TThhee TTeerrrraaccootttAbhataa Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund TTeemmpplleess ooff MMaalluuttii

A Conservation Report

Prepared for Global Heritage Fund

Prepared by Abha Narain Lambah Associates The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R eport 1 March 2011 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Prepared for Global Heritage Fund 625 Emerson Street Suite 200 Palo Alto, CA 94301 t +1.650.325.7520 f +1.650.325.7511; www.globalheritagefund.org

Prepared by Abha Narain Lambah Associates Conservation Architects & Historic Building Consultants 201 Amrit, B Wing, Carter Road, Khar (W), Mumbai 400052 Tel:+91 22 26055756; website:www.anlassociates.com

The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R eport 2 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund Acknowledgements

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mr. Jeff Morgan and the Board of Trustees of the Global Heritage Fund for initiating this project and for their support for the heritage of this remote village community in Jharkhand. A special thanks to Ms. Jasmine Arneja for her active involvement and support. We are grateful to Mr. Adam Dunbar, Mr. Daniel Thompson, Mr. Jeff Adams and the entire staff at GHF for their support on this project. A special thanks to Mr. John Hurd and Mr. John Sanday for their support of this endevour.

Our sincere gratitude to Mr. Sourav De and Mr. Krishnendu Bandopadhyay for their deep personal commitment towards the preservation of the temples at Maluti.

We owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Gopaldas Banerjee, a long time resident and an elder of Maluti for his perseverance and commitment towards saving the rich temple heritage of Maluti. His lifelong research on the history of Maluti and its legends has been an invaluable source of information to the project team.

We acknowledge with gratitude, Dr. Subrata Chakravorty for his guidance and valuable historical inputs.

Project Team

Abha Narain Lambah Associates Project Leader & Conservation Architect Abha Narain Lambah Project Archaeologist Shraddha Bhatawadekar Associate Conservation Architect Kruti Garg Project Architects Jiten Desai Akshay Kulkarni Architectural Interns – Documentation Durgesh Sarmalkar Priyanka Lele Vidhya Gopal

Structural Conservation Advisor Dr. Michael O’Connor

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 3 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund Contents

1. Introduction 1 1.1.Location & Setting 1.2.History 1.3.The Village Setting

2. Architecture & Iconography 36 2.1.Evolution of Temple Architecture in Bengal 2.2.Terracotta Temples at Maluti: Location & Clusters 2.2.1. Cluster 1: Sikir Taraf 2.2.2. Cluster 2: Rajar Bari 2.2.3. Cluster 3: Madhyam Bari 2.2.4. Cluster 4: Chhai Taraf 2.2.5. Cluster 5: Mauliksha Temple Complex 2.3.Sculpture & Iconography in Maluti

3. Significance & Values 110

4. Conservation of the Temple Fabric 120 4.1.Conservation of the Temple Fabric: Issues & Recommendations 4.2.Condition Inventory & Fabric Assessment

5. Approach to Site Management 189 5.1.Archaeology & Research 5.2.Sustainable Rural Development 5.3.Policy & Protection 205 6. Balancing Preservation & Change 6.1.Future Management Issues 6.2.Ensuring Sustainable Change

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 4 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund 1. Introduction

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1.1.Location & Setting

Location

The village of Maluti is located in Dumka District (Santhal Pargana) in the state of Jharkhand in India. The village is on the border of West Bengal and Jharkhand, near the North-Eastern border of Jharkhand. The village lies about 55 kilometre East of District headquarter of Dumka.

Maluti is 16 km from Rampurhat (District Birbhum, West Bengal), which is to the East of the village, and 15 km from Mallarpur (District Birbhum, West Bengal), which is to the South-East of the village, which are the two nearest railway stations. The village lies near Surichua on the Rampurhat-Dumka Bus route.

Geographical co-ordinates

North- N 24 09’40.5”

South- N 24 09’21.60”

East- E 87 40’32.57”

West- E 87 40’14.88”

Area of the Village

400 m X 700 m

N

Left: The village of Maluti; Image Source: Google Earth Right Top: Context of the site in Jharkhand State on a geographical map of India Right Bottom: Context of the site in Dumka District on a geographical map of Jharkhand State

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Topography & Setting

Maluti is situated at the eastern end of the The area was once covered with dense undulated Chhota Nagpur plateau, rich in forest. The agricultural lands around the mineral resources. village Maluti are identified by names like Bon-kata, Bagh-bia, Harin-dhanda, Hasti- The rivulet of Chila, also called Chandan kanda, Shial-mara, etc, referring in the local Ghat Nala, is to the South of the village. The language to areas once covered with trees. river also marks the natural boundary between West Bengal and Jharkhand.

The village is surrounded by many water Left Top: Topography and setting of Maluti; bodies. It is believed that the village once Image Source: Google Earth Left Bottom: Water tank at Maluti had more than 60 tanks built by the Rajas who ruled Maluti.

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T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 7 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The Shikaripara block, in which the village is located, is predominantly inhabited by the Santhal tribal communities (referred to as Adivasis). Maluti, thus is surrounded by Adivasi villages from both Jharkhand and West Bengal.

The Surichua aerodrome is located near Maluti. The aerodrome was used by the British military during World War II, and is now under the Defence Ministry.

There are numerous stone crushing units near Maluti. The stone is brought from the nearby Dumka hill range.

Right Top: Surichua aerodrome Right Middle: Context of the site with the surrounding villages and quarry sites; Image Source: Wikimapia Right Bottom: Topography and setting of Maluti

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Maluti can be designated as a ‘temple village’ since this small village has over 60 temples which belong to the period between 17th and 19th centuries. Located in clusters, these temples form an excellent setting with the village fabric,wwhich gives a unique character to the village.

The temples, built in indigenous Bengali style of architecture, with exquisite terracotta work, display mastery of the local craftsmen, who created these beautiful houses of worship…

Maluti is a small village with an area of 28 hectares. The temples and houses stand next to each other, forming a closely knit group.

