ABANDONMENT OF INFANTS King Abgar was renowned for his valor SEE ABORTION, INFANTICIDE. among the nations that were east of the Euph- rates. However, his body was wasting away ABEL with a grievous disease, one for which there was no cure among men. But when Abgar And the Lord respected Abel and his offering. Gen. heard and was informed of the name of Jesus 4:4. and about the mighty works that He did, . . . he By faith Abel offered to God a more excellent sacrifice sent a letter of request [to Jesus] through one of his slaves. Abgar begged Him to come and than Cain. Heb. 11:4. heal him of his disease. However, our Savior On you may come all the righteous blood shed on the did not comply with his request at the time earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of that he asked. Still, He sent Abgar a letter in Zechariah. Matt. 23:35. reply. Eusebius (c. 315, E), 8.651. We show that both earthly oblations and spiri- This Abgar was called Avak-air (great man) tual sacrifices were foreshadowed. . . . Cain because of his gentleness, wisdom, and size. foreshadowed those of the elder son, that is, of Not being able to pronounce well, the Greeks Israel. And the opposite sacrifices are demon- and the Syrians called him Abgar. In the second strated to be those of the younger son, Abel. He year of his reign, all the districts of Armenia represents our [Christian] people. Tertullian (c. became vassals to the Romans. Moses of Chorene (date uncertain, E), 8.702; extended discussion: 197, W), 3.156. 8.651–8.653. Beloved brethren, let us imitate righteous SEE ALSO ARMENIA; EDESSA; SEVENTY, THE Abel, who initiated martyrdoms. For he was (DISCIPLES). the first to be slain for righteousness’ sake. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.348. ABLUTION In the sacrifices that Abel and Cain first Ablution refers to ceremonial washing before offered, God looked not at their gifts, but at prayer or other religious observance. their hearts. Abel was acceptable in his gift It is said that we should go to the sacrifices because he was acceptable in his heart. Abel was and prayers washed, clean, and bright. It is said peaceable and righteous; he sacrificed in inno- that this external adornment and purification cence to God. He thereby taught others that are practiced as a symbol. Clement of Alexandria when they, too, bring their gift to the altar, they (c. 195, E), 2.435. should come with the fear of God and with a simple heart. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.454; see also [DESCRIBING A LOVE FEAST:] After washing 2.105. the hands and the bringing in of lights, each person is asked to stand forth and sing a hymn ABGAR, KING to God, as best he can. This can be either a hymn from the Holy Scriptures or one of his Abgar was the customary name given to various own composing. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.47. kings of Edessa. The passages below apparently refer to two different Abgars. The first one re- What reason is there to go to prayer with fers to Abgar the Black, c. A.D. 13–50. hands indeed washed, but the spirit foul? It is

1 ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION spiritual purities that are necessary for our care)—yet, when he has passed into life, to kill hands, so that they can be “lifted up pure” him. We also teach that it is wrong to expose an from falsehood, and from murder. . . . These infant. For those who expose them are guilty of are the true purities. The true ones are not child murder. Athenagoras (c. 175, E), 2.147. those which most persons are superstitiously careful about—such as using water at every Fathers, forgetting about their children who prayer, even when they are coming from a have been exposed, often unknowingly have bath of the whole body. When I was carefully intercourse with a son that has debauched him- making a thorough investigation of this prac- self and with daughters who are prostitutes. tice, . . . I ascertained that it was a commemo- Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.276. rative act, relating to the surrender of the Lord Although keeping parrots and curlews, the [when Pilate washed his hands]. However, [pagans] do not adopt the orphan child. Rather, we pray to the Lord; we do not surrender him. they expose children who are born at home. Tertullian (c. 198, W), 3.685. Yet, they take up the young of birds. So they In this manner, the Essenes perform ablutions prefer irrational creatures to rational ones! in cold water. And after being cleansed in this Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.279. manner, they retire together into one room. What cause is there for the exposure of a Hippolytus (c. 225, W), 5.134. child? The man who did not desire to beget SEE ALSO PRAYER (II. PRAYER POSTURES AND children had no right to marry at all. He cer- CUSTOMS). tainly does not have the right to become the murderer of his children, because of licentious ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION indulgence. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), SEE DANIEL, BOOK OF. 2.368. In our case, murder is once for all forbidden. ABORTION, INFANTICIDE Therefore, we may not destroy even the fetus The term “exposing infants” refers to the prac- in the womb, while as yet the human being tice of abandoning infant children along road- derives blood from other parts of the body for sides, leaving them either to die of exposure or its sustenance. To hinder a birth is merely a to be taken by someone, usually to be raised as a speedier way to kill a human. It does not matter slave or a prostitute. whether you take away a life that has been born, or destroy one that is not yet born. Te r t u l l i a n (c . If men fight and hurt a woman with child, so that 197, W), 3.25. she gives birth prematurely ... [and] if any lasting harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for First of all, you [pagans] expose your chil- eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot. Exod. dren, so that they may be taken up by any com- 21:22, 23. passionate passer-by, to whom they are quite unknown! Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.26. You shall not kill the child by obtaining an abortion. Nor, again, shall you destroy him Although you are forbidden by the laws to kill after he is born. Barnabas (c. 70–130, E), 1.148. newborn infants, it so happens that no laws are You shall not murder a child by abortion nor evaded with more impunity or greater safety. kill one who has been born. Didache (c. 80–140, And this is done with the deliberate knowledge E), 1.377. of the public. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.123. They bear children, but they do not destroy Among surgeons’ tools there is a certain their offspring. Letter to Diognetus (c. 125–200), instrument that is formed with a nicely- 1.27. adjusted flexible frame for first of all opening the uterus and then keeping it open. It also has We say that those women who use drugs to a circular blade, by means of which the limbs bring on abortion commit murder. And we also within the womb are dissected with careful, but say they will have to give an account to God for unflinching care. Its last appendage is a blunted the abortion. So on what basis could we com- or covered hook, by which the entire fetus is mit murder? For it does not belong to the same extracted by a violent delivery. There is also a person to regard the very fetus in the womb as a copper needle or spike, by which the actual created being (and therefore an object of God’s death is brought about in this treacherous rob-

2 ABRAHAM bery of life. From its infanticide function, they Let no one imagine that to strangle newborn give it the name, “killer of the infant”—which children is allowable. For this is the greatest infant, of course, had once been alive. Te r t u l l i a n impiety! God breathes into their souls for life, (c. 210, W), 3.206. not for death. Men ... deprive souls that are still innocent and simple, of the light that they Indeed, the Law of Moses punishes with themselves have not given. . . . Or can those appropriate penalties the person who causes persons be considered innocent who expose abortion. For there already exists the beginning stages of a human being. And even at this stage, their own offspring as prey for dogs? As far as [the fetus] is already acknowledged with having their participation is concerned, they have the condition of life and death, since he is already killed them in a more cruel manner than if susceptible to both. Tertullian (c. 210, W), 3.218. they had strangled them! . . . Therefore, if any- one is unable to bring up children because of Are you to dissolve the conception by aid of poverty, it is better to abstain from marriage drugs? I believe it is no more lawful to hurt a than to mar the work of God with wicked child in process of birth, than to hurt one who hands. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.187. is already born. Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.57. You shall not slay your child by causing abor- I behold a certain ceremony and circumstance tion, nor kill the baby that is born. For “every- of adultery. On the one hand, idolatry precedes thing that is shaped and has received a soul it and leads the way. On the other hand, murder from God, if it is slain, shall be avenged, as follows in company. . . . Witness the midwives, being unjustly destroyed” [Ezek. 21:23, LXX]. too! How many adulterous conceptions are Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.466. slaughtered! Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.78. SEE ALSO CONCEPTION; PROCREATION. There are some women who, by drinking medical preparations, extinguish the source of ABRAHAM the future man in their very bowels. So they commit murder before they bring forth. And Now it came to pass after these things that God these things assuredly come down from the tested Abraham, and said to him ... , “Take now teaching of your gods. Mark Minucius Felix (c. your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and 200, W), 4.192. go to the land of Moriah, and offer him there as a burnt offering.” Gen. 22:1, 2. Women who were reputed believers began to resort to drugs for producing sterility. They also I say to you that God is able to raise up children to girded themselves around, so as to expel what Abraham from these stones. Matt. 3:9. was being conceived. For they did not wish to have a child by either a slave or by any common If you are Christ’s, then you are Abraham’s seed, fellow—out of concern for their family and and heirs according to the promise. Gal. 3:29. their excessive wealth. See what a great impiety Now we, brethren, as Isaac was, are children of the lawless one has advanced! He teaches adul- promise. Gal. 4:28. tery and murder at the same time! Hippolytus (c. 225, W), 5.131. This man was not only the prophet of faith, but also the father of those who from among The womb of his wife was hit by a blow of his the Gentiles believe in Jesus Christ. That is heel. And, in the miscarriage that soon fol- because his faith and ours are one and the lowed, the offspring was brought forth, the same. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.492. fruit of a father’s murder. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.326. The promise of God that He gave to Abra- ham remains steadfast.... For his seed is the I cannot find language to even speak of the infants who were burned to the same Saturn! church, which receives the adoption of God through the Lord, as John the Baptist said: “For Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.35. God is able from the stones to raise up children [SPEAKING OF PAGANS:] They either strangle to Abraham.” Thus also the apostle says in the the sons born from themselves, or if they Epistle to the Galatians: “But you, brethren, as are too “pious,” they expose them. Lactantius (c. Isaac was, are the children of the promise.” Ire- 304–313, W), 7.144, 145. naeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.561.

