Raise awareness. The renewed na- age can run deep in the children of in- tional conversation on our criminal carcerated parents. Separation is al- by children of incarcer- justice system—highlighting the 2.2 ways traumatic, and the uncertainty ated people. million people held behind bars in our that follows can chip away at a child’s country—almost never considers the sense of security and safety. Children carceration superimposed upon exist- children of incarcerated people. Cul- can suffer from conflicted loyalty to ing difficulties. These risks include turally, our strong emphasis on indi- their parents if they have witnessed such other traumas and ACEs as pov- vidual responsibility and “paying one’s criminal activity in their homes. Fur- erty, alcohol and drugs, crime, domes- debt to society” tends to result in plac- ther, children often suffer stigma and tic violence, child maltreatment, pre- ing responsibility for the care of these the judgment of their peers when a vious separations, a parent’s history of children squarely on the shoulders of parent is incarcerated (Wright and abuse, and enduring trauma including their parents. But as we know from Seymour 2015). separation from the parent entailed by research demonstrating the multiple The complex and far-reaching im- incarceration (Wright and Seymour vulnerabilities of these children and pact of parental incarceration is unique 2015). If the trauma is too severe, their families, more support is needed among “adverse childhood experi- emotional coping and survival edges to help them survive parental incar- ences” (ACEs). A 1998 study by Kai- out mastery of a range of tasks neces- ceration and thrive despite it. ser Permanente and the Centers for sary to healthy development (Wright Before we can have that conversa- Disease Control identified ten catego- and Seymour 2015). School perfor- tion, though, we need to raise the gen- ries of childhood experience that are mance can suffer severely; a recent eral public’s awareness of the issues significantly linked to negative out- report finds that mass incarceration is faced by children of incarcerated comes later in life, among them emo- “an independent cause of the gap in people. San Francisco Children of In- tional, physical, and sexual abuse; cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes carcerated Parents Partnership emotional and physical neglect; between black and white students” (SFCIPP) has created an eight-point mother treated violently; household (Morsy and Rothstein 2016). Bill of Rights for these children that substance abuse; household mental ill- sets out many of their important but ness; parental separation or divorce; How Can We Help Chil- little-known needs. These include the and incarcerated household member right to be kept safe and informed at (American Academy of Pediatrics dren Who Have Suffered the time of the parent’s arrest, the right 2016). Children who witness the ar- Parental Incarceration? to be heard and considered when rel- rest of a parent, a significantly trau- evant decisions are made, the right to matic experience, are particularly af- The most important way to help be well cared for in the parent’s ab- fected by anxiety and stress. Parental children of incarcerated parents is to sence, the right to speak with, see, and

