6 X 10.5 Long Title.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00419-1 - War and the Crisis of Youth in Sierra Leone Krijn Peters Index More information

Index

Information in footnotes is indexed as 123n4, i.e., note 4 on page 123

Abdulai, Napoleon, 219 Blama, NADA agricultural project, 182–7, Abdullah, Ibrahim, 214–16, 218, 219, 205–6 220–1, 222–5, 234, 237 Bo School, 39 Abidjan peace accord, 5, 28–9n9, 74, 148, Bockarie, Samuel ‘Maskita’, 67, 75, 78, 179 111, 142n6, 151–2 Abuja peace accords, 3, 79, 179 bodyguards, RUF, 160–2 Addai-Seboh, Akyaba, 166, 219 Branch Energy, 147n10 agriculture British colony, 36–9, 58–9 collective farming, 204 Bunumbu College, 21, 198, 224 labour, 53–5 Burkinabe mercenaries, 62, 140, 142, 145 post-war projects, 16, 176–98, 199–208, 214 Cameroon, 232 RUF, 15, 101–11, 168–71, 214, 241 Camp Bokor, 67 training, 208–11 Camp Burkina, 67 Airborne Division, 65 cannibalism, 145, 148, 172 All People’s Congress (APC), 1, 21, 40, Cargo Cult, 17, 241 42–3 chiefdoms, British administration, 38–9 amputations, 149–50, 154–5, 163, child soldiers, reintegration, 178–9, 203n2 235n18 Civil Defence Forces (CDF), 76, 127 Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Council, atrocities, 146–50 41 ex-combatants, 26–31, 180, 182, 184, Armed Forces Revolutionary Council 186, 190n19, 193–4, 246 (AFRC) and RUF, 227 ex-combatants, 22–6 see also Kamajoisia and RUF, 76–8, 113, 141–2, 150–6, Collier, Paul, 7–8, 236–7, 238 228 colonialism, 36–9, 58–9 atrocities conﬂict see war AFRC, 150–6 conscription, RUF, 84–6 CDF, 146–50 Cooperative Contract Mining (CCM) Liberian Special Forces, 142–6 scheme, 43n12 RUF, 15, 138–75, 214, 220, 235 Coteˆ d’Ivoire, 238, 239 customary law, 58–60, 240 Bangladesh/Sierra Leone Cooperative Farm (BANSAL), 187–90, 205, De Beers, 41, 245 206–7, 222–3 Deen-Jalloh, Ibrahim, 75, 131n59, 153, Bangura, John, 42, 190 189, 224 Bangura, Pallo, 92–3 Deutsche Gesellschaft fur¨ Technische Bangura, Yusuf, 218, 239 Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Tongo Benjamin-Hirsch, Captain, 65 agricultural project, 177, 180–2, 204, Bio, Julius Maada, 73 206 ‘Black December’, 2 diamonds, cause of conﬂict, 7–9, 111, Black Guards, RUF, 131, 157 235–9