3 ABRAHAM’S BOSOM

God had commanded even Abraham to make ever you shall have bound or loosed in earth a sacrifice of his son. He did not do this to tempt shall be bound or loosed in the heavens”? [Abraham], but to prove his faith. Tertullian (c. From these [Scriptures], do you presume that 198, W), 3.684. the power of binding and loosing has derived to you—that is, to every church of Peter? If so, SEE ALSO ISRAEL OF GOD. what sort of man are you, subverting and wholly changing the manifest intention of the ABRAHAM’S BOSOM Lord, conferring this [authority] on Peter per- SEE DEAD, INTERMEDIATE STATE OF; sonally? Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.99. PARADISE. You go so far as to lavish this power [of forgive- ABSOLUTION ness of sins] on martyrs as well! No sooner has In the early church, absolution was the formal anyone . . . put on the chains, . . . than adulterers act of a bishop or presbyter in pronouncing for- beset him and fornicators gain access to him. giveness of sin to a repentant Christian. Prayers immediately echo around him. Instantly, there are pools of tears. Tertullian (c. 212, W), Whatever you bind on earth will be bound in 4.100. heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven. Matt. 18:15. The impostor [i.e., Callistus, bishop of Rome], having ventured on such opinions, If you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven them; established a school in antagonism to the if you retain the sins of any, they are retained. John church. And he adopted the foregoing system 20:23. of instruction: He first invented the device of Some, not able to find this peace [i.e., ecclesias- conniving with men in regard to their indul- tical forgiveness] in the church, have been seek- gence in pleasures, saying that everyone has ing it from the imprisoned martyrs. Te r t u l l i a n (c . their sins forgiven by him. For if anyone who 197, W), 3.693. commits any transgression, if he is called a Christian (even though he normally attended Is it better to be damned in secret than the congregation of someone else), they say the absolved in public? Tertullian (c. 203, W), 3.664. sin is not counted against him—provided he The next four quotations from Tertullian re- hurries off to the school of Callistus. And many flect the Montanist view that the church cannot persons are gratified with his regulation. . . . extend forgiveness for serious postbaptismal Now, some of those persons had been by us sins, such as adultery. forcibly ejected from the church in accord with our judicial sentence. However, they simply I am not speaking of the type of repentance went over to him and helped to crowd his after believing that receives pardon from the school. Hippolytus (c. 225, W), 5.131. bishop for lighter sins. For greater and irremis- sible ones, [pardon comes] from God alone. In smaller sins, sinners may do penance for a Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.95. set time and come to public confession accord- ing to the rules of discipline. They then receive Apostolic sir, therefore, demonstrate to me the right of communion through the imposition even now prophetic evidence, so that I may rec- of the hand of the bishop and clergy. Cyprian (c. ognize your divine virtue and so that you can 250, W), 5.290. vindicate to yourself the power of remitting such sins! If, however, you have only had the Let no one say, “He who accepts martyrdom is function of discipline allotted you, . . . who are baptized in his own blood. Therefore, he does you, how great are you, to grant indulgence? not need peace [i.e., absolution for serious sins] Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.99. from the bishop. For he is about to have the peace of his own glory. He is about to receive a You say, “But the church has the power of for- greater reward from the mercy of the Lord.” giving sins.” This I acknowledge and adjudge. First of all, no one can be fitted for martyrdom . . . But now I ask you, “From what source do if he is not armed for the contest by the you usurp this right of the church”? Is it because church. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.337. the Lord has said to Peter, “Upon this rock I will build My church” and “to you I have given They do violence to His body and blood [i.e., the keys of the heavenly kingdom”? Or “What- the Eucharist]—before their sin is expiated,

4 ADAM before confession of their crime has been made! The letter that you sent to us by .. . Lucian, They do this before their consciences have been Maximus, and Amantius, the acolytes. Lucius to purged by sacrifice and by the hand of the Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.405. priest! Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.441. SEE ALSO MINOR ORDERS. I entreat you, beloved brethren, that each one should confess his own sins while he is still in ACTS OF THE APOSTLES this world—while his confession can still be SEE CANON, NEW TESTAMENT. received and while the satisfaction and remis- sion made by the priests are still pleasing to the ADAM Lord. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.445. As in Adam all die, even so in Christ all shall be made alive. 1 Cor. 15:22. Falling sick, he [a lapsed believer] continued three successive days dumb and senseless. Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was Recovering a little on the fourth day, he called not deceived, but the woman being deceived, fell into his grandchild to him and said,... “Hurry, I transgression. 1 Tim. 2:13, 14. entreat you, and absolve me quickly. Summon Because he was still an infant in age, Adam one of the presbyters to me.” .. . The boy ran was not yet able to receive knowledge worthily. for the presbyter. But it was night and the pres- For even nowadays, too, when a child is born, byter was sick and was, as a result, unable to he is not at once able to eat bread. Rather, he is come. However, I had issued an injunction that first nourished with milk.... It would have persons at the point of death, if they requested been the same with Adam. The reason God it, . . . should be absolved in order that they commanded him not to eat of knowledge was might depart this life in cheerful hope. So the not because God begrudged him, as some sup- presbyter gave the boy a small portion of the pose. Rather, He wished to test Adam, to see Eucharist, telling him to steep it in water and whether he would obey His commandment. At drop it into the old man’s mouth. Dionysius of the same time, He wished man, infant as he Alexandria (c. 262, E), 6.101. was, to remain simple and sincere for a while longer. Theophilus (c. 180, E), 2.104 O bishop, just as you receive a pagan after you have instructed and baptized him, likewise let The Lord came to the lost sheep. He made a everyone join in prayers for this [penitent] man recapitulation of a very comprehensive dispen- and restore him to his former place among the sation, and He sought after His own handi- flock, through the imposition of hands. For he work. Therefore, it was necessary for Him to has been purified by repentance. And the impo- save that very man who had been created after sition of hands shall be similar to baptism for His image and likeness—that is, Adam. . . . him. For, by the laying on of hands, the Holy Man had been created by God to live. However, Spirit was given to believers. Apostolic Constitu- he was injured by the serpent who had cor- tions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.415. rupted him. Now, if after losing life, man would never again return to life (but would be SEE ALSO BINDING AND LOOSING; CONFES- utterly abandoned to death), then God would SION OF SINS; DISCIPLINE, CHURCH; have been conquered. The wickedness of the REPENTANCE. serpent would have prevailed over the will of God. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.455. ACOLYTE Inasmuch as man is saved, it is fitting that he In the early church, an acolyte was a man who who was created as the original man should be assisted the bishop, presbyters, or deacons in saved, too. . . . It was for this reason that, imme- administering the Eucharist and in other duties. diately after Adam had transgressed (as the Scripture relates), God pronounced no curse I have sent another share to the same person by against Adam personally, but only against the Naricus the acolyte. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.314. ground. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.456. I have read your letter, dearest brother, which Adam showed his repentance by his conduct. you sent by Saturus our brother, the acolyte. He did this by means of the girdle of fig-leaves Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.338, 339. by which he covered himself. For there were