8 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 touch the parent (Poehlmann et al. of communications on families (San significant cause. Many inmates are 2010), the right to support, the right Francisco Children of Incarcerated parents, and incarceration severely not to be judged, blamed, or labeled, Parents Partnership). impacts their children, especially in and the right to a lifelong relationship Help families find pathways to school performance. Further, discrimi- with the parent (San Francisco Chil- employment after incarceration. A natory and disproportionate incarcera- dren of Incarcerated Parents). Post- criminal record is a significant barrier tion of African American parents is an ing and discussing these rights in child- to employment, which makes life that important cause of the racial achieve- serving agencies can help raise aware- much harder for children of formerly ment gap (Morsy and Rothstein 2016). ness and move toward action. incarcerated parents. Policies such as Among the many reasons to fight for Provide trauma-informed care. automatic sealing of low-level, non- change, the children of incarcerated The arrest and incarceration of a par- violent records after proof of rehabili- parents are among the most important. ent often causes severe anxiety and dis- tation can help immensely. The “ban tress in children. Providing care that Real Life Example: is informed by and responsive to the The crisis of mass realities of trauma and its aftermath is SFUSD Program to Help crucially important to children suffer- incarceration has been Kids of Incarcerated ing parental incarceration. devastating to Ameri- Parents Witnessing the arrest of a parent is cans, and especially a key example of traumatic experi- African Americans. In recognition of the heavy toll ence, and it can cause severe anxiety taken on already-vulnerable children and distress in a child in the short- and by parental incarceration, the San long-term. Law enforcement officers the box” policy established by the Of- Francisco Unified School District has must be trained to look for the signs fice of Personnel Management under begun an initiative to provide them of children in a home and to ask adults President Obama has helped many to with extra support and services, in- whether they are responsible for chil- gainful employment (Vallas et al. cluding teacher training (San Franciso dren and whether there are children 2015). Unified School Districts 2016). The present during the detention and ar- Fight for criminal justice reform. resolution was necessary because as of rest process. Training in care specifi- Our prison and jail populations have 2010, about 18,000 San Francisco cally responsive to this form of trauma exploded in recent years. Harsh sen- children had parents currently or for- is available to help law enforcement tencing for non-violent offenses is one (Please turn to page 10) officers understand the age-appropri- ate factors to consider when arresting a parent (Bureau of Justice Assistance and International Association of Chiefs of Police). Teachers and others who work with children are critically important to a PRRAC Update child’s ability to withstand parental incarceration and thrive despite it. Schools must educate teachers about • PRRAC has moved! We are • New PRRAC staff: We are the difficulties faced by children of grateful to our friends at the Cen- pleased to welcome Peter Kye, incarcerated parents. Expert training ter on Law and Social Policy PRRAC’s 2017-18 Law and Policy and advice is available to support teach- (CLASP), with whom we shared Fellow. Peter was most recently at ers’ work with these children to buffer office space for the better part of the Fair Housing and Community the risk of weaker academic perfor- ten years (along with the DC office Development group at the Lawyers’ mance (Trauma and Learning Policy of PolicyLink for the last five). Committee for Civil Rights Under Institute). Alas, CLASP has grown too big to Law, and is a 2016 graduate of the Make it easier to maintain fam- keep us, so we have found new of- University of Virginia Law School. ily ties during incarceration. Less fices – in a large shared suite with restrictive visitation rules that allow other social justice oriented non- • We also welcome this month our contact between parent and child can profits, near the White House in a fall Law and Policy Intern, Rooselie help. Incarcerating people geographi- building owned by the National Brutus, a 3rd year student at GW cally closer to their family members Community Reinvestment Coali- Law School, and Communications makes visits more possible. Curbing tion. Our new address is 740 15th Intern Sarah DeArruda, a junior the cost of phone and video calls to St. NW #300, Washington, DC at Colby-Sawyer College. prisons lessens the economic burden 20005.

Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 • 9 (INCARCERATION: Cont. from page 9) their quality of life and reducing the care should be the rule for every agency chances of passing trauma on to the that touches the children of incarcer- merly incarcerated at the county or next generation. Trauma-informed ated parents. ❏ state level. In addition to the training, SFUSD plans to add questions about the needs of children who suffer pa- rental incarceration to its Youth Be- havior Risk Survey. References - Mass Incarceration and Child Trauma Liberal reputation aside, San Fran- cisco is a poster child for the increased American Academy of Pediatrics. 2014. Adverse Childhood Experiences and risk of parental incarceration that Af- the Lifelong Consequences of Trauma. rican-American children face. African- Bureau of Justice Assistance and International Association of Chiefs of Po- American people make up just six per- lice. 2014. Safeguarding Children of Arrested Parents Roll Call Training cent of the city’s population but a stun- Video. Available at http://youth.gov/feature-article/safeguarding-children- ning 53 percent of its incarcerated arrested-parents-training-video. population. Layered with other ad- Carter, Angela and Bill McCarthy. 2015. Reducing the Effects of Incarcera- verse experiences that African-Ameri- tion on Children Families. Policy Brief. Center for Poverty Research, UC can children are more likely to face, Davis. this rate of parental incarceration should sound an alarm bell that keeps Morsy, Leila. 2017. “Mass Incarceration and the Achievement Gap.” Ameri- SFUSD on its current course. can Prospect. May 8. Morsy, Leila and Richard Rothstein 2016. Mass Incarceration and Children’s Outcomes. Economic Policy Institute. Conclusion Murphey, David and P. Mae Cooper. 2015. Parents Behind Bars: What Hap- pens to Their Children? ChildTrends. The crisis of mass incarceration has been devastating to Americans, and National Resource Center on Children and Families of the Incarcerated. Di- especially to African Americans. rectory of Programs Serving Children & Families of the Incarcerated.Rutger’s “Tough on crime” policies that have University. Available at: https://nrccfi.camden.rutgers.edu/resources/direc- increased the length of sentences and tory harshly punished non-violent and drug Oppel, Richard A.Jr.. 2017. “States Trim Penalties and Prison Rolls, Even as offenses have ballooned our prison Sessions Gets Tough.” New York Times. May 18. population. Millions of children have been the overlooked, but heavily im- Poehlmann, Julie et al. 2010. “Children’s Contact with the Incarcerated Par- pacted, victims. ents: Research Findings and Recommendations.” 65(6) Am. Psych. 575. Our first priority must be to con- San Francisco Children of Incarcerated Parents Partnership. 2008. Children tinue pushing for an end to unjust of Incarcerated Parents Bill of Rights. Available at: http://www.sfcipp.org/ criminal laws. The campaign contin- download-the-bill-of-rights-1. ues in a majority of our states, where San Francisco Unified School Districts. 2016. “SFUSD to Expand Training the majority of are housed, and Services to Meet the Needs of Students With Incarcerated Parents.” Press and it deserves strong support. Release. March 9. But in the meantime, agencies that interact with children—and that in- Trauma and Learning Policy Institute is a leading national resource for creat- cludes nearly all of them—can do a ing and advocating for trauma-informed schools. See: https:// great deal to buffer the trauma of pa- traumasensitiveschools.org/. rental incarceration and build resil- Vallas, Rebecca et al. 2015. Removing Barriers to Opportunity for Parents ience in these vulnerable children. We With Criminal Records and Their Children. Center for American Progress. must advocate for greater awareness Western, Bruce and Becky Pettit. 2010. Collateral Costs: Incarceration’s Ef- of trauma related to incarceration fect on Economic Mobility. The Pew Charitable Trusts. Available at http:// among law enforcement officers, www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/legacy/uploadedfiles/pcs_assets/2010/ teachers and counselors, social work- collateralcosts1pdf.pdf ers, pediatricians, judges, and lawyers. Helping these children not only re- Wright, Lois E. and Cynthia B. Seymour. 2015. Effects of Parental Incarcera- duces their suffering now. It improves tion on Children and Families. Michigan Family Impact Seminars No. 5. their health, well being, and self-suf- Youth.gov. Children of Incarcerated Parents: The Impact of Incarceration. ficiency for the long term, improving Available at: http://youth.gov/sites/default/files/COIPInfographic_508.pdf.