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Protection & Legal Status

Maluti lies in Shikaripara Block of Dumka District of Jharkhand. The village has a Gram Panchayat, the local village body, which looks after the administration in the village.

The village of Maluti came under Santhal Pargana in 1855 from District Birbhum in Bengal. In the post independence period, the Santhal Pargana formed part of the State of Bihar. The village finally came under the newly formed State of Jharkhand in 2001.

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Left: The village of Maluti; Image Source: Google Earth Right: The village of Maluti with its traditional household

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 10 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

54 temples in the village were gazetted by the Bihar Government in 1983 under Bihar Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites’ Remains and Art Treasures Act, 1976. At present, the temples are under the Jharkhand Government. Site Map of Maluti

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1.2.History

The historical text is based on the report ‘Temples The name Maluti has many legends for its of Maluti’ written by Mr. Gopaldas Mukherjee, a origin. It is said that the name is probably resident of Maluti, who has done extensive derived from the word ‘Mallahati’. The research on the site. Malla kings of Bankura-Vishnupur had The antiquity of the village of Maluti goes suzerainty over a vast arae which included back to pre-historic times. The pre-historic Burdwan, Midnapur, and some parts of tools found in the river-bed of Chila prove Chhotanagpur plateau, which was called that the area was inhabited during the Mallabhum. Palaeolithic period. The history of the village There is another probable version for the from the pre-historic period to the medieval name. It is likely that Maluti is the corruption times is shrouded in mystery as there is no of the word Mahulati or Mohulti. The area is sufficient evidence to reconstruct this period. full of Mohul trees, and names of many Towards the end of 17th century, Maluti villages are prefixed with mohul. This came into limelight as the capital of Nankar possibility is also strengthened by the land- Raj. revenue records which mention the name Mohulti. It was sometime in the early 20th century that the name Maluti started being used.

The village of Maluti consists of terracotta temples set within clusters of vernacular mud houses.

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Pre-historic Layer

Maluti reveals a distinct settlement layer Dr. Chakravorty has also described in detail from the pre-historic period. Pre-historic tools the Acheulian finds discovered from Chila, belonging to Acheulian and Middle classification of such tools collected from Palaeolithic period have been found in the the site and the raw materials used to make river bed of rivulet Chila also known as those tools. Chandan Ghat Nala. The tool bearing area “Acheulian appeared at Maluti Sadarghat extends from a point called ‘Sadarghat’ to on Chila, the rivulet that flows in Birbhum- an upstream point called ‘Shirali’, with a Jharkhand border land. Acheulian finds distance of one kilometre between the two discovered from three localities, one of points. them fossiliferous include handaxes, The tools include handaxes, scrapers, cleavers, choppers, scrapers, and blades, etc. The working edge is serrated unqualified waste, flakes, cores and chips and is still sharp. made of raw materials – traps, basalts, quartzite, chert, jasper, etc. The assemblage Prof. Dr. Subrata Chakravorty of Visva of Maluti Sadarghat shows preponderance Bharati has confirmed that these tools of various other tools such as retouched belong to the Palaeolithic period. flakes, side scrapers, end scrapers, point He has divided the tools collected from borers, sundry light duty tools.” Maluti into two classes: Neolithic or Chalcolithic specimens are not  Acheulian found in the village or its vicinity as yet, but  Middle Palaeolithic some Mesolithic artefacts are found.

Pre-historic tools found in Maluti T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 13 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Nankar Raj

Maluti is believed to have existed long It was only in the 17th century that the before being the capital of the tax- village became the capital of Nankar Raj. exempted kingdom of Baj Basanta dynasty. According to folk lore, the kingdom was It was once revered as a great seat of awarded to Basanta Roy of village Katigram learning. The mention of Maluti — known as by Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah of Gaura Gupta Kashi in ancient times — is found as (1495A.D.–1525A.D.). Soon of a poor Brahmin, early as the Shunga period (185 BC - 75 BC). Basanta managed to catch the pet hawk It is said that it was at Maluti that the king of of the sultan and gave it back to the sultan. Pataliputra performed the Ashvamedh In lieu of the hawk (baj), Basanta was given Yajna. the kingdom and hence, he was called Raja Baj Basanta. The capital of Baj Basanta Later, Vajrayani Buddhists, followers of was Damra (8 kilometre south of Maluti). Tantrik rituals are believed to have made Basanta subsequently expanded his the dense forests of Maluti their abode. The kingdom by bringing Mallarpur estate under origin of the village deity Mauliksha can be his suzerainty. This brought him in conflict traced back to this period. The deity with the king of the neighbouring state of resembles Pandara, Shakti of Amitabha, Rajnagar (Nagor). In a family feud which worshipped in Vajrayana Buddhism. continued over generations, Raja It is believed that the great Hindu saint Adi Rajchandra, the great grandson of Baj Shankaracharya, on his way to Varanasi, Basanta was killed and his kingdom was had stopped over at Maluti. Some historians taken over by the Raja of Nagor. believe that Maluti is the first place where the Vedic upheaval started.

Mauliksha Temple Complex

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After this incident, Ramchandra and Around 1857, Swami Bamdev (or Mahadevachandra, the two brothers of the Bamakhepa), one of Bengal’s greatest deceased king Rajchandra along with two spiritual leaders, came here to be a priest nephews Rakharchandra and but failed because he couldn’t memorise Prithvichandra left Damra and established Sanskrit mantras. He was made to cook the capital at Maluti, which was revival of food for the puja. During his 18-month stay Hindu culture in Maluti. in Maluti, Bamakhepa used to spend most of his time at Maulisksha temple. Here he After clearing the forest, they established was first blessed. Then, he moved to their settlement at Maluti around 1680 A.D. Tarapith. His trident is still preserved at Maluti. They divided themselves in four houses (Chow-taraf). The descendants of Baj Basanta used the title Raja till 1900 A.D. At the beginning of Rakharchandra, the eldest son of late 20th century they left the Raja title and then Rajchandra had 1/4th share of the total onward they are called ‘Babus of Maluti’. property. His house was called ‘Rajar Bari’, i.e. house of king. Likewise with the same share the house of his brother Prithvichandra was called ‘Madhyam Bari’, i.e. house of second. Ramchandra, second brother of Rajchandra took another 1/4th share and it was called ‘Sikir Taraf’, i.e. house of 1/4th share. The fourth share was occupied by Mahadevchandra, the third and the youngest brother of Rajachandra. He had six sons, so the subjects used to call that house by the name of ‘Chhai Taraf’, i.e. house of six. Rajar Bari, Madhyam Bari and Sikir Taraf settled in a line from west to east and Chhai Taraf in the south of the village.