5 ADOPTION OF CHILDREN many other leaves that would have been less I cannot easily be silent about that thing con- irritating to his body. However, he adopted a cerning which also the very head and fountain garment fitting for his disobedience. For he was of the human race, and of human offense, is not awed by the fear of God. . . . Adam had been silent. I mean Adam, who was restored by peni- conquered, and all life was taken away from tential discipline [Gr. exomologÇsis] to his own him. Therefore, when the enemy was con- Paradise. Tertullian (c. 203, W), 3.666. quered in its turn, Adam received new life. So the last enemy, death, is destroyed. For it had God did not actually curse Adam and Eve, taken possession of man at the first. . . . There- because they were candidates for restoration. fore, everyone who disallows Adam’s salvation, That is because they had been relieved by con- speaks falsely. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.457. fession. Tertullian (c. 207, W), 3.317. It was possible for God to have made man Since Adam was a figure of Christ, Adam’s perfect from the beginning. However, man sleep foreshadowed the death of Christ (who could not receive such perfection, being as yet was to sleep a mortal slumber). Similarly, the an infant. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.521. church, the true mother of the living, was pic- tured by the wound inflicted on His side. Te r t u l - Disobedience to God brings death. For that lian (c. 210, W), 3.222. reason, Adam and Eve came under the penalty of death. From that very moment, they were Adam gave the various names to the animals handed over to it. Therefore, they did die in the before he picked the fruit of the tree. So, same day that they ate, for they became death’s before he ate, he prophesied. Tertullian (c. 210, debtors. Furthermore, it was one day of the W), 3.592. creation. . . . And there are some, again, who Jesus delivered from the lowest Hades the relegate the death of Adam to the thousandth firstman of earth, when that man was lost and year. For since “a day of the Lord is as a thou- bound by the chains of death. Hippolytus (c. 205, sand years, “ he did not go beyond the thousand W), 5.170. years, but died within that period, thereby ful- filling the sentence of his sin. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/ We could not have received such a benefit . . . W), 1.551. had He not taken up man, the first man of all— the man more precious than all others, purer Before the Law, Adam spoke prophetically than all others and capable of receiving Him. concerning the woman and the naming of But after that man, we, too, will be able to the creatures. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), receive Him. Origen (c. 228, E), 9.384. 2.331. God, having made man,... placed him in Adam readily chose what was wrong, follow- Paradise—that is, in a most fruitful and pleasant ing his wife. So he neglected what is true and garden. He planted the garden in the regions of good. On which account he exchanged his the east with every kind of wood and tree. This immortal life for a mortal life—but not forever. was so that man could be nourished by their Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.369. various fruits. Being free from all labors, man Adam was perfect as far as his formation.. . . could devote himself entirely to the service of So the cause [of his sin] lay in his choosing—his God his Father. Then He gave to man fixed choosing what was forbidden. God was not the commands, by the observance of which he cause. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.437. might continue immortal. Or, if he trans- gressed them, he would be punished with The question propounded to us by the here- death. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.62. tics is: Was Adam created perfect or imperfect? If imperfect, how could the work of a perfect SEE ALSO CREATION; EVE; FALL OF MAN; God . . . be imperfect? And if Adam was created TREE OF KNOWLEDGE; TREE OF LIFE. perfect, how did he transgress the command- ment? They shall hear from us in reply that he ADOPTION OF CHILDREN was not perfect [or complete] at his creation. [CONCERNING A CHRISTIAN WOMAN ABOUT Rather, he was adapted to the reception of TO BE MARTYRED:] She gave birth to a little girl, virtue. . . . For God created man for immortal- which a certain sister brought up as her daugh- ity and made him an image of His own nature. ter. Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas (c. 205, W), Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.502. 3.704.

6 ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

Although keeping parrots and curlews, the Even after his punishment and his death by [pagans] do not adopt the orphan child. Rather, lightning, have you not named Aesculapius the they expose children who are born at home. discoverer of medicines and as the guardian Yet, they take up the young of birds. Clement of and protector of health, strength, and safety? Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.279. Arnobius (c. 305, E), 6.424. When any Christian becomes an orphan,... Aesculapius presides over the duties and arts it is good for one of the brethren who is with- of medicine. So why cannot more persons out a child to take the young man and value withvarious kinds of diseases and sickness him in the place of a son. Apostolic Constitutions be restored to health and soundness of body? (compiled c. 390, E), 7.433. Arnobius (c. 305, E), 6.470. SEE ALSO GODS, PAGAN. SEE ALSO ORPHANS AND WIDOWS; PROCREATION. AFTERLIFE ADVENT SEE DEAD, INTERMEDIATE STATE OF; ETERNAL PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS. SEE BIRTH OF JESUS; CALENDAR, CHRISTIAN. AGAPE ADVENTS OF CHRIST SEE LOVE; LOVE FEAST. SEE JESUS CHRIST (II. TWO ADVENTS OF CHRIST). AGE OF ACCOUNTABILITY In pursuance of that aspect of the association of AESCULAPIUS body and soul that we now have to consider, we Aesculapius was the Roman god of medicine maintain that the puberty of the soul coincides and healing. with that of the body. Generally speaking, they both attain together this full growth at about They bring forward Aesculapius as another the fourteenth year of life. The soul attains it by god. They say that he is a physician and that he the suggestion of the senses, and the body prepares drugs and plasters in order to maintain attains it by the growth of the bodily members. his livelihood. In other words, this god is in I do not mention [the age of fourteen] because need! Eventually, he was struck with lightning reflection begins at that age (as Asclepiades sup- by Dios, . . . and he died. If, then, Aesculapius poses). Nor do I choose it because the civil laws was a god, how can he possibly give help to oth- date the commencement of the real business of ers? After all, when he was struck with light- life from this age. Rather, I choose it because ning, he was unable to help himself. Aristides (c. this was the appointed order from the very first. 125, E), 9.271. For after their obtaining knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve felt that they must cover Although Aesculapius was a great physician, their nakedness. Likewise, we profess to have he was struck by a thunderbolt and ascended to the same discernment of good and evil from the heaven. Justin Martyr (c. 160, E), 1.170. time that we experience the same sensation of shame. Now, beginning with the aforemen- When the devil brings forth Aesculapius as tioned age, sex is suffused and clothed with a the raiser of the dead and healer of all diseases, special sensibility. This eye gives way to lust and may I not say that in this matter also he has imi- communicates its pleasure to another. It under- tated the prophecies about Christ? Justin Martyr stands the natural relations between male and (c. 160, E), 1.233. female, and it wears the fig-leaf apron to cover the shame that it still excites. Tertullian (c. 210, What action worthy of divine honors did Aes- W), 3.218, 219. culapius perform—other than his healing of Hippolytus? Furthermore, his birth was not SEE ALSO CHILDREN, INFANTS; FALL OF MAN; without disgrace to Apollo. His death was cer- MAN, DOCTRINE OF. tainly more famous, for he earned the distinc- tion of being struck with lightning by a god. ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.19. SEE WINE.

7 ALEXANDER THE GREAT

ALEXANDER THE GREAT ALLEGORY Having defeated Darius during this period, SEE HERMENEUTICS; ORIGEN; TYPE, Alexander of Macedon began to reign. There- TYPOLOGY. fore, the times of the Macedonian kings can be computed as follows: Alexander, eighteen ALMS, ALMSGIVING years. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.329. I. Exhortations and counsel on almsgiving “Look! Another beast like a leopard.” In mentioning a leopard, he refers to the king- II. Rewards for almsgiving dom of the Greeks, over whom Alexander of III. Making friends with unrighteous Macedon was king. . . . “The beast also had mammon four heads.” When the kingdom of Alexander was exalted, grew, and acquired a name over I. Exhortations and counsel on almsgiving the whole world, his kingdom was divided Give to him who asks you, and from him who wants into four principalities. For, when near his to borrow from you do not turn away. Matt. 5:42. end, Alexander divided his kingdom among his four colleagues of the same nationality: Take heed that you do not do your charitable deeds Seleucus, Demetrius, Ptolemy, and Philip. before men, to be seen by them. Otherwise you have no Hippolytus (c. 205, W), 5.189. reward from your Father in heaven. Matt. 6:1. In the reign of Alexander of Macedon, the This is pure and undefiled religion in the sight of our [Jews] received no injury from him. This was God and Father, to visit orphans and widows in their even though they refused to take up arms distress. Jas. 1:27 [NAS]. against Darius because of certain covenants and If a brother or sister is naked and destitute of daily oaths. They say that on that occasion, the Jew- food, and one of you says to them, “Depart in peace, be ish high priest, clothed in his sacred robe, warmed and filled, “ but you do not give them the received homage from Alexander. For Alex- things which are needed for the body, what does it ander declared that in his sleep he had beheld profit? Thus also faith by itself, if it does not have an individual clothed in such a robe. And [in works, is dead. Jas. 2:15, 16. his dream] the man announced to him that he was to be the conqueror of all of Asia. Origen (c. But whoever has this world’s goods, and sees his 248, E), 4.565. brother in need, and shuts up his heart from him, how does the love of God abide in him? 1 John 3:17, 18; Did we produce and stir into action the cause see also Matt. 25:34–40. by which one youth, starting from Macedonia, subjected the kingdoms and peoples of the East Do not be ready to stretch forth your hands to to captivity and to bondage? Arnobius (c. 305, E), receive, while you draw them back when it 6.415. comes to giving. . . . You shall not hesitate to give, nor murmur when you give. “Give to ALEXANDRIA everyone who asks you.” Barnabas (c. 70–130, E), 1.148. Alexandria in Egypt became the second most important city in the Roman Empire. If one having need receives alms, he is without guilt. However, if someone receives alms who It would be easier for someone ... to cross does not have a need, he will pay the penalty. . . . from east to west than to travel from one point He will be examined concerning the things that in Alexandria to another. For the most central he has done and he shall not escape from there pathway in this city is more vast and more until he pays back the last coin. Now, concerning impassable than even that extensive and this, it has been said, “Let your alms sweat untrodden desert that it took Israel two genera- inyour hands, until you know to whom tions to cross. Our smooth and waveless har- you should give them.” Didache (c. 80–140, E), bors have become an image of that [Red 7.377. Sea].. .. The river, too, that flows by the city, has sometimes appeared drier than the water- Do not be one who stretches forth his hands less desert. . . . At other times, it has overflowed to receive but draws them back when it comes all the country around it. Dionysius of Alexandria to giving. If you have anything, through your (c. 262, E), 6.109. hands you shall give ransom for your sins. You

