CREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY

Q UARTERLY VolumeQ 46 Spring 2010 Number 4

• THE PLEIOTROPY PROBLEM

• HOLOBARAMINIC STATUS IN BEARS

• THE ORIGIN OF GRAND CANYON—PART II

• SEDIMENTATION AND THE EVOLUTIONARY HYPOTHESIS Q • NOVARUPTA AND THE VALLEY OF 10,000 SMOKES Volume 46 Creation Research Number 4 Society Quarterly Spring 2010

Articles Departments

Novarupta and the Valley of 10,000 Smokes: Editorial: It’s Time for Atheists to Get Real ...... 245 Begging for a Biblical Interpretation ...... 249 David E. Shormann Book Reviews The Immense Journey by Loren Eisley ...... 259 Time Required for Sedimentation A Science and Religion Primer edited by Contradicts the Evolutionary Hypothesis ...... 261 Heidi Campbell and Heather Looy ...... 260 Guy Berthault The Challenge of Evolution by Paul R. Myrant ...... 270 The Case for Holobaraminic Status in Bears The Ultimate Proof of Creation: (Family Ursidae) and the Implications Resolving the Origins Debate within a Creation Model of Ecology ...... 271 by Jason Lisle ...... 289 Tom Hennigan

Notes from the Panorama of Science The Pleiotropy Problem for Evolution ...... 284 The Blue Lagoon ...... 308 Jerry Bergman Earth-Sourced Impact Events on Day 2 of the Creation Week? ...... 310 The Origin of Grand Canyon Part II: Fatal Problems with the Dam-Breach Hypothesis ...... 290 Letters to the Editor Michael J. Oard C-14 in Dinosaur Bones ...... 313 Infi nite Time? ...... 313 Tetrapod Footprints Stop Evolution in Its Tracks ...... 314 Time Travel: One Man’s Quest To Make It A Reality ...... 314

Instructions to Authors ...... 315

Membership/Subscription Application and Renewal Form ...... 317

Order Blank for Past Issues ...... 318

Haec Credimus For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh.—Exodus 20:11 Volume 46, Spring 2010 153 Volume 46 Creation Research Number 4 Society Quarterly Spring 2010

Cover design by Michael Erkel: Michael Erkel and Associates, 1171 Carter Street, Crozet, Virginia 22932 CRSQ Editorial Staff Kevin L. Anderson, Editor Design services by Cindy Blandon, [email protected]. Bill Barrick, Biblical Studies Editor Jerry Bergman, Biology Editor The Creation Research Society Quarterly is published Don B. DeYoung, Book Review Editor by the Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway Eugene F. Chaffi n, Physics Editor 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323, and it is indexed in the George F. Howe, Assistant Biology Editor Christian Periodical Index and the Zoological Record. Robert Mullin, Assistant Managing Editor Dave Phillipps, Paleontology Editor Send papers on all subjects to the Editor: John K. Reed, Geology Editor [email protected] or to Ronald G. Samec, Astronomy Editor Kevin L. Anderson, Van Andel Creation Research Theodore Siek, Biochemistry Editor Center, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323. Jarl Waggoner, Managing Editor

Send book reviews to the Book Review Editor: Don B. DeYoung, 200 Seminary Dr., Winona Lake, IN 46590. CRS Board of Directors Don B. DeYoung, President Authors’ opinions expressed in the Quarterly are not Eugene F. Chaffi n,Vice-President necessarily those of anyone else associated with the Glen W. Wolfrom, Membership Secretary Creation Research Society. Danny Faulkner, Treasurer Mark Armitage, Financial Secretary Copyright © 2010 by Creation Research Society. All Gary H. Locklair, Recording Secretary rights to the articles published in the Creation Research Theodore Aufdemberge Society Quarterly are reserved to the Creation Research D. Russell Humphreys Society. Permission to reprint material in any form, in- David A. Kaufmann cluding the Internet, must be obtained from the Editor. Jean K. Lightner Michael J. Oard ISSN 0092-9166 John K. Reed David Rodabaugh Printed in the United States of America Ronald G. Samec CREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY CONFERENCE Abstract Submission Deadline: April 30, 2010 Submit abstracts to [email protected] (see instructions for abstract format at July 23 & 24, 2010 www.creationresearch.org) Registration: Campus of the CRS Member $35 ($55 after May 15) Non-member $70 ($90 after May 15) University of South Carolina Lancaster Register on-line at www.creationresearch.org (Lancaster, SC) or mail to: Creation Research Society, 6801 N Hwy 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323

In conjunction with the conference: The Second Henry M. Morris Memorial Lecture Dr. Duane Gish will be speaking on “The Death of Darwinism” July 23, 2010, at 8:00 p.m. On the campus of the University of South Carolina Lancaster Volume 46, Spring 2010 245

It’s Time for Atheists to Get Real I. Pascal’s Wager

“It has been said that when hu- ing the existence of God, a person risks “religion has been the explicit cause of man beings stop believing in God little and gains much, but by assuming literally millions of deaths in the last they believe in nothing. The truth there is no God, a person gains little and ten years.” Of course, Harris makes is much worse: they believe in risks much. no attempt to distinguish between the anything.” Some have criticized Pascal for world’s various religions, enabling him —Malcolm Muggeridge not specifying which “god” his wager to castigate Christianity as part of his involved. However, much of his earlier broad-brush accusation. Also, Harris Seventeenth-century French mathema- theological writings had been an analysis (2006) provides little documentation of tician and philosopher Blaise Pascal of the Christian God compared to other his claim, and a quick statistical search provided a series of writings on reasoning “gods.” He had concluded the Christian finds that all conflict-related deaths in and Christian faith. As part of these writ- God to be the only true God. So, it can his specified regions between the years ings, he offered a type of mathematical easily be assumed that Pascal’s Wager 1996 and 2006 are probably less than probability that it is more reasonable to refers strictly to the God of the Bible, as one million (with no distinction of assume God exists than to assume that he did not consider any other “god” to religion vs. non-religion motivations). He does not exist (e.g., see DeYoung, be real or relevant. Of particular interest is one country 2007). This claim (or “wager,” as Pascal Atheists have attempted to refute on Harris’s list: Ethiopia. This single, called it) has become known as Pascal’s Pascal’s argument by suggesting that “re- tiny country suffered over one million Wager. ligion” does not lead to better and more government-sanctioned murders by the My paraphrased and expanded benevolent living. In fact, some have atheistic, communistic Derg regime version of Pascal’s reasoning is: belief recently claimed that religious belief between 1974 and 1987. Perhaps Mr. in God offers the best probability of actually causes more wars, distress, and Harris’s history book does not go back outcomes. It provides a moral founda- human suffering. Thus, little is gained that far. tion and stability to both individuals from Christianity, and much is lost. In one of his recent diatribes, and societies. It provides a higher call- While there have always been criti- Dawkins (2006) attempts to draw a strong ing and results in people being more cal exchanges between Christians and connection between war and religion. loving and benevolent toward others. atheists, in the last few years the tone Among his claims is the notion that Ultimately, if God does not exist, then has taken a decidedly negative turn. Led religion causes divisions among people, death brings no different consequence by vocal “god-haters” Richard Dawkins and these divisions directly contribute than for disbelief. Thus, nothing is lost. and Sam Harris, atheists have begun to the prejudice that leads to war. Of On the other hand, disbelief in God fails to aggressively accuse religion (with a course, politics, race, culture, and geog- to provide a moral foundation and gives major focus on Christianity) as being the raphy also divide people and have always little incentive to love others. But, by primary cause of every form of human served as a strong contributor to regional contrast, should God ultimately prove to plight and physiological malfunction. conflicts and tribal quarrels. Humans exist, the consequence of disbelief is far For example, as part of his argument, have rarely needed much justification different than for belief. Thus, nothing Harris (2006, p. 55) identifies specific for their greed, prejudice, and hatred. is gained. Pascal reasoned that by assum- geographical regions where he claims Yet, Jesus sought to break down social 246 Creation Research Society Quarterly

divisions and commanded His follow- foundation that calls us to greater love way to the expression of a ‘higher human ers to love everyone (regardless of race, and a higher moral ground (e.g., 1 John nature’ ” (Maslow, 1968, p. 29). Because politics, culture, etc.) (Matt. 5:43–44; 2:5; 4:7–21). Maslow viewed the inner self as the only Luke 10:27–37; John 13:34–35). That is In contrast, Dawkins (2006) vainly true source of human values, he placed not the type of teaching that motivates attempts to give some moral founda- “self-actualization” at the top of human nations toward war. tion to atheism. Ultimately, the best he needs (Maslow, 1970). In other words, While some wars admittedly have can achieve is to declare that there is our most important need is to follow been motivated by the religious dif- no reason to suggest that an atheistic our own desires, and somehow this ferences between nations and people worldview causes people to steal, kill, etc. will make us better people. Of course, groups, the ultimate cause of most wars However, the more relevant question is, I am inclined to suspect that such is far more complicated, and religious how does atheism cause people not to an “all-about-me” philosophy might connections are generally tenuous at steal, kill, etc? When Joseph Stalin’s Rus- be more likely to make people selfish best. In American history, the Revolu- sian government murdered over 20 mil- and narcissistic rather than loving and tionary War, War of 1812, and Civil lion of its own citizens, was he violating moral. In fact, Pascal referred to such War were fought by combatants with the some moral code or ethical constraint of philosophy of self-gratification as “lick- same religious convictions. Many of the atheism? Was he being inconsistent with ing the earth.” medieval European wars were fought for some basic principle within the atheistic More to the point, where would land, power, and wealth. Any religious worldview? No, since atheism is actually an inner moral code originate? Based connection was merely a “lip-service” upon his atheistic worldview, Dawkins attempt to justify human greed. In fact, (1995, p. 85) admits that the universe has the two largest wars in history hardly When we become accountable “no design, no purpose, no evil and no could be viewed as religious wars. Not good, nothing but pitiless indifference.” surprisingly, Dawkins’s history is as bad only to ourselves, then we How can an indifferent universe impart as his science. a human moral code or a healthy life? Nineteenth-century German phi- have made ourselves God. What aspect of contemporary evolution- losopher Friedrich Nietzsche stated ary “theory” can account for the origin that industrialization and science had And humans are terrible of an innate sense of good and evil? Do eliminated the human need for the mutations have morals? Do chemical emotional crutch called “god.” Thus, he at being God. reactions make ethical decisions? gleefully declared, “God is dead … and Bertrand Russell (1986) suggested we have killed him” (Nietzsche, 1974, ethical behavior is linked to human p. 181). Interestingly, though, with no (and must be!) nonmoral, it has no basis happiness. Apparently, when a person is belief in God to influence people, even to make a moral judgment about what is happy he or she will be good. However, Nietzsche prophetically said that the or is not moral behavior. After all, with- what makes a person happy? I doubt twentieth century would experience out a lawgiver, where would such moral if even Russell really had any idea. A “wars such as there have never yet been laws come from? Thus, while atheism pedophile may claim that his acts of on earth” (Nietzsche, 1979, p. 97). Why? does not require immoral or criminal sexual perversion give him happiness. According to Dawkins, wars are caused behavior, it lacks any guiding means of Could Russell have disagreed? In fact, by people who foolishly worship God, teaching against it. what is human happiness? Attempts to not by those who do not. Some atheists argue that humans answer this would likely result in lengthy Atheists also have attacked the Wa- possess an innate sense of morality. and rather nonproductive philosophical ger by claiming that religion does not Abraham Maslow claimed that if we debates. Yet, without answers to these intrinsically result in higher morals or allow our “inner nature … to guide our questions, Russell’s suggestion has little greater respect and benevolence. Sadly, life, we [will] grow healthy, fruitful, and value to the atheistic worldview and has there is some truth in this claim, as some happy” (Maslow, 1968, p. 5). He added, little meaning to how people actually religions openly promote violence upon “There is no place else to turn but in- live their lives. their “unbelieving brothers.” Even many ward, to the self, as the locos of values” Some also argue that a moral code calling themselves “Christian” fail to (Maslow, 1968, p. 14). Maslow (1970) can arise from social norms. But how does become the “new creation” that is to be also proposed that human behavior is a society establish these norms? Simply the Christian life (2 Cor. 5:17). For a linked to a “hierarchy of needs.” As because some behavior is acceptable Christian, though, there is an intrinsic these needs are met, it will “open the within a specific society does not even Volume 46, Spring 2010 247 make it acceptable to another society. comments that Hitler made regarding p. 173) refers to evil as an “insurmount- Does nineteenth-century America’s ac- separation or purity of life-forms were able” problem for believers. In his mind, ceptance of slavery or 1940s Germany’s clearly not challenges to evolutionary there is no wager to even consider. Evil acceptance of racial eugenics make these common descent. Rather, they were jus- means that God cannot possibly exist. morally appropriate? By what standard tifications for his policies of racial purity In his book, Why I Became an Atheist, does a society determine moral conduct? and genocide. The very title of his book, John Loftus (2008) rages about how suf- In fact, even today slavery and racial Mein Kampf, means “my struggle”—a fering and evil betray the believer. Thus, eugenics can be found in many societies. clear reference to his understanding of he could no longer pretend God existed. Does this make it morally acceptable? “survival of the fittest.” It is a reference He questions how anyone could possibly Is morality merely a consequence of an that echoes throughout the book. For follow a “god” who is either powerless ever-changing popular opinion? example, he comments that “our planet or apathetic about the human condition. It is also important to remember that has been moving … for millions and Why would someone even want to follow Hitler and his National Socialist Party millions of years, uninhabited by men, such a god? (Nazis) did not take control of the Ger- and … may easily do so again—if men Yet, who are we humans to make man government by force. They were should forget that they [owe] their supe- such arrogant accusations? We have voted into office. By a huge landslide, I rior level of existence [to] acknowledging kicked God out of our schools and then would add. Their legacy needs no retell- and rigorously observing the iron laws demand to know why He allows school ing. The atrocities they committed are of nature (Hitler, 2010, p. 261). This is shootings. We have kicked God out of almost incomprehensible. (No wonder not a creationist perspective, let alone a our homes and then demand to know Eisenhower requested that a vast amount Christian position. It is clearly a philoso- why He allows child abuse. We have of pictures, movies, and documents be phy founded on the basic principles of kicked God out of our families and then obtained to counter any doubts by future naturalism and Darwinian evolution. demand to know why He allows our chil- generations.) What led to the Nazis’ As a type of final desperation, at- dren to become addicts and emotionally acquisition of power? Voter apathy? tempts also have been made to apply troubled. We have banned God from our Church complacency? What motivated “evolution game theory” to explain hu- governments and then demand to know their evil actions? No consciousness of man behavior (Skyrms, 2004; Sober and why He allows our governments to be moral accountability? Is it coincidental Wilson, 1999). In its purest form, game corrupt and repressive. We have ignored that this was the society so strongly in- theory is a mathematical model to pre- God in our society and then cannot un- fluenced by Nietzsche? dict outcomes based upon probability of derstand why He allows our society to be Some have begun suggesting that options or choices. Evolutionists have at- so decadent—filled with adultery, drug Hitler was actually a Christian and a tempted to adapt it to predict evolution- addiction, child pornography, embezzle- creationist, attempting to link his bar- ary change. Applying evolution game ment, fraud, broken homes, and even barity to his claims of Christian faith. theory to human ethics requires many corruption of those who are supposed to However, Christianity is far more than assumptions, including an evolutionary defend and protect us. We have killed simply claiming to be a Christian. Jesus connection of human attitudes with millions of innocent unborn children taught that only those who love (John animal behavior. Also, “game theory eth- and call it “choice”; yet we demand to 13:35) and do the will of the Father ics” typically involves some form of self- know why God allows our societies to (Matt. 7:21) are His followers. At what gratification as a primary human motive. be filled with murder and violence. We point was Hitler showing love and do- In some ways, the application of game have filled our bodies with various drugs ing the Father’s will? In the same vein, theory to human behavior is almost too and wonder why God allows newborn atheists have argued that prisons are full silly to even seriously consider, let alone infants to suffer from afflictions such as of people calling themselves Christian. offer as an explanation for the origin of fetal alcohol syndrome or heroin addic- However, for many, the conversion is some form of moral code. Yet, humans, tion. We have filled our minds with evil after their imprisonment. For the re- driven by their need to replace God, will and violence and then demand to know mainder, as with Hitler, how were their desperately consider almost anything. why God does not stop us from our evil criminal actions founded in Christ’s Remember what Muggeridge said. and violent actions. teachings? Instead, their behavior was A number of vocal atheists also have We have kicked God out of this world inconsistent with any claims they made made the claim that a “god” that allows and have crowned a new prince (John of being a Christian. evil and suffering must, himself, be evil, 12:30–32; 14:29–30). We have flouted It is also “historical revisionism” to and belief in such a “god” is also evil (or God’s laws and then blame Him for the claim that Hitler was a creationist. Any at least extremely foolish). Harris (2004, consequences of our lawlessness. We 248 Creation Research Society Quarterly have told God to not be part of our lives, not lost in an abyss of moral decay and ing from Jesus, who has all authority over our community, and our world and in so destruction. Yet, the nightly news tells His creation (Matt 28:18). doing have caused Him to remove His a far different story. When we become presence and protection from our societ- accountable only to ourselves, then we Kevin Anderson, Ph.D. ies. Yet, we then become angry when He have made ourselves God. And humans Editor does not protect us from natural disasters are terrible at being God. Creation Research Society Quarterly or the consequences of our own sin. We In the early 1960s, Stanley Milgram fail to give God glory, yet we are anxious began conducting a series of contro- References to give Him the blame. versial experiments (Milgram, 1974). Dawkins, R. 2006. The God Delusion. Bantam What is more, the presence of evil Milgram tested people’s compliancy to Press, London, UK. and disease in the world is not an “in- a perceived “authority” who instructed Dawkins, R. 1995. God’s utility function. Sci- surmountable” problem for Christianity. them to inflict pain on others. He found entific American 273:5:80–85. Many strong theological answers have that only a small minority of people DeYoung, D. 2007. What is “Pascal’s Wager”? been provided. (Although some theolo- defied the “authority” and stopped Creation Matters 12:5:2. gians struggle with an answer since their inflicting the pain. Sadly, such experi- Harris, S. 2004. The End of Faith. W.W. Norton evolution-based answers are weak and ments reveal how easily humans can be & Co., New York, NY. inconsistent.) Undoubtedly, for critics coerced into negative behavior. What Harris, S. 2006. Letter to a Christian Nation. Al- such as Harris and Loftus, no answer happened to the innate moral code? It fred A. Knopf Publishers, New York, NY. will be acceptable. Not only because also illustrates how susceptible we can Hitler, A. 2010. Mein Kampf, Vol. 1. (Unex- they are poor philosophers (their books be to negative social pressures. (Nazi sol- purgated Edition, 47th printing). Jaico are a series of philosophical inconsisten- diers typically argued they were “just fol- Publishing House, Mumbai, India. cies), but also they do not really seek an lowing orders.”) It took less than 3 days Loftus, J. 2008. Why I Became an Atheist: A answer. They are easily pacified with the for hurricane-damaged New Orleans Former Preacher Rejects Christianity. Pro- thought that if there is evil there cannot (USA) to break down into social anarchy. metheus Books, Amherst, NY. be a loving God. They have little interest Where was the social constraint? All too Maslow, A. 1968. Toward a Psychology of Be- in any deeper understanding. easily, a new wave of Nazi-type brutality ing, 3rd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, It is also sadly amusing that many could sweep the world. New York, NY. so-called “Christians-turned-atheists” When Christ said to love your neigh- Maslow, A. 1970. Motivation and Personal- claim that in becoming atheists they felt bor as yourself (Matt. 19:19) and to love ity, 2nd Edition. Harper & Row, New some form of liberation. Liberation from and pray for your enemies (Matt. 5:44), York, NY. what? God’s love? Grace? Forgiveness? he was not simply confirming how hu- Milgram, S. 1974. Obedience to Authority: An I suspect their “god” probably never of- mans naturally act and think. Contrary Experimental View. HarperCollins, New fered these. Actually, it would seem to to Maslow and others, this is not human York, NY. be more a liberation from any sense of nature. Jesus was not telling us to “do Nietzsche, F. 1974. The Gay Science: With responsibility and accountability. And, what comes naturally.” Instead, He was a Prelude in Rhymes and an Appendix of this somehow enables the expression of telling us to deny our own natural, self- Songs (translated and with commentary a “higher human nature”? ish desires and rise to a higher calling: by Walter Kaufmann). Vintage Books, It has been my observation that when a calling that cannot be based upon our New York, NY. accountability is removed, we humans own desires of self-gratification, which Nietzsche, F. 1979. Ecce Homo. How One are magnificent at fabricating a “truth” produce the opposite; a calling that Becomes What One is (translated and with that fits our own purposes. In so doing, cannot result from social opinion, which commentary by R.J. Hollingdale). Penguin we are merely seeking to justify our sin. is never consistent or selfless; a calling Books, New York, NY. Also, if a situation or event does not suit that cannot result from “being happy,” as Russell, B. 1986. God and Religion. Pro- our needs, we rationalize a substitute. that is merely a subjective state of mind, metheus Books, Amherst, NY. History, for example, is being rewritten subject to change every day. Skyrms, B. 2004. The Stag Hunt and the to offer a more “nonreligious” verdict: It is a calling that is beyond a “wager” Evolution of Social Structure. Cambridge a historical verdict that can be used to of best probable outcomes. It is a calling University Press, New York, NY. rationalize that God does not move in that places Christianity above all human, Sober, E., and D.A. Wilson. 1999. Unto the lives of His people; that man, with- earthly teachings. It is a calling from the Others: The Evolution and Psychology of out God, can achieve his own greatness Creator, who knows what brings peace Unselfish Behavior. Harvard University and goodness; that man, without God, is and fulfillment into our lives. It is a call- Press, Cambridge, MA. Volume 46, Spring 2010 249 Novarupta and the Valley of 10,000 Smokes: Begging for a Biblical Interpretation

David E. Shormann*

Abstract n June 6, 1912, the biggest eruption in over 100 years occurred Oin what is now Katmai National Park, Alaska. Ejecting over 30 times more material than Mount St. Helen’s, the Novarupta Volcano exploded for 60 hours. Novarupta contains a treasure trove of informa- tion just waiting to be interpreted within a Biblical framework. This article seeks to encourage further exploration of Novarupta and The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes by creation scientists. Details of the eruption are discussed, together with first encounters of the eruption zone by Robert F. Griggs shortly after the 1912 eruption. Comparisons are made between Novarupta and other eruptions, and the local geol- ogy is discussed. Rates of glacial advance and retreat in the area may have implications for both global climate change and the causes of the Ice Age. Present-day bedrock incision rates are used to speculate about geologic timescales. The geologic history of Novarupta and The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes appears congruent with Biblical history.

Introduction ciers are growing. Where a canyon was the earth as a “young and active planet” Imagine if there was a place on Earth gouged out following the breaching of (Griggs, 1922, p. xv). where astronauts trained for walking a massive rockslide dam. Where rocks This place is The Valley of Ten on the moon. Where one of the three not only float but also fly! Where an Thousand Smokes (TVTTS), created largest volcanic eruptions in recorded eruption, 30 times larger than St. Hel- by the June 6–8, 1912 eruption of No- history occurred and created a “great ens, dropped temperatures worldwide varupta volcano. Novarupta, Latin for incandescent sand flow” (Griggs, 1922, 2° F, caused mountains to disappear, “new eruption,” is the biggest volcanic p. 253), along with a rare form of rock and caused the head of the National eruption in over 100 years and one of the known as “banded pumice.” Where gla- Geographic Society in 1922 to consider top three in recorded history. Located in Katmai National Park (Figure 1), TVTTS is one of the most researched areas in Alaska. This volcanic region lies atop 15,000 feet of sedimentary rock * David E. Shormann, PhD, P.O. Box 1324, Magnolia, TX 77353, and presents an opportunity for inter- [email protected] preting earth history within a Biblical Accepted for publication November 24, 2009 framework. 250 Creation Research Society Quarterly

buried the valley under nearly 700 ft of ash (Brantley, 1994; Glore, 2007). The ash flow stopped near the upper Ukak River, over 15 miles away (Griggs, 1922). It is difficult to describe the spectacle of a massive volcanic eruption. Griggs, leader of the first expedition into the eruption zone, described Novarupta this way: If such an eruption should occur on Manhattan Island, the column of steam would be conspicuous as far as Albany. The sounds of the explosions would be plainly audible in Chicago. The fumes would sweep over all the states east of the Rocky Mountains…. There would be no occasion for rescue work [on Man- hattan Island], for there would be no survivors. The whole of Manhattan Island, and an equal area besides, would open in great yawning chasms, and fiery fountains of magma would issue from every crack. (Griggs, 1922, p. 1) Sponsored by the National Geo- graphic Society, Griggs, a botanist by Figure 1. Map of The Valley of 10,000 Smokes, modified from Griggs (1922). degree, made several expeditions to the area from 1913 to 1919. Initially sent to study the effects of ash fall on Kodiak Island plants, the expeditions expanded The 1912 Eruption and 2000). In three massive eruptions begin- to include “a thorough investigation of Subsequent Exploration ning on June 6, 1912, Novarupta spewed the immediate environs of the volcano” On June 9, 1912, Ivan Orloff wrote to forth its volatile mixture of ash, rock, and (Griggs, 1922, p. 71). The expeditions his wife: corrosive gases, cloaking Kodiak Island included chemists, geologists, topogra- My dear wife Tania: (60 miles away) and its approximately phers, photographers, students, and even A mountain has burst near here, so 500 inhabitants in complete darkness a one-handed bear hunter from Kodiak that we are covered in ashes, in some for two days and three nights (Bodeau, (Griggs, 1922, p. 73). places 10 feet and 6 feet deep.… The 1996). Griggs and his group thoroughly earth is trembling; it lightens every The volcanic plume rose 25 miles, scoured the area for details and named minute. It is terrible … Perhaps we and the eruption flooded the adjacent many of the mountains and rivers in will see each other again … We are valley with a “great hot sand flow” the area. One of his most appropriate praying. (Griggs, 1922, p. 19) (Griggs, 1922, p. 285), forming tuff. It names was the River Lethe, named God spared Orloff’s life, and in fact was also one of few historic eruptions after the river flowing through Hades not a single soul died during the mas- to form “welded tuff” (Hildreth, 1983), in Greek mythology. The river has sive eruption. Like Mount St. Helens, where high temperatures fuse tuff to- lived up to its name, as entries in the Novarupta was a plinian eruption, and gether into a pyroclastic rock. Mt. St. USGS Baked Mountain Cabin log- the low density and high silica content Helens and Yellowstone’s Caldera also books reveal. of its rhyolitic magma made it even more contain welded tuff (Christiansen and After spending careful hours of con- explosive (Eichelberger and Izbekov, Blank, 1972). Ejecta from Novarupta templation I chose a narrow gorge in Volume 46, Spring 2010 251

Figure 2. Novarupta then (left, from Griggs, 1922, p. 280) and July 2009 (right).

which to jump the River Lethe … Af- tens of thousands—of smokes curl- ley thermal springs still emit water at ter the tragic loss of our Swiss camper ing up from its fissured floor. (Griggs, 30°–60° C (Hogeweg et al., 2005), down this summer, I was confronted with 1922, p. 191) from the 95° C temperatures Griggs’s a respect, perhaps fear, of this river team measured from the same area in (Fisher, 1989). 1918 (Griggs, 1922). The most memorable name that Novarupta and TVTTS Today The weather has not changed much Griggs gave to the area was The Valley Almost 100 years have passed since No- since 1912. On multiple occasions, of Ten Thousand Smokes. When he varupta exploded. Although Novarupta Griggs’s expeditions were faced with a first saw it in July of 1916, he had this no longer steams as profusely as it did in curious phenomenon known as a pum- to say: 1917, the general shape of the lava plug ice storm (Figure 4). When the winds The sight that flashed into view as remains the same (Figure 2). gust upwards of 50 mph, the lightweight we surmounted the hillock was one TVTTS no longer emits “ten thou- pumice stones get whisked away, form- of the most amazing visions ever be- sand smokes” (Figure 3), as the ash ing miniature tornadic slurries of rock held by mortal eye. The whole valley flow sheet has cooled and the sources and wind. In a particularly nasty storm as far as the eye could reach was full are depleted. The ash flow sheet has that destroyed their campsite, he had this of hundreds, no thousands—literally, not lost all its heat, though, as mid-val- to say about the storms:

Figure 3. TVTTS then (left, from Griggs, 1922, p. 188) and July 2009. 252 Creation Research Society Quarterly

was the source of the eruption. Before the eruption, it towered over the landscape, ascending from the waters of Cook Inlet to a height of over 7,500 ft. Afterwards, it looked like its top had blown off, leaving a massive hole in the top of the mountain over 2 miles wide in places (Figure 5). Griggs thought Mt. Katmai had exploded, although he also thought Novarupta contributed a significant portion of the eruption (Griggs, 1922, p. 261). One clue that Katmai did not explode was the banded pumice that formed (Figure 6). As flour is to baked goods, silica is to rocks (Bodeau, 1996), and different densities of silica from different magma chambers usually have different colors. The banded pumice was a clue that more than one magma chamber was involved. Scientists now Figure 4. A pumice storm. Imagine how rain stings when it hits your face at a believe that an andesitic/dacitic magma high speed. Magnify that feeling many times over, and you can get a feel for a chamber underneath Mt. Katmai pumice storm! emptied during the Novarupta erup- tion, while mixing with a lower-density rhyolitic magma source that had risen up and formed the dike that triggered The hail of pumice that greeted us of the pieces were as large as hickory the event (Eichelberger and Izbekov, as we crawled out to see if anything nuts and all were armed with sharp 2000), 6.2 miles to the west. Once the could be done cannot be imagined. corners that made them terrible mis- magma chamber underneath Mt. Kat- It could not be endured on face or siles. (Griggs, 1922, p. 229) mai emptied, the mountain collapsed, hands for an instant. It hurt clear While the weather has not changed forming a caldera. However, volcanism through our clothing. It drove in much in 100 years, our understanding is ongoing. The new Novarupta Dome around our ‘dust proof’ goggles, a of the processes that formed the area has. is about 1,300 ft in diameter and 215 ft constant menace to our eyes. Many Griggs concluded that Mount Katmai tall (Figure 2 and Brantley, 1994).

Figure 5. Portion of Mount Katmai that collapsed (left) after the magma chamber underneath emptied out Novarupta (right). Photographs from the Three Forks Visitor Contact Station, Katmai National Park. Volume 46, Spring 2010 253

Figure 6. Banded pumice (left) from the floor of TVTTS and rhyolite (right) from the top of Novarupta.