10 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 (FAIR H0USING ACT: Cont. from p. 2) ish racial and economic segregation. either by withholding infrastructure Technically, exclusionary zoning that funds or limiting the tax deduction that stood. Because income and racial seg- has a negative disparate impact on ra- homeowners can take for mortgage regation are so commonplace, it is easy cial and ethnic minorities can be chal- interest. Inclusionary zoning laws, to consider them the natural state of lenged under the Fair Housing Act. which affirmatively require develop- affairs. It is tempting to believe that But as Stacy Seicshnaydre of Tulane ers to set aside housing units for low- segregation by income and race sim- Law School has documented, in the income families, should also be ply reflects a certain reality—that 2000s, plaintiffs prevailed on appeal adopted in more jurisdictions. people move into neighborhoods in such cases just 8.3% of the time In the current political climate, fed- where they “fit in,” or where they can (Seicshnaydre 2013). eral action is unlikely in the near term afford to live. In fact, segregation is To complete the unfinished business on this issue, and so progressive poli- not the result of purely of individual of the civil rights movement—and to cies are most likely to be adopted at choices or of marketplace forces, but address rising segregation by income— the state level. Certain jurisdictions, rather of conscious policy decisions we need a new set of policies to up- such as Massachusetts, New Jersey, made over many decades. Both racial date the 1968 act. Such a new Eco- and California, have led the way in and income segregation are the result nomic Fair Housing Act would help fighting exclusionary zoning by pro- of social engineering on the part of the vast majority of Americans—of all moting affirmative steps to foster in- federal, state and local actors. Begin- races—who are excluded from re- clusion. Additional progress at the state ning in the early twentieth century, source-rich neighborhoods not merely level would have a meaningful impact policymakers and individual citizens for millions of Americans, and also pursued a number of policies and prac- could provide an important model for tices to segregate housing by race and Ending exclusionary federal action at some time in the fu- income, including: explicit zoning by zoning—which essen- ture. race, which was replaced by exclusion- tially discriminates There are already some signs that a ary zoning by income; racially restric- based on income— set of unlikely bed fellows could chal- tive covenants in housing deeds; affects people of all lenge exclusionary zoning. On the left, in mortgage insurance; and races. supporters of an Economic Fair Hous- police inaction in the face of white ing Act could include civil rights ac- mob violence against Black families. tivists, who know the racist origins of America’s worst practices did not by market forces, but also by govern- exclusionary zoning; affordable hous- go unnoticed, however. Judicial deci- ment regulation. This new Fair Hous- ing advocates, who know that by cre- sions in combination with the Fair ing Act would curtail government zon- ating artificial scarcity, economic zon- Housing Act of 1968 have now made ing policies that discriminate based on ing drives up housing prices; and en- explicitly racial discriminatory actions economic status. In its strongest form, vironmentalists, who know that reduc- illegal. But class discrimination in the it would entirely ban unnecessary ex- ing housing density leads to sprawl, form of exclusionary zoning laws is clusionary zoning at the local level. longer commutes, and increased pol- not explicitly based on race, and so it In the alternative, it could impose a lution. On the right, libertarians have remains basically lawful in virtually penalty on municipalities that insist on been leading opponents of exclusion- all states—even if it results in outland- maintaining discriminatory zoning, ary zoning, which they view as a prime example of unwarranted gov- ernment regulation. And developers naturally resist zoning restrictions that Thanks for your contributions to PRRAC! drive down profits by reducing the ability to build denser housing. In certain states, the moment seems Anna Blasco Judith B. Liben Victor and Marion ripe for reform. The affordable hous- Mable C. Brown Frances Marcuse Schoenbach ing crisis in places such as California Sierra Collins Jennifer O’Neil Michael A. Shifrin could be a powerful trigger for reform. Lynn Cunningham Dennis D. Parker Louise B. Simmons As a rule, dense housing is more af- Nancy Cushman Brandon Peterson Leonard Swade fordable than single-family homes. Theodore DeLaney Alan Rabinowitz Robert Tate Because density provides more units Michelle Guerrero Carl Riehl Judy Viertel per acre, land costs are cheaper for the Sujin Jung Christine Ruman developer; dense units (such as apart- Elizabeth Lassar Gabriela Sandoval ments) have fewer exterior walls, which keeps construction costs lower; Please consider donating online at www.prrac.org compact developments reduce infra- (Please turn to page 12)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 • 11 (FAIR HOUSING ACT: Cont. from p.11) References - An Economic Fair Housing Act structure costs for trunk lines and treat- ment facilities; and dense housing in- Boschma, Jamie. 2015. “Why Obama is Worried About ‘Class Segregation’.” creases overall supply relative to de- The Atlantic. May 15. mand, resulting in lower prices for Fennell, Lee Anne. 2002. “Homes Rule (reviewing William A. Fischel, The consumers. As writer Brent Toderian Homevoter Hypothesis: How Home Values Influence Local Government Taxa- notes, “Not all dense housing is af- tion, School Finance, and Land-Use Policies”). 112 Yale Law Journal 617. fordable, but all affordable housing is Kahlenberg, Richard D. 2016a. School Integration in Practice: Lessons from dense” (Kahlenberg 2017c). Nine Districts.” The Century Foundation. October 14. Even in jurisdictions where the affordability of housing is a less sa- Kahlenberg, Richard D. 2017b. “Why Segregated Neighborhoods Persist. lient issue, we are generally seeing Washington Monthly. June/July/August. strong populist anger directed at elites Kahlenberg, Richard. 2017c. An Economic Fair Housing Act. The Century on whose behalf the deck is stacked. Foundation. Few rules are more rigged than those Logan, John R. and Brian J. Stults. 2011. The Persistence of Segregation in in which government dictates that hous- the Metropolis: New Findings From the 2010 Census. USA2010. Available ing must take a certain configuration at: https://s4.ad.brown.edu/Projects/Diversity/Data/Report/report2.pdf or size in order to exclude people of modest means. Of course, populism National Center for Education Statistics. 2016. Public School Choice Pro- grams. Institute of Education Sciences. has taken a very dark turn at the presi- dential level, but in states, righteous Potter, Halley et al. 2016a. A New Wave of School Integration: Districts and anger about artificial walls that have Charters Pursing Socioeconomic Diversity. The Century Foundation. been built by government could gen- Potter, Halley. 2016b. Updated Inventory of Socioeconomic Integration Poli- erate progressive, multiracial coali- cies: Fall 2016. The Century Foundation. tions for change. Putnam, Robert. 2015. Our Kids: The American Dream in Crisis. New York: Ending exclusionary zoning— Simon & Schuster. which essentially discriminates based on income—affects people of all races. Reeves, Richard V. 2017. Dream Hoarders: How the American Upper Middle Curtailing these programs would be the Class Is Leaving Everyone Else in the Dust, Why That Is a Problem, and classic tradition of anti-discrimination What to Do About It. Brookings Institution. laws and at the same time would rep- Rothwell, J.T. and D.S. Massey. 2010. “Density Zoning and Class Segrega- resent a dramatic effort to upend a tion in U.S. Metropolitan Areas.” Social Science Quarterly 91:5. 1123-1143. longstanding and unjust system. Fifty Rusk, David. 2007. Housing Policy is School Policy. Presentation, Housing years after passage of the Fair Hous- Mobiliy and Education Forum. December 3. ing Act, it is time to end state-spon- sored economic segregation that is di- Seicshnaydre, Stacy. 2013. “Is Disparate Impact Having Any Impact? An Appellate Analysis of Forty Years of Disparate Impact Claims Under the Fair viding the nation and severely imped- Housing Act?” American University Law Review 63:2. ing opportunity for millions of Ameri- cans. ❏ Resources