8 ALMS, ALMSGIVING shall not hesitate to give, nor murmur when giving the perishing things of the world, one you give. Didache (c. 80–140, E), 7.378. receives in exchange for these an eternal man- sion in the heavens. . . . Do not try to judge Give to all the needy in simplicity, not hesitat- who is worthy or who is unworthy. For it is ing as to whom you are to give or not to give. possible that you may be mistaken in your Give to all, for God wishes His gifts to be opinion. As in the uncertainty of ignorance, it is shared among all. Hermas (c. 150, W), 2.20. better to do good to the undeserving for the Therefore, instead of lands, buy afflicted sake of the deserving—than by guarding against souls, according as each one is able. And visit those who are less good to fail to provide for the widows and orphans. Hermas (c. 150, W), 2.31. good. By being sparing and trying to test who deserve to receive or not, you may neglect some The wealthy among us help the needy. . . . of those who are loved by God. Clement of Alex- Those who are prosperous, and willing, give andria (c. 195, E), 2.600. what each thinks fit. And what is collected is deposited with the president, who gives aid to Though we have our treasure chest, it is not the orphans and widows. Justin Martyr (c. 160, made up of purchase money, as of a religion E), 1.185, 186. that has its price. Rather, on the monthly day, if he likes, each puts in a small donation—but They should take care of elderly people. . . . “He that pities the poor lends to the Lord.” only if it is his pleasure and only if he is able. Also, “Inasmuch as you have done it unto the For there is no compulsion; all is voluntary. least of these My brethren, you have done it to These gifts are . . . to support and bury poor Me.” Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.279. people, to supply the needs of boys and girls destitute of means and parents, and of old per- It is right to supply need, but it is not well sons now confined to the house. These gifts to support laziness. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, also help those who have suffered shipwreck. E), 2.301. And if there happens to be any of us in the mines, or banished to the islands, or shut up in It is said, “I want mercy, not sacrifice” [Hos. the prisons—for no reason other than their 6:6]. By the merciful, he means—not only faithfulness to the cause of God’s church— those who do acts of mercy—but those who desire to do them, yet are unable. Nevertheless, they become the nurslings of their confession. they do whatever they can. For sometimes we Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.46. truly desire to provide mercy to someone by a Our compassion spends more in the streets gift of money or by personal attention. Some- than yours does in the temples! Tertullian (c. 197, times we truly want to assist someone in need, W), 3.49. help someone who is sick, or stand by someone who is in any emergency. However, sometimes The brother oppressed with want, nearly lan- we are unable to carry out our desire—because guishing away, cries out with distended belly to of poverty, disease, or old age. Clement of Alex- the splendidly fed. What do you say of the Lord’s andria (c. 195, E), 2.416. Day? If he has not placed himself before, call Alms are to be given, but to the deserving, forth a poor man from the crowd, whom you using judgment. That way, we may obtain a may take to your dinner. Commodianus (c. 240, reward from the Most High. But woe to those W), 4.215. who have enough, but who receive [alms] If your brother should be weak (I speak of under false pretenses. Woe to those who are the poor man), do not visit such a one empty- able to help themselves, yet want to take from handed when he lies ill. Do good under God. others. For he who takes . . . out of laziness Pay your obedience by your money. . . . Simi- shall be condemned. Clement of Alexandria (c. larly, if your poor sister lies upon a sick bed, let 195, E), 2.578. your matrons begin to carry food to her. God “Give to everyone who asks you.” For truly himself cries out, “Break bread to the needy.” such is God’s delight in giving. And this saying There is no need to visit with merely words, is above all divinity—not to wait to be asked, but with aid. It is wicked for your brother to but to inquire yourself as to who deserves to be sick because of lack of food. Do not satisfy receive kindness. . . . O divine merchandise! him with words! He needs meat and drink! One purchases immortality for money. And, by Commodianus (c. 240, W), 4.217.

9 ALMS, ALMSGIVING

If we give alms to men with the thought of was still new. Back then they sold houses and appearing charitable before men, and if we farms and gladly and generously presented the desire to be honored because of our generos- proceeds to the apostles, to be distributed to the ity, we receive only the reward from men. In poor. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.483. fact, universally, everything that is done by someone who is conscious that he will be glo- On this same subject, in Solomon in Prov- rified by men has no reward from Him who erbs, it says: “He who has pity on the poor beholds in secret. For He renders the reward lends unto the Lord.” . . . Also, in the same in secret to those who are pure. Origen (c. 245, place: “Sins are purged away by almsgiving and E), 9.444. faith.” [Prov. 16.6]. . . . Of this same thing in Hosea: “I desire mercy rather than sacrifice.” Let the poor be taken care of as much and ... Of this same thing also in the Gospel as well as possible. I speak especially of those according to Matthew: . . . “Blessed are the who have stood with unmovable faith and have merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.” Also, in not forsaken Christ’s flock. Cyprian (c. 250, W), the same place: “Lay up for yourselves treasures 5.283. in heaven.” . . . Even a small work is of advan- tage, for it says in the same place: “And whoever When one has pity on the poor, he lends to shall give to one of the least of these to drink a God. And he who gives to the least, gives to God. cup of cold water in the name of a disciple, These are spiritual sacrifices to God, an odor of truly I say unto you, his reward shall not per- a sweet smell. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.456. ish.” That alms are to be denied to none, it also You are wealthy and rich. Do you think that says in the same place: “Give to everyone who you can celebrate the Lord’s Supper, not at all asks you.” Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.531, 532. considering the offering? Can you come to the Of this same matter, in the Epistle of John, it Lord’s Supper without a sacrifice and yet take says: “Whoever has this world’s sustenance and part of the sacrifice that the poor man has sees his brother in need and shuts up his bowels offered? Consider in the Gospel the widow from him, how does the love of God dwell in who remembered the heavenly teachings, him?” Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.532. doing good despite the difficulties and limita- tions of poverty. For she cast into the treasury What shall I say of [a certain pagan] who two small coins, which were all that she had. changed his possessions into money and then Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.480. threw it into the sea? . . . If you have so great a contempt for money, use it in acts of kindness By almsgiving to the poor, we are lending to and humanity! Give it to the poor. In this man- God. When it is given to the least, it is given to ner, that which you are about to throw away Christ. Therefore, there are no grounds for may be of aid to many others, so that they may anyone preferring earthly things to heavenly— not die because of famine, thirst, or nakedness. nor for considering human things before di- Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.93. vine. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.480. If anyone were surrounded by fire, crushed See how much he sins in the church—he who by the downfall of a building, plunged in the prefers himself and his children to Christ! Such sea, or carried away by a river, would they not a person preserves his wealth and does not think it is the duty of a man to assist him? . . . share his abundant estate to relieve the poverty So what reason is there to think that aid is to be of the needy. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.481. withheld when a man suffers from hunger, How much more could He stimulate the thirst, or cold? . . . Yet, the pagans make a dis- works of our righteousness and mercy than by tinction between these things. That is because saying that whatever is given to the needy and they measure all things by present usefulness— poor is given to Himself? Cyprian (c. 250, W), not by the truth itself. For they hope that those 5.483. whom they rescue from peril will return a favor to them. However, because they cannot Let us consider, beloved brethren, what the hope for this in the case of the needy, they congregation of believers did in the time of the think that whatever they give to men of this apostles. Back then, at the beginning, the mind type is “thrown away.” . . . However, we must flourished with greater virtues. The faith of not bestow our funds on suitable persons [i.e., believers burned with a warmth of faith that ones who will repay us], but as much as pos-