What Can Novarupta Teach Us ians required scientific certainty to rid while the high silica magma of Nova- About Biblical Earth History? history of the Genesis Flood (Froede, rupta resulted in an eruption they simply 2007). Thus, many modern scientists described as “catastrophic.” Catastrophism have ignored evidence pointing to a There really is no better word to Traditional geology was built on the worldwide flood, although many now describe Novarupta than “catastrophic,” gradualism of Lyell and the evolution- style themselves as secular catastrophists. an eruption that was 10 times more ary directionalism of Darwin. However, This view predates Lyell; his continental powerful than the Mt. St. Helens 1980 these views are changing because the opponent, Georges Cuvier, published a blast (Glore, 2007). However, it was still empirical evidence of the rock record number of works advocating past “revo- small compared to ancient eruptions shows that both catastrophism and lutions” (e.g., Cuvier, 1825). like the Yellowstone Caldera (Table 1). stasis are elements of natural history. Novarupta and TVTTS can readily Novarupta dwarfs Mt. St. Helens, but This is consistent with the common- be interpreted within the framework the Yellowstone eruption ejected over sense understanding that science can of Biblical history. Eichelberger and 75 times more magma than Novarupta. only draw inferences about past events Izbekov (2000) compared the Novarupta The welded tuff and rhyolite formations based on incomplete evidence and a Volcano/Katmai Caldera complex with left behind by the Yellowstone Caldera forensic approach, since observation is Russia’s Karymsky Volcano/Academy eruption suggest that it too was extremely not possible. Nauk Caldera complex. They found that explosive like Novarupta. Still larger Overconfidence in historical inter- the lower silica content of the Russian eruptions have occurred in the past pretations arose because uniformitar- magma resulted in an effusive eruption, (Austin, 1998; Froede, 2007). This is consistent with the Biblical Flood and associated phenomena. Table 1. Comparison of magma ejected from several volcanoes. Canyon Formation Volume of Magma Ejected While most would agree that canyons Eruption Year (cubic miles) form by water eroding through rock, disagreements come primarily when Yellowstone Caldera unknown 240* rates and initial conditions are discussed Krakatoa 1883 4.3* due to the lack of direct observation. Novarupta 1912 3** However, canyons near Novarupta help illustrate the forces involved in canyon Mount Saint Helens 1980 0.1T formation. When an eruption as large as Nova- *Austin (1998); **Eichelberger and Izbekov (2000); T Brantley (1994). rupta occurs, highly unstable geologic 254 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 7. Gorge formed (dashed borders) by the Great Flood of 1916 (from Griggs, 1922, p. 116). White lines show the source of the landslide that had dammed the Katmai River, holding back 8 billion cubic feet of water.

conditions may exist for years afterwards. Culebra Cut (aka Gaillard Cut) of the erosion law for modeling stasis bedrock Griggs’s 1916 expedition experienced Panama Canal (Griggs, 1922). channel incision (Goudie, 2004; Ritz, this in what he called the “Great Flood” Griggs did not reach the land- 2008; Stock and Montgomery, 1999; (Griggs, 1922, pp. 103–122). The flood slide dam until the year following the Whipple et al., 2000a; Whipple and was caused by the escape of water breach, and the photograph taken that Tucker, 2002). In TVTTS, stream flow impounded by a landslide (Figure 7). year (Figure 7) clearly shows the large incision models have been used to The landslide, formed during the erup- channel excavated by the flood, and the pattern incision rates into bedrock of tion when a portion of Mt. Katmai fell smaller channel formed from the more the Ukak River (Whipple et al, 2000b). away, impounded about 8 billion cubic normal flow levels of the Katmai River. The Ukak River provided an excellent feet of water. The landslide dam burst, Griggs felt very fortunate that their ar- setting for applying the stream power and the water’s erosive actions formed rival in 1916 was behind schedule, for erosion law, because scientists knew a “trench as straight and clean-cut as if they had landed a week earlier, they the exact year (1912) when incision though excavated by man to carry some “would almost inevitably have been began in a diverted section of the Ukak great engineering work, like the Panama overwhelmed, for our work kept us on River. Canal” (Griggs, 1922 p. 117; Figure the flats [of the lower Katmai River] The most visibly striking feature of 7). Comparing it to other great floods, and there would have been no chance the bedrock incision in TVTTS is the Griggs calculated the Katmai flood to be for escape” (Griggs, 1922, p. 115). The width of the canyons. In Figure 8, the 35 times as great as the 1889 Johnstown, photograph is excellent testimony of Ukak River cuts through sedimentary Pennsylvania flood (Griggs, 1922, p. how catastrophic events form larger rock of the Naknek formation. A few 119). With speeds calculated at over 60 canyons, similar to evidence found in miles upstream from this, the River Le- mph, the Katmai flood had a destruc- the Upper Toutle River near Mt. St. the incises into welded tuff from Novar- tive power over a million times greater Helens (Austin, 1984; 1998) and at Red upta (Figure 8). The canyons in Figure than the average Mississippi River flood Rock Pass (Austin, 1998). 8, formed under normal flow conditions, (Griggs, 1922, p. 121). It excavated about TVTTS provides excellent evidence are narrow enough to jump across in 33 million cubic yards of material, about for subsequent canyon erosion. Scien- places. Although many variables, includ- half the amount moved in excavating the tists commonly use the stream power ing lithology, effect canyon width (Wil- Volume 46, Spring 2010 255

Figure 8. Ukak River cutting through sedimentary rock (left) and the River Lethe cutting through welded tuff. The cata- strophic canyon formation of Griggs’ “Great Flood” was far greater than modern fluvial action.

liams, 1998), evidence from TVTTS retreated about 2,424 ft between 1912 After the 1912 eruption and collapse shows that under stasis conditions, rivers and 1987 (Hildreth et al., 1998). of Mt. Katmai, a new glacier formed flowing over two different types of bed- Although global temperatures, on inside the Katmai caldera. It may be the rock cut extremely narrow, steep-walled average, are rising, it appears to be a only glacier in the world whose exact canyons. This is the opposite of what cyclical trend (Singer and Avery, 2008). age is known (Bodeau, 1996). In addi- a uniformitarian model might predict That view is supported by the Katmai tion, the Knife Creek Glaciers on the (Froede and Williams, 2003). National Park glaciers, which retreated north face of Mt. Katmai actually have an average of 56.8 ft per year from advanced from 1951–2000 (Giffen et 1951–1987, accelerated that retreat al., 2007; Figure 9). One reason for this Glaciers, Timescales, from 1974 to 1987 to 112.5 ft per year, advance may be the insulating effects and Climate Change and then decreased from 1987 to 2000 of the pumice covering over the Knife Almost all the volcanoes in TVTTS are down to 44.0 ft per year (Giffen et al., Creek Glaciers (Hildreth et al., 1998). covered by multiple glaciers (Figure 9). 2007), suggesting a cyclical pattern of After the eruption, scientists cal- Glaciers at the base of Mount Mageik temperature change. culated that if the Novarupta ash had

Figure 9. The top of glacier-coated Mt. Mageik (left), with steam rising and the moon setting over its volcanic peak. On the right, ash-covered Knife Creek Glaciers (inside white borders) have been advancing. 256 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 10. Cross section of TVTTS from Griggs, p. 263. The dashed lines represent sedimentary rock of the Naknek formation.

stayed in the atmosphere a little longer, eroded coastal sediments mixed with a one would expect this area to consist of the temperature decrease would have “considerable volume” of volcanic debris layer upon layer of volcanic strata, with been enough to initiate another Ice (Harris et al., 2003). steep-walled canyons incising thousands Age (Griggs, 1922). Given that impact, In places, the Naknek Formation of feet down. Instead, we find evidence larger volcanic eruptions in the past, like is described as having been formed by of a relatively recent, yet massive geo- Yellowstone, might have generated sig- “continuous sedimentary deposition” logic upheaval that mixed marine sedi- nificant climate change. Cuvier believed (Church et al., 1994). In the Talkeetna ments and volcanic ash into a uniform that the volcanic upheavals surrounding Mountains northeast of TVTTS, studies slurry in places. Glacial action then the Genesis Flood were responsible for describe the Naknek Formation forming sculpted the terrain, and this is capped the Ice Age (Cuvier, 1825), and the when “gravelly mass flows transformed by a volcanic layer from an eruption less hypothesis still is popular today (Froede, downslope into sandy turbidity currents than 100 years old. 2007; Oard, 1990). on a muddy pro-delta slope” (Trop et al., Grosvenor (Griggs, 1922, p. xv, em- 2005). In places, the Naknek Forma- phasis added) described Griggs’s work as tion contains a considerable number an “important addition to our knowledge The Naknek Formation and of marine fossils, and fossil-containing of the young and active planet upon the Genesis Flood rocks litter many mountaintops in the which we live.” This is a description Beneath the volcanics produced by the park (Figure 11). that would receive great ridicule from Novarupta eruption, lie up to 15,000 many scientists today, but why should ft of sedimentary rock. This suggests it? Great effort has been expended over a massive, water-related event (Figure Summary the past 200 years to rid geologic history 10). Hundreds of square miles of Alaska The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes sits of any connections to Biblical history are covered by the sedimentary Naknek atop one of the most volcanically active (Froede, 2007), but many scientists are Formation. The Naknek and underlying regions in the world, where the Pacific now finding this was a foolish idea. One Shelikof formations in Katmai National Plate dips underneath the North Ameri- thing is certain: man’s interpretations of Park are said to be composed of rapidly can Plate. In an old-earth framework, past events will always be speculative, Volume 46, Spring 2010 257

sional Paper 729-B. Available online at: http://www.nps.gov/history/history/on- line_books/geology/publications/pp/729- B/sec3.htm (accessed November 15, 2009). Church, S.E., J.R. Riehle, and R.J. Gold- farb. 1994. Interpretation of exploration geochemical data for the Mount Kat- mai Quadrangle and adjacent parts of the Afognak and Naknek Quadrangles, Alaska. USGS Bulletin 2020. Available online at: http://www.avo.alaska.edu/ pdfs/B2020.pdf (accessed November 17, 2009). Curtis, G.H. 1968. The stratigraphy of the ejecta from the 1912 eruption of Mount Katmai and Novarupta, Alaska. In Coats, R.R., R.L. Hay, and C.A. Anderson Figure 11. Fossil-bearing sedimentary rock of the Naknek Formation. (editors), Studies in Volcanology, pp. 153–210. Geological Society of America Memoir MWR 0116, Boulder, CO. Cuvier, G. 1825. Discourse on the Revolu- because we cannot go back in time and Impact (ICR) 118, 4 pp. Available tionary Upheavals on the Surface of the verify the results. Nevertheless, evidence online at: http://www.icr.org/article/did- Globe and on the Changes Which They that supports Biblical history should not landscapes-evolve/ (accessed November Have Produced in the Animal Kingdom. be ignored. 17, 2009). Paris. English translation by Ian John- Acknowledgments. Special thanks to Austin, S.A. 1984. Rapid erosion at Mount ston, 2009, Vancouver Island University, Carl Froede, Jr. for assistance and excel- St. Helens. Origins 11(2):90–98. Nanaimo, BC, Canada. Available online lent advice with the manuscript. Thanks Austin, S.A. 1998. The declining power of at: http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/cu- to Kenny, John, Mike, Joel, and Tommy post-Flood volcanoes: Impact (ICR) 302, vier/cuvierweb.pdf (accessed November for the incredible adventure we had in 4 pp. Available online at: http://www. 17, 2009). TVTTS! Let us hope they repair the icr.org/article/declining-power-post- Eichelberger, J.C., and P.E. Izbekov. 2000. outhouse that blew down while we were flood-volcanoes/ (accessed November Eruption of andesite triggered by dyke out there. Thank you, God, for making 17, 2009). injection: contrasting cases at Karymsky your creative acts so obvious. We are Austin, S.A. 2008. Red Rock Pass: spillway Volcano, Kamchatka and Mt. Katmai, indeed without excuse for knowing Him of the Bonneville Flood. Acts & Facts Alaska. Philosophical Transactions of the (Romans 1:20). 37(7):10. Available online at: http://www. Royal Society of London 358:1465–1485. icr.org/article/red-rock-pass-spillway- Available online at: http://kiska.giseis. bonneville-flood/ (accessed November alaska.edu/input/pavel/papers/ejc00.pdf References 17, 2009). (accessed November 17, 2009). CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- Bodeau, J. 1996. Katmai National Park and Fisher, A. 1989. Entry in the USGS Baked terly Preserve, Alaska. Greatland Graphics, Mountain Cabin journal, 9/7/1989. Adams, N.K., B.F. Houghton, W. Hildreth. Anchorage, AK. Froede, C.R. 2007. Geology by Design. Mas- 2006. Abrupt transitions during sustained Brantley, S.R. 1994. Volcanoes of the United ter Books, Green Forest, AR. explosive eruptions: examples from the States. USGS General Interest Publica- Froede, C.R., and E.L. Williams. 2003. 1912 eruption of Novarupta, Alaska. tion. United States Geological Survey, Grand Falls, Arizona: evidence of Bulletin of Volcanology 69:189–206. Washington, DC. missing uniformitarian time. CRSQ Available online at: http://www.avo. Christiansen, R.L., and H.R. Blank, Jr. 1972. 40:182–188. alaska.edu/pdfs/Adamsetal2006.pdf (as Volcanic stratigraphy of the Quaternary Giffen, B.A., D.K. Hall, and J.Y.L. Chien. of November 17, 2009). rhyolite plateau in Yellowstone National 2007. Forty years of change in glacier Austin, S.A. 1983. Did landscapes evolve? Park. U.S. Geological Survey Profes- ice coverage at Katmai National Park 258 Creation Research Society Quarterly

and Preserve Alaska. Southwest Alaska Hildreth, W., J. Fierstein, M.A. Lanphere, R.B. Blodgett. 2005. Sedimentology Network Symposium, Homer, AK. Avail- and D.F. Siems. 1998. Mount Mageik: and provenance of the Upper Jurassic able online at: http://science.nature.nps. a compound stratovolcano in Katmai Naknek Formation, Talkeetna Moun- gov/im/units/swan/Libraries/Presenta- National Park. USGS Professional Paper tains, Alaska: bearings on the accretion- tions/Symposium2007/Presentations/2_ 1615. ary tectonic history of the Wrangellia GiffenB_2007_SWAN_GlacierIceEx- Hogeweg, N., T.E.C. Keith, E.M. Colvard, composite terrane. Geological Society of tentProject_20070302.pdf (accessed and S.E. Ingebritsen. 2005. Ongoing America Bulletin 117:570–588. Available November 17, 2009). hydrothermal heat loss from the 1912 online at: http://www.facstaff.bucknell. Glore, M. (editor). 2007. The Novarupta, ash-flow sheet, Valley of Ten Thousand edu/jtrop/Trop%20et%20al.,%202005 The Official Newspaper of Katmai Na- Smokes, Alaska. Journal of Volcanology ,%20Naknek.pdf (accessed November tional Park and Preserve. Issue Number and Geothermal Research 143:279–291. 17, 2009). 1. Available online at: http://www.nps. Available online at: http://wwwrcamnl. Vail, T. 2003. The Grand Canyon: A Different gov/katm/upload/Novarupta%20News wr.usgs.gov/hydrotherm/Ingebritsen/ View. Master Books, Green Forest, AR. paper%202007%20WEB.pdf (accessed jvgr2005vtts.pdf (accessed November Whipple, K.X., G.S. Hancock, and R.S. November 16, 2009). 17, 2009). Anderson. 2000a. River incision into Goudie, A. 2004. Encyclopedia of Geomor- Oard, M.J. 1990. An Ice Age Caused by the bedrock: Mechanics and relative ef- phology, volume 2. Routledge Ltd., New Genesis Flood. Institute for Creation ficacy of plucking, abrasion, and cavi- York, NY. Research, El Cajon, CA. tation. Geological Society of America Griggs, R.F. 1922. The Valley of Ten Thou- Ritz, L. 2008. Can the stream power law be Bulletin 112:490–503. Available online sand Smokes. The National Geographic used to quantify differential landscape at: http://gshanc.people.wm.edu/whip- Society, Washington, D.C. Available evolution from bedrock incision in the ple_etal_2000.pdf (accessed November online at: http://books.google.com/boo Central Alps, Switzerland? In 21st Keck 17, 2009). ks?id=deYYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74&lpg= Research Symposium in Geology Short Whipple, K.X., N.P. Snyder, and K. Dol- PA74&dq=Robert+F+Griggs+the+valle Contributions, pp. 35–39. Available lenmayer. 2000b. Rates and processes y+of+ten+thousand+smokes&source=b online at http://keckgeology.org/files/ of bedrock incision by the Upper Ukak l&ots=mIZT1_YuWZ&sig=YfZFSFhSx pdf/symvol/21st/alps/ritz.pdf (accessed River since the 1912 Novarupta ash VIOICH98J3felIWKkI&hl=en&ei=zK November 17, 2009) flow in the Valley of Ten Thousand 6nSs7yNYqkNez9ycgG&sa=X&oi=boo Singer, S.F., and D.T. Avery. 2008. Unstop- Smokes, Alaska. Geology 28(9):835–838. k_result&ct=result&resnum=7#v=one pable Global Warming, Every 1,500 Available online at: http://www2.bc.edu/ page&q=&f=false (accessed November Years. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, ~snyderno/whipple_etal_2000_geology. 17, 2009). New York, NY. pdf (accessed November 17, 2009). Harris, A.G., E. Tuttle, and S.D. Tuttle. 2003. Stock, J.D., and D.R. Montgomery. 1999. Whipple, K.X., and G.E. Tucker. 2002. Im- Geology of National Parks, 6th Edition. Geologic constraints on bedrock riv- plications of sediment-flux-dependent Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, er incision using the stream power river incision models for landscape evo- Dubuque, IA. law. Journal of Geophysical Research lution. Journal of Geophysical Research Hildreth, W. 1983. The compositionally 104(B3)4983–4993. Abstract available 107(3):1–20. zoned eruption of 1912 in the Valley of online at: http://www.agu.org/pubs/ Williams, E.L. 1998. Rapid canyon forma- Ten Thousand Smokes, Katmai National crossref/1999/98JB02139.shtml (ac- tion: the Black Canyon of the Gunnison Park, Alaska. Journal of Volcanology and cessed November 17, 2009). River, Colorado. CRSQ 35:148–155. Geothermal Research, 18:1–56. Trop, J.M., D.A. Szuch, M. Rioux, and Volume 46, Spring 2010 259

Book Review

The by Loren Eisley Immense Journey Random House, New York, 1957, 210 pages, $10.00.

Classic books deserve rereading, includ- was a projective dream of scientists striv- witness of bush-climbing fi sh—just what ing this gem by naturalist Loren Eisley ing to build an evolutionary tree upon bizarre creatures was Eisley describing a (1907–1977). existing organisms. … It did not exist” half-century ago? Eisley’s family homesteaded in Ne- (pp. 36–37). Seventh, regarding the mysterious braska. Against economic odds, includ- Third, Eisley called himself a bone workings of his brain, Eisley writes, ing some time as a railroad hobo, the hunter as he wandered the land. “I have “There are times when I sit quietly in author gained his education through a stared so much at death that I recognize my chair and try to hear the little purr of Ph.D. in anthropology from the Univer- the lingering personalities in the faces the cogs in my head and the tubes fl aring sity of Pennsylvania. The naturalist spent and skulls and feel accompanying af- and dying as the messages go through 30 years on the faculty there, while also fi nities and repulsions” (p. 127). Fourth, them and the circuits snap shut or open” hiking the open country of America. Eisley was amazed at the endless design (p. 180). Eighth, Eisley gives wonderful This volume is one of several books in nature. Regarding the multiple life- descriptions of bird behavior observed produced by Loren Eisley. It has sold giving properties of water, he wrote, during countless hours. He concludes well over a million copies with transla- “If there is magic on this planet, it is this book portion, writing, “I can never tion into 20 languages. Eisley wrote as a contained in water” (p. 15). bear to see a bird imprisoned” (p. 185). poet and described nature in refreshing Fifth, Eisley describes levels of com- Ninth, Eisley, concludes that fall ways. Not a religious man, he assumed plexity on the smallest scale of cells and is the best season for studying nature. the truth of evolution, while realizing atoms. He lists authors from a century “I shall be found puzzling over the that it fell far short of explaining what he ago who suggested that the atoms them- saw teeth on a desiccated leg of a dead saw in the wild. Many of his nature de- selves were inhabited by micro-beings. grasshopper or standing bemused in a scriptions, now fi ve decades old, deserve David Brewster wrote, “God has all brown sea of rusty stems” (p. 197). Fi- a close look. Ten of them follow. along been attentive to forms of life of nally, regarding the origin of life, Eisley First, regarding the deep sea and which we have no knowledge” (p. 156). quotes British biologist Joseph Woodger: the creatures that live in it, he wrote, Sixth, there is an intriguing experience “Unstable organic compounds and “Through it drift luminous jack-o-lan- related from the Australian outback: “We chlorophyll corpuscles do not persist or tern faces with wolf-trap mouths and were pushing a dugout up one of the come into existence in nature on their meager bodies, as though a head fl oating tidal creeks in northern Australia … we own account at the present day, and in that enormous darkness were more jam this mangrove bush and things [fi sh] consequently it is necessary to postulate important than a body” (p. 31). Second, come tumbling down. What were they that conditions were once such that this Eisley describes a continuous, unstruc- doing up there in bunches? I ask you. It’s did happen although and in spite of the tured sheet of living matter girdling the no place for a fi sh. Besides that they had fact that our knowledge of nature does entire ocean fl oor, as proposed by Ernst a way of sidling off with those popeyes not give us any warrant for making such Haeckel and Thomas Huxley. “The trained on you … Somebody ought to a supposition … it is simple dogma- structureless protoplasmic ‘Urschleim’ keep an eye on them” (pp. 48–49). A tism—asserting that what you want to 260 Creation Research Society Quarterly believe did in fact happen” (p. 200). of a rabbit’s heart or the dim dream that as a lifelong pursuit, more deeply than Eisley appears to have given up on builds a milkweed pod” (p. 209). Only most of us, and yet to miss the purpose understanding the meaning of life: “I God knows a person’s heart, but this of it all. shall wonder what strange forces at the book lacks any evidence of spiritual heart of the matter regulate the tiny beat awareness. How sad to inspect nature Don B. DeYoung [email protected]

Book Review

edited by Heidi Campbell A Science and and Heather Looy Religion Primer Baker Publishing Group, Grand Rapids, 2009, 230 pages, $20.00.

The authors are professors; Campbell Fuller Seminary, Messiah, Notre Dame, was never placed in a dungeon); he mut- in communications at Texas A & M, and Westmont. Authors Campbell and tered after abjuring, ‘And yet it moves!’ and Looy in psychology at the King’s Looy are to be complimented for bring- (a later invention); he was condemned University College, Ontario. Their goal ing together the writing talents of so ‘for demonstrating the earth’s motion’ is a “respectful, intelligent conversation many colleagues. (he wasn’t and he didn’t)” (p. 111). between science and religion” (back The book treats young-earth creation This book is attractively printed; the cover), and they have succeeded. Four with respect; however, the hundreds writing and editing is crystal clear. The introductory essays make clear the of references do not include a single encyclopedia is a valuable reference Biblical roots of modern science and creationist writer. Regarding limited with topics including chaos theory, also challenge the “warfare metaphor” creationist research, it is correctly stated ecofeminism, intelligent design, Kepler, between science and religion. The heart that “the number of people doing the miracles, Newton, William Paley, pro- of the book is a compact encyclopedia research is small, and it is diffi cult to fi nd cess theology, quantum theory, and the of terms from history, philosophy, sci- funding or journals willing to publish scientifi c method. ence, and theology. Seventy guest writers the results” (p. 72). Later, the book cor- defi ne and evaluate the terms, which rectly challenges the myth that Galileo’s Don B. DeYoung range from altruism to the verifi cation heliocentricism was a victim of religion: [email protected] principle. The contributors are from “A mythology grew up: Galileo was such schools as Asbury, Azusa Pacifi c, tortured (he wasn’t); he was imprisoned Bethel (Indiana), Calvin, Grove City, in the ‘dungeons of the Holy Offi ce’ (he Volume 46, Spring 2010 261 Time Required for Sedimentation Contradicts the Evolutionary Hypothesis

Guy Berthault*

Abstract tratigraphy, the basis of geological dating, was founded in the sev- Senteenth century on three principles proposed by Nicolas Steno: superposition, continuity, and original horizontality. Successive observa- tions and experiments show that his stratigraphic model was not in line with experimental data, because it overlooked the major variable factor of sedimentation: the current and its chronological effects. Experiments simulating the formation of sedimentary layers at variable current veloci- ties using different-sized particles show that Steno’s principles apply only to the case of deposition at zero current velocity. Since sedimentary pro- cesses affect stratigraphy and geological dating, paleohydraulic conditions must be considered in any stratigraphic analysis. The estimated time of deposition is often the crucial factor in developing a local timescale, and the paleohydraulic approach links deposition to the critical transport velocity of current as determined by particle size. From this velocity, the corresponding transport capacity in units of volume and time is calculated. The time of sedimentation is the quotient obtained from dividing the volume of sedimentary rocks by the transport capacity. A team of Russian sedimentologists have applied this method to geological formations of the Crimean Peninsula and of the Northwest Russian Plateau in the St. Pe- tersburg region. They discovered that the time required for sedimentation was only 0.01% of the corresponding period of the geological timescale. This is at variance with the time required for species to evolve.

Introduction a topic about which little work has of these attempted to explain the me- This review of my research goes to been done. While it is true that sedi- chanics of stratification. In fact, my the heart of the subject of evolution. ments had been examined and flume early literature research found very My research has focused on empirical experiments performed in connection little to guide my practical research. experiments showing how strata form, with building and other projects, none With regard to sedimentation, the basic principles of superposition, continuity, and initial horizontality laid down in the seventeenth century had been ac- * Guy Berthault, 28, Bd. Thiers, 78250 Meulan, France cepted, albeit with elaboration, virtually Accepted for publication December 1, 2009 without question. There seemed to 262 Creation Research Society Quarterly have been few subsequent attempts to As regards radiometric dating, Pro- (2) Principle of continuity examine the actual mechanics of how fessor Aubouin stated in his Précis de Strata owe their existence to strata form. Géologie (1967, Tome 1, p.193): sediments in a fluid. At the time Yet that question has far-reaching Each radioactive element disin- when any stratum formed, either implications for both the geological tegrates in a characteristic and it was circumscribed on its sides timescale and the fossil record. Since constant manner, which depends by another solid body, or else it the late eighteenth and early nineteenth neither on the physical state (no ran around the globe of the earth centuries, stratigraphy has tacitly as- variation with pressure or tempera- (Steno, 1667, p. 30, CII.3c). sumed slow, gradual sedimentation, ac- ture or any other external constraint) (3) Principle of original horizon- cepting the premises of Nicolaus Steno nor on the chemical state (identical tality (1638–1686) as congenial to deep time, for an oxide or a phosphate). At the time when any stratum in-situ fossil preservation, and the glo- Rocks form when magma crystallizes. formed, its lower surface, as bally correlative geologic timescale. As Crystallization depends on pressure and also the surfaces of its sides, cor- Professor Gabriel Gohau of the French temperature, from which radioactivity is responded with the surfaces of Geological Society wrote in his book A independent. So, there is no relationship the subjacent body and lateral History of Geology (1990, p. 192), “Time between radioactivity and crystallization, bodies, but its upper surface was is measured by the interval required for absent assumptions that the “clocks” are (then) parallel to the horizon, as sediments to deposit, a fact upon which set at zero time upon crystallization. far as it was possible (Steno, 1667, everybody is more or less agreed, and Consequently, radioactivity does not p. 30. C.II. 3.4.). not by orogenesis or ‘biological revolu- date the formation of rocks. Moreover, The sedimentological model cor- tions.’ ” daughter elements contained in rocks responding to these three principles is, Gohau (1990) mentioned in his result mainly from radioactivity in therefore, the following. In a fluid cov- work how Charles Lyell was influenced magma, where gravity separates the ering the earth, except for exposed land, in the construction of the geological heavier parent element from the lighter a precipitate deposits strata after strata, timescale by his belief in “biologi- daughter element. Thus radiometric covering all of the submerged earth. cal revolutions” occurring over 240 dating has no chronological significance. After the deposition of each stratum, million years. It was the geological It seemed to me, therefore, necessary to the sedimentation is interrupted for the timescale, giving the impression that study the basis of the stratigraphic scale time it takes for the stratum to acquire there was a succession and change in that depended upon the stratification of a solid consistency. The stratum being fossilized species, which led Darwin sedimentary rocks. contained between two parallel planes to formulate his theory of evolution. Steno was the founder of stratigraphy. indicates that the sedimentation rate of In the twentieth century, Lyell’s age It was in 1667 that he introduced in his the precipitate is uniform around the was replaced by a radiometric date of work Canis Calchariae the postulate; submerged earth. 542 million years for the base of the “layers of sub-soil are ‘strata’ of ancient Cambrian Era. What Professor Gohau successive ‘sediments’” (Steno, 1667, p. wrote is perfectly correct, because fos- 27 C.II). From this partial interpreta- Deficiencies of sils are buried in sediments. Therefore, tion, he drew three initial principles Steno’s Stratigraphy it is the time of sedimentation that of stratigraphy, formulated in his work The first part of the definition of the determines the age of fossils and not a Prodromus (1669). principle of superposition is, “At the chronology based on “biological revolu- (1) Principle of superposition time when one of the highest stratum tions,” interpreted now as “biological At the time when one of the high formed, the stratum underneath it had evolution.” Biostratigraphy has proven stratum formed, the stratum un- already acquired a solid consistency” no more successful than other modern derneath it had already acquired (Steno, 1667, p. 30, CII. 3.d). A stratum stratigraphic methods, because they all a solid consistency. At the time between 50 cm and 1 m is considered are heavily weighted by assumptions when any stratum formed, the thick. Consequently, submarine drill- that cannot be demonstrated. Thus, the superincumbent material was ings should encounter solid strata in stratigraphic approach has now reached entirely fluid, and, due to this the stratified oceanic sediments after the extreme of proposing to define age fact at the time when the lowest a few meters. However, the results of boundaries by fiat through the use of stratum formed, none of the su- sea-bottom drilling have shown that global stratotype sections and points perior strata existed (Steno, 1667, the first semi-consolidated sediments (Gradstein et al., 2004). p. 30, CII. 3.d). occur between 400 and 800 m. Iso- Volume 46, Spring 2010 263

lated, hardened chert beds have been sions and regressions. This is the object ous grading process, which takes place found under 135 m of unconsolidated of study in sequence stratigraphy today. immediately following the deposition of sediment near oceanic transform faults Diagrams in this discipline, however, the heterogranular mixture. (Logvinenko, 1980). Steno’s definition, give no indication of the current velocity The thickness of the laminae appears therefore, which would significantly during these transgressions and regres- to be independent of the sedimentation extend the total time of deposition by sions. However, this information can be rate but increases with extreme differ- his concept of successive hardening, is derived from the size of particles of sedi- ences in the particle size in the mixture. not supported by these sedimentological ment in a sequence, which corresponds Where a horizontal current is involved, observations. to a minimum current velocity needed thin laminated layers developing later- As regards the principle of continu- to erode and transport particles. ally in the direction of the current are ity, clearly no sedimentary layer extends observed. globally. As concerns the principle of Further experiments demonstrated original horizontality, seismic readings Major Stages of the that in still water, continuous deposi- and submarine coring demonstrate Laboratory Research tion of heterogranular sediments gives that strata in oceanic sediments are not The two principal stages of program rise to laminae, which disappear as the always horizontal and that the rate of investigated the following two lines of height of the fall of particles into water sedimentation is not uniform on a global research: lamination and stratification. increases and apparently their size. scale in Earth’s oceans. Laminae follow the slope of the upper Steno (1667, p. 30, CII.3c) said, Lamination part of the deposit. In running water, “Strata owe their existence to sediments Berthault (1986) described the deposi- many closely related types of lamination in a fluid,” but he said nothing about the tion of heterogranular sediments in appear in the deposit, even superposed action of the fluid on the sediments, so water. These sedimentation experiments (Berthault, 1988). that the relative stratigraphic chronol- were conducted in still water with a con- ogy resulting from his principles did tinuous supply of heterogranular mate- Stratification not take flow velocity into account (the rial. A deposit was obtained, giving the Experiments in stratification were con- subsequent principles of paleontological illusion of successive beds or laminae ducted at Colorado State University with identity and uniformitarianism changed (Figure 1). These laminae are the result professor of hydraulics and sedimentol- nothing in this respect). Currents exist in of a spontaneous periodic and continu- ogy Pierre Julien (Figure 2). A flume present-day oceans, which erode, trans- with recirculating water was used to port, and deposit sediments, as shown by track the progress of a sediment-laden Strakhov in 1957. current. Current velocity was varied, as Charles Lyell adapted Steno’s prin- Hjulstrom (1935) and his successors had ciples to his theory of uniformitarianism, defined the critical sedimentation rate giving as an example layers deposited in for each particle size. It was discovered fresh water in Auvergne. Observing that that varying the current velocity resulted the layers were less than 1 mm thick, in the superposed stratification based he considered that each one had been on the segregation of particles by size, laid down annually. At this rate, the not on the time of deposition. Thus, 230-m thick deposit would have taken Steno’s principle of superposition as an hundreds of thousands of years to form. indication of relative time did not apply In the next section (and also Figure in this case. 1), I show that these layers, which are Instead, the flume experiment laminae, do not always correspond to showed that in the presence of a vari- annual deposits and may be generated able current, stratified superposed beds in a time interval much less than that form simultaneously in the direction which is indicated by the modern geo- of the current. This mirrors conditions logical timescale. observed in the field, on the scale of Geologists have now recognized facies, to Golovkinskii, Inostrantzev sequences of facies (conglomerate, and Walther’s law (Walther, 1894; sandstone, shale, limestone, evaporate) Figure 1. Lamination resulting from Middleton, 1973; Romanovskii, 1988). that correspond to marine transgres- sediment flowing into water. According to this law, the progression of 264 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 4. Typical cross-sectional view of deposit.