Brahmins by caste, the royal family was very religious. Dandi Sanyasi of Sumeru Math, Kashi (Varanasi) is believed to have helped Baj Basanta gain the kingdom and became the Rajguru of the family.

Goddess Mauliksha became the patron deity of the royal family. They worshipped her as Simhavahini. Instead of constructing palaces, the Rajas built temples. The activity continued simultaneously in all the tarafs, with each taraf competing with the other. This turned Maluti into a ‘Temple village’.

Right Top: The temple of Bamdev Right Bottom: The trishul and shankha of Bamdev has been preserved in a temple at Maluti dedicated to Bamdev, the ascetic who is said to have attained ‘siddhi’ from Goddess Mauliksha

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Maluti in Legends

Myths and legends add to the significance The bird was caught by Basanta. Swamiji, of the place and provide glimpses into a on learning that the bird was with Basanta period. Numerous interesting legends and took him to the king and requested the king stories are associated with Baj Basanta, to give some land to poor Basanta as a Rakharchandra, the descendant of Baj prize for returning the bird. The Sultan Basanta and the village deity Mauliksha. promised to give as much land to Basanta as he could cover by riding a trained horse There is an interesting legend which gives from dawn to dusk. Acquired, such land an account of the acquisition of Nankar was made tax-free (Nankar) and the kingdom by Baj Basanta. The story relates prestigious title ‘Raja’ was also conferred on that Basanta took birth in a poor Brahmin him. Thus Basanta became a king overnight. family. His father died in his childhood. Due to poverty, he had to tend cattle of others. There is a legend that Sultan Hussain Shah A few days before becoming king, he was who gave Basanta the Nankar kingdom as sleeping in the shade of a tree. As the sun a gift himself was a shepherd in his was setting, the shade moved away and childhood. A snake also protected his face sun rays fell directly on his face. That time a from the sun when he was asleep on the snake, expanding its hood, protected field. Therefore it seems that these two Basanta’s face from the sun. Dandi Sanyasi, ingredients of the legend are interpolated. the monk belonging to the Sumeru Math, The story of Baj Basanta’s childhood as a Kashi who was passing through that road shepherd and snake covering his face from was surprised at this sight and came near sun appeared first in a book published by the boy. Dandi Swami Brahmananda Tirtha from Dandi Swami looked at the boy closely and Sumeru Math, Kashi between 1908 A.D. and observed that the boy had enough signs on 1912 A.D. The same story after minor his body to become a king in the near modification appeared in local history in future. He awoke Basanta and went along 1921 A.D. Thereafter most of the with him to his house in the nearby village. contemporary writers referred this story as Reaching there, Swamiji came to know that the background for formation of the Nankar Basanta had already received diksha from state. his family preceptor, but the mantra was not However, the part of the story that Basanta suitable for him to become a king. Therefore became a king in lieu of a bird (baj) with Swamiji wrote that mantra on a Bel leaf and the help of a Dandi Sanyasi of Sumeru Math, asked Basanta to immerse the leaf in a Kashi may be true to a great extent pond. Then he gave him diksha afresh in the because the word ‘baj’ has been prefixed Sinmhavahini mantra. with the name of Basanta to commemorate Immediately after the incident, as Alauddin the event. The name ‘Baj Basanta’ is Hussain Shah, the Sultan of Gaura comparatively prominent because it can encamped his troops near the village of be found both in local history and Basanta, while returning to his capital. It is government records. here that the pet bird baj of the begum flew away.

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 16 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

There are many interesting stories regarding Raja Rakharchandra Roy. Among them, a story in relation to goddess Tara of Tarapith is very popular.

It was the beginning of the 18th century that Tarapith was a forested area and the act of worshipping goddess Tara was controlled by Kaula and Aghori Sanyasis. Rakharchandra used to go to Tarapith regularly in those days to worship goddess Tara.

Once he went to Tarapith for a puja on a chaturdashi tithi immediately after Durga Puja. It was a regular practice at Tarapith to perform puja of the image of the Goddess outside the temple with the image facing East. While Raja was performing puja, some priests objected saying that the Raja could meditation before the deity. Another story perform puja only after the chief priest had relates that sometimes at night, the sound performed puja. The agitated Raja chose of sweeping with broom-stick at different his own place across the river Dwarka in places at a time is heard from inside the order to complete his puja. He filled earthen boundary of this lonely temple. Yet another pot with water and chanted ‘mantras’ with legend is there, that a large jackal appears great devotion. At that time, a miracle took suddenly and disappears also likewise inside place when the face of the image in the temple complex, though all the four Tarapith which was facing East turned to outside gates remain closed. West to the side of Rakharchandra. The The idol of Mauliksha is no less miraculous. A thrilled Raja brought the earthen pot and group of three people demand to have placed that on the altar of his patron deity seen a pale bluish ray come out of the idol Mauliksha. after aarti in the evening. The image of goddess Tara is taken out of Goddess Mauliksha is said to be the the main temple every year on Chaturdashi combination of three mahashakti. She is tithi after Durga Puja and is placed in ‘Viram believed to be ‘Pandara’ the shakti of Khana’ facing Maluti. Puja and sacrifice are Amitabha established by tantric Buddhists in offered to goddess Tara from the other side bygone days. She is now worshipped as of river Dwarka on behalf of Maluti first. Only Sinmhavahini, the patron deity of the royal then does the formal Puja start. This practice family and lastly, Raja Rakharchandra and is still prevalent. ascetic Bamakhepa have brought Tara and Goddess Mauliksha is said to be the elder Mauliksha closer by their flawless devotion. sister of Goddess Tara of Tarapith. This is Devotes from all sects of Hinduism have because the renowned yogi Bamakhepa continued worship of goddess Mauliksha attained his siddhi from Mauliksha first and according to their religious doctrine through then from Tara. A number of miraculous centuries. As a result, goddess Mauliksha of stories are heard about Maulikshatala. Maluti is now a living Many people claim to have seen at night deity to devotees the flame springing out from Hom-kunda. irrespective of caste Kamala Kanta, a great ascetic was thrown and creed. out in the midnight while he was in deep