10 ALMS, ALMSGIVING sible on unsuitable objects. For when you do it fear to entrust your treasures to God as their without the hope of any return, you will truly preserver? For in that case you will not need to do it for the sake of justice, piety, and human- fear thief and robber—nor rust, nor tyrant. He ity. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.174, 175. who is rich towards God can never be poor. If you esteem justice so highly, lay aside the bur- Why do you discriminate between persons? dens that oppress you and follow justice. Free Why do you look at bodily forms? . . . Be gener- yourself from bondage and chains, so that you ous to the blind, the feeble, the lame, and the can run to God without any hindrance. Lactan- destitute. For they will die unless you bestow tius (c. 304–313, W), 7.177, 178. your gifts upon them. They may be useless to men, but they are serviceable to God. For He God admonishes us that the doer of justice preserves life in them and endows them with should not be boastful. Otherwise, he will breath. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.175. appear to have given charitably, not so much from a desire of obeying the divine commands, This is the chief and truest advantage of but from the desire to please men. In which riches: not to use wealth for the particular plea- case, he will already have the reward of glory sure of an individual, but for the welfare of that he has aimed at. Therefore, he will not many. It is not for one’s own immediate enjoy- receive the reward that is heavenly and divine. ment, but for justice—which alone does not Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.183. perish. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.176. If anyone is in need because of gluttony, The ransoming of captives is a great and noble drunkenness, or idleness, he does not deserve exercise of justice. . . . Yet, he who does it to a any assistance. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. stranger and an unknown person, he truly is 390, E), 7.397. worthy of praise. For he was led to do it by kindness alone. . . . Nor is it less of a great work What if some persons are neither widows nor of justice to protect and defend orphans and widowers, but stand in need of assistance— widows who are destitute and stand in need of either because of poverty, disease, or the assistance. Accordingly, the divine law pre- responsibility of a great number of children? It scribes this to all. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), is your duty to oversee all people and to take 7.177. care of them all. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, E), 7.427. No Christian should be prevented from undergoing death on behalf of justice and faith He that .. . receives in hypocrisy or through [i.e., martyrdom], because he is concerned for idleness—instead of working and assisting oth- his dependents. Rather, he should meet death ers—shall be deserving of punishment before promptly and boldly, for he knows that he God. For he has snatched away the morsel of leaves his beloved ones to the care of God and the needy. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, that they will never lack protection. . . . To E), 7.433. undertake the care and support of the sick, who need someone to assist them, is the part of great From the righteous labor of the faithful, kindness and love. . . . The last and greatest maintain and clothe those who are in need. And office of godliness is the burying of strangers such sums of money as are collected from them and the poor. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.177. in the aforesaid manner, designate these to be used for the redemption of the saints, the deliv- Someone may say: “If I do all these things, I erance of slaves, captives, and prisoners. They will have no possessions. What if a large num- should also be used for those who have been ber of people are in want, suffer cold, have abused or have been condemned by tyrants to been taken captive, or should die? If anyone single combat and death on account of the acts this way, he will deprive himself of his name of Christ. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled property in a single day! Shall I throw away the c. 390, E), 7.435; extended discussion: 5.476–5.484, estate acquired by my own labor or by that of 5.530–5.533. my ancestors? Must then I myself live by the pity of others?” . . . [LACTANTIUS’S ANSWER:] II. Rewards for almsgiving Why do you fear to turn a frail and perishable He who has pity on the poor lends to the Lord, and asset into one that is everlasting? Why do you He will pay back what he has given. Prov. 19:17.

11 ALMS, ALMSGIVING

It is better to give alms than to store up gold; for Holy Scripture instructs us, saying, “Prayer is almsgiving saves one from death and expiates every good with fasting and almsgiving” [Tob. 20:8]. sin. Tob. 12:8, 9. He will give us in the Day of Judgment a reward for our labors and alms. Moreover, even Sell what you have and give alms; provide yourselves in this life, He is a merciful Hearer of one who money bags which do not grow old, a treasure in the comes to Him in prayer associated with good heavens that does not fail, where no thief approaches works. For example, Cornelius, the centurion, nor moth destroys. Luke 12:33. when he prayed, had a claim to be heard. For he When you do a charitable deed, do not let your was in the habit of doing many deeds of charity left hand know what your right hand is doing, towards the people and of constantly praying to that your charitable deed may be in secret; and your God. An angel appeared . . . to this man . . . say- Father who sees in secret will Himself reward you ing, “Cornelius, your prayers and your alms openly. Matt. 6:3, 4. have gone up in remembrance before God.” Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.456. Your prayers and your alms have come up for a memorial before God. Acts 10:4. The infirmity and weakness of human frailty would have no resource, unless the divine Charity shall cover the multitude of sins. 1 Pet. 4:8 mercy, coming once more in aid, should open [KJV]. some way of securing salvation by pointing out works of justice and mercy. Therefore, by alms- When you can do good, do not hesitate. giving we may wash away whatever foulness we For “alms delivers from death” [Tob. 4:10]. subsequently contract [after baptism]. The Polycarp (c. 135, E), 1.35. Holy Spirit speaks in the sacred Scriptures and Therefore, almsgiving is a good thing, as is says, “By almsgiving and faith, sins are purged” repentance from sin. Fasting is better than [Prov. 16:6]. . . . Moreover, He says again, “As prayer. But almsgiving is better than both. “For water extinguishes fire, so almsgiving quenches love covers a multitude of sins.” Second Clement sin” [Sir. 3:30]. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.476. (c. 150), 7.522. In the bath of saving water, the fire of As Solomon says, “He that has pity upon the Gehenna is extinguished. Likewise, by almsgiv- poor lends unto the Lord.” For God, who ing and works of righteousness, the flame of stands in need of nothing, takes our good works sins is subdued. . . . The Lord teaches this also to Himself for this purpose: that He may grant in the Gospel.... “Give alms, and behold all us a reward from His own good things. For our things are clean unto you.” Cyprian (c. 250, W), Lord says: “Come, you blessed of My Father, 5.476. receive the kingdom prepared for you. For I Showing how he can be clean and purged, was hungry and you gave Me something to He added that alms must be given.... eat.” Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.486. He seeks to save those whom at a great cost He Sins are purged by alms and acts of faith. has redeemed. Therefore, He teaches that Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.363. those who, after the grace of baptism have become foul, may once more be cleansed. It is written, “Alms do deliver from death.” Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.476. Assuredly, this is not from that [original] death that the blood of Christ has extinguished and He shows that our prayers and fastings are of from which the saving grace of baptism and of less avail if they are not aided by almsgiving. . . . our Redeemer has delivered us. Rather, it is Life is redeemed from dangers by almsgiving. from the death that creeps in afterwards Souls are delivered from death by almsgiving. through sins. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.332. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.477. Be earnest in righteous works, by which sins Make Christ a partner with you in your may be purged. Frequently apply yourself to earthly possessions, that He also may make you almsgiving, by which souls are freed from a fellow-heir with Him in His heavenly king- death. . . . Let good works be done without dom. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.479. delay. Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.447. The matter comes to this: whatever a man Those who pray should not come to God has bestowed upon another person with no with fruitless or empty prayers. . . . Therefore, thought of receiving an advantage from him—

12 ALTAR he really bestows upon himself. For such a even now we acquire such things when we are man will receive a reward from God. God has in the faith. For who is there that sells and does also admonished us that if at any time we pre- not wish to make a profit from him who buys? pare a feast, we should invite to the entertain- . . . Or who is there that carries on a trade and ment those who cannot invite us in return. does not do so that he may obtain a livelihood Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.176. thereby? Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.502, 503. However, just because offenses are removed by Whatever we acquired from unrighteousness almsgiving, do not think that a license is given when we were unbelievers, we are proved righ- you to sin.... For if you consciously sin, relying teous when we have become believers, by on your almsgiving [for pardon], your sins are applying it to the Lord’s advantage. Irenaeus (c. not done away with.... To this should be added 180, E/W), 1.504. that no one can be without defect as long as he is burdened with a covering of flesh.... So, if the Contrary to what is the case with the rest of condition of mortality does not allow a man to men, gather for yourself an unarmed, unwar- be pure from every stain, the faults of the flesh like, bloodless, peaceful, and a stainless army— should therefore be done away with by continual an army of godly old men, orphans dear to almsgiving. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.178, God, widows armed with meekness, and men 179. adorned with love. Obtain with your money such guards for your body and soul.... All “By acts of righteousness and faith, iniquities these warriors and guards are trustworthy. Not are purged.” ... Give the necessities of life to one of them is idle; none are useless. Some of the needy. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 390, them can obtain your pardon from God. Oth- E), 7.413. ers can comfort you when sick. And still others can weep and groan in sympathy for you to the If you have acquired anything through the Lord. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.601. work of your hands, then give—so that you may labor for the redemption of your sins. For If you have no interpreter with you, you may “by alms and acts of faith, sins are purged learn again from Himself what He would have away.” You should not begrudge giving to the understood by mammon. . . . “I say to you, poor. And when you have given, you should ‘Make to yourselves friends with the mammon not complain. For you know who will repay of unrighteousness.’” That is to say, with you your reward. Apostolic Constitutions (compiled money, even as the steward had done. Now, we c. 390, E), 7.435. are all aware that money is the instigator of unrighteousness, and is the lord of the whole III. Making friends with unrighteous world. Tertullian (c. 207, W), 3.403. mammon I say to you, make friends for yourselves by unrighteous SEE ALSO ORPHANS AND WIDOWS; SALVATION mammon, that when you fail, they may receive you (III. ROLE OF OBEDIENCE IN SALVATION); into everlasting habitations. Luke 16:9. TITHES, TITHING.