in the experiment, apparent successive sedimentary layers are, in fact, joint Figure 2. Typical longitudinal view of deposition (flow from right to left). planes that form based on the mechan- ics of the deposition. Therefore, given a continuous supply of heterogeneous sandy mixtures in a current of varying velocity, laminae are created by the natu- ral segregation of the particles according to their size, graded beds are created by nonuniform flow (Figure 4), and apparent parallel bedding boundaries are formed by desiccation at the inter- face between layers of different particle size (Figure 5). Superposed strata are not, therefore, necessarily identical to successive sedimentary layers, as was thought by Steno. The report of the flume experiments was published in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of France (Julien et al., 1993). The results of both sets of experiments (lamination and stratifica- tion) were presented to several sedi- mentological congresses and recorded in the video Fundamental Experiments on Stratification (Julien and Berthault, Figure 3. Results of experiments. (A) schematic formation of graded beds. (B) 1993). These results contradicted the time sequence for depsosit formation for t1 < t2 < t3. principles of Steno by showing that up to the limit of the angle of repose (30° to 40° for the sands), the lamination of a given deposit is parallel to the slope (Figure facies of a specific sequence is the same the interface of layers of coarse and fine 6). Thus, the principle of original hori- in both a lateral and vertical direction particles. This shows that what is often zontality does not apply universally, as (Figure 3). interpreted as sedimentary bedding in has often been assumed by geologists. Laboratory experiments on the the field can form merely as a result Field examples that were thought to desiccation of natural sands also show of dewatering in beds formed by the show tectonism after deposition tilting the preferential fracturing (or joints) at segregation of varying grain sizes. So, the originally horizontal sediments may Volume 46, Spring 2010 265

Figure 6. Lamination parallel to slope of 15°.

actually instead simply show deposition along an original slope. Figure 5. Horizontal fracturing of the Bijou Creek sand. Paleohydraulic conditions Application of Steno’s principles has led to the development of stratigraphy absent a careful evaluation of paleo- hydraulic factors. However, during the twentieth century, sedimentolo- Table I. Maximum permissible velocities for nonerosive or noncohesive grounds, gists began to investigate these factors. in m/s (according to Lebediev, 1959). The relationship between hydraulic conditions and the configuration of Avg. particle Average flow depth (m) deposits (submarine ripples and dunes diameter (mm) 0.40 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 >10 and horizontal beds) in contemporary 0.005 0 0 0 0 0 0 deposits has been the object, especially recently, of well-known observations 0.05 0 0 0 0 1 1 and experimentation. Rubin and Mc- 0.25 0 0 1 1 1 1 Culloch (1980) investigated bed forms 1.0 1 1 1 1 1 1 in San Francisco Bay (Figure 7) and 2.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 Southard and Boguchwal (1990) in 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 flume experiments. Following the pioneering work of 10 1 1 1 1 1 2 Hjulstrom (1935), Lebedev (1959), Neill 15 1 1 1 2 2 2 (1968), Levi (1981), Maizels (1983), Van 25 1 1 2 2 2 2 Rijn (1984a, 1984b), and Maza and 40 2 2 2 2 2 3 Flores (1997) determined minimum current velocities needed for the erosion 75 2 2 3 3 3 4 and sedimentation of different size parti- 100 2 3 3 4 4 4 cles at varying water depths (Table I). 150 3 3 4 4 4 5 Geologists attribute the large-scale 200 4 4 4 5 5 5 deposition of sediments to marine 300 4 4 5 5 6 6 transgressions and regressions. The relationships shown in Table I can be ap- 400 5 5 5 6 6 plied particularly to detrital rocks, such >500 5 6 6 6 as sandstone, during the first stage of a 266 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Initially, a water current moving at a velocity of around 25 m/s was run parallel across the surface plane of the sedimentary sample. At this velocity and orientation, there was no observed ero- sion during periods of less than 10 hours. However, when the period reached 18 hours, approximately 2 grams of mate- rial was eroded. In Experiment 25, the sedimentary rock was oriented so that the flow was at an angle of 2.5° to the direction of the current. Changing this parameter caused the erosion of 6.6 grams of material in 18 hours. These ex- periments are being continued, particu- larly in regard to flow that is not strictly parallel to the sedimentary sample. Paleohydraulic analyses are not restricted to the laboratory. A team of Russian sedimentologists directed by Alexander Lalomov (Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Ore Deposits) has applied paleohydraulic analyses in conformity with Newtonian mechanics to geological formations in Russia. An in- vestigation of sedimentary formation on Figure 7. Graphs of (a) water depth versus sand-wave height and (b) water depth the Crimean Peninsula (Lalomov, 2007) versus water velocity, showing bedforms in fine sand expected under different water concluded that the current velocities de- conditions. The thickness of cross beds observed in fine-grained sandstone is used rived from sedimentary particle analysis to estimate sand-wave height. Then, sand-wave height is entered into the graph would have resulted in the deposition of (a) to estimate the water depth where the sand wave formed. After a water depth is the entire sedimentary sequence in a very estimated on graph (a), the depth is transferred to graph (b), where the minimum short period of time, rather than the mil- and maximum velocities of water are indicated for the specific water depth. lions of years implied by a stratigraphic analysis using the geological timescale. Additional research of sandstones on the Northwest Russian Plateau in the transgressive marine sequence. As rocks tary processes have been determined St. Petersburg region shows that the are eroded, transported, and deposited for different types of rock and sediment time of sedimentation was only 0.01% of by powerful currents in relatively shallow (Tables II and III). These are described that attributed to it by the stratigraphic water, the resulting grain sizes can sup- in more detail in Berthault (2002). timescale. Results of the research are ply information about those hydraulic The next step was to arrange a new awaiting publication in Lithological and factors. The paleovelocity of a current series of experiments (Table IV) to Mineral Resources under the auspices of below which particles of a given size are measure the erosion of different types of the Russian Academy of Sciences. deposited and the corresponding capac- rocks (sandstone, limestone) at higher Finally, in concert with the Institute ity of that current to transport sediments current velocities (up to 27 m/s). This was of Geology of Kazan, the same team un- can be determined based upon these especially important in understanding dertook an investigation into the time of data. Current speed and carrying capac- the paleohydraulic properties of con- sedimentation of the local transgression ity can then help determine the time glomerates, which are typically the basal sequence in the Kama region studied needed to create a particular deposit. sedimentary unit of a clastic transgressive in 1868 by Golovkinskii, founder of Similar relationships between cur- sequence. This work was done with the sequence stratigraphy (Berthault et al., rent velocity, water depth, and sedimen- St. Petersburg Institute of Hydrology. 2008) The result is similar to the time of Volume 46, Spring 2010 267

Table II. Maximum permissable velocities (V, m/s) for rock soils (from Central Administrative Board on Hydraulic Energetic Building).

Lithology Average Depth (m) Rough Bottom Surface Smooth Bottom Surface 0.4 1.0 2.0 >3.0 0.4 1.0 2.0 >3.0

A. Sedimentary Rocks V (m/s) marl, shale, clay 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.1 porous limestone, stratified limestone, sandstone with lime 2.5 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.2 5.0 5.7 6.2 massive limestone, dolomite sandstone, siliceous limestone 3.7 4.5 5.2 5.6 5.8 7.0 8.0 8.7

B. Crystalline Rocks V (m/s) marble, granite, gabbro 16 20 23 25 25 25 25 25 porphyry, andesite, basalt diabase, quartzite 21 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Note: Velocities calculated for unweathered massive rocks. Velocities decrease proportionately with weathering and fragmentation down to those of unconsolidated soils.

Table III. Maximum permissable velocities (V, m/s) for rock soils. of rock strata. However, Steno’s crucial Average Depth (m) failure was in not accounting for the Lithology 1 3 5 10 15 20 effects of moving water on sedimentary particles. When the principles of hy- Loose siltstone 1 1 1 1 1 1 draulics are applied to the mechanics Siltstone, moderately hard 1 1 1 2 2 2 of sedimentation, several interesting Hard siltstone 2 2 2 2 3 3 conclusions demonstrate the gaps in Steno’s approach. These include: (1) Marl 3 3 3 4 4 5 the natural segregation by grain size Porous, stratified, dolomitic limestone 4 4 5 6 6 6 of heterogeneous particles in a moving Solid, massive, siliceous limestone 5 6 7 8 9 9 current, (2) the lateral, not vertical, de- velopment of sedimentary bedding in a Sandstone with lime cement 4 4 5 6 6 6 variable current, and (3) the creation of Dolomitic sandstone 5 6 7 8 9 9 apparent bedding planes by desiccation. Granite and other instrusive rocks >15 >15 >15 >15 >15 >15 Thus, a major pillar of deep time—stra- tigraphy—needs to be reevaluated from a sedimentological and hydraulic per- sedimentation of rocks in the St. Peters- Conclusion spective. Radioactivity is independent burg region. The report was presented to The geological chronology has been from the physical or chemical state of the Thirty-third International Congress established on two pillars: stratigraphy the sample and thus is not influenced of Geology, held in Oslo in August and radiometric dating. Stratigraphy when a sample changes from magma to 2008, and to the Fifth Conference on was built on the principles of Steno, and rock. Consequently, as the radiometric Lithology in Ekaterinburg (Russia) in early geologists interpreted Steno to im- dating process is not linked to the solidi- October 2008. ply vast lengths of time for the creation fication of the magma, it cannot date the 268 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Table IV. Erosion of different types of rocks at higher current velocities.

Mass of the con- Mass Loss of dry mass tainer and with (dry sample of sample water sample (g) post- (t = 18° C) Dry Before After experiment, Dur- By Exper- Sample Initial exper- exper- pre- Flow vel. ation weight iment & Side Mass (g) iment iment stabilization, g) (m/s) (hours) Visual ΔG, (g) 1 2;A 6759.8 8576.0 8652.1 - 25.9 13.2 No - 2 8652.1 8657.0 6760.0 25.9 9.3 0.0 3 5;A 6571.3 8349.9 8374.9 - 25.8 8.2 No - 4 8374.9 8375.9 6570.8 25.6 7.3 0.0 5 3;A 6631.2 8482.9 8559.5 - 26.0 8.0 No - 6 8559.5 8585.5 6631.2 25.9 10.0 0.0 7 1;A 6322.9 8159.0 8217.9 - 25.8 13.5 Yes 4.7 8 1;B - 8217.9 8227.9 6318.2 25.8 21.7 No - 9 6979.9 7068.2 - 22.5 10.5 - 10 4;A 4802.8 7068.2 7049.2 - 17.3 15.0 Yes - 11 7049.2 7028.0 - 10.9 16.0 - 12 7028.0 7022.9 4650.0 7.8 17.5 152.8 13 3;B 6613.6 8471.7 8543.9 6613.8 25.7 9.0 No 0.0 14 3c;A 6589.6 8475.3 8523.1 6589.5 25.9 5.7 No - 15 3c;A 6589.6 8519.5 8548.3 6589.5 26.0 17.3 0.0 16 4k;B 4692.5 6951.5 7036.0 4674.5 4.4 7.0 Yes <18.0> 17 3c;B Demonstration Experiment 18 4k;A 4674.5 - - 4673.0 5.5 18.0 No 1.7 19 1;B 6317.2 - - 6315.1 25.9 18.0 No 2.1 20 4k;A 4673.0 - - 4671.5 13.2 18.0 No 1.3 21 1;A 6315.1 - - 6313.1 25.9 16.0 No 2 22 4k;A 4671.5 - - 4669.0 19.6 18.0 Yes 2.5 23 1;A 6313.1 - - 6311.2 23.8 18.0 Yes 1.9 24 4k;A 4669.0 - - 4668.0 8.4 18.0 Yes 1.0 25 1;A 6311.2 - - 6309.9 19.2 18.0 Yes 0.8–1.3 26 3c;B 5897.8 - - 5891.2 20.1–25.8 18.0 Yes 6.6

formation of metamorphic or volcanic life to develop from nonlife and for pres- Paleontologists may object based rocks (Pontcharra, 2009). ent life-forms to develop from a common on their ability to “show” evolutionary Paleohydraulic analysis can approxi- ancestor through innumerable genetic sequences in stratigraphic intervals. mate the time required for the sedimen- mutations over hundreds of millions of However, as present marine species live tation of a sequence much more ac- years, then the paleohydraulic approach in different ecological zones, according curately than conventional stratigraphy, to sedimentary strata not only invalidates to sea depth, latitude, and longitude, which tends to grossly overestimate the conventional stratigraphy but also elimi- this interpretive evolutionary sequence time required. Since evolution depends nates the time required for biological of different fossils that appear to sup- in part on a sufficient quantity of time for evolution (cf. www.sedimentology.fr). port stratigraphic superposition may Volume 46, Spring 2010 269

correspond instead to paleoecological 33rd International Geological Congress, Middleton, G.V. 1973. Johannes Walter’s distribution in depth and to migration Oslo, SES-01 General Contributions to law of correlation of facies. Geological patterns. Sedimentology, CD-ROM. Society of America Bulletin 84:979–988. By calling into question the princi- Ellenberger, F. 1975. Histoire de la Géolo- Molyavko, G.I., V.P. Franchuk, and V.G. ples and methods upon which geological gie, vol.1: Technique et Documentation, Kulichenko. 1985. Geologi I geography. dates are founded, and in proposing the pp.232–315. Lavoisier, Paris, France. Biblio-graficheskii spravochnik. Nauk, new approach of paleohydrology, I hope Gohau, G. 1990. A History of Geology. Dumka, Kiev, Ukraine. to open a dialogue with specialists in the Rutgers University Press, New Bruns- Neill, C.R. 1968. Note on initial movement disciplines concerned who are able to wick, NJ. of coarse uniform material. Journal of appreciate the implications and propose Gradstein, F., J.G. Ogg, and A.G. Smith Hydraulic Research 6(2):157–184. a geological chronology in conformity (editors). 2004. A Geologic Time Scale Pontcharra, J. 2009. Are Radiodating Meth- with experimental observation based 2004. Cambridge University Press, Cam- ods Reliable? In Conference Proceed- upon time of sedimentation—time that bridge, UK. ings, A Scientific Critique of Evolution, is insufficient for the evolution of species, Hjulstrom, F. 1935. Studies of the morpho- pp. 31–46. Sapienza University, Rome, as conceived by the proponents of the logical activity of rivers as illustrated by Italy. evolutionary hypothesis. river Fyris. Bulletin of the Geological Romanovskii, S.I. 1988. On the problem of Institute Uppsala 25:89–122. the history of discovery and authorship Julien, P.Y., Y. Lan, and G. Berthault. of main facies law. VIET 4:87–94. References 1993. Experiments on stratification of Rubin, D.M., and D.S. McCulloch. 1980. Aubouin, J. 1967. Précis de Géologie. Dunod, heterogeneous sand mixtures. Bulletin Single and superposed bed forms: a Paris, France. Géologique de France 164(5):649–660. synthesis of San Francisco Bay and flume Berthault, G. 1986. Sédimentologie: Expéri- Julien, P.Y., and G. Berthault. 1993. Fun- observations. Journal of Sedimentary ences sur la lamination des sédiments par damental Experiments on Stratification. Petrology 26:207–231. granoclassement périodique postérieur Video, Sarong Ltd., Monaco. Southard, J., and J.A. Boguchwal. 1990. Bed au dépôt. Contribution à l’explication Lalomov, A.V. 2007. Reconstruction of pa- configuration in steady unidirectional de la lamination dans nombre de leohydrodynamic conditions during the water-flows, part 2: synthesis of flume sédiments et de roches sédimentaires. formation of Upper Jurassic conglomer- data. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology Comptes Rendus de l’Académie de Sci- ates of the Crimean Peninsula. Lithology 60(5):658–679. ences 303(17):1569–1574. and Mineral Resources 42(3):298–311. Steno, N. 1667. Canis Calchariae. Ex Berthault, G. 1988. Sédimentation d’un Lebedev, V.V. 1959. Gidrologiya i Gidravlika typographia sub signo Stella, Florence, mélange hétérogranulaire. Expériences v Mostovom Dorozhnom Stroitel’stve Italy. de lamination en eau calme et en eau (Hydrology and Hydraulics in Bridge Steno, N. 1669. Prodromus. Ex typographia courante Comptes Rendus de l’Académie and Road Building). Gidrometeoizdat, sub signo Stella, Florence, Italy. de Sciences 306:717–724. Leningrad, Russia. Strakhov, N.M. 1957. Theoretical lithology Berthault, G. 2002. Analysis of the main Levi, J. 1981. Bed-Load Transport: Theory and and its problems. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, principles of stratigraphy on the basis of Practice, pp.303–355. Water Resources Ser. Geol. 11:15–31. experimental data. Lithology and Min- Publication, Garden City, MI. Van Rijn, L.C. 1984a. Suspended load. eral Resources 37(5):442–446. Logvinenko, N.V. 1980. Morskaya geologiya Journal of Hydraulic Engineering Berthault, G. 2004. Sedimentological (Marine Geology). Nedra, Leningrad, 10(11):1613–1641. Interpretation of the Tonto Group Russia. Van Rijn, L.C. 1984b. Sediment transport: Stratigraphy (Grand Canyon Colorado Maizels, J. 1983. Paleovelocity and Paleo- bed-load transport, part I. Journal of Hy- River). Lithology and Mineral Resources discharge, Determination for Coarse draulic Engineering 10(11):1431–1456. 39(5):504–508. Gravel Deposits. John Wiley & Sons, Vassoevich, N.B., V.L. Librovich, N.V. Berthault, G., V.G. Izotov, A.V. Lalomov, New York, NY. Logvinenko, and V.I. Marchenko. 1983. L.M. Sitdikova, and M.M. Akhmet- Maza, J.A, and M. Garcia Flores. 1997. Spravochnik po litologii. Nedra, Moscow, shakirov. 2008. Analytical expression of Velocidades medias para el inicio del Russia. Golovkinsky-Walther’s law with refer- movimiento de particulas. In Congresso Walther, J. 1894. Einleitung in die Geologie ence to research of Permian strata of Nacional de Hydraulica, pp. 70–88. und Historische Wissenschaft. Verlag von Volga-Ural region. Proceedings of the Guadalajara, Mexico. Gustav Fisher, Jena, Germany. 270 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Book Review

by Paul R. Myrant The Challenge Tate Publishing & Enterprises, of Evolution Mustang, OK, 2009, 238 pages, $30.00.

Many creationist writers have put forth sections: (1) The Existence of a Creator, such as religion’s for religions; affect for challenges to evolution, but few have (2) The Nature of the Creator, and (3) effect; and umbilical chord for umbilical published responses to those challenges. The Creator and Evolution. The author cord need correction. Myrant writes in Now, we have an author taunting (in his writes, “My premise is that the existence his book: “Sir Fred Hoyle calculated the book title at least) believers in Darwin- of a Creator is an axiom, a self-evident odds that just the proteins of an amoe- ism to prove their case. Does he provide or universally recognized truth or innate bae arising by chance as one chance in scientifi c facts to show that evolution is belief” (p. 22). He states that “globally, 1040,000 (ten to the forty thousandth neither a fact nor even a theory? No, but only 8 percent of all people are atheists” power)” (p. 64). Most readers of this Myrant has accumulated an extensive and “17 percent are agnostic.” Myrant book will instantly recognize the errors. array of facts concerning the creation/ believes that disbelief in the existence The professional editor would have cor- evolution controversy. In the introduc- of a Creator is often due to three falla- rected the spelling of “an amoebae” to tion he writes, “This book is a discussion cies: that belief in a Creator is an act of “an amoeba” and changed “one chance about creationism, evolution, and the blind faith, that it is the result of religious in 1040,000” to “one chance in 10 40,000.” apparent division between religion and indoctrination, and that it is a subjective, There are several other cases of such science.” Thus he acknowledges that unknowable “truth.” His book is an at- errors as well. he is not challenging evolutionists to tempt to show the inaccuracy of these I suggest that the author plan a prove their case but is presenting a case fallacies and persuade the reader that second edition immediately and take for creationism. the Creator exists and that such belief advantage of the services provided by Paul Myrant, a graduate of Talbot is more rational and reasonable than a the publisher’s professional editors. Seminary, received his Master of Arts belief that life and all matter exist with- Myrant’s research is too valuable to lose degree in Biblical studies and has out a cause. by not having the errors corrected. If served as a senior pastor and teacher for A major problem is a lack of a review this is done, I would recommend wide over three decades. As such he is well by a professional editor. Such a person distribution. qualifi ed to defend Biblical creation. probably would have suggested a differ- His book is divided into three primary ent title. In addition, mistakes in spelling Clifford Lillo [email protected] Volume 46, Spring 2010 271 The Case for Holobaraminic Status in Bears (Family Ursidae) and the Implications within a Creation Model of Ecology

Tom Hennigan*

Abstract xtant bears (Family Ursidae) are currently classified into three Esubfamilies, three genera, eight species, and numerous subspecies. They inhabit the continents of Eurasia, North America, and South America. Previous research has identified all eight species as sharing biologically meaningful similarity among its members, making them a monobaramin. A literature search was initiated to determine the ex- tent of unique suites of ursid traits that significantly distinguish them from other taxa, making them an apobaramin. In current baramino- logical thought, if a taxon is both monobaraminic and apobaraminic, it becomes a holobaramin, or the best determination of the created bear kind. Creation research should focus on revealing how genetic mechanisms may be influenced by environmental factors that trigger them. It is predicted that an understanding of these processes will reveal insights into how the Creator ensured creature persistence in the face of changing environments and the mechanisms involved with rapid ursid diversification in less than 4500 years.

Introduction “Better to meet a bear robbed of her cubs worshipped and elevated as status sym- their behavior they can be enjoyed and than a fool in his folly” (Proverbs 17:12 bols for their strength and courage, the respected. They are formidable creatures NIV). knowledgeable hiker also is aware of their designed by God to operate in a cursed For many who enjoy wilderness unpredictability and sometimes deadly world. In general, they also fear man wanderings, the mere thought of startling demeanor. For these reasons they have (Gen. 9:2), and it is out of this fear that a grizzly bear slumbering in the thick been extensively eradicated throughout unpredictable attacks may occur. Bears bramble or getting between a mama their range. Conversely, I have had are the most studied wild carnivores be- bear and her cubs invokes fear and experiences with both black and grizzly cause the survival of many species is now awe. Though such creatures have been bears, and with proper understanding of a concern (Krause et al., 2008). Common traits include less devel- oped carnassial teeth, production of hybrid offspring in seven of the eight * Tom Hennigan, 125 Hennigan Lane, Georgetown, New York 13072, species, specific chromosome banding [email protected] patterns, biomolecular data, trophic Accepted for publication November 10, 2009 flexibility, unique bile salt metabolism, 272 Creation Research Society Quarterly non-obligate hibernative metabolism, He warns that creation researchers assumptions, mtDNA evidence favors plantigrade feet, and premature birth “could fall into the same modernist trap rapid diversification of both extant with the smallest young compared to of spending more time on getting behind and extinct bears starting around the the size of the mother than any other the text and wrestling with scientific Miocene-Pliocene boundary, about five placental mammal (Weissengruber et reconstructions rather than sitting under million years ago (Figure 1) (Krause et al., 2001; Lindburg and Baragona, 2004; the text’s authority, being informed and al., 2008). Creationary presuppositions Breiter, 2005; North American Bear transformed by its message and theology” posit a more rapid radiation from the Center, 2009). These traits demonstrate (Turner, 2009, p. 58). original bear kind that survived the that ursids possess biologically meaning- With the above in mind, one re- Flood. Assuming the general complete- ful similarity and therefore are classified searcher, using fossil data, has proposed ness of the fossil record, and a Flood/ as a monobaramin (Tyler, 1997, Weston placing Ursidae as sub-baraminic, using post-Flood delineation around the and Wieland, 1998; Wood, 2003; Lamb, a post-Flood fossil continuity criterion K/T boundary (Figure 1), which not all 2006; Tyler, 2006; Wood, 2006). (Wise, 2008; Wise, 2009a). Under this creation researchers would agree with, In contrast, an apobaramin is iden- criterion, taxa that are sub-baraminic are the fossil record of bears begins well tified if the extant and extinct bears defined as having diversified well after after the Flood, less than 4500 years ago are bound by biologically meaningful the Flood, as evidenced by their first (Wise, 2008). differences, when compared with other appearance in the fossil record. Figure Because older fossils are question- taxa, but without regard to similarities 1 depicts the extant fossil evidence for able due to their fragmentary nature between them (Wood, 2003). If bio- bears. The dark grey box illustrates a and a whole paper can be dedicated to logically meaningful suites of characters time interval of massive global changes bear genetics alone, this paper focuses indicate that the ursids are both a mono- around the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. on the current metabolic, behavioral, baramin and an apobaramin, they are Before that boundary, older fossils tend and anatomical suites of traits that may designated a holobaramin, or the closest to be incomplete and their relationships indicate their apobaraminic status. The approximation of the created bear “kind.” to living bears are unknown and subject ecological implications of the data also A few dissimilar traits in the giant panda to the interpretation of the investigator. will be explored within a young earth and the difficulty in delineating suites of Many evolutionists tend to hypothesize paradigm. biologically meaningful traits make an that bears evolved from the canids, while ursid apobaramin and holobaramin hard many creationists see canids and ursids to demonstrate. as separate baramins and discontinuous. The Extant Bears Turner (2009, pp. 56–57) stressed the The early fossil evidence is lacking for Bears are diverse in some ways and importance for creation scientists to be either interpretation. similar in many others. The giant panda careful with the identification of “kind” Genetic research on bears is greatly (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) has been (Heb. mîn), emphasizing the following expanding, and new insights continue historically problematic because it has conclusions. to be discovered. For example, recently several traits that are inconsistent with • Mîn is often related thematically it has been shown that the geographic other bear species. To have an apprecia- and theologically in the main ranges of cave bears extend as far east as tion for Ursidae unity and diversity in contexts of its use. Transbaikalia, Eastern Siberia. Knapp et light of how much they have changed • It is unclear if the word is used al. (2009) compared mitochondrial DNA since the Flood, it is important to briefly in a technical or nontechnical and morphology of Asian and European distinguish each species. Tables 1 and sense and, therefore, to demand cave bear fossils. The data suggest that 2 summarize the descriptions, range, a precise technical definition is these bears are morphologically different chromosome numbers, subspecies, gen- inappropriate and dogmatism, from one another, and their diversity was eral behavior, and conservation status for its use in modern biological greater than assumed. This is consistent for the extant bears (American Zoo and taxonomy is unwarranted. with ursid heterotrophic flexibility as it Aquarium’s Bear Taxon Group, 2009; • Mîn does assume certain dis- relates to their morphology, discussed North American Bear Center, 2009; continuities, but it is impossible later in this paper. Lindburg and Baragona, 2004). Table III to determine how many “kinds” Many evolutionists and creationists is the most current and complete sum- there were. Consequently, the believe that ursid diversification hap- mary of hybridization data (Hennigan, “kinds” determined by creation- pened rapidly, but the time frames vary 2009a; Hennigan, 2009b). Taxonomi- ists may not be equal to Biblical due to differing presuppositions. For cally, bears comprise three subfamilies: kinds. example, according to evolutionary Ailurinae, Tremarctinae, and Ursinae. Volume 46, Spring 2010 273

Ursavus (4 spp.) Indarctos (8 spp.) Agriotherium (3 spp.) Temporal ranges of extant and fossil bears. sloth bear (U. ursinus) Ursus boecki Extinct genera and species are denoted with a brown bear (U. arctos) cross (†). Species used in this study are written in bold. Horizontal dark grey bars indicate temporal polar bear (U. maritimus) range based on fossil evidence. The dark grey Ursus Ursus prearctos box illustrates a time interval of massive global Ursus etruscus changes around the Miocene- Pliocene boundary. Ursus deningeri Ursinae cave bear (U. spelaeus) This phylogeny is based on ten complete cave bears mitochondrial genome sequences from all eight American black bear (U. americanus) living bear species, plus the extinct European cave modern Ursinae bears black bears and American giant short-faced bears. Asian black bear (U. thibetanus) Ursus minimus Ursus mediterraneus sun bear (U. malayanus )

Ursus ruscinensis Ursidae Plionarctos (2 spp.) American giant short-faced bear

) NA

(Arctodus simus bears

Arctodus pristinus short-face Arctotherium angustidens Arctotherium vetustum Arctotherium bonariense SA

Arctotherium tarijense bears short-face

Arctotherium wingei Tremarctinae

Tremarctos Tremarctos floridanus spectacled bear (T. ornatus) bears spectacled

Ailuropoda wulingshanensis Ailuropoda baconi Ailuropoda Ailuropoda microta

giant panda (A. melanoleuca) pandas Ailuropodinae Plithocyon (3 spp.) Phoberocyon (3 spp.) Cephalogale geoffroyi Kolponomos (2 spp.) Allocyon loganensis Parictis (other 6 spp.) Hemicyoninae Parictis montanus harbor seal Global expansion of C4 biomas Major temperature drop and increasing seasonality Flood/Post Flood Faunal turnover Amphicinodontinae Boundary (K/T)? Epochs Eocene Oligocene Miocene Plio Plei Hol After Krause et al. 2008 Ma 34 23.8 5.3 1.8 0.01

Figure 1. The extant fossil evidence for bears. Genera and species are denoted with a cross (†). (Used by permission from BioMed Central.)