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 17 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

1.3.The Village Setting

Domestic Architecture

Unlike many villages in the region which are being rapidly transformed with modern materials and forms fast replacing the vernacular architectural vocabulary, Maluti largely retains the traditional character of an Indian village.

The vernacular domestic architecture consists primarily of mud structures with sloping roofs of thatch or terracotta tiles. The houses range from single to two storeyed structures, with the upper flooor made of a mud plastered flooring supported on rolled twigs tied up with rope, spanning across wooden logs.

While larger houses have a forecourt and a walled garden and many have a front verandah facing the street, the smaller houses may just consist of a single room tenement. While most of the houses retain the traditional form, some thatch roofs have been replaced with Galvanised Iron sheet roofing for rain protection. The village elders have insisted that new constructions also respect the sloping roof profile characteristic of the village.

Top Right: A typical mud house with circular cakes of dried cowdung plastered on the exterior wall. The roof is made of thatch. Middle: Traditional thatch roofs are often replaced with metal sheet roofs for rain protection. Bottom: A traditional floor construction of rolled twigs tied up with string, spanning across wooden logs.

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Typical streets lined with mud houses

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Even the house of the erstwhile Raja family is a modest bungalow with a front garden and smaller huts for storing grain and agricultural produce.The traditional tulsi plant grows in the garden in a white traditional planter that is watered ritually each day.

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 20 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Typical streets lined with mud houses

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 21 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Top Right: A traditional mud dwelling with a curved roof profile. Notice the metal canisters hanging from the roof alogn with earthen pots that villagers hang to give shelter to nesting birds.

Left: A mud and thatch hut with a tree growing out through the thatch roof.

Middle: Modern construction using the ubiquitous concrete box construction poses a threat to the pristine village streetscape.

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The Village Services

There is no electricity provided by the Government and the only source of electricity is solar panels installed in individual houses.

In 1986, electricity came only for 15 days. The wires were stolen in tribal dominated Shikaripara area. The power connection was never restored. The village has individual-owned solar power units. Lack of electricity has been identified by the villagers as one of the major reasons of its current backwardness and migration from the village. In 2010, new posts are being erected by the Government.

Apart from a very rudimentary village dispensary with a lone compounder, there is no doctor and no other health facility in the village. People have to travel 16 km to Rampurhat in West Bengal to get basic treatment.

In spite of these factors, the literacy rate in Maluti is surprisingly high, with almost 90% people having at least basic education. The Middle School in the village was established in 1875. However, the school has recently Above: With no electricity in the village, solar panels are the introduced Hindi as the first language. principal source of lighting. While electrical poles were installed in Therefore, the students mostly go outside 1986, these are redundant as electricity was not provided beyond the first 10 days in 1986. The redundant electric poles are the state to West Bengal villages of still seen in Chhai Taraf Kastagora or Masra as Bengali is taught in Left Bottom: Left: The middle school in the village that has Hindi as these schools. The nearest college is in its principal language. Therefore, apart from the tribal community, Rampurhat or Mallarpur. the Bengali community do not use this school and travel across the state boundary to Bengali education schools.

Right Bottom: Dish-antenna atop a village hut

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The village produces biomass energy through the use of cowdung cakes that are used for fuel.

There is no proper system of solid waste management and sewerage management in the village. As part of the Nirmal Gram (Clean Village) Scheme, the Government had provided some public toilets in the village. However, this scheme failed within a year and the toilets are dysfunctional.

While some houses of the more prosperous do have attached toilets, these are with individual septic tanks and are not connected to any sewage system. Most villagers living on the fringe of the village still go out to the fields to defecate in the open. There are open drains at the periphery of the village along the road near Mauliksha temple but not within the village streets.

Left: Large quantity of biomass is produced in the village through cow dung cakes used for fuel. Below: The walls of houses provide the surface for drying cow dung cakes

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 24 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

There is no piped water supply in the village and the principal source of water are the rain water ponds in the village, which are used for washing and irrigation. Handpumps are provided by the government for drinking water. There are more than 25 deep tube wells. No system of water purification is available in the village. There are bore wells in the village at regular intervals.

Apart from a health centre with a lone paramedic, no other health facility is available in the village.

People have to travel 16 km to Rampurhat in West Bengal to get basic treatment.

Images showing the sources of drinking water from handpumps and bore wells to fresh water wells. People travel a distance to carry water back to their homes. Clothes are often washed from the water in the water ponds dotting the village.

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 25 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The Village Community

There are over 400 households in Maluti. Since the village is on the border of The 2001 census estimated the West-Bengal, the village population is population of the village at 3575. essentially Bengali and people in the However, these numbers are dwindling village follow all practices and festivals as an increasing number of the locals of Bengal. The male to female ratio in have left the village in search of jobs the village is 52:48. The Rajas of Maluti and education and they return to the were upper caste Brahmins, but the village only during the Kali Puja. villages around mainly consisted of tribal Santhal population.

Left: A sari salesman sells his wares to the local women in the village.