269

270 Index

diamond mining, 39–40, 43–4, 181 Freetown ex-combatants, 200–1, 202, 243–7 battle (1999), 77–8, 228–9 illicit, 56–7, 63n4 founding of, 36 nationalisation, 42 Freire, Paulo, 21 private mining, 43 French Revolution, 219n9 RUF, 111–19, 152, 235–9 rural youth, 55–7 G5, RUF, 131–2, 153, 170 Disarmament, Demobilisation and Gaddaﬁ, Muammar, 125, 143 Reintegration (DDR) Galinhas, 36n2 agricultural projects, 16, 180–98, Gbao, Augustine, 183, 184, 186, 187, 199–211, 214 205–6 process of, 79, 178–80 Gberie, Lansana, 34, 45, 117, 142n6, training programmes, 208–11 150n15, 155, 174 Doe, Samuel, 1 gboto work groups, 54 Dokubo, Charles, 218, 219–20 Giehun, 3 Douglas, Mary, 229 Gios, 140, 144–5, 159 Dowei, Major, 70 Gola Forest, RUF camps, 66–7, 97–101, dregman dem, 30n12, 31, 58 147–9 drug use, RUF, 153, 173–4 Governance Reform Secretariat, 210–11 Durkheim, Emile, 134n61, 173, 221, 229, ‘greed not grievance’ theory, 7–9, 15n12, 240, 242 17, 177, 213, 235–9 Green Book, 102, 125, 126, 216, 219 Economic Community of West African Green Revolution, 54, 176 States Monitoring Group Guinea-Bissau, 232 (ECOMOG), 2, 3, 22, 77, 105, Gurkhas, 69 141n4, 151, 228 economy, crisis, 43–5, 58 health care, RUF, 119–24 education Hooper, Jim, 148n12 collapse of, 52–3 HOPE Sierra Leone, 190, 193 colonial period, 39 Human Rights Watch, 140n3, 163n21 RUF, 98–9, 119–24, 196n25 hunters, civil defence force, 26–7, rural areas, 21 146–50 elders, authority of, 48–51, 199 Hut Tax War, 37 elections (1996), 73 elections (2002), 124n50 ‘Ideology Book’, 80n2, 127–9 ex-combatants illiteracy, 161–2 agricultural projects, 16, 176–98, imports, rice, 44, 102 199–208, 214 independence (1961), 40 CDF, 26–31, 180, 182, 184, 186, indigenous peoples, history, 35 190n19, 193–4, 246 inland valley swamps (IVS), 209n5 diamond mining, 200–1, 202, 243–7 Internal Defence Unit (IDU), RUF, 131, ideology, 194–8 132–3 land access, 204–5 Internal Security Unit (ISU), 42 reasons for ﬁghting, 12–13, 18–33, International Alert, 127n56, 166, 219 212–13 reintegration, 199–211 James, Faya, 75 RUF, 19–22, 80–2, 176–98 jo-bushes, 2, 3, 99 SLA/AFRC, 22–6 Junior Commandos, RUF, 96, 103n33, training, 200–11 160 validity of testimonies, 32–3, 81–2 junta government, RUF/AFRC, 2–3, 76–7, Executive Outcomes (EO), 2, 5, 26, 27, 113, 130, 151–4, 228 69–70, 74, 127, 146–7, 148n12 Junta II, 141, 164 justice system, problems, 45–6 farming see agriculture food production, RUF, 101–11, 168–71 Kabala, 67, 70, 77 ‘Footpaths to Democracy’, 98–9n26, 127, Kabba, Alie, 216, 222 141, 181n5, 219, 220 Kabbah, Ahmad Tejan, 5, 73–4, 75, 77–9, Fourah Bay College, 36, 52–3n20, 215–16 93

Index 271

Kailahun district Liberian border disarmament, 3 diamond mining, 56–7 RUF farming, 106–10, 170 social attitudes, 91 RUF recruitment, 83 Libya, connections with, 216–17, 223 RUF schools, 120 Lome´ peace accord, 3, 78, 106, 114, 121, Kalamayrah Agricultural Development 179 Organisation (KADO), Makeni, looting, 151 192–4, 207 Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), 233 Kallon, Morris, 67, 78, 117 Lower Bambara Youth Council (LBYC), Kamajoisia 246 and AFRC, 76–7 ‘lumpen’ culture, RUF, 138, 218–25, codes of conduct, 72 234–5 conﬂict role, 70–5 ex-combatants, 26–31 Mackenzie, Robert, 69 recruitment, 71, 72–3 Magburaka, agricultural project, 178, and RUF, 15, 148–50, 231 187–90 in Tongo, 2–3 magic, use of, 71, 172–3 see also Civil Defence Forces Makeni Kambia, 67 KADO agricultural project, 192–4, 207 Kandeh, Jimmy, 218 RADO agricultural project, 190–2, 207 Kanu, Abu, 217, 219, 223, 225 Malal Hills camp, 67, 165 Kaplan, Robert, 6–7, 212, 234–5 Malthusian theory, 6–7 Keen, David, 11, 236 Mansaray, Rashid, 217, 219, 223, 225 Kenema, ex-combatants, 176–8 Mansarey, Abdul, 75 Kenya, 238 Margai, Albert, 40 Khmer Rouge Margai, Milton, 40 ideology, 219n9, 220 marriage, 50–1, 59 RUF comparison with, 100n28, Mass Awareness and Participation (MAP) 101n29, 102n31 movement, 216 Kim Il Sung, 126n54, 189 Massaquoi, Gibril, 78 kimberlite mining, 245 meritocracy, RUF, 95–7, 166–8 kombi work groups, 54 Military Police (MP), RUF, 132 Kono area mineral deposits, mining, 39n7 agricultural projects, 191 Mingo, Dennis, 67, 141n5, 151 diamond mining, 113–18, 246 mining see diamond mining Kono Progressive Movement (KPM), 40 Mining Area Development Administration Kony, Joseph, 233 (MADA), 39n8 Koroma, Johnny Paul, 69n12, 76, 141n4, Mkandawire, Thandika, 224, 234, 236–7, 152 239–40 Krio community, 36–7 Mohamed, Jamil Sahid, 43n13 Momoh, Joseph Saidu, 40, 44–6 labour Mongo, Isaac, 145 agriculture, 53–5 Musa, Faya, 75, 105n37, 153, 185, 224 customary law, 58–9 Musa, Solomon, 77 mining, 55–7, 200–1 work groups, 54–5, 230 National Commission for Disarmament, Labour Camp, Tongo, 245–7 Demobilisation and Reintegration land, access, 109, 204–5 (NCDDR), 16, 28–9n9, 177 land tenure, 54n23 agricultural projects, 178–94, 199–211 Lavalie, Alfa, 70 corruption, 201–2 Lebanese, businessmen, 40–1, 43 National Diamond Mining Company ‘liberated zones’, farming, 106–11, 168–71 (NDMC), 42, 43 Liberia National Patriotic Front of Liberia ﬁghters in Sierra Leone, 1, 19n2, 62–3, (NPFL), 62, 85n9, 103–4, 142–6, 140 217 and RUF origins, 217, 237–8 National Provisional Ruling Council warlords, 103n35 (NPRC), 64–9, 90n19 Liberia Peace Council (LPC), 85n9 neo-Durkheimian approach, 220–34, 240