The Giant Panda black eye patches. It probably has the In some ways the giant panda is Subfamily Ailurinae contains the giant smallest home range and is sometimes similar to the lesser (red) panda (Ailurus panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), which sympatric with the Asiatic black bear (U. fulgens—44 chromosomes) in that about is its only living member. The giant pan- thibetanus). 99% of their diet is bamboo, but both da is known as an umbrella species for Fossil evidence of Ailuropoda usu- will eat meat on occasion. Both have conservation because it is endangered ally consists of scattered teeth and a few backward-facing male genitalia (Lind- and declining. As an umbrella species, rare skulls. Two of the extinct species burg and Baragona, 2004, p. 45), unlike it represents an animal that people can discovered in China (Figure 1) include other bears, where male genitalia point connect with and care for. The hope is A. baconi, which is a larger version of forward. The giant and lesser pandas that a caring public may enhance the today’s panda. A. microta is a fairly recent have a radial sesamoid, which is a sixth, chances of survival for both the panda discovery of a much smaller version and “toe-like” structure produced by an en- community and its habitat. The giant is interpreted as the oldest fossil of the larged carpel bone. The lesser panda’s panda has a distinctive white face and giant panda genus (Jin et al., 2007). radial sesamoid is not as prominent 274 Creation Research Society Quarterly Table 1: Ursidae Descriptions, Ranges, Chromosomes, and Subspecies Table I. Ursidae descriptions, ranges, chromosomes, and subspecies.

Descriptor Sun Sloth Brown Polar American Asiatic Andean Giant Ursus Ursus ursinus Ursus maritimus (Spectacled) Ursus arctos Black Black Panda malayanus Tremarctos Ursus Ursus ornatus Ailuropoda americanus thibetanus melanoleuca Physical Smallest Very shaggy Dark brown to Largest bear, Medium size, Medium sized Small bear Small black and bear, short, black coat with cream to black, if long neck, white found in bear, mostly with cream white bear, Description black fur, mixed guard hairs have fur, triangular many black but also colored facial shortened light colored gray/brown white tips gives profile, no different color has a brown markings muzzle, large crescent on hair, light “grizzled” shoulder hump, phases phase, around eyes black eye chest, large colored “Y” or appearance, black skin, very including; muzzles are that give it patches, most paws, long “U” shape on shoulder hump, wide paws for black, light colored the name of torso and claws chest, light box-shaped paddling, chocolate, and all have a “spectacled” head are white, colored nose, dish considered a cinnamon, cream-colored bear black “saddle” muzzle, can shaped profile, marine mammal pale blue, “V” shaped and fore and close nostrils longer claws on and white marking on hind limbs front than back chest feet Range Eastern Mostly India, Widest Circumpolar USA, Southern & Forested Six small Himalayas, Nepal, distribution of Arctic Regions, Canada, & Eastern Asia Mountains regions of China, Sri Lanka, all bears and multi-continental Northern Including of South southwest Malayan Bangladesh includes largest home Mexico Pakistan, America China, may Peninsula Eurasia & range Korea, have smallest Western NA, Afghanistan home range 2nd largest home range Number of 2 2 Variable 0 16 1 0 0 Subspecies 5 - 90

Chromosome 74 74 74 74 74 74 52 42 Number

Table 2: Ursidae Comparative Behaviors and Conservation Status Table II. Ursidae comparative behaviors and conservation status.

Descriptor Sun Sloth Brown Polar American Asiatic Andean Giant Bear Bear Bear Bear Black Black Bear Panda Bear Bear Winter Yes No Yes Yes Yes, Sometimes, No No Pregnant body temps. body temps. Dormancy may drop to may drop 3-7 Females Not Obligate 31-34 degrees C degrees C Feeding Omnivore, Omnivore Omnivore 95% Carnivore Omnivore Omnivore Omnivore Omnivore mostly Fruits Behavior Insect Mostly Plants Mostly Plants Mostly Plants Mostly Plants 99% Bamboo frugivorous Specialist Variable Kelp Eats A Bamboo Bromeliacea Eats some # of Teeth 42 40 42 42 Variety of 42 42 meat foods 42 42 Delayed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Implantation Unique Makes nests in Slow walking, Observed far north Except for pregnant Excellent tree 50% time may be Best tree Not very active, trees and no upper riding ice flows, and nursing climbers, spent in trees, climbers, will sleeps most of Behaviors sleeps in them incisors so they wild hybrids with mothers, don’t “bear nests” may migrate make feeding day, radial can make a tube polar bears, may hibernate, fasts rather than and sleeping sesamoid for & Much unknown Mostly diurnal Variable mostly out of mouth and be heavily during summer but varies with hibernate platforms in eating bamboo, Daytime diurnal & “vacuum” insects carnivorous. months season and life “bear nests” trees smallest of cubs crepuscular mostly nocturnal Variable, mostly Mostly diurnal histroy Mostly nocturnal Generally Generally Activity & crepuscular crepuscular but varies by nocturnal & crepuscular but region crepuscular varies Conservation Vulnerable Vulnerable Threatened U.N Estimated Vulnerable Vulnerable Endangered Declining CITES: CITES Vulnerable 450,000 in CITES CITES CITES Status North Appendix I Appendix I USA Appendix I Appendix I America Appendix I Threatened Declining Game Sub- species is Russia/Canada Species Species of Critically Concern Endangered Volume 46, Spring 2010 275

Table III. Discontinuity matrix for Ursidae. Table 3: Discontinuity Matrix for Ursidae legs and straight toes as evidence that Does the Bible claim Discontinuity for bears? No they were fast runners. They inhabited the land west of the Mississippi River to Does the Bible infer Discontinuity for bears? Yes Alaska (North American Bear Center, Do most of the members of the group exhibit a novel metabolic Yes 2009), and, until recently, high skeletal pathway not found in other groups or only in groups known to be 14 15 discontinuous? (Bile Salt Metabolism?, Hibernation Metabolism?) N :N ratios have suggested that they Is the similarity of ingroup comparisons significantly greater than Yes were mostly carnivorous. Recent data ingroup vs. outgroup comparisons? show that this conclusion was premature, Do most members of the group possess novel cell types or structures No an issue discussed later. not possessed by other groups or only in groups known to be Spectacled bears favor forested discontinuous? habitats at elevations between 1800 Do most members of the group posses novel organs or anatomical Yes structures not possessed by other groups or only in groups known to and 2500 meters, and their diet consists be discontinuous? (Dentition, Epipharyngeal pouches ) mostly of bromeliads (pineapple family Is the overall morphological similarity within the group significantly Yes Bromeliaceae) and other fruits (Breiter, greater than the similarity of the group with other groups? 2005). The only bear species inhabit- Does the group occupy an environment notably different from other No ing South America, they are the most organisms? arboreal of bears. Much of their time Are stratomorphic intermediates that would connect the group with ? ? other groups mostly absent? is spent in trees making platforms for eating and sleeping. Is the lowest member of the proposed ancestral group found in a No higher layer than the lowest member of the group of interest? The Sun (Malayan) Bear Compiled from Wood and Murray, 2003, p. 95 Subfamily Ursinae comprise the rest of the six species. The smallest of the six as that of the giant panda. Most bears ing no known digestive microbes (e.g., is the sun bear (Ursus malayanus). A have the muscles in place for a radial Breiter, 2005, pp. 100, 165). Compared highly arboreal species, it inhabits low- sesamoid, but the carpel extension tends to other bears, the panda has the short- land rainforests of Southeast Asia and, to be small and insignificant. Only in the est digestive system and can absorb for its size, has one of the largest canine giant panda is there a sufficient exten- only about 20% of the food it eats. In teeth of all known bears (Breiter, 2005). sion to use it as an opposable thumb for contrast, typical non-ursid herbivores They have a variable birthing season, holding bamboo while eating. contain intestinal microbes that allow and cubs tend to be female biased. The Biochemically, the giant panda them to digest about 60% of plant matter sun bear is declining worldwide, now oc- is more like other bears than the red (DeBruyn, 1999). The giant panda must cupying an estimated half of its historical panda (Nash et al., 1998; Lindburg and eat 12–15% of its body weight daily, for range (Smithsonian National Zoological Baragona, 2004; Yu et al., 2007; Krause 15 hours per day, and for this reason does Park, 2009). et al., 2008). Chromosome banding pat- not produce the fat reserves required for terns, serological, immunological, and hibernation. There is no evidence that The Sloth Bear sequence data classify the giant panda the giant panda has hybridized with any The shaggy sloth bear (U. ursinus) is an as an ursid and not a procyonid (rac- other bear species. unusual bear of the grasslands and lower coon) (Lindburg and Baragona, 2004). woodlands of Southern Asia. With its The morphological, behavioral, and The Spectacled (Andean) Bear upper incisors absent, naked lips, and molecular data show that giant pandas Subfamily Tremarctinae consists of the ability to close its nostrils, it is an insec- are a highly specialized bear that has only extant member of the short-faced tivore. Their “vacuum cleaning” feeding adapted to an herbivorous diet (Lind- bears, the spectacled, or Andean, bear, behavior can be heard 90 meters away burg and Baragona, 2004). This suggests Tremarctos ornatus. The extinct, giant “vacuuming” termites and ants out of that they diverged very early and are the short-faced bear (Arctodus simus; Figure their nests. Also, mother bears often let most basal offshoot of the Ursidae family 1) is the largest bear that ever lived. It the cubs ride on their backs. (Figueirido, 2009; Yu et al., 2007). This stood 1.2–2 m at the shoulder and could conclusion also fits the observation that weigh up to a ton or more. Unlike extant The Asiatic Black Bear all ursids, including the giant panda, bears, which are “pigeon-toed,” the giant In southern and eastern Asia, the Asiatic have carnivore intestines, though longer short-faced bear had long, straight toes. black bear (U. thibetanus) is also known than the typical meat-eater and contain- Some have interpreted their long, gangly as the “moon” bear. The Asiatic black 276 Creation Research Society Quarterly bear is considered the American black more (American Zoo and Aquarium’s found in a range of colors, usually based bear’s closest cousin and can be sym- Bear Taxon Advisory Group, 2009). on region, including black, blue-gray, patric with the giant panda and brown Compared with most other bears, they cinnamon, and white. The white allele bear. U. thibetanus is found in temperate occupy a habitat of low food diversity expressed in the “Spirit” or “Kermode” mountain forests at elevations as high and are the most restricted carnivorous bear is rare. Normally it occurs along as 3000 m, and it is estimated that they bear. Having the largest canine teeth, the British Columbia coast and the spend about half their time in trees. Like their diet consists of about 95% meat, but southeast panhandle of Alaska (Breiter, the spectacled bear, they also make tree they also eat fruit and kelp. Polar bear 2005, p. 95). platforms for feeding and resting. There hair is not white but made of transpar- Favored foods of the American is one small area in India where the ent hollow tubes that reflect and scatter black bear include jack-in-the-pulpit sun, sloth, and Asiatic black bears are light to produce the white effect (Polar (Arisaema sp.), wild calla (Calla palus- sympatric with one another. Bears International, 2009). These hol- tris), and skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus low hairs also provide the conditions foetidus), which contain calcium oxa- The Brown Bear for algal growth in zoo bears, turning late, a compound harmful to humans The variable brown bears (U. arctos), them green. When photographed with when ingested but not deleterious to along with polar bears, are the only bears ultraviolet sensitive film, the bear looks black bears (DeBruyn, 1999, p. 110). If ranging over more than one continent. black. This led researchers to hypoth- humans were to ingest these plants, cal- They are believed to be endemic to Eur- esize that the hollow hairs functioned cium oxalate would cause potassium and asia, later dispersing to North America as optical fibers that conduct light to phosphate to diffuse out of the blood, and becoming sympatric with American their black skin. It was assumed that the resulting in tissue shrinkage, throat black bears in the west. The largest num- black skin absorbed the light, producing constriction, and possible death. bers of brown bears are found in Russia. increased warmth in their bitterly cold Excellent tree climbers, black bears A female brown bear had her last litter environment. Beside the fact that polar often climb a tree, find a fixed position, at 42 years of age and lived to a record bears are most active during the time of and pull fruit and mast-laden branches age of 47 years in captivity before she year when there is little or no light, this toward them, consuming the mast and had to be euthanized (Breiter 2005, p. theory was disproven in 1988. Physicist fruit as they go. When they are finished, 140). Habitat and phenological events Daniel W. Koon realized that the keratin the bent branches look like giant nests; allow the brown bear a high degree of makeup of hair, not the skin, was prob- hence they are locally referred to as flexibility in their trophic ecology, which ably absorbing the light (Koon, 2009). In “bear nests.” is true for most bears. Grizzlies have fact, the polar bear is so well insulated been observed on sea ice hunting seals with guard hairs, thick fur, and about 60 miles from land (Doupé et al, 2007; 12cm of blubber that infrared photogra- Conservation Status Breiter, 2005). phy reveals no detectable heat loss on a Humanity has been entrusted with the Depending on the source, subspecies healthy bear (Breiter, 2005 p. 97; Polar stewardship of God’s creation (Genesis 1 range from five to ninety and include the Bears International, 2009). and 2). As His ambassadors and stewards, grizzly bear (U. a. horriblis), Eurasia’s In 2006, a wild grizzly/polar hybrid our task is to represent the Creator to brown bear (U. a. arctos), and the Kodiak was shot in northern Canada. DNA our fellow man and the created order. brown bear (U. a. middendorffi). The Bi- results determined that the father was a This stewardship involves managing ble has 14 references to bears and refers grizzly and the mother was a polar bear ecosystems and creatures by exercising to the smallest brown bear subspecies, (Lamb, 2006; Doupé et al., 2007; Hen- a benevolent dominion that balances the the Syrian brown bear (U. a. syriacus). nigan, 2009b). Captive polar bears have use of land for the well-being of people, It no longer inhabits the wilds of Israel produced fertile hybrid offspring with while maintaining optimum wildlife because it was extirpated in the early brown bears (Table III), and hybrid traits habitat and long-term ecological sustain- twentieth century. Some wild popula- between the two species tend to be inter- ability (Hennigan, 2009c). Therefore, it tions may still be found in western Asia, mediate with exceptions (Table V). is important to understand the current but the numbers are declining. status of bear conservation to better The American Black Bear steward these creatures. Their response The Polar Bear The variably colored American black to anthropogenic and environmental The carnivorous polar bears (U. mariti- bear (U. americanus) is considered the changes also will lead to questions mus), on average, are the biggest extant only endemic North American bear spe- concerning how God designed genetic bears, reaching weights of 450 kg or cies. The American black bear is actually mechanisms that enable them to re- Volume 46, Spring 2010 277 spond to ecosystem instability and allow are declining, three are stable, one is chemical, and behavioral traits would both their persistence and seemingly increasing, and there is not enough data be evident and unique only to them. In rapid diversification after the Flood. to draw conclusions about the other order to guide this research, a disconti- Bears are probably the most studied seven (Polar Bears International, 2009). nuity matrix (Table IV) was prepared to carnivore because of international con- These issues are important to clarify highlight the organization of criteria that servation concerns (Table I) outlined by within a Biblical worldview because the may shed light on an ursid apobaramin the International Union for Conserva- question becomes whether it is more (Wood and Murray, 2003). The case for tion of Nature and Natural Resources important to focus on the stewardship these criteria is discussed below and will (IUCN, 2009). The IUCN publishes the of the individual species or the created be analyzed for their value in using them Red List, which is a comprehensive in- “kind.” It has been argued, consistent as evidence for apobaraminic status in ventory of threatened plants and animals. with God’s desire for the persistence of family Ursidae. An international agreement called the His creatures, that to finance extraordi- Convention on International Trade in nary measures in order to protect species Gross Morphology, Dentition, Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and and subspecies is unjustified because if and Heterotrophic Flexibility Flora (CITES) and signed by the United the baramin persists, the potential for Common traits in bears that represent States in 1973 purposed to ensure that continued speciation also exists (Wood, gross morphology include size, brain international trade did not affect the 2005). morphology, auditory region with os- survival of threatened plants and animals sicles, ridges on hard palate, and hair around the world. That same year the structure (Lindburg and Baragona, United States passed the Endangered The Case For Apobaraminic 2004). Though the dentition varies Species Act and implemented CITES Status in Ursidae between species, specific dental traits under Section 8 (Abhat, 2008). Different The key for determining an apobaramin- set bears apart from other carnivores, magnitudes of extinction threat exist, for ic relationship is to look for holistic including more elongated M2 molars example, both the giant panda and the character sets that bind taxa together, and premolars with broad enamel plat- Baluchistan subspecies of the Asiatic making them discontinuous with other forms and underdeveloped carnassials black bear (U. thibetanus gedrosianus) taxa, without taking into account their (NHC, 2009; Lindburg and Baragona, are red listed as Endangered and Criti- continuity. If ursids are an apobaramin, 2004). Carnassial teeth consist of the cally Endangered because their numbers holistic suites of morphological, bio- last upper premolar and the first lower suggest that, unless action is taken, they will go extinct (IUCN, 2009). The sun, sloth, Asiatic black, Andean, polar, and TableTable 4: IV.Ursid Ursid Hybrids hybrids. brown bears are red listed Vulnerable because there is great concern that they Hybrid Pairing Wild or Captive Fertility References U. malayanus (�) x M. ursinus (�) Captive Unknown Asakura, 1969 are likely to become endangered. Except Sun Bear x Sloth Bear Scherren, 1907 for the American black bear, all the rest are listed in CITES and cannot be com- Tremarctos ornatus � x U. thibetanus � Captive Fertile McLellan & Reiner, 1994 Torres, D.E.., 2009 mercially traded. U. malayanus x U. thibetanus Wild Probable Galbreath et al. 2008 Russia and Canada classify polar Sun Bear x Asiatic Black Bear bears as a Species of Concern because U. thibetanus (�) x U. arctos (�) Captive Unknown Gray, 1972 both countries view the data as in- Asiatic Black Bear x Brown Bear sufficient to warrant listing them as U. americanus x U. thibetanus Wild ? Unknown Hybrid Bears, 2009 endangered or vulnerable (Polar Bears American Black Bear x Asiatic Black International, 2009). Those who believe ? U. americanus (�) x U. arctos (�) Captive Unknown Gray, 1972 in anthropogenic climate change have American Black Bear x Brown Bear 3 cubs stressed possible polar bear extinction U. arctos (�) x U. maritimus (�) Captive Fertile Kowalska,1962,1965,1969 due to melting ice. The ice is important Brown Bear x Polar Bear Martin, 1876, 1882 for breeding, hunting, and sometimes denning. At the most recent IUCN U. maritimus (�) x U. arctos (�) Captive Fertile Gray, 1972 Polar Bear x Brown Bear meeting (2009), in Copenhagen, the polar bear specialist group determined U. maritimus (�) x U. arctos (�) Wild Fertile Hybrid Bears, 2009 that out of the 19 subpopulations, eight Polar Bear x Brown Bear Doupé et al., 2007 278 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Table V. Example trait comparisons between brown/polar hybrid offspring and parents.

molar used in cutting. They are the to determine skull morphology as a func- closer examination, skull morphology classic dental trait of carnivores but are tion of ancestor-descendent relations, in the extinct specimens was not sta- not as developed in bears. This character the data suggests that these differences tistically different from skulls of extant is consistent with their general hypo- are due to trophic ecology. bears, and both extinct specimens were carnivorous behavior and is a key trait For example, herbivorous bears tend probably more omnivorous than once used when classifying fossil specimens to have skull morphologies that include thought. These findings, along with within Ursidae (Lindburg and Baragona, long cheek teeth, short, vault-shaped the ability for seven of the eight extant 2004). skulls with well-developed zygomatic species to hybridize, have implications Figueirido et al. (2009) suggest rea- arches, and small canines. Faunivorous for designed genetic mechanisms that sons for the variable dentition and skull bears tend to have shorter cheek teeth, respond to environmental disturbances morphology in bears. They compared long skulls, small zygomatic arches, and affecting both morphological traits and contrasted 157 skull morphologies well-developed canines. Omnivorous and the flexibility to alternate between of herbivorous, faunivorous, and omniv- bears share morphological traits inter- carnivory and herbivory. These flexible orous extant bears with fossil specimens mediate between the two. The giant traits are unique to bears and not ob- of the giant short-faced bear (Arctodus short-faced bear was assumed to be hy- served in other carnivores. simus) and the European cave bear (Ur- per-carnivorous (North American Bear It is evident that God wants His sus spelaeus). Through statistical analysis Center, 2009), and the European cave creatures to persist. Rather than recreat- they concluded that, rather than trying bear more herbivorous. However, upon ing adaptations to withstand changing Volume 46, Spring 2010 279 environments, God designed genetic Five of the eight extant bear species available food. In summer polar bears mechanisms that respond to environ- (sun, brown, American black, Asiatic are landlocked and food is scarce. They mental cues. Mechanisms, such as trans- black, and polar bears) are non-obligate may revert to walking hibernation and posons (altruistic genetic elements) and hibernators and only hibernate under fast for several months (Breiter, 2005). epigenetics, should be areas of fruitful specific environmental or reproductive Bears have control over this metabolism, research to determine how bears might conditions. Evidence exists that extinct so as various foods become available they rapidly adapt in response to changing species such as A. simus and U. spelaeus will raise their metabolism and resume environments (Lightner, 2009; Wood, also hibernated. The giant panda, sloth, normal feeding activity until the food 2003; Wood, 2002) and has potential and spectacled bears do not hibernate. is gone. for shedding light on the origin of bear The giant panda’s poor diet and inability Denning time depends on environ- carnivory. to accumulate needed fat reserves are ment and stage of life. Pregnant females reasons why. The sloth bear may enter a tend to be the first to den, then the Hibernation Metabolism period of lethargy late in the year. When subadults and nonpregnant females, Historically, hibernation has been a it is cold, both pandas and spectacled followed by dominant males (Breiter, slippery term and has caused confu- bears may migrate to warmer climes. 2005). If food is plentiful, males and non- sion. Some researchers did not believe The question remains as to whether pregnant females may not hibernate at bears hibernated because they did these bears have the latent ability to ex- all. However, pregnant females, includ- not undergo large body temperature press metabolic, hibernative processes if ing polar bears, will hibernate. Once reductions, such as observed in ground food availability and/or climate changed retired to a den consisting of an enlarged squirrels and bats. Therefore, they used drastically. hole, the cavity under tree roots or below terms such as winter torpor, carnivorean By mid to late summer, hibernating a brush pile, metabolic rate slows by lethargy, and winter sleep. The confu- bears start the process of hyperphagia half and their normal body temperature sion was a definitional problem. Today, (Nelson et al., 1983). They put hundreds (38o C) drops with decreasing ambient the leading physiologists simply use of pounds of body fat on their frames, a temperatures. The body temperature the word “hibernate” when discussing designed feat that causes no deleterious continues to decrease to within 12o of the physiological processes that occur cholesterol effects. Pregnant bears give normal but no farther (Rogers, 1999). when bears retire to dens when food is birth during hibernation, and births The heart rate may decrease from 50 no longer available (North American are well timed because of delayed im- to 10 beats per minute, and pregnant Bear Center, 2009). plantation. All eight bear species, along females may burn 4000 cal/day (Breiter, The fact that bear hibernation with many other mammal taxa from 2005). In pregnant bears, unlike other metabolism is very different from other mustelids to roe deer, have delayed hibernators, the minimal body tempera- creatures makes them unique. Other implantation. Mating generally takes ture decrease is critical because high taxa that hibernate, such as the eastern place in spring and early summer, and body temperatures are needed for fetal chipmunk (Tamias striatus) and the gestation occurs in two stages. The fertil- development. little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), have ized ovum divides for about a week into These metabolic processes are the genetic capability of reducing their a 1–2 mm blastula and then stops when unique to bears. A unique metabolic body temperature very near an ambient the material in the ovum is depleted. system is required to keep bears healthy temperature of 0o C, resulting in nearly In stage two the blastocyst implants in during long bouts of inactivity, and many no detectable heart rate or respiration the uterine wall, and it is thought that of these metabolic processes remain a (Heinrich, 2003; Boyles et al., 2007). implantation is triggered when the bears mystery. The longest documented hi- However, these creatures periodically go into hibernation (see Breiter, 2005 p. bernative period was a female grizzly on raise their body temperatures, wake up, 39). It takes two months or less from the the North Slope of Alaska who averaged and proceed to eat, drink, urinate, and time of hibernation to birth. eight months in hibernation per year defecate. The data suggests that as winter ap- (Breiter, 2005). The huge amounts of Hibernating bears periodically wake, proaches, the lack of food causes bears fat the bears accumulate sustain them. but generally do not eat, urinate, drink, to den (Breiter, 2005). The environment Cholesterol levels are more than twice and deficate except under unique condi- also seems to be involved with another the summer levels, yet they experience tions such as prolonged dormant periods phenomenon known as “walking hiber- no cholesterol gallstones or hardening of (North American Bear Center, 2009). nation” (Nelson et al., 1983), caused the arteries (Rogers, 1999). All bears but Some bears are not just hibernators when bears lower their metabolism the giant panda produce a unique bile but super hibernators (Rogers, 1999). to conserve energy in the absence of acid called ursodeoxycholic acid, which 280 Creation Research Society Quarterly is thought to prevent gallstones during Unique Bile Acid— does not have the enzymes necessary to hibernation (Rogers, 1999). Kidney Taurousodeoxycholic Acid synthesize UDCA (e.g., Lindburg and function is reduced, and the bears do not Bile is a complex chemical mixture Baragona, 2004, pp. 40–41). need to drink because water is recycled containing water and large amounts in their bodies. Toxins, like urea, do not of organic molecules critical for diges- The Bear Roundworm build up because urea is hydrolyzed. tion, absorption of vitamins and fats, (Baylisascaris transfuga) The nitrogen released combines with and waste product elimination. Bile is The question of whether or not obligate glycerol, which is used to synthesize produced by the liver, stored in the gall- host/parasite relations may be used amino acids, and these enter into protein bladder, and enters the small intestine as additive or subtractive evidence in synthesis pathways (Nelson, 1980). The through the bile duct. Since as early as determining baraminological relation- protein is used to rebuild and maintain A.D. 659, bile from bear gallbladders ships may be a worthwhile pursuit. For muscle and organ tissue. has been used in oriental medicine for example Baylisascaris transfuga, the bear Further reduction in protein loss ailments such as digestive problems, roundworm can only complete its devel- for pregnant mothers is accomplished inflammation, pain, and blood purifica- opment in bears and has been identified through premature birth of babies. tion (Nette, 2000). in all eight species (Schaul, 2006). It is Fatty acids are too large to get through The key ingredient is ursodeoxycho- possible that the parasite develops only the placenta, so the baby is fed by the lic acid (UDCA), and in recent years this in bears due to the unique biochemical breakdown of the mother’s muscle pro- bile chemistry has been clinically shown traits that bears possess. Baylisascaris sp. teins (Breiter, 2005). If the babies were to to have analgesic and anti-inflammatory are roundworms that affect a number of go full-term, the mother’s muscle mass properties, along with the ability to treat mammals, the most important of which would dissipate, and she would not be both cirrhosis of the liver and to dissolve is B. procyonis, which affects raccoons able to move in the spring. This unique gallstones (Li et al., 1995; Nette, 2000). and causes sickness and even death in hibernation metabolism explains, in Today, the bile industry is causing a humans (Sorvillo et al., 2002; Medpedia, part, why the bear cub-to-adult ratio is problem for bear populations, as many 2009). Other roundworm species of Bay- the largest of any other eutherian and are poached solely for their gallbladders. lisascaris complete their development monotreme mammals and is another It is estimated that China has 7000 cap- in other mammals, including the skunk exclusive bear character. The results tive bears kept in confined conditions and badger. of this unique hibernation metabolism and tortured through the “milking” of Bear roundworm larvae have vari- include the ability to respond to danger, their bile acids, even though Japanese ous intermediate hosts, usually rodents, minimal muscle loss, and strong bone scientists synthesized the compound in and bears usually are infected when the density. Other evidence suggests that 1955 (Nette, 2000). Some compare the cubs ingest eggs, though other infection unique hormones regulate hibernation industry to the drug trade. Various laws mechanisms exist. This parasite can be a physiology, and when injected into other often are broken, and some estimates of particular problem in captive bears, and species (hibernators and non-hiberna- the street value may range from $1 to $9 the data suggest that it has potential for tors), these hormones produce hiberna- per gram (Nette, 2000). causing serious zoonoses with humans tion-like effects (Rogers, 1999). UDCA is a unique bile acid pro- and should be monitored (Schaul, Because food resources seem to be duced only by bears. The function of this 2006). However, before this relationship the hibernation trigger, it is unknown acid includes dissolving gallstones, mak- can conclusively be included in a suite whether the sloth bear, spectacled ing it possible for long-term hibernation. of characteristics that determine an ursid bear, and giant panda have this latent If the bile contains high concentrations apobaramin, more data are needed to capability. Research into safe ways of of cholesterol and other specific sub- resolve these relationships because B. triggering hibernation metabolism stances, it can harden and block normal transfuga also has been identified in the has potentially fruitful implications for bile flow. The effects are possible infec- red panda, which has now been classi- resolving their baraminological status tion or damage to the gallbladder, liver, fied in its own family Ailuridae (Heath and unlocking latent, directed genetic and pancreas, which may lead to death. and Platnick, 2008). mechanisms predicted by the creation However, the giant panda is the only bear model. Understanding these metabolic that does not synthesize the compound. Epipharyngeal Pouches mechanisms also may help us to prevent This may be another reason, other than Weissengruber et al. (2001) noted unique bedsores, loss of muscle mass, osteoporo- available food sources, why they do not, morphological structures in bears known sis, and heart disease in human patients or cannot, hibernate. Some researchers as caudodorsal epipharyngeal pouches. (Heinrich, 2003). have concluded that the giant panda These elongated and tubular blind ending Volume 46, Spring 2010 281 structures are located at the dorsal end of come from one “kind,” depending on biologically meaningful similarities the trachea. The openings of these struc- how one defines the term. By human (continuity) within the group tures begin in the pharyngeal cavity. The baraminological standards, they are Baramin – From the Hebrew bara (cre- pouch linings have ciliated respiratory monobaraminic, but the jury is out on ate) and mîn (“kind”), it refers to epithelia that are involved in moistening their apobaraminic status. The suite the “created kind” and was coined and protecting airways to provide a barrier of traits that favor an ursid baramin by Frank Marsh in 1941. The word against pathogens, and because of their include chromosome banding patterns, mîn is poorly understood, and many musculature, are thought to be involved serology, immunology, DNA sequence Hebrew scholars disagree on its with bear phonation. Structures in similar data, hibernation metabolism, gross meaning (see Turner, 2009). It may locations exist in other mammal taxa, but morphology, bile salts, variation in be defined as a region of biological the caudodorsal epipharyngeal pouches skull morphology due to diverse trophic attributes within which any com- on bears (though variable within Ursidae) ecology, wide-ranging environmental bination of these attributes could have large morphological differences and adaptations, largest cub-to-adult ratio produce healthy offspring, at any do not suggest phylogenetic relationships of mammals except marsupials, under- point or period of history (Wood and between other taxa (Weissengruber et al., developed carnassials, roundworm de- Murray, 2003). 2001). Although identified in all bears, it velopment, and epipharyngeal pouches. Baraminology – a uniquely creationist has not been confidently confirmed in However, because of various excep- method of studying the organization the Asiatic black bear, nor has it been tions, these traits cannot be declared of biological diversity. identified in the raccoon and lesser pan- holistically unique within Ursidae, and Continuity – Biologically meaningful da. The pouches are currently thought to therefore their apobaraminic status and similarity between organisms that be unique to ursids. classification as a holobaramin cannot embrace all types of biological be determined. characteristics. Future research into latent and di- Discontinuity – Biologically meaning- Conclusions and rected mutations, expressed by specific ful differences between organisms. Further Research environmental triggers, may elucidate Holobaramin – Organisms that share There is much we do not understand, the origins of carnivory and other latent significant biological similarity and the role of the seemingly infinite characters as hibernation and bile me- with at least one other in the group complexity of biomolecular cellular tabolisms. Knowledge from this research (monobaramin) and are also bound- systems is the most important to under- has potential in the understanding of ed by biologically meaningful differ- standing life and life patterns. As one rapid ursid diversity, discovering God’s ences with all other taxa (apobara- examines these systems in detail, it ap- methods for preserving His creatures, min). The complete set of known pears that a language has been imputed and illuminating relationships that may organisms that belong to a single into the system by an Intelligence far be- differentiate God’s idea of “kind” with baramin. yond our comprehension. For creation our ideas. Finally, holistic data sets with Hybrid – The offspring produced from biologists this understanding may lead hundreds of characters analyzed through the hybridization of different taxa. to discoveries that materialists would statistical baraminological methods may Hybridization – The mating of two never consider. produce quantitative measures that shed different taxa. Baraminologists It seems evident that bears have light on their relationships both within recommend that this be treated as diversified rapidly in less than 4500 and without the family (Cavanaugh and a separate category of meaningful years. For this to happen, they must Wood, 2002). biological similarity. The produc- have been designed with biochemical Acknowledgments. I would like to thank tion of hybrids reveals biologically mechanisms that responded to the Dr. Jean Lightner for her helpful insight meaningful similarity at the genetic, ecological upheaval produced by the during the research for this paper. developmental, and anatomical Flood. Genetic drift occurring in small levels that would not normally be re- populations immediately after the Flood vealed by biological research (Wood may explain this. However, biological Glossary of et al., 2003). observations make it clear that it cannot Baraminological Terms Monobaramin – A group of known be explained by random mutation and Apobaramin – A group of known or- organisms that share biologically natural selections (Wise, 2009b). ganisms bounded by biologically meaningful similarity without con- Evidence suggests that bears, in- meaningful differences (discontinu- sidering biologically meaningful cluding the giant panda, may have ity) without taking into account the differences with other taxa. 282 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Sub-baraminic – Based on a new criteri- brid wild bear from Cambodia. Ursus edu/~koon/mar_ref.html (accessed July on called the Flood fossil continuity 19(1):85–86. 20, 2009). criterion (Wise, 2008; Wise, 2009a), Gray, A. 1972. Mammalian Hybrids, 2nd Kowalska, Z. 1962. Intergeneric crossbreed “sub-baraminic” refers to taxa that Edition. Commonwealth Agricultural of the brown bear Ursus arctos L., and have diversified well after the Flood, Bureaux, Edinburgh, CA. the polar bear Thalarctos maritimus as evidenced by first appearance in Grizzly Bear.org. 2009. The Panda Bear. (Phipps). Przeglad Zoologiczny 6:230 the fossil record.