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Top Left: Ladies of a Bengali household wearing the traditionally draped Bengali sari.

Above: A tribal Santhali woman riding a bullock cart with her child in her lap. Tribal women work with their men folk in all agricultural activities.

Left: A group of village women. While the tribal women are clustered to the left, the Bengali woman, with her head covered stands to the right. The difference in draping the sari signifies the community.

The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R eport 27 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

There are different communities in the village. The village is dominated by the upper caste Hindus such as the Bengali Brahmins. Other dwellers include Adivasis, Harijans and backward castes. There are communities such as Baodi, Dom, Hadi, Dhobi, etc. These communities specialise in different activities such as Baodi, Dom, Hadi are mainly involved in agricultural activities.

Top Left: Adivasi tribal women

Above: Young women standing at their doorway. As modernization makes inroads into the village, the younger women are beginning to adopt the Salwar Kameez (seen worn on the right) over the traditional sari.

Left: Gopal babu, a village elder explains a narrative panel of iconography depicted on the temple.

The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R eport 28 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The common language of the village is Bengali, but most people can understand and speak Hindi.

Top: Adivasi tribal women Above: A father draws water from a handpump for his son to bathe

The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R eport 29 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Rituals, Customs & Practices

The large number of temples for different gods and goddesses at Maluti are a testimony to the significance of the village in the past. Today the religious fervour has diminished comparatively but the tradition has not been lost. It can be seen through puja and seva of numerous deities both male and female.

Gods such as Vedic Gods like Narayana in the form of ‘Shaligram Shila’, Shiva in the form of shiva-linga and goddesses like Durga, Kali, Lakshmi and Saraswati are worshipped with great enthusiasm. At the same time, people worship Manasa and Dharmaraj, the two local gods. The co- existence between Vedic and local gods is unique. Above all goddess Mauliksha, the patron deity of the royal dynasty receives highest adoration. She is considered to be the elder sister of Tara of Tarapith and draws a great number of pilgrims throughout the year.

Image showing different ways of religious practices in Maluti

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 30 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The word Mauliksha derives its origin to a Being so close to Bengal, the language, art, union of two words mauli and iksha. Mauli culture and numerous customs and festivals means head and iksha denotes darshan i.e. of West Bengal have greatly influenced the to see. The goddess has a well-carved stone lives of the villagers residing at Maluti. face, while the rest of the body is absent. Goddess Durga is generally worshipped She has been placed on a platform inside throughout Bengal. Durga Puja is the prime the ‘garbhagriha’ of Ek Bangla temple. festival of the people of the state. Like any Goddess Mauliksha is worshipped as other village of Bengal, this village also ‘Sinmhavahini Durga’. celebrates Durga Puja with great The area of Bengal, Bihar came under the enthusiasm. In place of an image, a paper influence of Vajrayani Buddhists probably picture is placed. Other performances sometime around the 7th-8th centuries. In this carried out include sacrifice of goats, sheep respect Dr. Binoytosh Bhattacharya states and buffalo-calves. One image of Durga “the influence of Vajrayani was much more can be seen in this village established about in the whole of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The a century back by a monk named idols of Buddhist gods and goddesses are Sukhadananda Brahmachari for the available in maximum quality at these common people of the locality. places.”

Looking from this angle, the icon of Mauliksha has some similarity with Pandara, the Shakti of Amitabha. Vajrayani Buddhists regard Amitabha as Dhyani Buddha, who are believed to have come from Adi Buddha or Vajradhar. Incidentally the icon of Mauliksha is facing westward. Her colour is red. A lotus-designed halo is present behind the icon. So taking all these factors into account, there is a probability that the icon had been established earlier by the Buddhist monks inside the forest before the village became the capital of Nankar Raj.

Right: Goddess Mauliksha is the most popular deity in Maluti and also the surroundings

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 31 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Kali Puja is the main festival of Maluti. People from different villages around Maluti gather here during the Kali Puja. All the villagers settled elsewhere and those who migrate to the city in search of jobs, return to the village during the festival to be part of the festivities.

This puja is performed on the Deepavali night. Goddess Kali is worshipped at eight places. The image of the Goddess is installed on the platforms which are permanently installed in the temples. Before installing the idols of Kali on platforms, it is the custom of the village that the women worship goddess Mauliksha first in the evening. The idol of Kali is worshipped from midnight followed by animal sacrifice in front of the temples.

The next day, in the afternoon, idols are taken out in procession for immersion. A few idols of Kali from Adivasi villages are also brought to Maluti and they join the immersion procession. A fair remains here for about a week, which is attended by the villagers, their relatives, visitors, and Santhals from surrounding villages turning the whole environment into a festive mood.

Other than goddesses Durga and Kali and local gods Dharmaraj and Manasa, there is a temple of Yogi Bamakhepa inside the village. It is believed that this ascetic attained siddhi from goddess Mauliksha. His trishul and shankha are preserved in this temple.

The chief priest of Sumeru Math, Kashi visits Maluti every year and is revered by the villagers.

Apart from the Durga Puja and Kali Puja, Sankranti is celebrated in the village wherein people of the village come together and have a feast in the Mauliksha temple.

Right Top: Worship is offered daily in the Kali temples Right Bottom: The head priest of Sumeru Math in Maluti

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 32 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Economy & Subsistence

The mainstay in the village is subsistence farming. With small land holdings, agriculture is merely for subsistence and the farms are small family holdings that barely allow subsistence. Almost 30% of the population is engaged in cultivation.

The farming is dependent on rain water and there are many rain-fed water tanks in the village, some of which are used for the purpose of cultivation. The land is fertile but since there are no irrigation canals, the agricultural season is entirely dependent on the annual rains and the village had suffered crop failure due to poor rains this year. The crops grown are mainly paddy, wheat, mustard and vegetables.

Top: A round mud hut with a conical thatch roof acts as a grain silo to store the agricultural produce.