Race/Racism • Rothstein, Richard. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. • Godsil, Rachel D., and L. Song Richardson. “Racial New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2017. Anxiety.” 102 Iowa L.Rev. 2235 (2017). • Terrar, Toby. “Stanley Levison’s Financial Role in the Civil Rights and Communist Movements in the Civil Rights History 1940s to 1960s: A Rank-and-File Perspective.” Interna- tional Critical Thought 6, no. 3 (2016): 444-78. • Perrillo, Jonna. Uncivil Rights Teachers, Unions, and doi:10.1080/21598282.2016. 1197785. Race in the Battle for School Equity. Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 2012.

12 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 Education • Hammel, Joy, Janet Smith, Susan Scovill, Ron Campbell, and Rui Duan. “Rental Housing Discrimina- • Bednar, Steven, and Dora Gicheva. “Workplace tion on the Basis of Mental : Results of Pilot Support and Diversity in the Market for Public School Testing.” August 2017. www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/ Teachers.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2017. doi:10.2139/ default/files/pdf/MentalDisabilities-FinalPaper. ssrn.3007683. • Hendey, Leah, and Mychal Cohen. “Using Data to • Ford, Chris, Stephenie Johnson, and Lisette Partelow. Assess Fair Housing and Improve Access to Opportu- “The Racist Origins of Private School Vouchers.” Center nity.” Urban Institute. August 03, 2017. Accessed for American Progress, July 12, 2017. September 13, 2017. https://www.urban.org/research/ publication/using-data-assess-fair-housing-and-improve- 8 Taie, Soheyla, Rebecca Goldring, and Maura access-opportunity/view/full_report. Spiegelman. Characteristics of Public Elementary and Secondary School Teachers in the United States: Results • Spotts, Michael, and Ahmad Abu-Khalaf. “New From the 2015–16 National Teacher and Principal Enterprise Research - Public Benefit from Publicly Survey. Report no. 2017-72. Washington, DC: Depart- Owned Parcels: Effective Practices in Affordable ment of Education, 2017. Housing Development.” Enterprise Community Partners. June 6, 2017. www.enterprisecommunity. org/blog/ research-public-benefit-publicly-owned-parcels. Housing • Turner, Margery Austin, and Ruth Gourevitch. “How • Aaronson, Daniel, Daniel Hartley, and Bhashkar Neighborhoods Affect Social and Economic Mobility Mazumder. The Effects of the 1930s HOLC “Redlining” Their Residents.” The US Partnership on Mobility from Maps. Working paper no. 2017-12. Chicago: Federal Poverty. August 29, 2017. Reserve Bank of Chicago, 2017.