McLellan, B., and D. Reiner. 1994. A review of bears (Family Ursidae). Ph.D. Diss., Weston, P. and C. Wieland. 1998. Bears of bear evolution. International Confer- Ohio State University, Columbus, across the world... Creation 20(4):28– ence on Bear Research and Management. OH. http://www.carnivoreconservation. 31. 9(1):85–96. org/files/thesis/schaul_2006_phd.pdf Wise, K. 2008. Baraminology and the fossil Medpedia. 2009. Helminthes. http://wiki. (accessed July 23, 2009). record of mammals. Occasional Papers medpedia.com/Helminthes (accessed Scherren, H. 1907. Some notes on hybrid of the BSG 11:10–11. July 29, 2009). bears. Proceedings of the Zoological So- Wise, K.P. 2009a. Mammal kinds: how many Nash, W.G., J. Weinberg, M.A. Ferguson– ciety of London (1907):431–435. were on the ark? In Wood, T.C., and Smith, C. Menninger, and S.J. O’Brien. Servheen, C., S. Herrero, and B. Peyton. Garner, P.A. (editors), Genesis Kinds: 1998. Comparative genomics: tracking 1999. Bears: Status, Survey and Conser- Creationism and the Origin of Species, chromosome evolution in the family vation \ Action Plan. IUCN Pub, Gland, pp. 129–161. Wipf and Stock Publishers, Ursidae using reciprocal chromosome Switzerland. Eugene, OR. painting. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Wise, K.P. 2009b. Creation biology sugges- 83:182–192. http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ tions from evolutionary genetics. Occa- Nelson, R.A. 1980. Protein and fat metabo- ZooGoer/1999/2/fact-sunbear.cfm (ac- sional Papers of the BSG 13:6–7. lism in hibernating bears. Federation cessed July 20, 2009). Wood, T.C. 2002. The AGEing process: Proceedings 39:2955–2958. Sorvillo, F., L.R. Ash, O.G.W. Berlin, J. rapid post-Flood intrabaraminic diver- Nelson, R.A., G.A. Folk, Jr., E.W. Pfeiffer, Yatabe, C. Degirorgio, and S.A. Morse. sification caused by altruistic genetic J.J. Craighead, C.J. Jonkel, and D.L. 2002. Baylisascaris procyonis: an emerg- elements (AGE’s). Origins 53:5–34. Steiger. 1983. Behavior, biochemistry, ing helminthic zoonosis. Emerging Infec- Wood, T.C. 2003. Perspectives on AGEing, and hibernation in black, grizzly, and tious Diseases 8(4):355–358. a young earth creation diversification polar bears. In Meslow, E.C. (editor), Torres, D.E. 2009. Historical Review of model. In Ivey, R. (editor), Proceedings Bears: Their Biology and Management, Spectacled Bear Captive Breeding in Ven- of the Fifth International Conference on A Selection of Papers from the Fifth In- ezuela. http://www.cecalc.ula.ve/BIOIN- Creationism, pp. 479–490. Creation Sci- ternational Conference on Bear Research FORMATICA/oso/captivity_cont.htm ence Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. and Management, pp. 284–290. Interna- (accessed July 28, 2009). Wood, T.C. 2005. A Creationist Review and tional Association for Bear Research and Turner, K.J. 2009. The kind-ness of God: a Preliminary Analysis of the History, Geol- Management, Madison, WI. theological reflection of mîn, “kind.” In ogy, Climate, and Biology of the Galápa- Nette, T. 2000. Bear gall bladders: to sell Wood, T.C., and Garner, P.A. (editors), gos islands. Wipf and Stock Publishers, or not to sell. Nova Scotia Department Genesis Kinds: Creationism and the Eugene, OR. of Natural Resources. http://www.gov. Origin of Species, pp. 31–64. Wipf and Wood, T.C. 2006. The Current Status of ns.ca/natr/wildlife/lgmams/beargalls. Stock Publishers, Eugene, OR. Baraminology. Creation Research Society htm (accessed July 27, 2009). Tyler, D.J. 1997. Adaptations within the Quarterly 43:149–158. NHC (Natural History Collections of the bear family: a contribution to the debate Wood, T.C. and M. J. Murray. 2003. Under- University of Edinburgh). 2009. http:// about the limits of variation. Creation standing the Pattern of Life. Broadman www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=2 Matters 2(5):1–4. and Holman Publishers, Nashville, 4.134.166.172.289 (accessed July 23, Tyler, D.J. 2006. Polar bears…one of a cre- TN. 2009). ated kind. Origins 44:8–11. Wood, T.C., K. Wise, R. Sanders, and N. North American Bear Center. 2009. Walker, M. 2009. Polar bear plus grizzly Doran. 2003. A refined baramin concept. http://www.bear.org/website/index. equals? BBC Earth News. http://news. Occasional Papers of the BSG 3:1–14. php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1 bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/new- Yu, L., Y.-E. Li, O.A. Ryder, and Y.-P. Zhang. (accessed July 19, 2009). sid_8321000/8321102.stm (accessed 2007. Analysis of complete mitochon- Polar Bears International. 2009. http://www. November 8, 2009). drial genome sequences increases phy- polarbearsinternational.org/bear-facts/ Weissengruber, G.E., G. Forstenpointer, logenetic resolution of bears (Ursidae), polar-bear-fur/ (accessed July 22, 2009). A. Kübber-Heis, K. Riedelberger, H. a mammalian family that experienced Rogers, L.L. 1999. Bear center conducts Schwammer, and K. Ganzberger. 2001. rapid speciation. BMC Evolutionary hibernation study. North American Bear Occurrence and structure of epipharyn- Biology 7(198):1–11. Center Newsletter 3(4):1–3. geal pouches in bears (Ursidae). Journal Schaul, J.C. 2006. Baylisascaris transfuga of Anatomy 198:309–314. in captive and free ranging populations 284 Creation Research Society Quarterly The Pleiotropy Problem for Evolution

Jerry Bergman*

Abstract leiotropy is the effect resulting from an interconnected genetic Psystem in which a single gene influences many different biological systems in positive or negative ways. Pleiotropy occurs because multiple phenotypic effects usually arise from each expressed gene. The adverse effects of pleiotropy on the effectiveness of natural selection is reviewed in this paper. It is concluded that pleiotropy creates a major problem for evolutionary theory because the accumulation of mutations, even beneficial mutations, often has unintended negative effects.

Introduction Pleiotropy—from pleio, meaning “many,” gene. Besides anemia, other physical adaptation for some traits in response to and tropo, meaning “changes”—is complications include leg ulcers, bone selection for others” (Dudley et al., 2005, defined as the situation in which a problems, blood clots, anoxia caused by p. E8). The disadvantage for evolution single genetic variant is responsible for the abnormal blood cells that lack the by mutations is: If a particular phenotype a number of distinct and often unrelated ability to flow properly, spleen damage, is the result of a mutation that produces phenotypic effects (King and Stansfield, strokes, and hemolysis. Bacteria also fre- the loss or alteration of a single function, 1997, p. 264). Genes never operate alone, quently utilize a type of pleiotropy as part it may also cause the loss of other func- but are part of a highly interrelated of their adaptive capabilities (Anderson tions that are required by disrupting part biological system (Wagner et al., 2008). and Purdom, 2008). of a branching pathway. Therefore, even if a mutation is positive This impediment to evolutionary for one trait, negative effects frequently progress is called “the cost of complexity” result as well, creating what is termed Pleiotropy, Mutations, (Orr, 2000, p. 13). Another obstruction a “fitness cost.” In humans the result is and Evolution is that loss of function for one gene may obvious when a single mutation causes The pleiotropy pitfall must be thor- affect several phenotypic traits adversely, a disease that produces many unrelated oughly addressed because mutations are and difficulties may result if a protein symptoms (Dudley et al., 2005). considered the major source of genetic that is encoded by one gene serves sev- The best-known example of plei- variety selected to achieve evolutionary eral functions (see Dudley et al., 2005). otropy is the multiple effects resulting change. Pleiotropy is “frequently ob- Pleiotropy is a consequence of the from the damage to one gene in sickle- served” in the natural world and poses fact that most genes in eukaryotic cells cell anemia, a disease that results from clear “evolutionary disadvantages for an are controlled by ten or more regula- a single mutation in the hemoglobin organism, including limiting the rate of tory proteins, and each gene is in turn regulated by a dozen or more sites where the regulatory proteins bind. These gene regulation sites are usually upstream * Jerry Bergman, PhD, Biology Department, Northwest State College, in close proximity to the gene being Archbold Ohio 43543, [email protected] regulated, but they may be located some Accepted for publication August 24, 2009 distance away, even on another chromo- Volume 46, Spring 2010 285 some. For this reason one mutation can documents how extensively intercon- protein that is not only the most have multiple phenotypic effects, often nected genes are at the phenotypic level abundant protein in the eye lens on different organs and even different and, also, the many ways that genes can but also is used for structural organ systems (Hodgkin, 1998). be interconnected. His classification roles in other tissues such as An entire class of genes called system is as follows. smooth muscle. homeotic genes all contain a sequence 1. Artefactual pleiotropy, in which 4. Parsimonious pleiotropy is the called a homeobox that produces Hox adjacent but functionally un- case in which one enzyme is proteins. Hox proteins are master regula- related genes are affected by a used to catalyze the same chemi- tors of developmental programs involved single mutation, such as when cal reaction in many different in the coordinated construction of entire two genes are located next to tissues and organ systems or is structures, such as wings or limbs. Mu- each other on a chromosome used in different biochemical tations in Hox genes can cause a whole and a mutation in one affects pathways. An example is that series of major phenotypic changes, the other. Hodgkin claimed the same enzymes are used such as development of an extra set of that organisms with “compact, in very different branches of a nonfunctional wings. Often mutations gene-dense genomes will be biochemical pathway that syn- in Hox genes produce a cascade of ulti- especially susceptible to arte- thesizes isoleucine and valine. mately lethal changes. factual pleiotropies” (1998, p. 5. Opportunistic pleiotropy is an Just as construction of a modern of- 502). This observation indicates event whereby one regulatory fice complex requires the coordination that pleiotropy may be more protein serves an important role of hundreds or thousands of workers, by of an impediment in simpler with other cell or tissue types in analogy, so does the construction of cells, and more primitive organisms. addition to its main functions. wings, and organs such as lungs, hearts, An example is the Drosophila The example Hodgkin used is and kidneys. A building will not function claret-nondisjunction muta- the control elements sisB and properly if the mechanical, electrical, tion that causes both eye color runt on the x chromosome that or structural aspects are not properly abnormalities and meiosis non- cause problems early in develop- designed or are improperly assembled disjunction. ment and which genes are also and/or not integrated correctly. So too, 2. Secondary pleiotropy, or “rela- used in later stages of growth, if the parts of an organ or structure are tional pleiotropy,” involves a such as during secondary sexual not assembled correctly or have design single mutation causing bio- development. flaws, the living organism will be unfit chemical alterations that pro- 6. Combinatorial pleiotropy is a for life. duce changes affecting many case of one gene product inter- structural changes. An example acting with different proteins in is a mutation causing phenyl- different cell types and being Types of Pleiotropy ketonurea, a defect in a liver used in several different ways Genes are classified into two basic gene enzyme (phenylalanine hydrox- that result in distinct variations. types relative to their pleiotropic effects: ylase) that causes a deficiency A large number of examples the highly pleiotropic genes called major in axon myelination. It leads exist, including most transcrip- pleiotropic genes, those that have a large to numerous health defects, tion factors, which cause a very effect; and the non- or limited pleiotro- including mental retardation different biochemical activity, pic genes called the minor pleiotropic (Hodgkin, 1998, p. 502). Sec- depending on where they inter- genes, those that have a small effect be- ondary pleiotropy is especially act with the genome. As a result, cause they apparently act independently common in complex, long-lived mutations affecting this protein (Albert et. al., 2007). This classification organisms, and consequently “have multiple and often very is limited because even though some presents a major problem for the diverse effects on a wide variety genes are major and others are minor, evolution of “higher” creatures. of tissues” (Hodgkin, 1998, p. many manifest a pleiotropic effect on 3. Adoptive, or exaptational plei- 503). the phenotype for other reasons. otropy, is the situation whereby 7. Unifying pleiotropy is a phe- Hodgkin (1998) proposed a classifi- one gene product is used for very nomenon whereby one gene cation system that divides the pleiotropic different biochemical reactions or cluster of adjacent genes effect into seven distinct types according in different tissues. An example encodes multiple proteins that to its cause. This classification system Hodgkin gave is crystalline have common or related biologi- 286 Creation Research Society Quarterly

cal functions. Examples include woman, but each leg is normally close Examples of Pleiotropy various structural components, to the same proportion in each person. from Medicine binding domains and enzymes. Pleiotropy is likewise a major means of All drugs affect the body’s biochemis- As a result, mutations in genes coordinating a variety of body functions try, and all medicines have side effects in this category “have complex such as metabolism. due to pleiotropy. The reason is that all physiological consequences, One reason genetics influences medicine attenuates or activates certain which may be hard to explain phenotypic correlations is because aspects of the body’s biochemistry, medi- if the underlying biology is not genes control the quantity of hormones cally impacting the entire interconnected understood” (Hodgkin, 1998, p. secreted, and hormones often influence biochemical system it affects. Common 503). many separate functions. An example side effects of many drugs include tired- In all seven of these types of pleiot- is the growth hormone secreted by the ness, nausea, dry mouth, reduced alert- ropy, the mutations (even if beneficial) pituitary gland, which increases not only ness, stomach problems, and allergies. can cause negative or even lethal ef- height and size of hand and foot, but Aspirin interferes with the prostaglandin fects elsewhere. This list illustrates the also controls the entire body size. Many biochemical pathway that not only blocks many ways in which all systems are genes have well-known pleiotropic pain, but also interferes with the body’s interconnected. It also illustrates how effects, including one important gene ability to protect the stomach from the one genetic change can cause adverse called p53 and all heat-shock genes that corrosive effects of HCl stomach acid. modifications in the system directly are part of the genetic systems respond- A disease-causing mutation that affected, and in very different systems ing to temperature fluctuations (e.g., damages one gene often can result in or even in later developmental stages. Meyers, 1995, p. 281–285). The heat- many different, and at times unrelated, This fact causes a critical difficulty for shock response activates a number of symptoms. A mutation that damages evolution, because any mutation, even genes that protect the cell from thermal the phenylalanine hydroxylase gene, if beneficial, will likely have some or damage. This complex response to heat which makes an enzyme that converts many negative effects. damage is both rapid and reversible. the amino acid phenylalanine into Another example of the results of the amino acid tyrosine, can increase pleiotropy is cytokine networks. The phenylalanine concentrations to toxic Antagonistic Pleiotropy cytokines are hormone-like polypeptides levels. This metabolic disease known as Antagonistic pleiotropy occurs when a produced transiently by a wide variety phenylketonuria (PKU) if not treated single gene produces multiple compet- of cells. They usually act locally to alter causes a variety of symptoms including ing effects so that its beneficial effects cellular physiology by binding to cell mental retardation, hair growth reduc- are offset by deleterious consequences surface receptors in order to activate tion, blue eyes, and light skin color from produced by the same gene. Some genes, certain genes. The effects of cytokines skin pigmentation reductions (Hodgkin, for example, can increase fitness when are redundant (meaning different cyto- 1998). a person is young but decrease fitness kines may have the same effect) and yet These examples all illustrate the later in life. A case in point is the testos- can have multiple effects on the same extent of biochemical connectedness terone hormone gene, which increases cell in different circumstances. of human physiology and how attempts reproductive fitness in an adolescent but This fact again illustrates that single to alter it to benefit the patient often can contribute to prostate cancer in an mutations, although beneficial, often result in undesirable effects. Likewise, a older adult. have a wide variety of results, some quite beneficial mutation, even if very helpful, negative, on other systems. A single also can cause numerous undesirable side cytokine can have different effects on effects. The cost of complexity can be Functions of Pleiotropy different cells and different cytokines great, and for this reason evolution by the in Biology also may interact either synergistically accumulation of mutations is seriously Pleiotropy is necessary in order to or antagonistically, or even in an ad- problematic. Instead, these examples of coordinate body growth and develop- ditive way (Meyers, 1995). Since the pleiotropy argue for creation ex nihilo. ment. For example, a normal healthy origin of new genetic information upon small woman has close to the same which evolution selects is mutations, proportion of body parts, such as limbs, pleiotropy demonstrates that positive Examples of Pleiotropy heart, lungs, and other internal organs, mutations usually also add to the “cost from Animal Breeding as does a normal healthy large man. A of complexity,” by bringing more harm Pleiotropy is a significant obstacle to suc- tall man has longer limbs than a short then benefit. cessful animal breeding. The negative Volume 46, Spring 2010 287

effects that result from animal breeding gence. The implication is that artificial operation of other genes, a non-lethal illustrate why evolution by the accu- breeders usually create genetic problems mutation can become lethal or adversely mulation of mutations is not a realistic when they try to select for single traits, affect the survival of the organism. Thus, mechanism. When breeding for a single but the blind forces of nature can do the the organism possessing the mutation is desired trait, undesirable consequences job just fine. However, they provide no more likely to be negatively selected by almost always result (Grandin and John- support for that claim. natural selection, reducing the overall son, 2005). Chicken breeders select Negative selection repercussions can mutation load of the organism. hens and roosters that are fast growing, typically be avoided by selecting only While this effect may work, at bulky, and well muscled. Grandin and for minor improvement; i.e., instead least in theory, it can also cause many Johnson (2005) claimed that a gain in of the largest chicken possible, select normally non-lethal neutral mutations one of these traits invariably results in for larger chickens that, although they (including those that are potentially a loss in other traits. For example, fast- compromise the other traits, do not beneficial mutations) to become lethal growing hens and roosters usually end compromise them to the degree that the or be negatively selected as a result of the up with fertility problems, a side effect problems that result are insurmountable epistatic interactions. Consequently, the also found with Belgian Blue cattle and or even serious. As is well known, breed- synergistic effect removes not only many certain other animals. ing always carries limits, and, as we reach deleterious mutations, but also most When a trait that allows faster growth these limits, complications always even- of the potentially beneficial ones. The in chickens was selected, the resul- tually arise because of pleiotropy. Like- net effect is mutations, both negative tant chickens had weak hearts. Death wise, this illustrates why macroevolution and positive, are removed, producing from heart failure then became more by the accumulation of mutations is very a conserving effect that resists genetic common. Attempts to breed chickens unlikely—one step forward invariably change. As a consequence, for beneficial with larger breasts resulted in chickens results in several steps backward due to mutations to increase and become fixed with deformed, bent, and swollen legs. the effects of pleiotropy. within the population there is an in- Attempting to solve these problems, creased cost of selection (ReMine, 2006). breeders worked on creating chickens It is unlikely that most populations could with both larger breasts and stronger Epistasis accommodate this increased cost. hearts. They eventually produced what The concept of pleiotropy is related to appeared to be a dream chicken—a the concept of epistasis. Both refer to strong chicken with larger breasts, heavy interactions that influence phenotypic Molecular Mechanisms legs, and strong hearts—but they soon traits. Epistasis refers to the complex for Pleiotropy discovered severe behavioral problems, interactions that exist between different One important reason for pleiotropy is such as a tendency for the roosters to kill genes, often when one gene is modified that molecules must constantly interact the hens in part because the breeding by other genes, called modifier genes. with one another in a living organism, led to the inadvertent elimination of the Synergistic epistasis is a positive interac- and to function they must bind to some rooster’s courtship dance. In the absence tion resulting in a higher expression of a and not bind with others. Most often a of the courtship dance, the hens would trait; antagonistic epistasis is a negative molecule interacts with many other mol- not cooperate sexually with roosters. The interaction resulting in lower expression ecules in the cell within what is referred problem of breeding for one trait and of the trait. to as a “noisy biochemical environment” losing others is universal. Grandin and Epistasis often refers to normal gene (Savir and Tlusty, 2007, p. e468). Mu- Johnson (2005, p. 72) concluded this control and regulation, while pleiotropy tations often change the conformation adversity happens “all the time when refers to both normal and abnormal gene (shape) and even the binding properties breeders over-select for a single trait. You interaction. But both systems can create of molecules, which can affect their get warped evolution.” major difficulties for Darwinian evolu- interaction with other molecules. Yet, Grandin and Johnson (2005, tion by the accumulation of mutations. If This result is important because p. 72-73) claimed that what artificial one gene in an epistatic system is altered, “practically all biological systems rely on selection cannot achieve, natural selec- it can effect other genes. Evolutionists the ability of biomolecules to specifically tion can. In their section heading titled argue that synergistic epistasis gives recognize each other,” and a change may “Selection Pressure,” they discussed the natural selection a powerful means to re- mean that they do not recognize the evolution of color vision in primates, move deleterious mutations, preventing molecules that are required and, con- which they claimed natural selection their accumulation. They reason that if a sequently, react with some they should produced in primates without intelli- mutation in one gene effects the proper not, both conditions causing problems 288 Creation Research Society Quarterly

(Savir and Tlusty, 2007, p. e468). Some Another QLT study looked at the occur. As stated earlier, the evidence common examples include antibody-an- number of major and minor pleiotro- of pleiotropy favors special creation tigen recognition, binding of regulatory pic effect genes for the body shape of (Tinkle, 1975). proteins to DNA, and enzyme-substrate two stickleback species. Their findings Acknowledgments: I wish to thank interactions required in body chemistry. indicate that about half were minor Clifford Lillo, Nancy O’Sullivan PhD, pleiotropic effect genes and several had Ted Siek, PhD, Tom Hennigan, George “large and possibly widespread effects” Howe PhD, and John UpChurch for Overlapping Genes (Albert et al., 2007, p. 76). More studies reviewing an earlier draft of this paper. Overlapping genes occur where one or are needed to determine the level of more genes actually exist within another pleiotropic effects of other genes. The gene, or two genes overlap so that one effect likely is probably much greater References gene is part of another gene next to it. than this study indicates. Albert, A.Y.K., S. Sawaya, T. Vines, A.K. Evidence now exists that there can be Hox genes and other transcription Knecht, C.T. Miller, B.R. Summers, up to 12 or more overlapping codes in factors are known to influence and S. Balabhadra, D. Kinksley, and D. one gene. Changing one nucleotide can regulate the development of body mor- Sclucter. 2007. The genetics of adaptive thus affect multiple information systems, phology (Coyne, 2005). Hodgkin (1998, shape shift in stickleback: pleiotropy and indicating that almost all mutations will p. 501) argued that pleiotropy “may well effective size. Evolution. 62-1:76–85. have pleiotropic effects (Trifonov, 1989; be the rule rather then the exception Anderson, K.L., and G. Purdom. 2008. A 1997). The recent ENCODE project has in higher organisms.” He showed that creationist perspective of beneficial documented that a typical nucleotide recent evidence supports this conclu- mutations in bacteria. In A.A. Snelling is part of multiple overlapping mes- sion, demonstrating its importance in (editor), Preceedings of the Sixth Inter- sages, and this shows that most muta- higher organisms. Jaroslav Flegr has national Conference on Creaitonism, tions should have pleiotropic effects proposed that pleiotropy limits the pp. 73–86. Creation Science Fellowship (Kapranov et. al., 2007). Sanford intro- plasticity of a species (Hall, 2009). High (Pittsburg, PA) and Institute for Creation duced the concept of “poly-functional plasticity life-forms, such as dogs, are Research (Dallas, TX). DNA,” which means many functional able to produce many morphological Coyne, J. 2005. Switching on evolution. units of DNA are “poly-constrained” variations, and plastic species have a Nature 435:1029–1030. such that a mutation improving one greater proportion of their traits coded Dudley, A.M., D.M. Janse, A. Tanay, R. message will often damage the overlap- by a single gene. Thus they show fewer Shamir, and G.M. Church. 2005. A ping messages (Sanford, 2008). gene-gene interactions, while frozen global view of pleiotropy and pheno- species have a greater proportion of their typically derived gene function in yeast. traits coded by a larger number of genes Molecular Systems Biology doi:10.1038/ How Common Is Pleiotropy? and show enhanced genetic interactions msb4100004–E1. The study of many life-forms, including (Hall, 2009). Grandin, T., and C. Johnson. 2005. Ani- yeasts, demonstrates that “a large num- mals in Translation. Scribner, New ber of pleiotropic genes” exist (Dudley York, NY. et al., 2005). Much research indicates Summary Hall, B.K. 2009. Review of Frozen Evolution: that most, and possibly all, genes have Pleiotropy not only creates a major Or That’s Not the Way It is, Mr. Darwin, a pleiotropic effect. It is at least clear genetic barrier to both micro- and mac- edited by Jaroslav Flegr. Evolution & that a majority of genes have pleiotropic roevolution, but it also even sets limits Development 11(1):126–129. effects. For instance, promoter regions on animal and plant breeding because Hodgkin, J. 1998. Seven types of pleiotropy. alone are regulated by nearly a dozen to of the biochemical interconnectivity ex- International Journal of Developmental several dozen transcription-factor bind- isting in cells, tissues, organs, and organ Biology. 42:501–505 ing sites (Stone and Wray, 2001). One systems. This fact is well known among Kapranov, P., A.T. Willingham, and T.R. study of the number of traits affected by plant and animal breeders, as well as Gingeraw. 2007. Genome-wide tran- each mutation using quantitative trait those persons who fancy purebred dogs, scription and the implications for ge- loci (QTL) analysis of skeletal traits in horses, and other animals. As Hodgkin nome organization. Nature Reviews mice found half of QTLs affected up to (1998, p. 501) admitted, “In complex Genetics 8:413–423. six traits and one set of QTLs affected as eukaryotes, pleiotropy may lead to ma- King, R., and W. Stansfield. 1997. A Diction- many as 25 to 30 different traits (Wagner jor constraints on possible mutational ary of Genetics. Oxford University Press, et al., 2008, p. 471). avenues” that might allow evolution to New York, NY. Volume 46, Spring 2010 289

Meyers, R. 1995. Molecular Biology and formational changes on the specifi city Trifonov, E.N. 1989. Multiple codes of Biotechnology. VCH Publishers, New of molecular recognition. PLoS One nucleotide sequences. Bulletin of Math- York, NY. 2: e468. ematical Biology 51:417–432. Orr, H.A. 2000. Adaptation and the cost Stone, J.R., and G.A. Wray. 2001. Rapid Trifonov, E.N. 1997. Genetic sequences as of complexity. International Journal of evolution of cis-regularity sequences via products of compression by inclusive Organic Evolution 54:13–20. local point mutations. Molecular Biology superposition of many codes. Molecular ReMine, W. 2006. More precise calculations Evolution 18:1764–1770. Biology 31:647–654. of the cost of substitution. Creation Re- Tinkle, William J. 1971. Pleiotropy—extra Wagner, G., P. Kenney-Hunt, M. Pavlicev, J.R. search Society Quarterly 43:111–120. cotyledons in the tomato. Creation Re- Peck, D. Waxman, and J. M. Cheverud. Sanford, J.C. 2008. Genetic Entropy and the search Society Quarterly 8:183–185. 2008. Pleiotropic scaling of gene effects Mystery of the Genome. FMS Publica- Tinkle, William J. 1975. Further research on and the “cost of complexity.” Nature tions, Waterloo, NY. reduced viability of mutant plants. Cre- 452:470–472. Savir, Y., and T. Tlusty. 2007. Conforma- ation Research Society Quarterly 12:52. tional proofreading: The impact of con-

Book Review

The Ultimate Proof of Creation: by Jason Lisle Resolving the Master Books, Green Forest, Origins Debate AZ, 2009, 254 pages, $14.00.