272 Index

‘new barbarism’ theory, 6–7, 15n12, 17, Black Guards, 131, 157 213, 234–5 bodyguards, 160–2 Niawa Agricultural Development bush camps, 66–7, 68, 97–101, 147–9, Association (NADA), Blama project, 230 182–7, 205–6 and CDF, 146–50, 227 Nigeria, 238 Code of Conduct, 95, 128–9, 151, Nomo Faama, 66 195 Norman, Samuel Hinga, 2, 41n10, 70, conﬂict causes, 4–6, 8, 19, 234–41 147, 217n5 conscription, 84–6 Nyuma, Tom, 66 deserters, 89–91 diamond mining, 111–19, 152, 235–9 Organisation of African Unity conference drug use, 153, 173–4 (1980), 43–4 education, 98–9, 119–24, 196n25 ex-combatants, 19–22, 80–2, 176–98 palm oil plantations, 209n4 female recruits, 83 Palmer, Philip, 75 food production, 101–11, 168–71 Pan-African Union (PANAFU), 216 ‘Footpaths to Democracy’, 98–9n26, Panguma, 2, 3 127, 141, 181n5, 219, 220 paramount chiefs G5, 131–2, 153, 170 British administration, 38–9 General Orders, 128–9 post-war powers, 199 growth of, 239–41 role in war, 71, 73 health care, 119–24 patrimonial state ideology, 124–9, 139–42, 151–3, 190, collapse of, 9–10, 45–6, 239–41 194–8, 213–14, 219–20, 226–7 formation of, 41–2, 59–60 ‘Ideology Book’, 80n2, 127–9 patrimonialism, RUF, 95–6, 239–41 illiteracy, 161–2 Peleto, 116–17, 158, 167 Internal Defence Unit (IDU), 131, Pendembu, RUF in, 21, 120–1, 144–5 132–3 ‘people’s army’, 22, 23 isolation, 89–91, 162 ‘people’s court’, RUF, 136 Junior Commandos, 96, 103n33, 160 Peyeima camp, 2, 67 junta government, 2–3, 76–7, 113, 130, political parties, development of, 39–41 151–4, 228 Poro secret society, 46, 85n8 leadership, 91–3, 197–8 potes, 215–16, 222–3 Liberia connections, 217 protectorate, British administration, 37–9 loyalty to, 87–95 Pujehun district, RUF recruitment, 83 ‘lumpen’ culture, 138, 218–25, 234–5 punishments, RUF, 87–9, 134–7, 175 meritocracy, 95–7, 166–8, 225–34 Military Police (MP), 132 “Rambo”, 64n6 and NPFL, 142–6 ‘rarray-boys’, 215, 218, 221 and NPRC, 65–6, 67–9, 90n19 Rashid, Ishmail, 218, 222 organisation of, 14–15 Reader, Ebeyemi, 217 origins of, 214–25 recruitment patrimonialism, 95–6, 239–41 Kamajoisia, 71, 72–3 peace negotiations, 73–4 RUF, 6, 16–17, 63–4, 82–6, 213, 224 post-war, 3–4 Reno, W., 39–40, 45, 57, 63n4, 236–7n20 punishments, 87–9, 134–7, 175 Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force recruitment, 6, 16–17, 63–4, 82–6, 213, (RSLMF), ex-combatants, 22–6 224 Revolutionary United Front (RUF) social theory, 229–34 and AFRC, 76–8, 113, 141–2, 150–6, tactics, 66–9 228 training, 129–30 agriculture, 15, 101–11, 168–71, 214, urban origins, 222–5 241 use of terror, 172–4 atrocities, 15, 138–75, 214, 220, 227–8, Vanguards, 96, 130 235 war in Tongo, 1–3 beginning of conﬂict, 62–4 see also Zogoda behaviour monitoring, 131–3, 156–9, Revolutionary United Front Party 164–5, 227 (RUFP), 86, 124n50