Poverty & Race • Vol. 26, No. 3 • July-September 2017 • 13 PRRAC'S SOCIAL SCIENCE ADVISORY BOARD

Dolores Acevedo-Garcia Fernando Mendoza Brandeis Univ. Dept. of Pediatrics, Stanford Univ.

Raphael Bostic Roslyn Arlin Mickelson Univ. of Southern California Univ. of No. Carolina-Charlotte Sol Price School of Public Policy Pedro Noguera Camille Zubrinsky Charles New York Univ. School of Education Dept. of Sociology, Univ. of Pennsylvania Paul Ong Regina Deil-Amen UCLA School of Public Policy Univ. of Arizona College of Education & Social Research

Stefanie DeLuca Gary Orfield Johns Hopkins Univ. UCLA Civil Rights Project

Ingrid Gould Ellen Ann Owens New York Univ. University of Southern California Wagner School of Public Service Patrick Sharkey Lance Freeman New York Univ. Dept. of Sociology Columbia Univ. School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation Gregory D. Squires Dept. of Sociology, George Washington Univ. John Goering Baruch College, City Univ. of New York William Trent Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Heidi Hartmann Inst. for Women’s Policy Research (Wash., DC) Margery Austin Turner The Urban Institute Rucker C. Johnson Univ. of California-Berkeley Margaret Weir Goldman School of Public Policy Dept. of Political Science Univ. of California, Berkeley William Kornblum CUNY Center for Social Research David Williams Harvard School of Public Health Maria Krysan Univ. of Illinois, Chicago

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POVERTY and RACE RESEARCH ACTION COUNCIL Board of Directors/Staff

CHAIR John Brittain Demetria McCain Philip Tegeler Olatunde C.A. Johnson University of the District of Inclusive Communities President/Executive Director Columbia Law School Columbia School of Law Project New York, NY Washington, DC Dallas, TX Megan Haberle Sheryll Cashin S.M. Miller Director of Housing Policy VICE-CHAIR Georgetown University The Commonwealth Institute Editor, Poverty & Race José Padilla Law Center Cambridge, MA Gina Chirichigno California Rural Legal Washington, DC Dennis Parker Director, Education Policy Assistance Kristen Clarke American San Francisco, CA Lawyers’ Committee for Union LaKeeshia Fox Civil Rights Under Law New York, NY Policy Counsel, Housing SECRETARY Washington, DC Gabriela Sandoval Michael Hilton john a. powell Craig Flournoy The Utility Reform Network Policy Counsel, Education Haas Institute for a University of Cincinnati San Francisco, CA Fair and Inclusive Society Cincinnati, OH Anthony Sarmiento Kimberly Hall University of California- Rachel Godsil Senior Service America Communications & Berkeley Seton Hall Law School Silver Spring, MD Partnerships Manager Berkeley, CA Newark, NJ Theodore M. Shaw Brian Knudsen Damon Hewitt University of North Carolina Research Associate TREASURER Open Society School of Law Spence Limbocker Foundations Chapel Hill, NC Peter Kye Neighborhood Funders New York, NY Brian Smedley Law & Policy Fellow Group David Hinojosa National Collaborative Annandale, VA Intercultural Development for Health Equity Tyler Barbarin Research Association Washington, DC Administrative & Research Anurima Bhargava San Antonio, TX Justin Steil Assistant Open Society Foundations Camille Holmes Massachusetts Institute of Rooselie Brutus Washington, DC National Legal Aid & Technology, Dept. of City Law & Policy Intern John Charles Boger Defender Assn. and Regional Planning University of North Carolina Washington, DC Cambridge, MA Sarah DeArruda School of Law Elizabeth Julian Communications Intern Chapel Hill, NC Inclusive Communities Project [Organizations listed for Dallas, TX identification purposes only]