This book by Jason Lisle is devoted to basis for knowledge. This is so because, logic and apologetics for the layperson, apologetics and the defense of the Bibli- though we rely on our sense to perceive and is helpful for learning to spot errors cal worldview. It focuses on defending the world around us, we have no guar- in logic. the Biblical understanding of creation antee that our senses are reliable unless One drawback to the book is the and the creation account in Genesis. the Bible is true in declaring that there is lack of an index and glossary, both of Dr. Lisle explains the importance our a Creator. Dr. Lisle also discusses logic, which would be helpful resources for worldview plays in determining how we both formal and informal, and the role the reader. Overall the book is an excel- both understand and interpret scientifi c of evidence in our understanding of the lent apologetics resource and is a great evidence (as well as life in general). His world. He gives many examples of emails addition to any Christian library. main argument, the “ultimate proof” and letters he has received and guides of the title, is that only the Biblical the reader through analyzing them and Jeremy Maurer worldview embracing the accuracy of applying what has been learned. The [email protected] the entire Bible provides a consistent book is an excellent introduction to 290 Creation Research Society Quarterly The Origin of Grand Canyon Part II: Fatal Problems with the Dam-Breach Hypothesis

Michael J. Oard*

Abstract niformitarian explanations of the origin of Grand Canyon all ap- Upear improbable. Thus, we turn to published catastrophic options. The most popular of these today is the dam-breach hypothesis. There are three versions of this general hypothesis, but all face major problems, of which two appear especially critical: (1) the lack of evidence for the existence of the breached lakes, and (2) the presence of the long Kanab and Havasu tributary canyons that enter Grand Canyon at the level of the Colorado River. There are no diagnostic bottom sediments, shore- lines, raised deltas, or other geomorphological features at the proposed sites of the breached lakes, despite their common occurrence at the sites of other Ice Age lakes. Also, the erosion of the Kanab and Havasu canyons, a mile deep and a quarter mile wide at their mouths, would require vast quantities of rushing water over a wide area to erode these tributaries along with Grand Canyon, since the heads of the tributaries lie about 50 miles from Grand Canyon and over 100 miles from each other. This area seems too large for a breached lake to have flooded with sufficient energy to erode the canyons. Another catastrophic alternative is needed.

Introduction Colorado River over varying lengths Since the hypotheses all share a bias Part I of this series (Oard, 2010) demon- of time, with different mechanisms to toward uniformitarianism, it seems logi- strated that despite nearly 150 years of explain this process. However, none of cal to see that connection as a possible research, the origin of Grand Canyon them—the antecedent stream theory, point of failure of all their ideas. Thus, remains opaque to uniformitarian geolo- the stream piracy theory, or the lake exploring a catastrophic origin for the gists. All of their hypotheses depend on spillover hypotheses—can explain the canyon seems imminently reasonable. the slow erosion of the canyon by the relevant field evidence. We will examine the four hypotheses proposed by creationists. Three of these are remarkably similar, and center on the abrupt failure of the dams of post- * Michael J. Oard, 34 W Clara Ct, Bozeman, MT 59718, [email protected] Flood, Ice-Age lakes. The other cre- Accepted for publication March 23, 2009 ationist hypothesis suggests the erosion Volume 46, Spring 2010 291

Platform, rather than the Kaibab Plateau. This location is farther northeast than shown in Figure 1, and seems a point of contention between Austin, Brown, and other advocates of the dam-breach hypothesis. The Vermillion-Echo Cliffs were assumed to have once been con- nected on a northwest-southeast line. A reconstruction of the area with a lake surface level of 5,700 ft (1,737 m) would flood the Marble Platform (Austin, 1994a; Holroyd, 1990a; 1994), as seen in Figure 1. However, if the two cliffs were once connected and were eroded during the dam-breach event, then it is reasonable that the southwest edge of the lake was blocked by the Vermillion- Echo Cliffs. The total area of the two proposed lakes depends on their depth (Austin, 1994a, p. 110, note 62). Canyonlands Lake supposedly had an elevation of about 5,800 ft (1,768 m), while Hopi Lake was slightly higher, at a little above 6,000 ft (1,829 m). At those elevations, the lakes would have covered some 30,000 mi2 (77,700 km2) and contained 3,000 mi3 (12,505 km3) of water, 2.5 Figure 1. Picture of the three lakes from display of the dam-breach hypothesis at times the volume of Lake Michigan. the AiG museum. These proposed elevations are just under the spillover points on the north and south edge of the Kaibab Plateau. Austin (1994a) proposed a third lake of the canyon by the channelized flow the Kaibab Plateau in basins of the Colo- just north of Grand Lake in northeast of retreating Floodwater. rado Plateau (Figure 1). “Lake Hopi,” Utah. He named it “Lake Vernal” or This paper will explain and assess occupied the Little Colorado River “Lake Uinta.” It was separated from the three dam-breach models. Since Valley southeast of the eastern Grand “Grand Lake” by the Book and Roan they face many of the same problems, Canyon. The name for this lake was Cliffs. He suggested that Lake Vernal these can be summarized as applicable borrowed from uniformitarian scientists, was one of a series of lakes that depos- to all three. Of these common problems, who think that a Miocene/Pliocene lake ited the Green River Formation (and its two major issues seem to invalidate any existed there based on their interpreta- equivalents) in northeast Utah, south- dam-breach idea. tion of the Bidahochi Formation found west Wyoming, and northwest Colorado on the northern and eastern sides of the (Oard and Whitmore, 2006). Of course basin (Scarborough, 1989). this implies that these formations were The Three Dam-Breach “Canyonlands Lake” is thought to deposited after the Flood. However, if Hypotheses have been located northeast of Grand the Green River Formation was depos- The dam-breach hypothesis is recent Canyon (Austin, 1994b). It is also called ited during the Flood, then it is doubtful compared to uniformitarian ideas. It “Grand Lake” by Brown (2001; 2008). that there ever was a “Lake Vernal.” If was developed in the mid 1980s, and Both authors suggest that the waters of not, then some of the water needed to proposes the formation of several post- this lake were dammed by the Vermil- erode Grand Canyon must be found Flood lakes northeast and southeast of lion-Echo Cliffs northeast of the Marble elsewhere (Oard and Klevberg, 2008). 292 Creation Research Society Quarterly

In all three dam-breach models, of “bubbles” or vacuum cavities another 1,000 ft (305 m) of soft the lakes emptied catastrophically, like formed by irregularities in a Mesozoic strata. In other words, the Lake Missoula flood in the Pacific channel during extremely high the Kaibab Limestone that today Northwest (Oard, 2004b). The authors flows. It multiplies the erosive forms the surface of the Kaibab suggest this occurred within a few strength of the water, plucking Plateau was 5,000 ft (1,524 m) centuries after the Flood. The escaping large sections of rock from the lower than its present elevation lake water eroded a notch in the Vermil- channel floor. However, once of about 9,000 ft (2,743 m) just lion-Echo Cliffs, continuing southwest the tunnel collapsed, cavitation before the dam-breach event. to break through the Kaibab Plateau would cease, since it exists only (2) During the Genesis Flood, and the other plateaus of the southwest in shallow, very fast currents. continent-sized blocks of crust Colorado Plateau. This vast flood then This dam failure led to the composed of large crustal plates turned west, eroding Grand Canyon. catastrophic emptying of the moved west and downward off There are significant differences lake, cutting the drainage of the the rapidly rising ocean floor of between the ideas of Austin (1994a) Little Colorado River. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which and those of Brown (2001; 2008). These (2) Immediately after the draining rose 10 miles (16 km), initiating must be taken into account in a general of “Lake Hopi,” “Canyonlands the lateral sliding of large crustal critique of the dam-breach hypothesis. Lake” suffered a similar fate, plates. Lubricated by subcrustal To further complicate the picture, other cutting through the Vermil- water, North America slid west creationists have informally suggested lion-Echo Cliffs, probably also at a relatively high speed and yet another dam-breach model. Instead by piping. This event cut Mar- then came to an abrupt halt, as of lakes existing for centuries, it posits ble Canyon and extended the the western end was halted by the ponding of Floodwater in the same Grand Canyon north and north- friction. The rest of the “hydro- area. These waters broke through the east from the Kaibab Plateau. plate” buckled and compressed Kaibab Plateau, eroding Grand Canyon (3) Like toppling dominoes, “Ver- within hours during the “com- within weeks or months of the end of nal Lake” emptied too, cutting pression event.” Weaker portions the Flood. It can be called the ephem- through the Roan and Book were crushed, thickened, and eral lake version. But since this idea has Cliffs. The combined water forced upward, creating the new not yet been published, this article will from these three lakes flowed continents, which were then concentrate on the Austin and Brown west, eroding Grand Canyon about twice today’s elevation, models. and probably the Canyonlands which triggered the Ice Age. area of southeast Utah, Black The Rocky Mountains would Austin’s Dam-Breach Model Canyon on the Gunnison Riv- then have been roughly double Austin’s (1994a) mechanism can be er in western Colorado, and their current elevation—similar broken down into three stages. Flaming Gorge in Utah and to the Himalayas of today. (1) Within a few centuries of the Wyoming. The volume of water (3) The unstable mountains began Flood, sediments damming needed to erode Grand Canyon to sink, forcing the mantle up on Lake Hopi were breached by demands the simultaneous emp- either side, causing the adjacent piping. “Piping” is an engineer- tying of all three lakes. plateaus to rise—thousands of ing term that describes the forc- feet over several centuries fol- ing of water through weak areas Brown’s Dam-Breach Model lowing the Flood. The Colorado in a dam because of the water Brown’s (2001; 2008) hypothesis is more Plateau, and the remaining water pressure behind the dam. Austin complex, involving seven key steps. It ponded there, rose as much as a proposed that a tunnel formed flows from his larger “Hydroplate” hy- mile (1.6 km). This post-Flood initially by piping, and was rap- pothesis and is thus dependent on its isostatic adjustment caused idly enlarged by high-pressure veracity. extensive frictional melting flow before the roof collapsed, (1) The initial elevation of the and the volcanism around the forming a channel. southwest Colorado Plateau perimeter of the Colorado Pla- Erosion would have been was lower, at about 5,000 ft teau. Brown suggests that block aided by cavitation (Holroyd, (1,524 m) msl. The top of the faulting during uplift caused 1990b; 1990c; 1990d). Cavita- Kaibab Limestone was at 4,000 most of the high east-west cliffs tion is caused by the implosion ft (1,219 m) msl, capped by on the Colorado Plateau: Volume 46, Spring 2010 293

Large blocks, when lifted and rado River (Figure 5), is located ous creation of tension cracks tilted, became cliffs and moun- at the northeast end of the fun- and the anticlinal uplift of the tains—called block-faulted nel. During catastrophic ero- strata, until Grand Canyon was mountains. North of the Grand sion of “the funnel,” horizontal excavated into the igneous and Canyon are many examples: strata beneath its floor began to metamorphic rocks that mark its Utah’s Book Cliffs, Roan Cliffs, arch upward as the weight of present bottom. the Grand Staircase (Vermil- overlying sedimentary rock was (7) Brown attributes some of the lion Cliffs, White Cliffs, Grey removed. Since the rock was not erosion of Grand Canyon to Cliffs, Pink Cliffs), and others malleable, the arching caused groundwater, which existed at (Brown, 2008, p. 191). the strata to split under tension, that time in greater quantity Figure 3 shows the Grand forming Marble Canyon parallel than today. He thinks that up Staircase from Le Fevre Over- to the funnel axis. to 20% of the Flood’s waters look, northwest of the North (5) Southward flowing water from became groundwater. Dur- Rim of the Grand Canyon half- “Grand Lake” undercut the ing the formation of Marble way up the northwest Kaibab northwest corner of “Lake Hopi,” Canyon and Grand Canyon, Plateau (see Figure 3 in Part triggering its catastrophic empty- this groundwater began to flow I for a diagram of the Grand ing. This flow formed a waterfall rapidly towards the newly erod- Staircase). The scarps of the about thirteen times higher and ing Grand Canyon, multiply- Grand Staircase in Brown’s possibly a hundred times the ing the erosional effects of the model were caused by faulting. volume of Niagara Falls (Brown, surface waters, and opening But field data indicates that all 2008, p. 192). Catastrophically underground channels, which of these cliffs are erosional; there released water from both lakes in turn collapsed and formed is no evidence for significant swept west as a sheet, eroding side canyons. block faulting. It is possible at least 1,000 ft (300 m) of that minor faulting could have soft Mesozoic strata above the The Kaibab Plateau Uplifted occurred along the Vermillion Kaibab Limestone over a wide Before Grand Canyon Formed Cliffs north of Grand Canyon, area. This sheet erosion event Austin’s (1994a) version is the best de- but they are normal faults, down stripped strata from northwest- veloped of the two models. He begins to the north—the opposite of the ern Arizona, an area of 10,000 with today’s topography, with the Kaibab direction suggested by Brown. mi2 (25,900 km2). Brown points Plateau already at its current elevation. At any rate, Brown has “Grand to the approximately 1,000-foot Brown’s model (2001; 2008) proposes Lake” rising to an elevation of (305 m)-high erosional remnants that the Kaibab Plateau uplifted during about 5,700 feet (1,737 m) msl of this Mesozoic sedimentary and after the breaching of the lakes. while Lake Hopi ended up at rock, such as Red Butte, which Austin is better supported by two 5,950 feet (1,814 m) msl. is capped by lava, as evidence for pieces of field evidence. First, the Butte (4) The climate after the Flood this sheet erosion event. Fault (related to the East Kaibab Mono- produced more rain than is (6) The westward flowing wall of cline) and the Colorado River between seen today, which caused the water converged at the lowest Nankoweap Creek and the Little Colo- lake levels to rise, until “Grand point of the “rising” Kaibab rado River are parallel to each other Lake” cut through its southwest Plateau, cutting Grand Canyon. (Figure 2). This is best explained by bank, spilled over the Vermil- The removal of a 1,000-ft (305 the uplift of the Kaibab Plateau before lion-Echo cliffs, and catastrophi- m) sheet of strata from Kaibab the Colorado River developed (see cally eroded 2,000 ft (610 m) of Plateau supposedly helped gen- Figure 5 of Part I for the location of soft Mesozoic strata, forming an erate the rapid 5,000-ft (1,524 the East Kaibab Monocline). Ranney 18-mile (29 km)-long and up to m) rise in its elevation. The (2005, p. 71, emphasis and brackets 12-mile (19 km)-wide spillway, course of Grand Canyon was mine) stated: called the “funnel,” between due to an anticlinal uplift along In his [Walcott’s] report he noted the Vermillion and Echo Cliffs its path caused by the earlier how the Colorado River in Marble (Figure 4). Lee’s Ferry, where sheet erosion. As the canyon Canyon exactly parallels the trace many rafting enthusiasts start was eroded downwards, the pro- of the Butte Fault for ten miles from their journey down the Colo- cess was aided by the continu- Nankoweap Creek to the Little Colo- 294 Creation Research Society Quarterly

flat-lying strata believed at one time to be the Wasatch Formation (Austin, 1994a; Babenroth and Strahler, 1945). This formation has since been renamed the Claron Formation (Harris et al., 1997), because it is much different than the typical Wasatch Formation found far- ther north, being composed mostly of limestone with very few fossils and con- glomerate lenses. In any case, the pres- ence of these flat-lying strata, extensively eroded along the Grand Staircase (see Figure 3, Part I), suggests that the Kaibab Plateau was uplifted before the Claron Formation was deposited. And since this formation once covered over 2,000 mi2 (5,100 km2) north of Grand Canyon, it seems reasonable to attribute it to the Flood. Therefore, widespread Flood sedimentation was happening after the Kaibab Plateau uplifted (Oard et al., Figure 2. The Butte Fault parallel to Colorado River between Nankoweap Canyon 2009), which would be hard for Brown’s and the mouth of the Little Colorado River Canyon, showing that the Kaibab dam-breach hypothesis to explain. Plateau was already uplifted before the Colorado River formed. Drawing by Peter Klevberg. My Journey Away from the Dam-Breach Hypothesis Originally, I accepted Austin’s dam- breach model. It seemed plausible, supported by published evidence. At the time, I was pursuing other projects and did not evaluate the model closely. In my first (generally favorable) examination of the dam-breach hypothesis (Oard, 1993), I noticed five geological problems and estimated Ice Age precipitation for the southwest United States. Precipitation then would have been about four times today’s and evaporation less, due to cooler temperatures during the Ice Age. Higher precipitation and lower evapora- tion could have led to rapidly rising lake levels in the American Southwest. My Figure 3. The Grand Staircase from Le Fevre Overlook. These cliffs represent climatological focus diverted attention about 10,000 feet (3,048 m) of erosion. from geological problems. I mentioned several as a means to spur Austin and others to answer them. Brown attempted rado. This showed unequivocally Second, the northern part of the East to do so, but his explanations were not that the river must have become Kaibab Monocline just east of Bryce convincing. Over time, other research positioned after that structure was Canyon National Park, Utah, is erosion- not directly connected to Grand Can- formed. ally beveled. This surface is overlain by yon began to raise other questions and Volume 46, Spring 2010 295

Figure 6. Pluvial lakes in the Basin and Range Province during the Ice Age.

uncover even more problems (Oard, 2004a; 2004b). At this time, I was researching the Lake Missoula flood at the peak of the Ice Age and the resulting Channeled Scabland of eastern Washington. Years of field and literature research led to the conclusion that only one large Lake Mis- soula flood occurred (with some minor flooding possible later) (Oard, 2000; 2003; 2004b). That research spurred my Figure 4. The “funnel” between Echo and Vermillion Cliffs. Note the tributaries interest in features of other post-Flood entering Grand Canyon at an obtuse angle. Drawing by Peter Klevberg. lakes of the Southwest United States (Figure 6). These pluvial lakes existed during the wetter part of the Ice Age, later shrinking or disappearing. They would have been located just west of the two “dam-breach” lakes, and so should share a generally common history. The pluvial lakes commonly exhibit well- developed shorelines and other features such as raised deltas at the mouth of tributary streams. Glacial Lake Missoula and the pluvial lakes of the southwest United States are suitable analogs for Ice Age lakes on the Colorado Plateau. All of them existed during the early post-Flood period—many for several centuries, though glacial Lake Missoula probably Figure 5. The start of a raft trip down the Colorado River beginning at Lee’s Ferry, existed for less than a century. All of northeast of Marble Canyon. these post-Flood lakes would have been 296 Creation Research Society Quarterly growing and filling up until the peak of suggested as the suspect forma- ferentiate between catastrophic the Ice Age, experiencing rising water tion, having a number of small models. Given the volume of levels following the Flood due to heavy caves. However, it would have water needed to erode Grand precipitation and melting ice. been in the wrong position, sev- Canyon, the expected gravel bar Flooding occurred, as field evidence eral thousand feet deeper than at its mouth should be at least an clearly shows. In addition to Lake the bottom of the lakes. Move- order of magnitude larger than Missoula, Lake Bonneville in western ment along the East Kaibab the Portland Delta. Utah broke through a rock barrier caus- Monocline could potentially ing the Bonneville flood in the upper have broken up overlying strata, Since the first two objections seem Snake River Valley of southern Idaho allowing the water to reach the fatal to either dam-breach model, we (O’Connor, 1993). There is well-docu- Redwall, but the lakes were not will evaluate them in more detail. mented evidence for the Lake Missoula banked against the monocline. and Bonneville floods. Austin (1994a) (5) Austin’s model requires an im- even referred to glacial Lake Missoula probable simultaneous release No Evidence for the Lakes and the Channeled Scabland as an ex- of lake volumes to provide suf- Obviously, there needs to be upstream ample for his dam-breach model, noting ficient water to erode the 1,000 lakes if there was any breach. Is there any that Grand Coulee, carved during the mi3 (4,169 km3) of rock from evidence for their existence? Lake Missoula flood, was a small-scale Grand Canyon. The timing example of Grand Canyon. Given these would have had to be perfect. No Lake-Bottom Sediments similarities, the Lake Missoula and (6) Brown’s model includes both Of the three proposed lakes, Lake Ver- Lake Bonneville dam-breaches should sheet erosion and later channel- nal is a special situation, as previously be good analogies of the dam-breach ized flow. He is hard-pressed to discussed. Thick sediments, both extant models for Grand Canyon. There- explain that volume of water. and eroded, are attributed to this sup- fore, the field evidence of this process (7) Large crustal movements and posed lake, which was one of several should not be subtle, but obvious and block faulting (Brown, 2008) “lakes” that occupied 30,000 mi2 (77,700 overwhelming. are not supported by field evi- km2) of northeast Utah, southwest Wyo- All dam-breach models fail at this dence. ming, and northwest Colorado after the point. Instead of the evidence being (8) The plethora of features such Flood. However, sediments commonly obvious and overwhelming, it is typically as gravel bars and slackwater attributed to this lake were very likely vague and inconclusive. deposits readily observed for the deposited by the Flood (Oard and Klev- Lake Missoula and Bonneville berg, 2008), not by a post-Flood lake. Numerous Problems floods are not present on the The debatable sedimentary evidence Exploring the problems of the dam- southwest Colorado Plateau. for “Lake Vernal” is the best evidence for breach hypotheses requires more room (9) Widespread erosion, such as the proposed lakes. But, no sedimentary than available here. However, they can that on the southeast edge of evidence exists for “Grand Lake.” Even be summarized as: the Kaibab Plateau (often higher its proponents, as well as uniformitarian (1) Lack of evidence for the pro- than the proposed lakes) cannot scientists who believe in the spillover hy- posed lakes. be explained by Austin’s theory. pothesis (see Part I), admit the absence (2) Unexpected long, deep, narrow (10) There is no massive gravel bar of “Grand Lake” sediments. tributary canyons. at the mouth of Grand Canyon, Austin (1994a) claimed that the (3) Rapidly rising water after the similar to the 200 mi2 (518 Bidahochi Formation contained sedi- Flood would most likely have km2), 300-ft (91 m)-thick Port- mentary remains of “Lake Hopi” in eroded outlet(s) at low eleva- land Delta at the mouth of the the Little Colorado River Valley. But tions of the Kaibab Plateau, Columbia Gorge. There are of geologists think that only a small part precluding a later catastrophic course gravel bars downstream of the formation was deposited by a release. from the Grand Canyon and lake and that this lake was only a small (4) Piping would have had to oper- gravel on pediments, as found desert lake (Dallegge et al., 2001; ate over nearly 100 miles (161 in many locations in south- White, 1990). Most of the formation is km). Thus, piping in man-made east California and southwest volcanic or laid down in moving water. dams is a poor analogy. The Arizona far from the Colorado Unless the Bidahochi Formation can Redwall Limestone has been River. These features cannot dif- be reinterpreted, there does not seem Volume 46, Spring 2010 297 to be enough sediment to justify a lake as large as “Lake Hopi.” Furthermore, these lake deposits are near to or higher than the proposed elevation of the lake. While the Bidaho- chi lake sediments are located near the northern and eastern “shoreline,” there are no deposits in what would have been the deepest part of the lake—exactly where they would be most expected. There should be thick sediments at the bottom of the Little Colorado River Valley. Since the sediments of the water- shed surrounding “Lake Hopi” are easily eroded, another explanation for their absence needs to be developed. Some might argue that the missing sediments were scoured away during the breach of Lake Hopi’s dam. But the out- Figure 7. The mouth of the Little Colorado River from a raft on the Colorado let of “Lake Hopi” is the Little Colorado River (view southeast). River Canyon—a narrow canyon about half a mile (0.8 km) high and a quarter mile (0.4 km) wide where it enters the Colorado River (Figure 7). Figures 8, 9, and 10 show this narrow canyon at three locations above its junction with the Colorado River. Although water would be rushing through the constricted canyon of the Little Colorado River, this quarter-mile-wide outlet would allow only a small volume of water to pass through compared to the large volume of Lake Hopi. Thus, in the lake away from the outlet, the currents would be sluggish until they neared the outlet, minimizing scour of the lake bottom. It does not seem likely that the dam breach would have caused the complete scouring of the lake-bottom sediments. Figure 8. The Little Colorado River valley west of Cameron as it enters the begin- The same argument applies to “Grand ning of the canyon. Lake” and Marble Canyon. With re- stricted outlets, there is no reason not to expect thick deposits of lake-bottom ern Montana, that is expected, given markers either. All lakes have shorelines, sediments. the current velocities of up to 60 mph and when rivers flow into lakes they form In contrast, Lake Missoula left (97 kph). Figure 12 shows a schematic deltas. If a lake empties, those shorelines abundant sediments in the broad basin of expected currents at various points and deltas will remain, carved or depos- of northwestern Montana. These are within Lake Hopi and its outlet. ited on the surround hills. The Flood located at the lowest elevations north- ended around 4,500 years ago. The west of Missoula, as expected (Figure No Shorelines or Raised Deltas lakes breached several hundred years 11). Although the lake sediments were In addition to the missing sediments, the later. That leaves slightly more than four eroded from the narrow valleys of west- proposed lakes left no geomorphological millennia, which is not enough time to 298 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 9. The narrow valley of the Little Colorado River Valley at a scenic overlook at milepost 285.7 on highway 64. The canyon at this point is a slot- Figure 10. Top of the slot-like canyon of the Little Colorado River Valley at mile- like canyon about 1,200 feet. post 277.7 on highway 64.