The rich man refreshes the poor and assists ALPHA AND OMEGA him in his necessities. He believes that what he SEE JESUS CHRIST (III. TITLES OF JESUS). does to the poor man will be able to find its reward with God. For the poor man is rich in ALPHABET intercession and confession, and his interces- sion has great power with God. Hermas (c. 150, SEE WRITING, ORIGIN OF. W), 2.32. ALTAR There follow us a small (and in some cases, a If you bring your gift to the altar, and there remember large) amount of property that we have that your brother has something against you, leave your acquired from the mammon of unrighteous- gift there before the altar, and go your way. First be rec- ness. For from what source do we derive the onciled to your brother, and then come and offer your houses in which we dwell, the garments in gift. Matt. 5:23. which we are clothed . . . unless it is from those things which, when we were Gentiles, we When he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar acquired by avarice or received from our unbe- the souls of those who had been slain for the word of lieving parents? This is not to mention that God. Rev. 6:9.

13 AMEN

Let no man deceive himself. If anyone is not SEE ALSO EUCHARIST; INCENSE; REVELATION, within the altar, he is deprived of the bread of BOOK OF. God. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.51. AMEN He that is within the altar is pure. However, he that is outside of it is not pure. I mean, he If you bless with the spirit, how will he who occupies who does anything apart from the bishop, the the place of the uninformed say “Amen” at your giving presbyters, and the deacons, such a man is not of thanks? 1 Cor. 14:16. pure in his conscience. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.69. When he had said the “Amen, “and thereby Therefore, take heed to have only one Eucha- finished his prayer, those who were appointed rist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus for the purpose lit the fire. Martyrdom of Polycarp Christ and . . . one altar. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.81. (c. 135, E), 1.42. It is, therefore, also His will that we, too, When he has concluded the prayers and should offer a gift at the altar, frequently and thanksgivings, all the people who are present without intermission. The altar, then, is in give their assent by saying “Amen.” This word heaven. For our prayers and oblations are amen means “so be it” in the Hebrew language. directed towards that place. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/ Justin Martyr (c. 160, E), 1.185. W), 1.486. The president in like manner offers prayers The altar, then, that is with us here, the ter- and thanksgivings according to his ability. And restrial one, is the congregation of those who the people assent, saying “Amen.” Justin Martyr devote themselves to prayers. They have, as (c. 160, E), 1.186. it were, one common voice and one mind. Out of the mouth from which you said Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.531. “Amen” over the holy thing, you now shout in a Will they not believe us when we say that the gladiator’s favor! Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.90. righteous soul is the truly sacred altar, and that SEE ALSO PRAYER (II. PRAYER POSTURES AND the incense arising from it is holy prayer? CUSTOMS). Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.531. Does, then, the Eucharist cancel a service ANDREW devoted to God—or does it bind it more to God? The fourth Gospel is that of John, one of the Will not your station be more solemn if you have disciples. When his fellow-disciples and bish- stood at God’s altar? Tertullian (c. 198, W), 3.687. ops entreated him, he said, “Fast now with me for the space of three days, and let us relate to Do you think that we conceal what we wor- each other whatever may be revealed to each of ship just because we do not have temples and us.” On the same night, it was revealed to altars? Mark Minucius Felix (c. 200, W), 4.193. Andrew, one of the apostles, that John shouldnarrate all things in his own name—as He relates that he saw under the altar of they called them to mind. Muratorian Fragment God—that is, under the earth—the souls of (c. 200, W), 5.603. those who were slain. For both heaven and earth are called God’s altar. This was shown in SEE ALSO APOSTLES, TWELVE; JOHN. the Law, commanding that two altars be made, symbolizing the realities. . . . By the testimony ANGEL, ANGELS that our Lord bears to it, we perceive that the golden altar is therefore called heaven. For he I. Nature and position of the angels says, “When you bring your gift to the altar and II. Guardian angels there remember that your brother has some- thing against you, leave your gift there before III. Fallen angels the altar.” Assuredly, our gifts are the prayers that we offer, and certainly our prayers ascend I. Nature and position of the angels to heaven. Victorinus (c. 280, W), 7.351. Who makes His angels spirits, His ministers a flame of fire. Ps. 104:4. No one worships [at] the holy altar except the one who confesses this faith. Victorinus (c. 280, You made [man] a little lower than the angels. W), 7.354. Heb. 2:7.

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Whereas angels, who are greater in power and By an ancient and divine order, the angels are might, do not bring a reviling accusation against them distributed among the nations. Clement of Alex- before the Lord. 2 Pet. 2:11. andria (c. 195, E), 2.524. To the angel of the church of Ephesus write . . . Rev. At the highest extremity of the visible world 2:1. are the blessed band of angels. Clement of Alex- andria (c. 195, E), 2.525. Let us consider the whole multitude of His angels—how they stand always ready to minister The spiritual man prays in the company of the to His will. For the Scripture says, “Ten thou- angels,... and he is never out of their holy sand times ten thousand stood around Him, and keeping. Although he prays alone, he has the thousands of thousands ministered to Him” [Isa. choir of the holy ones standing with him. 50:10]. Clement of Rome (c. 96, W), 1.14. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.545. Although I am in chains [for Christ], that God works through archangels and kindred an- does not mean that I am able to understand gels, who are called spirits of Christ. Clement of heavenly things. I do not comprehend the Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.571. places of the angels and their gathering all things visible and invisible under their respec- Plato also admits the existence of angels. tive princes. Ignatius (c. 105, E), 1.68. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.36. “This,” he replied, “is the angel of punish- Every spirit possesses wings. This is a com- ment. He belongs to the just angels and is mon property of both angels and demons. So appointed to punish. He accordingly takes they are everywhere in a single moment. The those who wander away from God, and who whole world is as one place to them. It is easy have walked in the desires and deceits of this for them to know everything that is done over world, and he chastises them.” Hermas (c. 150, the whole extent of the world, and to report it. W), 2.37. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.36. We recognize also a multitude of angels and The angels, likewise, all pray. Tertullian (c. 198, ministers, whom God, the Maker and Framer W), 3.691. of the world, distributed and appointed to their various posts by His Logos. Athenagoras (c. 175, You have sometimes read and believed that E), 2.134. the Creator’s angels have been changed into human form, and have carried about so real of The other angels were created by Him, and a body that Abraham even washed their feet entrusted with the control of matter and the and Lot was rescued from the Sodomites by forms of matter. . . . Just as with men, they their hands. An angel, moreover, wrestled with have freedom of choice as to both virtue and a man so strenuously with his body, that the vice. . . . Some men are diligent in the matters latter desired to be let loose. Tertullian (c. 210, entrusted to them by you, and others are faith- W), 3.523. less. It is the same among the angels. They are free agents, being created that way by God, as Even if [the human body] had been the work you will observe. Some of them have contin- of angels, as Menander and Marcus want to ued in those things for which God had made think, . . . the body would still be an object of them. They have remained over the things to respect, having the support and protection of which He had ordained them. But some out- even a secondary deity. For we know the angels raged both the constitution of their nature and rank next to God. Tertullian (c. 210, W), 3.548. the oversight entrusted to them. . . . These angels fell into impure love of virgins and were The angels are likewise possessed of personal subjugated by the flesh. . . . Those who are freedom. For we can be sure that if the angels called giants were begotten from these lovers had not possessed personal freedom, they of virgins. Athenagoras (c. 175, E), 2.142. would not have consorted with the daughters of men, thereby sinning and falling from their Blessed are those who watch for Him. For places. In like manner, also, the other angels, they make themselves like the angels, whom we who did the will of their Lord, were raised to a call “watchers.” Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), higher rank because of their self-control. 2.258. Bardesanes (c. 222, E), 8.725.