Index 273

rice sobels, 65 imports, 44, 102 social development, rural areas, 46–58 post-war production, 184–5 Special Court for Sierra Leone, 80n2, RUF production, 104–11 82 Richards, Paul, 9, 41–2, 54, 56, 57, 102, Special Forces, Liberian, 1, 15, 19n2, 62, 200, 234–5 142–6 Robol Junction, BANSAL agricultural Special Security Division (SSD), 42, project, 187–90, 205, 206–7, 222–3 59n30 Robureh Agricultural Development state Organisation (RADO), 190–2, collapse of, 9–10, 45–6 207 making of, 35–45, 213 Rogers,S.Y.B.,153 Stevens, Siaka, 40–4, 59 rural society, development, 46–58 Stockholm Syndrome, 12 rural youth ‘strangers’ agricultural labour, 53–5 exploitation, 48, 58 army recruitment, 64–5 land access, 109 enslavement, 47–8, 241–2 patronage, 60 labour organisation, 54–5, 230 social status, 13, 17, 49, 50, 52 lumpens, 221–2, 234–5 To ng o, 243 mining, 55–7 Strasser, Valentine, 64–5 political marginalization, 51–3 structural adjustment, 9, 44–5 reintegration, 199–211 students, radical, 215–16 RUF recruitment, 16–17, 63–4, 82–6, 224–5 Tamab o ro s , 70 social problems, 13–14, 51–8, 61 Tarawalie, Mohamed, 67 urban migration, 57–8 Taylo r, C h arles , 1, 62, 77n19, 138–9, 174, 217 Samba, Kula, 228 terror, as tactic, 172–4 ‘san-san boys’, 63, 112, 221 To ng o Sandline, 5n2, 27 diamond mining, 113–18, 181, 243–7 Sankoh, Foday during war, 1–4 background of, 216–17, 222, 223 ex-combatants, 177, 180, 243–7 beginning of conﬂict, 63, 143 GTZ agricultural project, 177, 180–2, conspiracy theories, 11n9 204, 206 coup attempt (1971), 42 population, 1n1 death of, 93n23 training imprisonment, 75, 233 agriculture, 208–11 peace process, 8, 74–5, 78 ex-combatants, 200–11 RUF leadership, 19, 87, 91–3, 141, 158, Truth and Reconciliation Commission 197–8 (TRC), 9, 10, 82 secret societies, 46, 85n8 Sesay Defence team, 80n2 Uganda, 238 Sesay, Issa, 67, 79, 114, 152, 167 Umah, Steven, 75 Shepler, Susan, 3 UNESCO, education programmes, 21 Sierra Leone Armed Forces (SLAF), 22 United Liberian Movement for Democracy Sierra Leone Army (SLA) (ULIMO), 65n8, 90n20, 103 ex-combatants, 22–6 United Nations, peace-keeping forces, and Kamajoisia, 73–4 78–9 and RUF, 65–9, 90, 141–2 United Nations Bangladesh peace-keeping Sierra Leone Ore and Metal Company battalion (BANBATT), 188 (SIEROMCO), 69 United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone Sierra Leone People’s Independent (UNAMSIL), 3, 78, 179 Movement (SLPIM), 40 urban areas Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), 40–1, RUF origins, 222–5 73–4, 79 rural youth, 57–8 Sierra Leone Selection Trust, 245 slave trade, 35–6, 47–8 Vanguards, RUF, 96, 130 slavery, domestic, 48, 240, 241 Vigh, Henrik, 232

274 Index

Wallace-Johnson, I. T. A., 215 work groups, 54–5, 230 war beginning of, 62–4, 142–3 youth casualties, 162–3 culture, 214–16, 221–2 causes of, 4–10, 14, 32, 34, 234–41 see also rural youth end of, 78–9 Yo u t h L e a g u e , 215 history of, 62–79, 213 West Side Boys, 38n6, 79, 141–2 Zogoda women attacks on, 74, 148, 228, 231 agricultural projects, 190–1 post-war, 11 RUF recruits, 83 RUF headquarters, 67, 97–8, 173n26