Figure 11. Extensive, flat lake-bottom sediments (rhythmites) from glacial Lake Missoula in the Little Bitterroot Valley, about 75 miles (120 km) northwest of Missoula, Montana. These sediments were laid in the bottom of glacial Lake Missoula, over 1,000 feet (300 m) below maximum lake level. The catastrophic emptying of the lake failed to erode these sediments. Volume 46, Spring 2010 299

Missoula Valley west of Missoula (Figure 15), and on the north slope of the Na- tional Bison Range (Figure 16). There are also raised deltas at the entrance of tributary valleys to the Bitterroot Valley (Weber, 1972). Moreover, the host lithology makes no difference. The shorelines are etched equally clearly in hard rocks and in soft clay slopes—e.g., the north slope of the Missoula Valley. Alt (2001, p. 48) stated, “But the shorelines seem just as numer- ous on the weak clay slopes north of the Missoula Valley as on extremely stable slopes of Belt rocks.” The shorelines on Figure 12. Schematic of theoretical currents in “Lake Hopi” and the Little clay slopes are very similar in appear- Colorado River Canyon. The current would have been strong through the Little ance to those shorelines cut on harder Colorado River Canyon because of its slot-like shape but much weaker away from rocks. Thus, any appeal to absence from the drainage point. Hence, little erosion of lake bottom sediments should have erosion seems unlikely. occurred. Thick arrows show high velocity, and thin arrows show relatively low If distinct shorelines for ephemeral current velocities. Drawing by Peter Klevberg. glacial Lake Missoula are so abundant and obvious—even in soft rocks—surely we should see many obvious shorelines associated with the lakes proposed by erase all traces of these lakes, as is clearly the hypothetical dam-breach occurred Austin and Brown. seen in the remains of other pluvial lakes before the Ice Age (a very unlikely idea), in the same region. the same evidence should still be seen. (2) Shorelines and Raised Deltas For instance, glacial Lake Missoula around Ice Age Lakes (1) Shorelines and Raised Deltas was most likely a very short-lived lake in the Great Basin around Glacial Lake Missoula that rose each year during the peak of The Basin and Range Province lies west How do we know that the shorelines and the Ice Age (Oard, 2004b). Although it of the Colorado Plateau. It is composed high deltas should still exist today? Sim- burst and emptied in a few days, relict of high mountain ranges separated by ply by analogy; shorelines, raised deltas, shorelines are abundant. A few examples deep valleys or basins, with no external and other shoreline features are abundant are the shorelines found around the city drainage. Today, the climate is hot in around other past Ice Age lakes. Even if of Missoula (Figures 13 and 14), in the the summer and annual precipitation is

Figures 13. Shorelines from glacial Lake Missoula on Figure 14. Shorelines from glacial Lake Missoula on Mount Mount Sentinel, east of Missoula, Montana. Jumbo, northeast of Missoula, Montana. 300 Creation Research Society Quarterly

generally light. But during the Ice Age, enclosed basins within the Great Basin (as well as areas of southeast California) contained many deep lakes (see Figure 6). These lakes would have been par- tially filled during the final retreat of the Genesis Flood, as should have any lakes on the Colorado Plateau. Lake Bonne- ville was the largest, about 800 feet (244 m) deeper than Great Salt Lake; a mere remnant of Lake Bonneville, and only about 12 feet (3.7 m) deep on average. Figure 15. Shorelines from glacial Lake Missoula on the northern slope of Mis- All these lakes would have continued soula Valley, just north of Frenchtown. to grow during the Ice Age (Oard, 1990; 2004a). Heavy Ice Age precipitation caused Lake Bonneville to eventu- ally overtop an outlet at Red Rock Pass (southeast Idaho) causing the Bonneville flood (O’Connor, 1993; Oard, 2004a; 2004b). Ice Age lakes in the Great Basin should have been similar to those on the Colorado Plateau, if the latter existed. The existence of these pluvial lakes is shown by their abundant shorelines. Some are huge. The most impressive are those around Lake Bonneville (Figure 17), just west of “Grand Lake.” Shorelines from other pluvial lakes of the Great Basin–such as Ice Age Mono Lake in Owens Valley, California; Ice Age Lake Lahonton in western Nevada; Figure 16. Shorelines along the northern National Bison Range, about 35 miles Ice Age Lake Manly in Death Val- (55 km) north of Missoula, Montana. ley (Figure 18); and Ice Age lakes in southeast Oregon (Figure 19)—are less distinct but still visible. Ice Age lakes in western Nevada and southeast Oregon also exhibit beach barrier bars, spits, back-barrier lagoons, rounded gravel and other shoreline geomorphological features (Adams and Wesnousky, 1998; Carter et al., 2006). The most prominent shoreline in Death Valley is located at 300 ft (91 m) above the basin floor, with possible shorelines much higher (Hooke, 1999). There is abundant and obvious evidence for their post-Flood existence.

(3) No Shorelines and Raised Deltas for Proposed Colorado Plateau Lakes Figure 17. Lake Bonneville shoreline at base of mountains north of Salt Lake When we turn to the two lakes east City. and northeast of the Kaibab Plateau, Volume 46, Spring 2010 301

Figure 18. Lake Manly shorelines in Death Valley on lower slope to left.

there are no shorelines, raised deltas, or other beach geomorphological features (Holroyd, 1994). The ephemeral lake version is the only one of the three dam- breach hypotheses that can account for the observed evidence. But for other reasons, such as Grand Canyon carved at an intermediate altitude through the Kaibab Plateau and the long tributary canyons (described below), that version is unlikely. At best it depends on the absence of evidence.

(4) Are There Any Reasons Not to Expect Shorelines? Brown (2008, pp. 201-202) responded to this lack of evidence. He first stated that after the Flood, the Colorado Plateau rose more than a mile (1.6 km), while the Rocky Mountains sank. Such uplift al- Figure 19. Shorelines on the lower slope from a pluvial lake in southeast Oregon. tered the shapes of the basins and caused 302 Creation Research Society Quarterly the shorelines to shift so that the water highest shoreline, as well as the next to surrounding groundwater would have level would not be at one location long the highest shoreline, is still very distinct. destroyed shorelines and formed cliffs enough to etch a shoreline. Pluvial Lake So, the highest shoreline of Lake Bonne- as the groundwater shot high into the Bonneville and glacial Lake Missoula ville must have been carved within a air. But groundwater flow is usually very were supposedly not affected by these very short time. It does not take long to slow compared to surficial flow, and it great vertical movements, though Lake make a shoreline. The many levels of is more likely that a rapid adjustment to Missoula technically lies in the Rocky shorelines from Grand and Hopi Lakes the water table surface near the drained Mountains and Lake Bonneville just to should be clearly preserved. lake would slowly accommodate the the west of Grand Lake and Lake Hopi. Furthermore, the same thunder- change in base level. Even so, some But these movements are contrary storms should have affected other shorelines would have certainly existed to field evidence. Furthermore, if there preserved features across the western at high altitudes once the lake emptied had been such widespread tectonic United States. And ironically, shorelines and probably above the water table. instability, it seems unlikely that lakes cut into slopes would be immune from Most groundwater discharge, especially would have formed at all. Brown (2008) the worst erosion from thunderstorms, in any volume, would occur at lower countered by suggesting that oscillations which comes from water accumulating elevations. in the lake waters would have eroded in lower areas and flooding down gradi- Although Brown (2008) did not any shoreline features, but these same ent. Most geologists would recognize make the argument, someone may claim movements would have caused the that climatic conditions in Montana are that shorelines would more easily erode lakes to overflow their natural barriers much more conducive to erosion, yet on the Colorado Plateau because of the well before any dam breach. And if he the remnants of glacial Lake Missoula friable nature of the sedimentary rocks. is right, the same problems would have are still there. But if glacial Lake Missoula’s shorelines been faced at nearby Lake Bonneville. Brown (2008) also appealed to were preserved in both hard rock and soft But that lake shows excellently preserved elevated groundwater flow after the clay (Alt, 2001), why should not Lake features and no evidence of large-scale dam breach to erode the shorelines. Hopi’s and Grand Lake’s? Furthermore, vertical motions. With a sudden drop in base level, the many of the rocks beneath the proposed In another attempt to deal with these difficulties, Brown (2008) also suggested that Lakes Bonneville and Missoula probably breached centuries after Lakes Grand and Hopi. He suggests that thunderstorms would then have had more time to erode the shorelines of the dam-breach lakes. But do the numbers add up? Grand Lake and Lake Hopi likely lasted 200 to 500 years. On the other hand, glacial Lake Missoula prob- ably lasted only 80 years with each year’s stillstand forming a shoreline (Oard, 2004b). It then obviously took less than a year to etch each still-visible shoreline of glacial Lake Missoula. Glacial Lake Missoula was emptied at the peak of the Ice Age, about 500 years after the Flood. Pluvial lake Bonne- ville broke through Red Rock Pass a little earlier (O’Conner, 1993), since the deposits of the Bonneville flood are below those of the Lake Missoula flood around Lewiston, Idaho. Lake Figure 20. The four long tributary canyons of the Colorado River through Grand Bonneville dropped over 330 feet (100 Canyon that gradually descend to the level of the Colorado River. Drawing by m) during the Bonneville flood. The Peter Klevberg. Volume 46, Spring 2010 303

hypothesis would be indisputable evi- dence of these lakes at the right time and in the right place. That evidence would include the presence of lake sediments, shorelines, and other geomorphologi- cal features commonly associated with numerous dry lakebeds in the western United States. Analogies like glacial Lake Missoula and Lake Bonneville demonstrate the types of features we should expect, as well as their preserva- tion potential. Their absence, especially given the quality of the analogies is a powerful argument against the hypo- thetical lakes on the Colorado Plateau.

Long Tributary Canyons: Another Major Hurdle for Figure 21. The mouth of Kanab Canyon from the Colorado River in Grand the Dam-breach Hypothesis Canyon. We will now look at another powerful argument against the dam-breach hy- pothesis—the presence of long tribu- tary canyons (Figure 20). There are four long tributary canyons to Grand Canyon: (1) Kanab Canyon, running about 50 miles (80 km) from Kanab in south central Utah (2) Havasu Canyon, which starts about 60 miles (97 km) south of Grand Canyon near Williams, Arizona (3) Peach Springs Canyon, about 20 miles (32 km) long (4) Little Colorado River Canyon Peach Springs Canyon is likely related to the Hurricane Fault. Since there is a structural component to its existence, and it was not formed completely by erosion, it will not be discussed in depth. But it is interesting to note that north of its intersection with Figure 22. Havasu Canyon with Cataract Creek. the Colorado River, the path of Grand Canyon is unrelated to this fault, one of the most significant in the Grand Can- yon area (Austin, 1994c). Furthermore, lakes on the Colorado Plateau are con- (5) Summary when Grand Canyon did intersect the solidated, and certainly hard enough If Grand Canyon was carved by a flood trace of the Hurricane Fault, it did not to preserve shorelines from minimal from the catastrophic emptying of post- continue along the fault, but turned erosion over 4,000 years. Flood lakes, then a primary test of that west. 304 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 23. Tributary canyon to Havasu Creek. The headwaters of this canyon are in a fairly dry location with a very little drainage basin on the west side of Havasu Creek. It does not seem likely that such a deep canyon, tributary to Havasu Creek could form during the dam-breach or in the post-Flood climate.

The other three long tributary can- carved Grand Canyon. Kanab Canyon rado River has carved the Grand yons are not related to any known fault. enters Grand Canyon (Figure 21) as a Canyon? Practically all the significant faults trend narrow gorge about one mile (1.6 km) Thus, the uniformitarian solution for perpendicular to the Grand Canyon, in deep and a quarter mile (0.4 km) wide this problem is “deep time” and flash a north-south direction (Huntoon, 1990; (Powell, 2005). Havasu Canyon is of floods (Powell, 2005; Ranney, 2005). Shoemaker et al., 1974; Warner, 1978). similar dimensions (Figure 22). Both If Kanab and Havasu Canyon did not There are some minor northwest trend- require significant erosion of hard rock. form during the dam breach, could they ing faults detected in the upper Havasu Cataract Creek runs down Havasu have formed after the dam breach? That Canyon drainage and west of Havasu Canyon year-round, but Kanab Creek would require their erosion by present- Creek (Shoemaker et al., 1974), but they is dry most of the year and presents a day processes operating over about 4,000 do not seem to have affected the path of problem to even uniformitarian geolo- years. Early on, precipitation would have Havasu Creek. gists: “To make the question even more been higher but with very few summer The Little Colorado River Valley is difficult, Kanab Creek, like most of the thunderstorms that cause the erosive not included in this analysis since, as one side canyons, and in contrast to the pe- flash floods we see today. Toward the of the dam-breach outlets, it presents no rennial Colorado, is usually dry” (Powell, end of the Ice Age, the climate would problem to the hypothesis. 2005, pp. 63–64). Ranney (2005, pp. dry and then the summer thunderstorm 50, 51) puzzled over the origin of these regime would set up about 4,000 years Kanab and Havasu Canyons tributaries: ago. But even with flash floods, erosion That leaves Kanab and Havasu canyons. How is it that much smaller tribu- observed today in these canyons is mod- They are erosional, not fault related. The taries, which have no water in their est at best. It does not seem possible that simplest explanation is that they formed channels most of the time, can carve summer thunderstorms and flash floods during the same erosional event that canyons just as deep as the Colo- could carve a mile-deep canyon, not to Volume 46, Spring 2010 305

Figure 24. Hanging valleys west of Banks Lake, upper Grand Coulee

mention the deep canyons tributary to least because the water would have had Coulee, about 10 miles west of Grand Kanab and Havasu Canyons (Figure to be present at the upper ends of the Coulee, formed rapidly (Oard, 2004b). 23). We must conclude that it is highly drainage basins of the tributary canyons, Preexisting valleys were left as hanging unlikely that these tributary canyons and at the upper end of Grand Canyon valleys in the walls of the coulees (Baker, formed by modern processes after Grand at the same time—areas separated by 1978; Hanson, 1970) (Figure 24). Those Canyon. over a hundred miles. In other words, tributary valleys that slope to the floor of water flowing at sufficient velocity for Grand Coulee do so because they were The Canyons Eroded at the a sufficient time to erode a mile into formed at the same time. For example, Same Time as Grand Canyon indurated rock would have had to have Northrup Canyon, along the northeast Since the tributaries reach the same been spread over a hundred miles (161 edge of Upper Grand Coulee, is not a depth as Grand Canyon, the most km) of the southwest Colorado Plateau hanging valley because it formed at the logical explanation is that they were or to have been derived simultaneously same time as Grand Coulee. eroded at the same time. Because they from three widely spread sources. The necessity for multiple sources of gradually descend to the exact depth of The relationship between Grand flooding or for one extremely widespread Grand Canyon from their upper drain- Canyon and its tributaries is mirrored source militates against the dam-breach age basins, they could not have formed in the erosional remnants of the Lake hypothesis. before Grand Canyon. They had to form Missoula flood. Had the tributary can- simultaneously with Grand Canyon. yons not been eroded at the same time What about the Tributary Canyons The erosion of Grand Canyon re- as Grand Canyon, they would probably on Marble Platform? quired massive volumes of water. Apart have created hanging valleys, such as Brown (2008, p. 190) noted that the from the Flood, that volume is difficult those seen in the Pacific Northwest. Dur- tributary canyons to the Colorado to explain. The presence of the tributary ing the flood that formed the Channeled River through Marble Canyon are at an canyons exacerbates that problem, not Scabland, Grand Coulee, and Moses obtuse angle (see Figure 4), while in a 306 Creation Research Society Quarterly

normal drainage they should be acute. The existence of such long, deep Geomorphology and structure of the He interprets this angle to suggest that tributaries to the Grand Canyon is East Kaibab Monocline, Arizona and Marble Canyon tributaries were formed similar to (though at a greatly expand- Utah. GSA Bulletin 56:107–150. by a northeast flowing current. But how ed scale) the formation of drainage Baker, V.R. 1978. The Spokane flood would such a river fit into Brown’s hy- channels on bare fields during runoff controversy. In Baker, V.R., and D. pothesis? This is the opposite direction (Thornes, 1990). There is always a main Nummedal (editors), The Channeled to which the water of the dam-breach channel with tributaries that cut down Scabland, pp. 3–15. NASA, Washing- flowed. His objection is easily answered. to the level of the main channel. Thus ton, D.C. The unusual obtuse tributaries could erosion by running water seems capable Brown, W. 2001. In the Beginning: Com- simply be a result of late Flood and of explaining the canyon system, yet the pelling Evidence for Creation and the post-Flood drainage flowing downslope, scale of such an event seems well beyond Flood, 7th edition. Center for Scientific which is toward the northeast on the a local release of water from a few lakes. Creation, Phoenix, AZ. Marble Platform. The Colorado River Logic therefore pushes us toward a dif- Brown, W. 2008. In the Beginning: Com- flows south to southwest, but the top of ferent explanation—that the canyon and pelling Evidence for Creation and the the Marble Platform slopes the opposite its tributaries were all eroded during the Flood, 8th edition. Center for Scientific way, quite different from a normal drain- closing stages of the Genesis Flood. This Creation, Phoenix, AZ. age network. hypothesis will be fleshed out in Parts Carter, D.T., L.L. Ely, J.E. O’Connor, and III, IV, and V of this series. As will be C.R. Fenton. 2006. Late Pleistocene shown, it answers many of the problems outburst flooding from pluvial lake Summary that have baffled both uniformitarians Alvord into the Owyhee River, Oregon. Uniformitarian models fail to explain to and proponents of a catastrophic dam- Geomorphology 75:346–367. origin of Grand Canyon. Catastrophist breach event. Dallegge, T.A., M.H. Ort, W.C. McIntosh, alternatives have focused on the abrupt and M.E. Perkins. 2001. Age and emptying of upstream lakes by a dam depositional basin morphology of the breach. But these models face many References Bidahochi Formation and implications problems, too. Two especially severe CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- for the ancestral upper Colorado River. objections to any dam-breach theory are terly In Young, R.A., and E.E. Spamer (edi- the absence of evidence for the anteced- Adams, K.D., and S.G. Wesnousky. 1998. tors), Colorado River Origin and Evolu- ent lakes and the inability of lake sources Shoreline processes and the age of the tion: Proceedings of a Symposium Held to account for the simultaneous erosion Lake Lahontan highstand in the Jessup at Grand Canyon National Park in June, of tributary canyons. Counter arguments embayment, Nevada. GSA Bulletin 2000, pp. 47–51. Grand Canyon Associa- to the absence of lake features fall apart 110:1,318–1,332. tion, Grand Canyon, AZ. when met with the analogies of other Alt, D. 2001. Glacial Lake Missoula and Hanson, L.G. 1970. The Origin and Develop- nearby lakes existing at about the same Its Humongous Floods. Mountain Press ment of Moses Coulee and Other Scab- time. Lake Bonneville and Lake Mis- Publishing, Missoula, MT. land Features on the Waterville Plateau, soula left abundant evidence of their Austin, S.A. 1994a. How was Grand Canyon Washington. PhD thesis. University of presence; proposed “Lake Hopi” and eroded? In Austin, S.A. (editor), Grand Washington, Seattle, WA. “Grand Lake” should do no less. Canyon—Monument to Catastrophism, Harris, A.G., E. Tuttle, and S.D. Tuttle. 1997. An unpublished hypothesis, the pp. 83–110. Institute for Creation Re- Geology of National Parks, 5th edition. ephemeral lake version, offers a pos- search, Dallas, TX. Kendal/Hunt Publishing Company, sible explanation of the absence of lake Austin, S.A., 1994b. A creationist view of Dubuque, IA. features but cannot explain the synchro- Grand Canyon strata. In Austin, S.A. Holroyd, E.W. III. 1990a. Missing talus on nous erosion of multiple canyons many (editor), Grand Canyon—Monument to the Colorado Plateau. In Walsh, R.E., miles apart. Nor can it explain the loca- Catastrophism, pp. 57–82. Institute for and C.L. Brooks (editors), Proceedings tion of Grand Canyon at an intermediate Creation Research, Dallas, TX. of the Second International Conference altitude on the Kaibab Plateau or the Austin, S.A., 1994c. Geologic structure of on Creationism, pp. 115–128. Creation fact that Grand Canyon was carved just Grand Canyon. In Austin, S.A. (editor), Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. west of the Kaibab Plateau perpendicular Grand Canyon—Monument to Catastro- Holroyd, E.W. III. 1990b. Cavitation processes to the topographic slope. Furthermore, phism, pp. 9–19. Institute for Creation during catastrophic floods. In Walsh, R.E., until it is published, it has not earned a Research, Dallas, TX. and C.L. Brooks (editors), Proceedings of place in the literature discussion. Babenroth, D.L., and A.N. Strahler. 1945. the Second International Conference on Volume 46, Spring 2010 307

Creationism, pp. 101–113. Creation Sci- flood. Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Evidence, Theories, and Mystery. Grand ence Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. Journal 14(2):14–17. Canyon Association, Grand Canyon, Holroyd, E.W. III. 1990c. An introduction Oard, M.J. 2003. Evidence for only on AZ. to the possible role of cavitation in gigantic Lake Missoula flood. In Ivey, Scarborough, R. 1989. Cenozoic erosion the erosion of water channels. CRSQ R.L., Jr. (editor), The Fifth International and sedimentation in Arizona. In Jenney, 26:23–32. Conference on Creationism, pp. 219–231. J.P., and S.J. Reynolds (editors), Geologic Holroyd, E.W. III. 1990d. Some simulations Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, Evolution of Arizona, Arizona Geological of the possible role of cavitation in cata- PA. Society Digest 17, pp. 515–537. Arizona strophic floods. CRSQ 27:49–55. Oard, M.J. 2004a. Frozen In Time: The Geological Society, Tucson, AZ. Holroyd, E.W., III. 1994. A remote sensing Woolly Mammoth, the Ice Age, and the Shoemaker, E.M., R.L. Squires, and M.J. search for extinct lake shore lines on Bible. Master Books, Green Forest, AR. Abrams. 1974. The Bright Angel and the Colorado Plateau. In Walsh, R.E. Oard, M.J. 2004b. The Missoula Flood Mesa Butte fault systems of northern (editor), Proceedings of the Third Inter- Controversy and the Genesis Flood. Arizona. In Karlstrom, T.N., V. Gordon, national Conference on Creationism, pp. Monograph No. 13, Creation Research A. Swann, and R.L. Eastwood (editors), 243–254. Creation Science Fellowship, Society Books, Chino Valley, AZ. Geology of Northern Arizona, Part I, Pittsburgh, PA. Oard, M.J. 2010. The origin of Grand Regional Studies, pp. 355–391. Rocky Hooke, R. LeB. 1999. Lake Manly(?) Canyon part I: uniformitarianism fails Mountain Section, Geological Society shorelines in the eastern Mojave Des- to explain Grand Canyon. CRSQ of America Annual Meeting, Flagstaff, ert, California. Quaternary Research 46:185–200. AZ. 52:328–336. Oard, M.J., and P. Klevberg. 2008. The Thornes, J., 1990. Big rills have little rills. Huntoon, P. W., 1990. Phanerozoic struc- Green River Formation very likely did Nature 345:764–765. tural geology of the Grand Canyon. not form in a postdiluvial lake. Answers Warner, L.A. 1978. The Colorado lineament: In Beus, S.S. and M. Morales (editor), Research Journal 1:99–108. a middle Precambrian wrench fault Grand Canyon Geology, Oxford Univer- Oard, M., T. Vail, D. Bokovoy, and J. Her- system. Geological Society of America sity Press, New York, pp. 261–309. genrather. 2009. Your Guide to Zion and Bulletin 89:161–171. O’Conner, J.E. 1993. Hydrology, Hydraulics, Bryce Canyon National Parks: A differ- Weber, W.M. 1972. Correlation of Pleistocene and Geomorphology of the Bonneville ent Perspective. Master Books, Green Glaciation in the Bitterroot Range, Mon- Flood. Geological Society of America Forest, AR. tana, with Fluctuations of Glacial Lake Special Paper 274, Geological Society Oard, M.J., and J.H. Whitmore. 2006. The Missoula. Bureau of Mines and Geology of America, Boulder, CO. Green River Formation of the west-cen- Memoir 42, Montana Bureau of Mines Oard, M.J. 1990. An Ice Age Caused by the tral United States: Flood or post-Flood? and Geology, Butte, MT. Genesis Flood. Institute for Creation Journal of Creation 20(1):46–49. White, J.D.L. 1990. Depositional architec- Research, Dallas, TX. Powell, J.L. 2005. Grand Canyon: Solving ture of a maar-pitted playa: sedimenta- Oard, M.J. 1993. Comments on the breached Earth’s Grandest Puzzle. PI Press, New tion in the Hopi Buttes volcanic field, dam theory for the formation of the York, NY. northeastern Arizona, U.S.A. Sedimen- Grand Canyon. CRSQ 30:39–46. Ranney, W. 2005. Carving Grand Canyon: tary Geology 67:55–84. Oard, M.J. 2000. Only one Lake Missoula 308 Creation Research Society Quarterly

The Blue Lagoon

The Blue Lagoon is one of the most famous tourist sites in Iceland (Fig- ures 1 and 2). A lagoon it is not. The blue comes from the color of the sky reflected in the shallow water from the white, sand-sized sediment on the bottom. It makes a dramatic contrast with the dark, angular basalt of the lava fl ow that surrounds this artifi cial body of water. When I went for a dip in the Blue Lagoon in 2002, I was told it is actually a thermal wastewater pond from the nearby geothermal power station (Figure 3), which injects seawater into hot tholeiite basalt bedrock and extracts the heat for use in nearby Reykjavík. After passing through the plant, the hot, circulated seawater, laden with dis- Figure 1. The ”Blue Lagoon” from the visitor center. solved minerals, is dumped (“wasted”) into this depression in the lava fl ow, forming a large pond. Of course calling a thermal pond in a dramatic setting a “wastewater pond” would do nothing to attract tourists! Basalt is the most common lithology (rock type) on earth, making up the bulk of oceanic crust and signifi cant areas on the continents also. Rocks are combina- tions of minerals. Of the approximately 2,400 known minerals, roughly 60 are common rock-forming minerals, of which nearly all are silicates (see Diet- rich and Skinner, 1979, p. 8). The most common single mineral is quartz, which is pure silica, and the most common mineral group is the feldspars, which are silicates. Approximately 72% of the earth’s continental crust is composed of silicon and oxygen. Basalt is composed principally of plagioclase feldspar

(NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8) and pyroxenes

(Ca(Mg,Fe)Si2O6 to (Mg,Fe)2Si2O6), Figure 2. Map of Iceland showing location of Blue Lagoon and other features. Volume 46, Spring 2010 309

Figure 3. The geothermal power plant responsible for the Blue Lagoon. It is located in a fi eld of tholeiite fl ows on the Reykjanes Peninsula.

with olivine ((Fe,Mg)2SiO4) and other accessory minerals, including quartz

(SiO2). Basalts range from silica defi cient (alkaline basalts) to slightly enriched in silica (some alumina basalts and quartz tholeiites). If, as many believe, the silica- undersaturated basalt and its plutonic equivalent gabbro dominate oceanic crust and are derived from pyroxenite, peridotite or eclogite (Klevberg, 2007; McBirney, 1993) or other basic rocks in the mantle, what is the source of sialic and silicic rocks, rocks that are relatively rich in silica? One potential source for the higher silica content of many of the rocks in continental crust and in isolated loca- tions within large igneous provinces (such as in Iceland) is previously-exist- Figure 4. Dacite column near Kalmanstunga. ing silica-rich rocks. Another potential 310 Creation Research Society Quarterly source is fractional melting of basalt processes during the Deluge could References (Klevberg, 2007), as observed in erup- have been a source for silicic rocks such Dietrich, R.V., and B.J. Skinner. 1979. Rocks tions from Hekla volcano in Iceland as bedded cherts (e.g., in California’s and Rock Minerals. John Wiley & Sons, (Figure 2). Even though relatively low famous Franciscan Formation). The New York, NY. in silica, basalt still commonly contains “fountains of the great deep” (Genesis Klevberg, P. 2007. Lava extrusion and the about 46 to 52% silica (McBirney, 1993). 7:11) could have been responsible for age of Iceland. Creation Research Society The silica content is high enough that similar concentration of silica in solu- Quarterly 44:119–146. basalt can exhibit alkali-silica reaction tion. Even today, hydrothermal vents on Korkanç, M., and A. Tuğrul. 2005. Evalu- when used as concrete aggregate (Kork- the sea fl oor produce “black smokers” ation of selected basalts from the point anç and Tuğrul, 2005); this seems largely and “white smokers” that precipitate of alkali-silica reactivity. Cement and related to the glass content of the lava sulfi de and other minerals, and siliceous Concrete Research 35:505–512. and also occurs in dacites (Figure 4), sinter is produced in hot springs. Extrac- McBirney, A.R. 1993. Igneous Petrology. andesites, and other volcanic rocks. tion of silica from common rocks by the Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Boston, A potential source of silica not com- hydrothermal activity of “the fountains MA. monly considered (it is not a common of the great deep” could have resulted present process) is hydrothermal extrac- in precipitation of silicic rocks on a Peter Klevberg tion from basalt. The silica forming the much wider scale during the Deluge Great Falls, MT sandy bottom of the Blue Lagoon was ex- of Genesis than the comparatively tiny tracted from seawater pumped through examples we witness today. hot basalt. Silica from similar natural

Earth-Sourced Impact Events on Day 2 of the Creation Week?

