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(Perameles Nasuta & Isoodon Obesulus) Influenced by Urbanisation A comparison of two species of bandicoots (Perameles nasuta & Isoodon obesulus) influenced by urbanisation: population characteristics, genetic diversity, public perceptions, stress and parasites Matthew Dowle B.Sc. (Hons) Department of Biological Sciences Macquarie University The thesis is submitted according to the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2012 ii Table of Contents 1 . Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1! 1.1! General introduction ..................................................................................................... 1! 1.1.1! Species descriptions ................................................................................................ 2! 1.2! Biology of bandicoots .................................................................................................. 5! 1.2.1! Taxonomy ............................................................................................................... 5! 1.2.1! Reproduction and development ............................................................................ 12! 1.2.2! Diet ........................................................................................................................ 13! 1.2.3! Habitat ................................................................................................................... 14! 1.2.4! Distribution and status .......................................................................................... 23! 1.2.5! Threats and key threatening processes .................................................................. 27! 1.3! Bandicoots in the urban environment ........................................................................ 29! 1.3.1! The urban environment ......................................................................................... 29! 1.3.2! Adaptability of bandicoots .................................................................................... 30! 1.3.3! Protected areas and management within urban environments .............................. 31! 1.3.4! Public perceptions of bandicoots on the urban interface ...................................... 32! 1.4! Genetic diversity of a threatened and non-threatened marsupial ............................... 33! 1.4.1! Genetic diversity and variation within a population ............................................. 33! 1.4.2! Impact of genetic diversity on a small population ................................................ 33! 1.4.3! Genetic diversity in relation to management of taxa ............................................ 34! 1.4.4! Conducting diversity studies ................................................................................. 35! 1.5! The urban environment and the stress response ......................................................... 37! 1.5.1! Physiological response .......................................................................................... 37! 1.5.2! Non-invasive investigate techniques .................................................................... 38! 1.6! Parasites, disease potential and wildlife ..................................................................... 39! 1.6.1! Parasites and the spread of disease ....................................................................... 39! 1.6.2! Parasite host relationship ...................................................................................... 40! 1.7! Ecto-parasites on the urban fringe .............................................................................. 41! 1.7.1! Ecto-parasites ........................................................................................................ 41! 1.7.2! The paralysis tick (Ixodes holocyclus) .................................................................. 42! 1.8! Endo-parasites as a public health risk ........................................................................ 43! 1.8.1! Endo-parasite in bandicoots .................................................................................. 43! 1.8.2! Cryptosporidium parasite ...................................................................................... 43! 1.8.3! Cryptosporidium in marsupials and other vertebrate hosts .................................. 44! 1.8.4! Techniques to identify Cryptosporidium species.................................................. 45! 1.9! Research aims and methods ....................................................................................... 47! 1.9.1! Research aims ....................................................................................................... 47! 2 . Biology and population characteristics of the bandicoots of northern Sydney ................... 51! 2.1! Methods ...................................................................................................................... 51! 2.1.1! Study area ............................................................................................................. 51! 2.1.2! Survey methods (live-trapping) ............................................................................ 51! 2.1.1! Survey methods (hair-tubing) ............................................................................... 59! 2.1.2! Limitations ............................................................................................................ 63! iii 3 . Attitudes to native bandicoots in an urban environment ..................................................... 65! 3.1! Introduction ................................................................................................................ 65! 3.2! Materials and methods ............................................................................................... 67! 3.2.1! Study area ............................................................................................................. 67! 3.2.2! Survey design and questionnaires ......................................................................... 67! 3.3! Results ........................................................................................................................ 70! 3.4! Discussion .................................................................................................................. 77! 4 . Population and habitat characteristics of captured bandicoots in northern Sydney ............ 81! 4.1! Introduction ................................................................................................................ 81! 4.2! Methods ...................................................................................................................... 82! 4.2.1! Analysis ................................................................................................................ 82! 4.3! Results and discussion ............................................................................................... 83! 4.3.1! Habitat associations in northern Sydney ............................................................... 83! 4.3.2! Population biology of live-captured bandicoots in northern Sydney ................... 91! 4.3.3! Sex and reproduction of captured individuals ...................................................... 93! 4.3.4! Weight of captured bandicoots ............................................................................. 96! 4.3.5! Body Condition of captured bandicoots ............................................................... 97! 4.3.6! Age and Longevity of captured bandicoots ........................................................ 103! 4.3.7! Movement of bandicoots in northern Sydney ..................................................... 103! 4.3.8! Non-target captures during live-trapping ............................................................ 104! 4.3.9! Hair-tubing in greater north-west Sydney .......................................................... 104! 4.4! Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 105! 5 . Genetic diversity of the free-ranging bandicoots (Perameles nasuta and Isoodon obesulus) of northern Sydney ................................................................................................................. 107! 5.1! Introduction .............................................................................................................. 107! 5.2! Methods .................................................................................................................... 109! 5.2.1! Study area and sample collection. ...................................................................... 109! 5.2.2! DNA extraction from tissue samples .................................................................. 109! 5.2.3! Microsatellite analysis at eight loci .................................................................... 110! 5.2.4! Statistical analysis of microsatellite data ............................................................ 112! 5.3! Results ...................................................................................................................... 113! 5.3.1! Southern brown bandicoot .................................................................................. 113! 5.3.2! Long-nosed bandicoot ........................................................................................ 115! 5.3.3! Species level comparisons of genetic diversity .................................................
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