Above: Cows are revered in Hindu custom and prized for their milk.

Bottom: A woman chaffing rice husk.

The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R eport 33 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Another source of income is quarrying, stone-crushing units became more which takes place near Maluti. The stone remunerative. crushing units have provided a source of Jharkhand being the most mineral rich state employment to many and today people of India, has a large number of industries have moved out of Maluti, which has also with a major presence in Jharkhand, which resulted in dearth of agricultural labourers in is likely to provide more employment Maluti. opportunities. However not much is being The tribals used to produce finely crafted done to preserve and promote traditional utilitarian craft items made up of date palm craft skills and building crafts. leaves and palm leaves, but most of these traditions were lost since working in the

Top: With no other source of employment in the region, villagers have no other option but to work in the stone crushing units, inhaling fine stone dust in the absence of any health and safety gear.

The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R eport 34 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund 2. Architecture & Iconography

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 35 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

2.1. The Evolution of Temple Architecture in Bengal

“Evolving in intimate association with the changing phases of the life and faith of the Development of Temple Architecture in people, temple architecture of Bengal with Bengal its varied styles, decorative designs and The history of religious architecture in Bengal graceful terracotta works of floral, animal can be divided into as described by David and human forms is a great legacy.”1 McCutchion2 : The temple architecture of Bengal has a 1) Early Hindu (until the end of the 12th special place in the history of Indian art and century, later in the western areas) architecture. Though certain established 2) Sultanate (14th to early 16th century) forms were adopted in Bengal, what was unique about the temple architecture here 3) Hindu Revival (16th to 19th centuries) was the development of an indigenous style, During the early phase, which can be unique to Bengal. The style spread outside attributed to the Gupta period, several Bengal and also influenced late literary references of the existence of architecture of Burma, Siam, Java, temples are found in the accounts of the Cambodia and Nepal. reputed Chinese travelers Fa-Hien and Maluti, being on the border of Jharkhand Hiuen-Tsang in the illustrations of early and West Bengal shares its cultural ties with Buddhist manuscripts and in later inscriptions. West Bengal rather than identifying itself There is however, no surviving evidence with the culture of Jharkhand. The temple except the remains of Paharpur. Further architecture which developed in Maluti is remains have been unearthed at places like also the product of the temple building Bangarh and Dinajpur. which have been activity which started and developed in mentioned as temple cities. Mention may Bengal. also be made of the ruins of a big temple of Gupta times at Chandraketugarh. Temples The geography, topography and climatic constructed during this period were made conditions of Bengal were instrumental in of stone and brick. determining the architectural style of the region. Rivers such as the Ganges and Between the 13th and 15th centuries, with Brahmaputra contributed to the fertile the Turkish conquest and establishment of alluvial plain in most parts of Bengal. Only the Islamic Sultanate, the Indo-Islamic some parts of Bengal such as the western architectural style and craftsmanship part of Midnapur, Bankura, Burdwan, influenced the development of Bengal’s Birbhum and also Dinajpur, Rajshahi, indigenous architectural tradition. Maldah, Bogra districts have laterite tracts. A regeneration of Hindu culture took place Due to non-availability of stone, brick and in Bengal in the 16th century through the terracotta became important materials for efforts of Shri Chaitanya (1486-1533 A.D.) temple construction in Bengal and thus who popularized the Vaishnava cult. It contributed to the unique character of the elevated the status of common man and at temples. the same time, provided impetus to the

2 David McCutchion. Late Medieval Temples of 1 Bimal Kumar Datta. Bengal Temples. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1975. Bengal: Origins and Classification. Calcutta: Asiatic Society. 1972. T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 36 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund growth of literature, art and architecture. Amalaka-Shila which caps the tower and carries the kalasha. Temple building activity received royal as well as local patronage and temples were  Bangla (Hut style) built by men from mostly the higher classes; There are two types in this style: Ek-Bangla or Zamindars, Brahmins, Kayasthas, landlords or do-chala and Jor-Bangla. Both are more by wealthy traders, and merchants. The common in East Bengal. The fully developed temples were built to attain religious merit Ek-Bangla may have either a single and fame, to commemorate an important entrance or triple entrance on typical twin landmark or event and also on burial columns, with or without extensive grounds of saints and nobles. Most terracotta decoration. It has a do-chala terracotta temples of Bengal were built roof, i.e. roof sloping from two sides and is during the period from late 16th through 19th surmounted by three finials. Jor-Bangla century. Hundreds of temples were built at temples have two chambers with usually a places like Vishnupur, Bankura, Bardhaman, common roof on them. Birbhum and Nadia.

 Chala (Hut style) Types of Temples …there was an indigenous style of building, Varied architectural styles were adopted in approaching a kind of folk architecture, Bengal. which was widely prevalent in southern The temples of Bengal can be classified Bengal. Characterized by a freshness and under the following heads3: spontaneity, this type of structure was clearly derived from the thatched bamboo 1. Rekha (Traditional) hut so common in most parts of Bengal. The 2. Pirha (Traditional) curved cornice and eave, which are a special feature of these temples, are 3. Bangla (Hut style) directly descended from the bamboo 4. Chala (Hut style) framework of the huts of these people, 5. Ratna (Indo-Islamic) originally bent into this shape in order to throw off the frequent heavy rain. 6. Domed (Indo-Islamic) Most commonly found in Birbhum and 7. Spired (European-influenced) Murshidabad districts and in isolated 8. Octagonal examples further East, the chala style was mainly based on imitation of the common 9. Flat-roofed temples village house in Bengal. The number of roofs 10. Porches were varied from two, four and eight layers of slanting roofs, thus described as do-chala, 11. Dolmancha, Tulsimancha, Rasamanch char-chala and at-chala temples. The 12. Temples outside regular classification sloping roof was adopted as being best fitted to resist excessive rainfall and  Rekha (Traditional) damage caused by vegetation growth. These temples were built on a raised Predominant in the Western districts platform. The body of the temple consisted bordering on Orissa and Bihar, also of a sanctum which is oblong or sometimes extending east into Hoogly and north-east cubical. into Burdwan district. The characteristic is its Shukanasa Shikhara and its finial of