Recent decades have witnessed a grow- Biblical framework. As part of this pro- Australia and is approximately 30 ing recognition of impact events in posal, they accept the use of radiometric km in diameter. Earth’s history. Impact craters, tektites, age-dates within the framework of the Shifting perspectives to the young- and shocked minerals attributed to many uniformitarian geologic column—but earth Creation/Flood framework, large impactors have been discovered in a “relative” manner (Dickens and Dickens and Snelling (2008a, p. 70) around the world (Figure 1). In an effort Snelling, 2008a). defi ne these Paleoproterozoic impact to construct a viable Biblical geological Interpreting some of the Paleopro- structures as having formed on Day 2 history, young-earth creationists must terozoic impact structures, Dickens and of the Creation Week when the earth address these same data. One key issue Snelling (2008a, p. 67) state: was undergoing tremendous upheaval; to resolve is the timing of bombardment The Vredefort Impact Structure in “Paleoproterozoic impact structures are episodes. South Africa is believed to be the inferred to have formed when mate- Certainly the assumption of the oldest (2 Ga) and largest impact rial ejected from the earth fell back validity of the uniformitarian geologic structure (estimated 250–300 km to earth.” timescale is not acceptable, but some diameter original crater) in the Why are these impact craters (Figure creationists believe that its general world. The Sudbury Impact Struc- 2) assigned to Day 2? It appears to be framework, as well as “relative” radio- ture in Canada is similar in size based solely on the radiometric age-dates metric age-dating can help reconstruct (estimated 200 km diameter origi- of the surrounding rocks (Froede, 2008). a Biblical chronology of impact events nal crater) and age (1.85 Ga). The Unfortunately, this approach relies on (e.g., Dickens and Snelling, 2008a). Shoemaker Impact Structure, the the uniformitarian geologic timescale They advocate interpreting the history of oldest Australian impact structure to provide a historical chronology, rather the Creation Week by direct reference to to date (1.63 Ga), is located on the than the Bible alone. It also concedes a the various Precambrian Eras/Eons (sans southern margin of the Paleopro- relative accuracy to radiometric dating deep time) and adapt this history to the terozoic Eeraheedy Basin, Western that has not been empirically demon- Volume 46, Spring 2010 311

Figure 1. Manicouagan Lake and im- pact structure, Quebec. This feature is approximately 41 miles wide and is lo- cated on the Canadian Shield in Pre- Figure 2. Location of impact craters mentioned in this article. Found in meta- cambrian rocks (CCRS, 1976). Many morphic and granitic rock thought by secular geologists to be the oldest on Earth, such structures of varying sizes have these structures are radiometrically age-dated to the Precambrian. Currently, there been discovered in the past 50 years as are 23 impact craters (of a total of 176) on Earth dated to the Precambrian (Earth geologists continue to examine Earth. Impact Database, 2009). However, without assuming the validity of radiometric Do we need “relative” radiometric dating, these rocks could be interpreted as either from the Creation Week or the age dating coupled with the geologic Flood. So, determining the age of an impact crater becomes a matter of interpreta- timescale to assign a Biblical age to tion. If the only period of bombardment (extraterrestrial or otherwise) occurred these structures? At this location the during the Flood, then Earth’s impact structures would “date” to that global event. Precambrian rocks are covered by To invoke Earth-ejected materials returning to the surface as impactors during a Mesozoic volcanic sediments at the “Day Two” bombardment is unnecessary, and may diminish the true magnitude lower elevations (CCRS, 1976). What of the Flood. Map key: 1. Manicouagan impact crater; 2. Sudbury impact crater; happened to the Paleozoic strata? It is 3. Vredefort impact crater; 4. Shoemaker impact crater (formerly Teague Ring) probable that impact features like this (Hodge, 1994; Earth Impact Database, 2009). formed during the Flood. Modifi ed from NASA image No. 1636-14584, April 20, 1974 (Short et al., 1976).

strated, largely because reported dates Creationists should carefully con- community relies on radiometric dates are skewed by expectations generated sider whether the “Precambrian” as to defi ne and correlate the various eras by the timescale. defined by uniformitarian geologists and eons (Reed, 2008). It is entirely A better explanation of the impact has any historical signifi cance in the possible that “Precambrian” basement events in the rock record is the cataclys- Creation/Flood framework. Many think rocks could have formed both during mic nature of the Flood. An extrater- that some portion of these rocks formed the Creation Week and also during the restrial bombardment occurring during during the Flood, and some were origi- Flood (Froede and Oard, 2007; Oard this same period of time provides a better nal to Creation. Most of these rocks are and Froede, 2008). explanation for the formation of these problematic, possessing no inherent Therefore, there seems to be no com- impact craters (Froede and DeYoung, stratigraphic markers such as fossils or pelling reason to force impact events 1996; Froede, 2002; Froede 2009, and large-scale unconformities, and for that into the Creation Week, other than the references therein) (Appendix). reason the international stratigraphic perceived need to use a condensed ver- 312 Creation Research Society Quarterly

sion of the uniformitarian framework of Froede, C.R., Jr. 2002. Extraterrestrial Short, N.M., P.D. Lowman, Jr., S.C. Freden, Earth history. Young-earth creationists bombardment of the inner solar system: and W.A. Finch, Jr. 1976. Mission to already have credible geological time- a review with questions and comments Earth: Landsat Views the World. Plate scales to guide their interpretations of based on new information. CRSQ 155. NASA SP-360. National Aeronau- natural history (Walker, 1994; Froede, 38:209–212. tics and Space Administration. Wash- 1995; Froede, 2007). Utilizing the Froede, C.R., Jr. 2007. Geology by Design: ington, DC. uniformitarian geological timescale by Interpreting the Rocks and Their Cata- Walker, T.B. 1994. A biblical geologic applying “relative” radiometric age-dates strophic Record. Master Books, Green model. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), Proceed- to rocks is unnecessary in reconstructing Forest, AR. ings of the Third International Conference a geological history dominated by the Froede, C.R., Jr. 2008. Harmony between on Creationism, pp. 581–592. Creation global Flood of Genesis, as illustrated by the Bible and Precambrian geology—too Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. the need to force impact events into Day favourable to naturalism: Questions for 2 of Creation Week without considering Dickens and Snelling. JOC 22(3):40– their occurrence during the Flood. 41. Appendix Froede, C.R., Jr. 2009. On the origin of lunar The Sudbury impact structure contains References maria. JOC 23(3):49. one of the largest nickel deposits in the CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- Froede, C.R., Jr., and D.B. DeYoung. 1996. world. If this precious metal was derived terly Impact events within the young-earth from the Earth’s interior (as proposed JOC: Journal of Creation Flood model. CRSQ 33:23–34. by Dickens/Snelling), then its origin in CCRS (Canada Center for Remote Sensing). Froede, C.R., Jr., and M.J. Oard. 2007. the lower mantle or even the iron-nickel 1976. Caption information for Mani- Defi ning the pre-Flood/Flood boundary core would represent a cataclysm that couagan Lake, Quebec. In Short, N.M. within the Grand Canyon: were all the seems out of place in the events recorded et al., (editors), Mission to Earth: Landsat pre-Flood sediments scoured down to by Genesis 1. However, many geologists Views the World, p. 190. Plate 155. NASA basement during the Flood? Creation believe that the nickel found within the SP-360. National Aeronautics and Space Matters 12(4):3–4. crater was derived from a nickel-iron Administration, Washington, DC. Hodge, P. 1994. Meteorite Craters and Im- meteor (Naldrett, 2003). Consistent with Dickens, H., and A.A. Snelling. 2008a. pact Structures of the Earth. Cambridge that interpretation, I believe that a very Precambrian geology and the Bible: a University Press, New York, NY. large nickel-iron meteor, derived from harmony. JOC 22(1):65–72. Naldrett, A.J. 2003. From impact to riches: the asteroid belt, struck this location Dickens, H., and A.A. Snelling. 2008b. Evolution of geological understanding during the Flood, eliminating the need Precambrian geology and the Bible, as seen at Sudbury, Canada. GSA Today to assign this crater to a Day Two event no dissonance or contradiction. JOC 13(2):4–9. (Froede, 2009). 22(3):47–50. Oard, M.J., and C.R. Froede, Jr. 2008. Earth Impact Database. 2009. http://www. Where Is the Pre-Flood/Flood Bound- unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/ (as of ary? CRSQ 45:24–39. Carl R. Froede Jr., P.G. November 2009). Reed, J.K. 2008. Toppling the timescale, part Snellville, GA 30078

Froede, C.R., Jr. 1995. A proposal for a IV: assaying the golden (FeS2) spikes. creationist geological timescale. CRSQ CRSQ 45(2):81–89. 32:90–94. Volume 46, Spring 2010 313

The policy of the editorial staff of CRSQ is to allow letters to the editor to express a variety of views. As such, the content of all letters is solely the opinion of the author, and does not necessarily refl ect the opinion of the CRSQ editorial staff or the Creation Research Society.

C-14 in Dinosaur Bones

I read with great interest Bergman’s known paper on confi rmed carbon-14 Miller. 1990. Report on chemical analy- article (Bergman, 2009). Dinosaurs in a dinosaur fossil. sis and further dating of dinosaur bones have always been of great fascination to Although radiocarbon has been and dinosaur petroglypths. In Walsh, R. me. Although creationists don’t often found in fossilized wood and ammonites E. (editor), Proceedings of the Second In- think about it, dinosaurs have incred- from the Creataceous period (Snelling, ternational Conference on Creationism, ible potential for the creation model. 2008), this will not be as devastating to Vol. 2, pp. 371–374. Creation Science If it could be proved beyond any doubt the geologic column as C-14 in dinosaur Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. that their bones are only thousands, not bones simply because dinosaurs are Fields, W., H. Miller, J. Whitmore, D. Davis, millions, of years old, a 65-million year much more popular and are often used G. Detwiler, J. Ditmars, R. Whitelaw, slice of time would be taken from the to promote evolution. Would it not be and G. Novaez. 1990. The Paluxy foot- evolutionist’s pie. If a dinosaur bone is ironic if the very thing used to “push” prints revisited. In Walsh, R. E. (editor), shown to be only thousands of years old, the theory on the public would be the Proceedings of the Second International then obviously the geological strata it thing that destroyed it? Conference on Creationism, Vol. 2, pp. came from is that same age also. At least Dinosaurs are obviously used to 155–173. Creation Science Fellowship, 65 million years of the geologic column popularize Darwin’s tale. The devil loves Pittsburgh, PA. would have to be condensed by a factor using them for his godless philosophy Snelling A. A. 2008. Radiocarbon ages for fos- of a thousand. Such a large amount of because everyone, especially children, sil ammonites and wood in Cretaceous time would likely call the entire geologic are fascinated by them. strata near Redding, California. Answers column into question. If the column is If the creation model is correct, then Research Journal 1:123–144. unreliable, then so is the theory of evolu- radiocarbon should be found in dinosaur tion. The reason is because the geologic fossils. This is a logical way to test both column is the Bible to the evolutionist. If the evolutionary and creation models. As it is unreliable, then one must ask, Can a creationist, it would not be a surprise we believe a theory whose foundation to me if C-14 is found in their bones. Infinite Time? is destroyed? It is my proposal that creationists start My proposal is that creationists looking for it. I frequently fl y out of the country and should simply try to radiocardon date enjoy reading recent issues of the CRS a dinosaur fossil. Since carbon-14 can Reagan Schrock Quarterly while in fl ight. I enjoyed read- only be detected at up to 100,000 years, Athens, TN 37303 ing the recent editorial [CRSQ 46:77]. to find any measurable radiocarbon While reading the article, I noted would certainly prove they existed only an important factor was not mentioned thousands of years ago. References but should be brought to the reader’s at- Although there have been several Bergman, J. 2009. The evolution of dino- tention, namely, the time factor. While reports about possible C-14 in dinosaur saurs: much conjecture, little evidence. the monkeys (or whatever) and their bones (Fields et al., 1990; Dahmer et Creation Research Society Quarterly typewriters could perhaps generate read- al., 1990; see also omniology.com/C- 46:119–125. able literature over a truly infi nite period 14Verifi cation.html), to my knowledge Dahmer, L., D. Kouznetsov, A. Ivenov, J. of time, the allotted time “scientists” be- there is no recent, in-depth, and widely Hall, J. Whitmore, G. Detwiler, and H. lieve our planet has existed ranges from 8 to 13 billion years only. Certainly this is FAR from an infi nite time.

Donald E. Adler 314 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Tetrapod Footprints Stop Evolution in Its Tracks

Over the years I have written a number of with four functional limbs would put ians and the gene-theme model. CRSQ papers pushing back the history of four- them well beyond the possibility of their 43:55. footed creatures, collectively known as having evolved from anything! Brown, C. 1997. Devonian fi sh and amphib- tetrapods, thus removing any possibility This renders the theory of evolution ians and the gene-theme model: An of their evolution from lobe-fi nned fi sh stone dead and creation spot on, with update. CRSQ 34:2. (Brown, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2006a, any features that life-forms may share Brown, C. 1999. The principle of symmetric 2006b). being the result of the shared-features variation as it relates to silent mutations. My present argument shows the model spoken of in a number of papers CRSQ 36:4. tetrapods to be so old that they came I have written (Brown, 1996), showing Brown, C. 2000. The production of form, before the main lines of the lobe-fi nned that life-forms will remain within their hox genes, and symmetric variation. fi sh, making it impossible for evolution respective kinds thanks to the principle CRSQ 37:1. to have ever occurred! of symmetric variation (Brown, 1999, Brown, C. 2001. Obruchevichthys adds sup- The fossils are footprints of four- 2000, 2009). port for creation. CRSQ 37:4. footed land creatures with clear toe Brown, C. 2006a. When time runs out. impressions, which have been found CRSQ 43:3. in a quarry in Poland and dated at 397 References Brown, C. 2006b. Devonian fi sh and tetra- million years, giving them a history going CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- pods support creation—not evolution. back a further 400 million years or more, terly CRSQ 43:55. placing them at the start of the Devonian Amos, J. 2010. Fossil tracks record oldest Brown, C. 2009. Symmetric variation period or even further back into the ‘land-walkers.’ BBC News and Text, and natural selection. CRSQ 46:142. Silurian (Amos, 2010). This would put January 6. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci- these four-footed creatures well before ence/nature/8443879.stm Colin Brown the main lines of lobe-fi nned fi sh and Brown, C. 1996. Devonian fi sh and amphib- Warrington, UK

Time Travel: One Man’s Quest To Make It A Reality

This is a human story that in some re- with him; both are at the University of accomplish this. spects touches us all. We have all lost a Connecticut. On account of this alone, I believe loved one and know how this feels. The main argument against time doubts must be raised! The mere idea Professor Ronal Mallett was ten years travel being possible is one most people of taking particles back in time does not old when his father died at the age of 33. never seem to address. Let me use an answer just how we come to get an extant A short time after this, he came across example. Isaac Newton is buried in past in the fi rst place. So, whilst I feel for the book The Time Machine by H. G. Westminster Abbey. In order to go back Professor Mallett, I question the feasibil- Wells, which gave Ron hope of going and meet Newton, he and everything in ity of the subject of time travel. back in time to see his father and, hope- his world would have to have left cop- fully, warning him to slow down. ies, duplications of everything animate Over the years he has worked non- and inanimate, both here on Earth and References stop to fi nd a way of attaining this goal. throughout the entire universe, which, Mallett, R, and B. Henderson, 2007. The He now feels he has made an important of course, would need an enormous Time Traveller. Doubleday, New York, fi nd and in due course hopes to send amount of energy to achieve. The next NY. particles back in time. He now has Pro- question would be, do these copies also fessor Chandra Roychoudhuri working leave copies? This begs the question of Colin Brown whether the universe has the nature to Warrington, UK Volume 46, Spring 2010 315 Instructions to Authors

Submission Appearance Electronic submissions of all manuscripts and graphics are pre- Manuscripts shall be computer-printed or neatly typed. Lines ferred and should be sent to the editor of the Creation Research should be double-spaced, including figure legends, table Society Quarterly in Word, WordPerfect, or Rich Text Format footnotes, and references. All pages should be sequentially (see the inside front cover for address). Printed copies also are numbered. Upon acceptance of the manuscript for publica- accepted. If submitting a printed copy, an original plus two tion, an electronic version is requested (Word, WordPerfect, copies of each manuscript should be sent to the editor. The or Rich Text Format), with the graphics in separate electronic manuscript and copies will not be returned to authors unless files. However, if submission of an electronic final version is a stamped, self-addressed envelope accompanies submission. not possible for the author, then a cleanly printed or typed If submitting a manuscript electronically, a printed copy is not copy is acceptable. necessary unless specifically requested by the Quarterly editor. Submitted manuscripts should have the following organi- Manuscripts containing more than 35 pages (double-spaced zational format: and including references, tables, and figure legends) are dis- 1. Title page. This page should contain the title of the manu- couraged. An author who determines that the topic cannot be script, the author’s name, and all relevant contact information adequately covered within this number of pages is encouraged (including mailing address, telephone number, fax number, to submit separate papers that can be serialized. and e-mail address). If the manuscript is submitted by multiple All submitted manuscripts will be reviewed by two or authors, one author should serve as the corresponding author, more technical referees. However, each section editor of the and this should be noted on the title page. Quarterly has final authority regarding the acceptance of a 2. Abstract page. This is page 1 of the manuscript, and should manuscript for publication. While some manuscripts may be contain the article title at the top, followed by the abstract for accepted with little or no modification, typically editors will the article. Abstracts should be between 75 and 200 words in seek specific revisions of the manuscript before acceptance. length and present an overview of the material discussed in Authors will then be asked to submit revisions based upon the article, including all major conclusions. Use of abbrevia- comments made by the referees. In these instances, authors tions and references in the abstract should be avoided. This are encouraged to submit a detailed letter explaining changes page should also contain at least five key words appropriate made in the revision, and, if necessary, give reasons for not for identifying this article via a computer search. incorporating specific changes suggested by the editor or 3. Introduction. The introduction should provide sufficient reviewer. If an author believes the rejection of a manuscript background information to allow the reader to understand was not justified, an appeal may be made to the Quarterly the relevance and significance of the article for creation sci- editor (details of appeal process at the Society’s web site, www. ence. creationresearch.org). 4. Body of the text. Two types of headings are typically used Authors who are unsure of proper English usage should by the CRSQ. A major heading consists of a large font bold have their manuscripts checked by someone proficient in the print that is centered in column, and is used for each major English language. Also, authors should endeavor to make change of focus or topic. A minor heading consists of a regular certain the manuscript (particularly the references) conforms font bold print that is flush to the left margin, and is used fol- to the style and format of the Quarterly. Manuscripts may be lowing a major heading and helps to organize points within rejected on the basis of poor English or lack of conformity to each major topic. Do not split words with hyphens, or use all the proper format. capital letters for any words. Also, do not use bold type, except The Quarterly is a journal of original writings, and only for headings (italics can be occasionally used to draw distinc- under unusual circumstances will previously published mate- tion to specific words). Italics should not be used for foreign rial be reprinted. Questions regarding this should be submitted words in common usage, e.g., “et al.”, “ibid.”, “ca.” and “ad to the Editor ([email protected]) prior to infinitum.” Previously published literature should be cited us- submitting any previously published material. In addition, ing the author’s last name(s) and the year of publication (ex. manuscripts submitted to the Quarterly should not be concur- Smith, 2003; Smith and Jones, 2003). If the citation has more rently submitted to another journal. Violation of this will result than two authors, only the first author’s name should appear in immediate rejection of the submitted manuscript. Also, if (ex. Smith et al., 2003). Contributing authors should examine an author uses copyrighted photographs or other material, a this issue of the CRSQ or consult the Society’s web site for release from the copyright holder should be submitted. specific examples as well as a more detailed explanation of 316 Creation Research Society Quarterly manuscript preparation. Frequently-used terms can be abbrevi- not embed figures in the text. Each figure should contain ated by placing abbreviations in parentheses following the first a legend that provides sufficient description to enable the usage of the term in the text, for example, polyacrylamide gel reader to understand the basic concepts of the figure without electrophoresis (PAGE) or catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT). needing to refer to the text. Legends should be on a separate Only the abbreviation need be used afterward. If numerous page from the figure. All figures and drawings should be of abbreviations are used, authors should consider providing a high quality (hand-drawn illustrations and lettering should be list of abbreviations. Also, because of the variable usage of professionally done). Images are to be a minimum resolution of the terms “microevolution” and “macroevolution,” authors 300 dpi at 100% size. Patterns, not shading, should be used to should clearly define how they are specifically using these distinguish areas within graphs or other figures. Unacceptable terms. Use of the term “creationism” should be avoided. All illustrations will result in rejection of the manuscript. Authors figures and tables should be cited in the body of the text, and are also strongly encouraged to submit an electronic version be numbered in the sequential order that they appear in the (.cdr, .cpt, .gif, .jpg, and .tif formats) of all figures in individual text (figures and tables are numbered separately with Arabic files that are separate from the electronic file containing the and Roman numerals, respectively). text and tables. 5. Summary. A summary paragraph(s) is often useful for readers. The summary should provide the reader an overview Special Sections of the material just presented, and often helps the reader to Letters to the Editor: summarize the salient points and conclusions the author has Submission of letters regarding topics relevant to the Society made throughout the text. or creation science is encouraged. Submission of letters com- 6. References. Authors should take extra measures to be certain menting upon articles published in the Quarterly will be that all references cited within the text are documented in published two issues after the article’s original publication the reference section. These references should be formatted date. Authors will be given an opportunity for a concurrent in the current CRSQ style. (When the Quarterly appears in response. No further letters referring to a specific Quarterly the references multiple times, then an abbreviation to CRSQ article will be published. Following this period, individuals is acceptable.) The examples below cover the most common who desire to write additional responses/comments (particu- types of references: larly critical comments) regarding a specific Quarterly article Robinson, D.A., and D.P. Cavanaugh. 1998. A quantitative approach are encouraged to submit their own articles to the Quarterly to baraminology with examples from the catarrhine primates. CRSQ 34:196–208. for review and publication. Lipman, E.A., B. Schuler, O. Bakajin, and W.A. Eaton. 2003. Single-molecule measurement of protein folding kinetics. Sci- Editor’s Forum: ence 301:1233–1235. Occasionally, the editor will invite individuals to submit differ- Margulis, L. 1971a. The origin of plant and animal cells. American ing opinions on specific topics relevant to the Quarterly. Each Scientific 59:230–235. author will have opportunity to present a position paper (2000 Margulis, L. 1971b. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. words), and one response (1000 words) to the differing position Hitchcock, A.S. 1971. Manual of Grasses of the United States. Dover paper. In all matters, the editor will have final and complete Publications, New York, NY. editorial control. Topics for these forums will be solely at the Walker, T.B. 1994. A Biblical geologic model. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), editor’s discretion, but suggestions of topics are welcome. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Creationism (technical symposium sessions), pp. 581–592. Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. Book Reviews: 7. Tables. All tables cited in the text should be individually All book reviews should be submitted to the book review editor, placed in numerical order following the reference section, and who will determine the acceptability of each submitted review. not embedded in the text. Each table should have a header Book reviews should be limited to 1000 words. Following the statement that serves as a title for that table (see a current issue style of reviews printed in this issue, all book reviews should of the Quarterly for specific examples). Use tabs, rather than contain the following information: book title, author, publish- multiple spaces, in aligning columns within a table. Tables er, publication date, number of pages, and retail cost. Reviews should be composed with 14-point type to insure proper ap- should endeavor to present the salient points of the book that pearance in the columns of the CRSQ. are relevant to the issues of creation/evolution. Typically, such 8. Figures. All figures cited in the text should be individually points are accompanied by the reviewer’s analysis of the book’s placed in numerical order, and placed after the tables. Do content, clarity, and relevance to the creation issue. Volume 46, Spring 2010 317

Creation Research Society Membership/Subscription Application and Renewal Form The membership/subscription categories are defined below: 1. Voting Member ...... Those having at least an earned master’s degree in a recognized area of science. 2. Sustaining Member ...... Those without an advanced degree in science, but who are interested in and support the work of the Society. 3. Student Member ...... Those who are enrolled full time in high schools, undergraduate colleges, or postgraduate science programs (e.g., MS, PhD, MD, and DVM). Those holding post-doctoral positions are not eligible. A graduate student with a MS degree may request voting member status while enrolled as a student member. 4. Senior Member ...... Voting or sustaining members who are age 65 or older. 5. Life Member ...... A special category for voting and sustaining members, entitling them to a lifetime membership in the Society. 6. Subscriber ...... Libraries, churches, schools, etc., and individuals who do not subscribe to the Statement of Belief. All members (categories 1–5 above) must subscribe to the Statement of Belief as defined on the next page. Please complete the lower portion of this form and mail it with payment to CRS Membership Secretary, P.O. Box 8263, St. Joseph, MO 64508-8263, or fax for credit card payment to (816) 279-2312. Applications may also be completed online at creationresearch.org. ✁ This is a ❏ new ❏ renewal application for the subscription year beginning Summer ❏ 2008 ❏ ______. (Please type or print legibly.) Name ______Address ______City ______State ______Postal/Zip code ______Country ______Phone (optional) ______Email ______Degree ______Field ______Year granted ______Institution ______Presently associated with ______I have read and subscribe to the CRS Statement of Belief. Signature ______For foreign orders, including Canadian, payment must be made in U.S. dollars by a check drawn on a U.S. bank, international money order, or credit card. Please do not send cash. ‡ New PAPERLESS option: You may Indicate applicable category  Indicate payment  now opt out of receiving paper copies Paper** Canada Other Paper- of the CRS periodicals (CRS Quarterly ❏ Voting ❏ Sustaining USA Mexico countries less‡ and Creation Matters). By choosing this ❏ Regular [per year] ❏ $35 ❏ $53 ❏ $70 ❏ $31 option you may register for access to the ❏ Senior [per year] ❏ $30 ❏ $48 ❏ $65 ❏ $26 Premium Area of the website, where you ❏ Life member ❏ $500 ❏ $500 ❏ $500 ❏ $500 may view or download electronic (PDF) ❏ Student* [one year; multi-year not permitted] ❏ $30 ❏ $48 ❏ $65 ❏ $26 versions of these publications. Of course, ❏ Subscriber [per year] ❏ $38 ❏ $56 ❏ $73 ❏ $34 regular members and subscribers may also * Student members are required to complete the bottom portion of this form. have access to the Premium Area. Only ** Rates for the paper option include postage for First Class Mail International (FCMI), members, however, will access to the which is equivalent to airmail. Surface mail delivery is no longer available. Members Exclusive Area of the website. Member/Subscriber $______per year (multi-year not permitted for students) x _____ years Student Members are required to complete the following: SUBTOTAL $______School or institution now attending ______Optional contribution + $______Life membership + $______TOTAL $______Your current student status: ❏ high school; ❏ undergraduate; ❏ Visa ❏ MasterCard ❏ Discover graduate program ❏ MS ❏ PhD; ❏ other ______❏ American Express ❏ Check/money order Year you expect to graduate or complete your degree ______Card number ______Expiration date (mo/yr) ______Major, if college or graduate student ______Phone number (______) ______Signature ______Signature ______318 Creation Research Society Quarterly Order Blank for Past Issues Cost of complete volumes (per volume): ...... members (all categories) – $18.00 + S/H nonmembers and subscribers (libraries, schools, churches, etc.) – $25.00 + S/H Cost of single issues (per issue): ...... members (all categories) – $5.00 + S/H nonmembers and subscribers (libraries, schools, churches, etc.) – $7.00 + S/H

Number Number Volume 1 2 3 4 Volume 1 2 3 4 CRSQ on CD, version 2.0 21     34     Members, $75; nonmembers 22     35     and subscribers, $100. 23     36     24     37     Upgrade: Members, $40; nonmembers 25     38     and subscribers, $55. (Prices on this 26     39     item include postage and handling.) 27     40     Two-set CD contains volumes 1–41         28 41 (through March, 2005) of the 29     42     Creation Research Society Quarterly 30     43     31     44     and volumes 1–9 (through December, 32     45     2004) of Creation Matters in 33     46     Adobe Acrobat format. Volumes 1–20 are available on CD. See “CRSQ on CD” advertisement on right for details. Add 20% for postage (for U.S. orders: min. $5, max. $25; for Canadian orders: min. $10, no max.; for other foreign orders: min. $15, no max.) Total enclosed: $______Make check or money order payable to Creation Research Society. Please do not send cash. For foreign orders, including Canadian, please use a check in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, an international money order, or a credit card. (Please type or print legibly) Name ______Address ______City ______State ______Zip ______Country ______❏ Visa ❏ MasterCard ❏ Discover ❏ American Express Card number ______Expiration date (mo/yr) ______Signature ______Mail to: Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323, USA

Creation Research Society History—The Creation Research Society was organized fund for these purposes are tax deductible. As part of its 1. The Bible is the written Word of God, and because it in 1963, with Dr. Walter E. Lammerts as fi rst president vigorous research and fi eld study programs, the Society is inspired throughout, all its assertions are historically and editor of a quarterly publication. Initially started operates The Van Andel Creation Research Center in and scientifi cally true in all the original autographs. To as an informal committee of 10 scientists, it has grown Chino Valley, Arizona. the student of nature this means that the account of rapidly, evidently fi lling a need for an association devoted Membership—Voting membership is limited to origins in Genesis is a factual presentation of simple to research and publication in the fi eld of scientifi c scientists who have at least an earned graduate degree historical truths. creation, with a current membership of over 600 voting in a natural or applied science and subscribe to the 2. All basic types of living things, including humans, members (graduate degrees in science) and about 1000 Statement of Belief. Sustaining membership is available were made by direct creative acts of God during non-voting members. The Creation Research Society for those who do not meet the academic criterion for the Creation Week described in Genesis. Whatever Quarterly is a peer-reviewed technical journal. It has voting membership, but do subscribe to the Statement biological changes have occurred since Creation Week been gradually enlarged and modifi ed, and is currently of Belief. have accomplished only changes within the original recognized as one of the outstanding publications in the Statement of Belief—Members of the Creation created kinds. fi eld. In 1996 the CRSQ was joined by the newsletter Research Society, which include research scientists 3. The Great Flood described in Genesis, commonly Creation Matters as a source of information of interest representing various fi elds of scientifi c inquiry, are com- referred to as the Noachian Flood, was a historical event to creationists. mitted to full belief in the Biblical record of creation and worldwide in its extent and effect. Activities—The Society is a research and publication early history, and thus to a concept of dynamic special 4. We are an organization of Christian men and women society, and also engages in various meetings and creation (as opposed to evolution) both of the universe of science who accept Jesus Christ as our Lord and Sav- promotional activities. There is no affi liation with any and the earth with its complexity of living forms. We ior. The act of the special creation of Adam and Eve as other scientifi c or religious organizations. Its members propose to re-evaluate science from this viewpoint, and one man and woman and their subsequent fall into sin conduct research on problems related to its purposes, since 1964 have published a quarterly of research articles is the basis for our belief in the necessity of a Savior for and a research fund and research center are maintained in this fi eld. All members of the Society subscribe to the all people. Therefore, salvation can come only through to assist in such projects. Contributions to the research following statement of belief: accepting Jesus Christ as our Savior. ResourcesCREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY The Heavens Declare: The Solar System DVD (52 Min) Regular Price: $15.00 / Member Price: $13.00 This DVD presents all the wonderful discoveries of our solar system. Secular astronomers think that life may be found elsewhere in the solar system, but each of the solar system’s planets and moons are unique from the Earth. Only Earth is specially made for life.

What You Aren’t Being Told about Astronomy Vol. 1: Our Created Solar System DVD (106 min) Regular Price: $15.00 / Member Price: $13.00 In this video the viewer is given a tour of our magnificent solar system with amazing photographs and graphics from NASA and other sources. The viewer is shown how the planets and their moons defy evolutionary speculations of their origin. Some planets should not even exist, according to evolutionary models. There are so many problems with the origin of the solar systems bodies that creation is the most viable option of their origin.

The Young Sun: Is the Sun Really Billions of Years Old? DVD (44 min) Regular Price: $15.00 / Member Price: $13.00 In this DVD, a documentary style exploration takes a closer look into the known processes of the workings of the sun. It explores the most popular theories about the origin of the sun and shows why it is impossible that any of these theories of star formation explain the origin of the sun.

The Message of the Grand Canyon: Does It Support God’s Word? DVD (60 min) Regular Price: $13.00 / Member Price: $11.00 In this video, noted creationist and river rafter, Tom Vail, offers his insights and experience on the geology of Grand Canyon. He discusses some of the canyon’s unusual formations, such as dramatic bends in multiple layers of rock. Mr. Vail explains how he thinks the canyon provides excellent support of a global flood and a young earth. Presented at a layman’s level, this video offers a very informative creationist perspective of Grand Canyon; its age, formation, and Biblical significance.

Orders can by placed through Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323-9186 Phone: 1-877-CRS-BOOK (1-877-277-2665); Fax: (928) 636-9921 www.creationresearch.org For credit card payments, (Visa, MasterCard, For U.S. orders, add 20% for S/H (min $5, max $15) Discover, and American Express), For Canadian orders, add 20% for S/H (min. $5, no max.) please include the card number, expiration For foreign orders, add 25% for S/H (min. $15, no max.) date (month/year), and your phone number. Orders must be pre-paid.