15 ANGEL, ANGELS

This also is a part of the teaching of the excluded from also being evangelists. For that church that there are certain angels of God and reason, an angel stood over the shepherds certain good forces, which are His ministers for and made a bright light to shine around them. accomplishing the salvation of men. However, Origen (c. 228, E), 9.304. it is not clearly stated when the angels were cre- ated, of what nature they are, or how they exist. We are already taught by the parable of the Origen (c. 225, E), 4.241. tares and the subject parable [of the dragnet] that the angels are to be entrusted with the Moreover, other nations are called a part of power to distinguish and separate the evil from the angels. This is because “when the Most the righteous. Origen (c. 245, E), 9.420. High divided the nations and dispersed the sons of Adam, He fixed the boundaries of the From this it does not follow, as some suppose, nations according to the number of the angels that men who are saved in Christ are superior even to the holy angels. . . . Although I say this, of God” [Deut. 32:8, LXX]. Origen (c. 225, E), 4.241. I am not ignorant that the men who will be saved in Christ surpass some angels (namely, We should not suppose that it is the result of those who have not been entrusted with this accident that a particular responsibility is office), but not all of them. For we read, “which assigned to a particular angel. For example, to things angels desire to look into.” However, it is Raphael, has been assigned the work of curing not said “all angels” so desire. Again, we and healing. To Gabriel, there is assigned the knowthis, that “we shall judge angels.” But conduct of wars. To Michael, there is the duty again, it is not said that we judge “all angels.” of attending to the prayers and supplications of Origen (c. 245, E), 9.421. mortals. For we are not to imagine that they obtained these positions otherwise than by their The passage might be taken from The Shep- own merits and by the zeal and excellent quali- herd, concerning some who are put in subjec- ties that they individually displayed before this tion to Michael as soon as they believe. world was formed. As a result, afterwards, in However, falling away from him because of the order of archangels, this or that position love of pleasure, they are put in subjection to wasassigned to each one. At the same time, the angel of luxury, then to the angel of punish- others deserved to be enrolled in the order of ment. Origen (c. 245, E), 9.509. angels and to act under this or that archangel. When one is able to philosophize about the Origen (c. 225, E), 4.264, 265. mystery of names, he will find much to say concerning the titles of the angels of God. One In the Holy Scriptures, we find that there are of them is called Michael, another Gabriel, and princes over individual nations. For example, in another Raphael. All of these names are appro- Daniel we read that there was a prince of the priate to the duties that they administer in the kingdom of Persia and another prince of the world. Origen (c. 248, E), 4.406. kingdom of Greece. By the nature of the pas- sage, these princes are clearly shown not to be The divine and holy angels of God are of human beings. Rather, they are certain [spiri- a different nature and a different resolution tual] powers. Also, in the prophecies of Ezekiel, than all the demons on earth. Origen (c. 248, E), the prince of Tyre is unmistakably shown to 4.479. be a type of spiritual power. Origen (c. 225, E), 4.335. We know that in this way the angels are supe- rior to men. So that when men are made per- It is enough to know that the holy angels of fect, they become like the angels. Origen (c. 248, God are favorably disposed to us and that they E), 4.509. do all things on our behalf. So our disposition of mind towards God should imitate the Having thus learned to call these beings “mes- example of these holy angels, as far as it is sengers” [i.e., angels] from their duties, we find within the power of human nature to do so. that because they are divine, they are sometimes Origen (c. 225, E), 4.544, 545. called “god” in the sacred Scriptures. But this is not said in the sense that we are commanded to Those angels who were made spirits by honor and worship them in place of God— God—those who are a flame of fire and minis- even though they minister to us and bear His ters of the Father of all—cannot have been blessings to us. For every prayer, supplication,

16 ANGEL, ANGELS intercession, and thanksgiving is to be sent up The Scripture says, “The angels of the little to the Supreme God through the High Priest— ones, and of the least, see God.” So he does not the living Word and God, who is above all the shrink from writing about the oversight . . . angels. Origen (c. 248, E), 4.544. exercised by the guardian angels. Clement of Al- exandria (c. 195, E), 2.466. He does no less than to set His own angels over His devout servants, so that none of Regiments of angels are distributed over the the hostile angels—nor even he who is called nations and cities. And perhaps some are “the prince of this world”—can do anything assigned to individuals. Clement of Alexandria (c. against those who have given themselves to 195, E), 2.517. God. Origen (c. 248, E), 4.653. To one angel, the church of the Ephesians was In the Apocalypse, the angel resists John, who entrusted. To another, that of Smyrna. One wishes to worship him, and says, “See that you angel was to be Peter’s; another, Paul’s. And so do not do this. For I am your fellow-servant on down to each of the little ones that are in the and your brother. Worship Jesus the Lord.” church. For such and such angels as even daily Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.491. behold the face of God must be assigned to He created angels and archangels before he each one of them. And there must also be some created man, placing spiritual beings before angels who encamp around those who fear earthly ones. Victorinus (c. 280, W), 7.341. God. Origen (c. 225, E), 4.265. God, in His foresight, sent angels for the pro- Every believer—although the humblest in the tection and improvement of the human race— church—is said to be attended by an angel, who lest the devil . . . should either corrupt or destroy the Savior declares always beholds the face of men through his snares. Lactantius (c. 304–313, God the Father. Now, this angel has the pur- W), 7.64. pose of being his guardian. So if that person is rendered unworthy by his lack of obedience, The angels neither allow nor wish themselves the angel of God is said to be taken from him. to be called gods, since they are immortal. For And then that part of him—the part belonging their one and only duty is to submit to the will to his human nature—is torn away from the of God and not to do anything at all except at divine part. And it is assigned a place along with His command. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.65; the unbelievers. For it has not faithfully see also 2.575; extended discussion: 4.264–4.266. observed the admonitions of the angel assigned II. Guardian angels. to it by God. Origen (c. 225, E), 4.296. The angel of the Lord encamps all around those who The book of The Shepherd declares the same, fear him, and delivers them. Ps. 34:7. saying that each individual is attended by two Take heed that you do not despise one of these little angels. Whenever good thoughts arise in our ones, for I say to you that in heaven their angels hearts, they are suggested by the good angel. But always see the face of My Father who is in heaven. when those of a contrary kind arise, they are the Matt. 18:10. instigation of the evil angel. Origen (c. 225, E), 4.332. They said to her, “You are beside yourself!” Yet, she kept insisting that it was so. So they said, “It is his Perhaps it was the angel to whom he had angel.” Acts 12:15. been assigned—if we are to say that every human soul is placed in subjection to some There are two angels with a man—one of angel. Origen (c. 245, E), 9.478. righteousness, and the other of iniquity.... The angel of righteousness is gentle and mod- “The angel of the Lord” is said “to encamp est, meek and peaceful. When he ascends into around those who fear him and to save them.” your heart, he speaks to you of righteousness, ... So long as we are imperfect, and need purity, chastity, contentment, and every other someone to assist us so that we may be deliv- righteous deed and glorious virtue. When all of ered from evils—we stand in need of an angel. these things come into your heart, know Of such an angel, Jacob said, “The angel who that the angel of righteousness is with you. delivered me from all the evils.” Origen (c. 245, Hermas (c. 150, W), 2.24. E), 9.490.

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One might inquire as to when those who are that they were beautiful; and they took wives for them- called “their angels” assume guardianship of the selves of all whom they chose. Gen. 6:1, 2. little ones pointed out by Christ. . . . It may be said that there is no holy angel present with God did not spare the angels who sinned, but cast those who are still in wickedness. Rather, dur- them down to hell and delivered them into chains of ing the period of unbelief, they are under the darkness, to be reserved for judgment; and did not spare the ancient world, but saved Noah. 2 Pet. 2:4, 5. angels of Satan. However, after our regenera- tion, He who has redeemed us with His own The angels who did not keep their proper domain, blood assigns us to a holy angel. Origen (c. 245, but left their own habitation, he has reserved in ever- E), 9.491. lasting chains under darkness for the judgment of the great day. Jude 6. It is possible that the angel to whom any soul has been entrusted at birth may be wicked at The angels transgressed this appointment and the first, but afterwards may at some time were captivated by love of women. And they believe in proportion as the man believes. In begat children, who are those who are called fact, that angel may make such an improvement demons. Justin Martyr (c. 160, E), 1.190. that he may become one of the angels who always beholds the face of the Father in Angels sinned and revolted from God. Justin heaven. Origen (c. 245, E), 9.491. Martyr (c. 160, E), 1.238. When the angels had transgressed, they fell to They thought that it was quite impossible that the earth for judgment. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), Peter truly stood before the gate. So they said, 1.481. “It is his angel.” For the objector will say that, as they had learned once for all that each of the In the days of Noah, He justly brought on the believers had some definite angel, they knew Deluge for the purpose of extinguishing that that Peter also had one. But he who adheres to most infamous race of men then existent, who what I have previously said, will say that the could not bring forth fruit to God. For the word of Rhoda was not necessarily a dogma. angels who sinned had commingled with Origen (c. 245, E), 9.491. them. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.516. His “angel,” who “always beholds the face of The Lord has said that there are certain angels his Father in heaven,” offers up his prayers of the devil, for whom eternal fire is prepared. through the one High Priest to the God of all. Irenaeus (c. 180, E/W), 1.524. He also joins his own prayers with those of the An example of this are the angels who man who is committed to his keeping. Origen (c. renounced the beauty of God for a beauty 248, E), 4.653. that fades, and so fell from heaven to earth. We entrust ourselves to the Supreme God Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.274. through Jesus Christ, who has given us such The angels who had obtained the superior instruction. We ask of Him all help and for the rank, having sunk into pleasures, told the guardianship of holy and good angels, to defend women the secrets that had come to their us from the earth-spirits intent on lust. Origen (c. knowledge. In contrast, the rest of the angels 248, E), 4.662. concealed them, or rather, reserved them for I mean that holy angel of God who fed me the coming of the Lord. Clement of Alexandria (c. from my youth. Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 255, 195, E), 2.446. E), 6.24. He knows that some of the angels were hurled to the earth, because of lack of diligence. We have learned from the inspired writings They had not yet quite reached that state of that all who are born—even if it is through oneness [with God]. Clement of Alexandria (c. adultery—are committed to guardian angels. 195, E), 2.536. Methodius (c. 290, E), 6.316; see also 9.509. He says, “But the angels who kept not their III. Fallen angels. own pre-eminence . . . He has reserved these to Now it came to pass, when men began to multiply the judgment of the great day, in chains, under on the face of the earth, and daughters were born to darkness.” He means the place near the earth, them, that the sons of God saw the daughters of men, that is, the dark air. Now, by chains, he means