3 Ibid. T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 37 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

traditional characteristics, becoming a mere Pakka Ghar, indistinguishable from The tradition of this type goes back to 2nd modern domestic architecture. and 1st centuries B.C. and still survives in Innumerable such temples have been built today. It also inspired certain important in the late 19th and 20th century. features of the Mughals and through the media of Mughal architecture it passed on Another common type of flat-roofed to Rajputana and Punjab. temple is the Durga or Kali Dalan built for the annual pujas, which were established in The multiplication of temples of the same the 16th century. For the annual pujas, such size and on the same platform was also very large halls may also house permanent common. The number increased from two deities. The temple architecture soon in this to twelve and from twelve to one-hundred case ceased to be distinguishable from and eight. domestic architecture.

 Ratna (Indo-Islamic)  Dolmancha, Tulsimancha, Rasamancha

The pinnacle or ratna type has the same Tulsimancha, Dolmancha and Rasamancha lower structure as the chala series- a are the three types of mancha or platform. rectangular box with curved cornice, but Rasamancha is larger than the other two. the roof is more or less flat (following the The prime purpose of this type of temple is curvature of the cornice) and is surmounted to enable the deity to be seen from all sides. by one or more towers or pinnacles called Generally, it is octagonal in shape and ratna. The simplest form has a single central stands on a high plinth with archway tower (eka-ratna), to which may be added openings on all eight sides. It is generally more towers by increasing the number of used for installing images of Radha-Krishna. stories and corner turrets. The number can be increased through nine, thirteen, seventeen and even twenty-one upto a Inscriptions maximum of twenty-five. B.K.Datta described the peculiar style of giving dates of construction to temples of  Flat-roofed temples Bengal. The dates are given in words representing symbolically the respective Another category is constituted by the flat- numerical figures on a slab of brick or stone roofed temples. They emerged from a long placed on the front door jamb. These plates tradition Indo-Islamic palace and temple either written in Sanskrit or both in Sanskrit or architecture, but in the 19th century, came Bengali or in Bengali scripts record the strongly under European influences and lent name of the donor, name of the deity to themselves easily to modern building whom it is dedicated and rarely the name techniques. These too may be domed of the architect. internally, more usually spanned by a shallow vault, and later with a flat-ceiling. Almost invariably, they have a porch on two or more pillars, initially of the traditional faceted kind, but in the 19th century, they were gradually replaced by the clustered pilaster type. The arches are cusped and the facades patterned like those of the chala and ratha designs, initially with terracotta decoration, subsequently plasterwork. Gradually, the type lost its

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 38 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Temple Building Activity

Mukul Dey who made an extensive study of temples in Birbhum talks of the existence of guilds in Bengal. 30-40 men trained in a particular craft lived and worked under a master artist or craftsman. The master known as Sthapati took the responsibility for the erection of temple and for terracotta decorations. The Sutradhara had the broad knowledge and was an expert in measuring accurately. The Vardhaki specialized in painting and Takshaka in carpentry. Gradually, they achieved mastery in stone, metal, wood, terracotta and ivory. The temple builders worked as a group consisting of several families and formed a travelling group of artisans, who spread art and culture from village to village.

B.K. Datta notes “The heads of these groups had readymade master plans of temples of varied sizes and shapes and they used to carry these plans with them. Planning according to the donor’s choice, and even details regarding arrangement of terracotta bricks according to the theme and pattern used to be completed and necessary instructions were issued by the leader before the commencement of the construction work. This statement is further confirmed by the discovery of bricks written or marked with a thick needle.”4

Top Right: A vegetal motif seen in terracotta at Maluti shows a strong influence of the Islamic art of the medieval Sultanate

Left: The arched motif seen at the entrance doorway to the temple is an arcuate form, alien to the Hindu construction vocabulary until the advent of Islam. The floret designs along the arch are evocative of the Khalji arch at Alai Darwaza. Guilds of craftsmen often travelled from place to place, carrying influences across different patronage.

4 Bimal Kumar Datta. Bengal Temples. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1975. T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 39 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Building Materials

Stone temples are very rare in Bengal. Stone Wood and bamboo were also used as is found employed mainly in door jambs, building materials, since good timber was lintels and pillars, and also sometimes in procurable in many parts as also bamboo. carving. Besides black basalt, sandstone Wood carving was also practiced widely in and granite, laterite stone known as phul- Bengal. Seasoned Sal, Seguna, Neem, pathar in some cases black marble was Sandal wood were generally used. But there used. are very few surviving examples due to the perishable nature of wood. Since the land of Bengal is mainly a deltaic land, large deposits of clay are available, Lime was used in the beginning for which are used for manufacture of bricks. concreting the floor, but later it was used as Bricks were thus extensively used in a mortar. Mud mortar was also used in construction of temples. Glazed tiles as places like Paharpur. With the introduction discovered from the ruins of Gaur were also of domes, and lintels in the Muslim period, used from medieval times. mortar played an important part and the size of the bricks became smaller. Lime was also used as a plaster.

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 40 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Terracotta Art

“Being deeply involved with the art of clay the artists and craftsmen of Bengal worked again with zeal in medieval and post- medieval times when brick temples embellished with terracotta plaques and mouldings evoked memory of myths and post epochs and vied with monuments of stone as gems of architecture.”5

Clay as a medium of expression has been employed from ancient times. The plasticity and large availability of clay has made it a universal vernacular medium. The terracotta art can be traced from Indus Valley Civilization. There was a gradual spread of this art eastwards and it flourished in Bengal.

Terracotta plaques were used on temples from early times. Many such plaques have been discovered at places like Paharpur, Rajshahi, Mahasthangarh, Mainmati and Bangarh.