18 ANGEL, ANGELS the loss of the honor in which they had stood Apostate and refugee powers that have and the lust of feeble things. Clement of Alexan- departed from God—because of the very wick- dria (c. 195, E), 2.573. edness of their mind and will, or from envy . . . invented these errors and delusions of false doc- By our sacred books, we are instructed how trine in order to prevent any progress. Origen (c. from certain angels, who fell of their own free 225, E), 4.336. will, there sprang an even more wicked demon brood. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.36. Such was the beauty of women that it turned the angels aside. As a result, being contami- Those angels who invented them [jewelry, nated, they could not return to heaven. Being etc.] are assigned under condemnation to the rebels from God, they uttered words against penalty of death. They are the same angels who Him. Then the Highest uttered His judgment rushed from heaven on the daughters of against them. And from their seed, giants are men.. . . If it is true, they laid bare the opera- said to have been born. By them, arts were tions of metallurgy, divulged the natural prop- made known in the earth. They taught the erties of herbs, promulgated the powers of dyeing of wool and everything that is done. enchantments, and traced out every curiosity, When they died, men erected images to them. even to the interpretation of the stars. They Commodianus (c. 240, W), 4.203. conferred appropriately—and as it were, pecu- liarly—upon women that instrumental means When men multiplied on the earth, the of womanly ostentation: the radiances of angels of heaven came together with the jewels, . . . the dyes of orchil with which wools daughters of men. In some copies, I found are dyed, and that black powder itself with “the sons of God.” What the Spirit means, in which the eyelids and eyelashes are made my opinion, is that the descendants of Seth are prominent. Tertullian (c. 198, W), 4.14, 15. called the sons of God, because of the righ- teous men and patriarchs who have sprung These are the angels whom we are destined to from him (even down to the Savior himself). judge. These are the angels whom we renounce However, the descendants of Cain are named in baptism. Tertullian (c. 198, W), 4.15. the seed of men, as having nothing divine in them, because of the wickedness of their race. I lay down this one proposition: that those . . . However, if it is thought that these refer to angels—the deserters from God, the lovers of angels, we must take them to be those who women—were likewise the discoverers of this deal with magic and sorcery, who taught the curious art [of astrology]. And on that account, women the motions of the stars and the they were also condemned by God. . . . For we knowledge of things celestial. By the power of know the mutual alliance of magic and astrol- those angels, they conceived the giants as their ogy. Tertullian (c. 200, W), 3.65. children, by whom wickedness reached its peak on the earth. Finally, God decreed that If it is on account of the angels—those whom the whole race of the living should perish in we read of as having fallen from God and from their impiety by the deluge. Julius Africanus (c. heaven because of lusting after females—we 245, E), 6.131. can presume that such angels yearned after bodies that were already defiled and were relics All of these things [i.e., the making of jew- of human lust. Tertullian (c. 207, W), 4.32. elry] the sinning and apostate angels put forth by their arts, when, lowered to the contagions Although there is also assigned to angels per- of earth, they forsook their heavenly vigor. dition in “the fire prepared for the devil and his They also taught women to paint the eyes with angels,” yet a restoration is never promised to blackness drawn around them in a circle and to them. No directive about the salvation of stain the cheeks with a deceitful red. Cyprian (c. angels did Christ ever receive from the Father. 250, W), 5.434. Tertullian (c. 210, W), 3.533. God, in His foresight, sent angels for the pro- Do you fear man, O Christian? You who tection and improvement of the human race— ought to be feared by the angels, since you are lest the devil . . . should either corrupt or to judge angels? You who ought to be feared by destroy men through his subtlety. Since He had evil spirits, since you have received power also given these angels a free will, He admonished over evil spirits? Tertullian (c. 212, W), 4.122. them above all things not to defile themselves

19 ANGEL OF THE LORD with contamination from the earth and thus him from the midst of the bush and said, “Moses, lose the dignity of their heavenly nature. . . . Moses!” Exod. 3:2, 4; see also Exod. 23:23; Judg. However, while the angels lived among men, 2:1. that most deceitful ruler of the earth, by his Now the Word of God is His Son, as we have very association, gradually enticed them to vices before said. And He is called Angel and Apostle. and polluted them through sexual relations ... For thus it is written in them, “And the with women. Thereafter, not being admitted Angel of God spoke to Moses, in a flame of fire into heaven because of the sins into which they out of the bush, and said, ‘I am that I am, the had plunged themselves, they fell to the earth. God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, the God of Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), 7.64. Jacob.’” Justin Martyr (c. 160, E), 1.184. Although they are the destroyers of men, they “And the Lord spoke to Moses, ‘Say to this wish to appear as men’s guardians—so that they people, Behold, I send My angel before your themselves will be worshipped and so that God face, to keep you in the way. . . . Give heed to will not be worshipped. Lactantius (c. 304–313, Him, and obey Him ... for My name is in W), 7.64. Him.’” . . . The name of the One who said to Moses, “for my name is in Him,” was Jesus. They strive to turn men away from the wor- Justin Martyr (c. 160, E), 1.236. ship and knowledge of the true Majesty, so men will not be able to obtain immortality. That is That Christ would act in this manner when because these angels lost [immortality] because He became man was foretold by the mystery of their wickedness. Lactantius (c. 304–313, W), of Jacob’s wrestling with Him. Justin Martyr (c. 7.66. 160, E), 1.262. Certain of the angels, refusing to submit Christ Himself even testified back then that themselves to the commandment of God, this name was His own, when He talked with resisted His will. And one of them indeed fell Moses. For who was it who talked with Moses, like a flash of lightning upon the earth, while but the Spirit of the Creator, who is Christ? others, harassed by the dragon, sought pleasure Tertullian (c. 207, W), 3.335. in sexual relations with the daughters of men, The Lord Himself at that very time appeared and thus brought on themselves the deserved to Abraham among the angels. He had not yet recompense of the punishment of eternal fire. been born; yet, he was undoubtedly in the Disputation of Archelaus and Manes (c. 320, E), flesh. Tertullian (c. 210, W), 3.527. 6.205. To me, He became a man. To the angels, He SEE ALSO ANGEL OF THE LORD; DEMONS, became an angel. . . . In several passages, angels DEMON POSSESSION; MICHAEL; SATAN; speak in such a way as to suggest this, such as: TOWER OF BABEL (II. ANGELIC DIVISION OF “the Angel of the Lord appeared in a flame of THE NATIONS). fire. And He said, ‘I am the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.’” Origen (c. 228, E), 9.315. ANGEL OF THE LORD This was the work of one who was not simply Then the Angel of the Lord said to her, “I will multi- an angel, but the “Angel of Great Counsel” (as ply your descendants exceedingly, so that they shall not the prophecy regarding Him said). For He be counted for multitude.” ... Then she called the announced to men the great counsel of the name of the Lord who spoke to her, You-Are-the- God and Father of all things regarding them. God-Who-Sees; for she said, “Have I also here seen Origen (c. 248, E), 4.566, 567. Him who sees me?” Gen. 16:10, 13. The Angel met with Hagar, Sarah’s Then Jacob was left alone; and a Man wrestled with handmaid. . . . Now, was it the Father who was him until the breaking of day. . . . And Jacob called the seen by Hagar, or not? The Angel is declared to name of the place Peniel: “For I have seen God face to be God. But far be it from us to call God the face, and my life is preserved.” Gen. 32:24, 30. Father an Angel [i.e., Messenger]. Otherwise He would be subordinate to another whose And the Angel of the Lord appeared to him in a angel He would be. . . . So we ought to under- flame of fire from the midst of a bush. . . . So when the stand it to have been God the Son. Since He is Lord saw that he turned aside to look, God called to of God, He is rightly called God. For He is the

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