Top Right: A terracotta detail interspersed with lime plaster Above: A terracotta panel on a temple in Maluti depicting the war between Lord Rama holding a bow and arrow and the ten headed demon Ravana.

5 S.S. Biswas, Terracotta Art of Bengal. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. 1981.

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 41 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The second activity in terracotta art started In the opinion of Mr. Mukul Dey “Even especially around the 16th-17th century and seventy years ago there were regular guilds terracotta art expressed itself in full vigour of artists and artisans conversant with this art. during this period. The art was patronised by They all worked jointly. About a dozen men the ruling class as temples were built with were trained in the art of temple building profuse terracotta work on the façade. The and lived and worked together under one height of excellence was reached in or master artist.” about the middle of the 18th century when The terracotta art represents the art of temple building activity spread all over people and thus life of people forms the Bengal, particularly in the districts of main subject matter of this art. The themes Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Nadia, Hooghly, and subjects introduced in terracotta art in Murshidabad, and Jessore and it became Bengal are remarkable for their variety. They the fashion of the day among the landlords include divinities, semi-divine figures, toys, and petty chiefs. animal figures, floral, geometrical patterns, The terracotta of the period was narrative scenes from mythology, Jatakas characterized by simplicity, unsophisticated and scenes from contemporary social life. virgin beauty, and a dynamic vitality. The They reflect social practices, religious plaques were larger in size compared to the practices, cultural tradition and give a earlier period, of deeper reliefs and crafted glimpse into the customs, manners, jewellery, in the modeling method. dress and a lifestyle of the period.

B.K. Datta describes how terracotta plaques In the words of S.S.Biswas, “…The art of were made. terracotta in Bengal defines or narrates as it appears the ballads of civilisation and the “The artists used to prepare clay models first faith of the masses. The motifs and the style and from these modellings moulds were involved often convey the taste of an urban prepared. These moulds were then burnt in milieu and the traits of the genre with their fire and used for turning out casts which own distinctive aspects. Such expressions at were then carefully dried and burnt in times evince a combination of ideals and special kilns. The other process was to cut techniques…”6 out plaques on soft clay with sharp instrument and such plaques can be found in Charbangla temple of Murshidabad. Left: Terracotta panels depict a range of scenes from Special kilns were used for the purpose.” battle, epics and every day life

6 Ibid, T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 42 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

2.2. Terracotta Temples at Te Maluti: Location & Clusters Sikir Taraf, Rajar Bari and Madhyam Bari are The activity of building temples at Maluti located close to each other while Chhai started when the Rajas of Nankar kingdom Taraf is to the south of the three complexes. shifted their capital to Maluti. The oldest Mauliksha Temple Complex is on the date available is 1719 A.D. It is believed that southern end of the village on the way to more than 108 temples were built in two rivulet Chila. Rajar Bari, Madhyam Bari and centuries between 18th and 19th century. Sikir Taraf are situated in a line from West to Many temples have collapsed over the East. years and according to local belief, only 72 The Rajas were Brahmins by caste. They temples remain today. However, out of were of religious nature and were great these 72, Archaeological Survey of India has philanthropist who supported scholarly identified 62 structures which are of activities. They led a simple life-style and historical importance. Therefore, for further lived in ordinary mud-built houses. They reference, the number 62 has been spent their vast revenue in public works, like considered. excavating ponds to develop irrigation and The temples at Maluti can be divided in five constructing temples to promote religion. separate clusters. It is quite likely that different guilds were 1. Sikir Taraf assigned work of building temples. The 2. Rajar Bari activity started in all the clusters 3. Madhyam Bari simultaneously and this healthy competition 4. Chhai Taraf created a cluster of temples, which defined 5. Mauliksha Temple Complex the public squares in the village and gave it a special character.

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 43 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The architectural style seen at Maluti is predominantly a regional style which flourished all over Bengal. Lot of experiments were undertaken by the artisans while constructing temples in Maluti. the result is the amalgamation of different styles which has given a unique character to the village.

The architectural styles at Maluti can be divided into different categories as follows:

1. Chala 2. Rekha 3. Ek Bangla 4. Flat-roofed 5. Rasamancha 6. Miscellaneous

At Maluti, most of the temples are of chala design, i.e. thatched roof, simple constructions, resembling the hut-type construction prevalent in Bengal.

Variations are seen in these chala temples. Some temples are of standard chala type, with a curved cornice and a char-chala roof, i.e. four sloping roofs giving the shikhara a pyramidal look. There is one temple with char-chala roof and a straight cornice. The bada, i.e. the portion from plinth upto the cornice is somewhat similar to the Orissan Rekha type temples. The ratha projections on the temple continue on the bada.

The variation that is most predominant is the char-chala shikhara with ridges and ratha projection. These raatha projections though similar to those seen in Orissan temples, do not continue on the lower portion of the temple below the shikhara. Therefore, it is taken as merely a variation of the chala temple itself. There are few temples which show characteristics such as heightened façade, curved cornice and char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projections. The other variation visible in the shikhara is in the shape, which is either little rounded or Chala style of architecture is predominant in Maluti with straight edged. variations in roofs as seen in the images

The Ter r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n Report 44 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

There are some chala temples which stand The temples are not oriented in any as a couple, i.e. they stand on one platform particular direction and are seen opening and they share a common wall. There is one on all cardinal directions. The usual triplet with three temples on a same plinth tendency visible in the complex is to build with common walls. temples around a central open space which serves as a common open courtyard Another category seen at Maluti is the Jora- for all the temples as seen in Sikir Taraf and Shiva temples as described by McCutchian. Chhai Taraf. These two temples stand on one platform and are similar on plan, but they do not The chala temples are mostly meant for the share a common wall as seen in earlier worship of Shiva. The reason for this cases. abundance of Shiva temples is perhaps the association of the Rajas with Dandi Sanyasi An interesting characteristic of the temples of Kashi, who was the preceptor of the is the use of varied designs of amalaka and family. kalasha, i.e. the apex portion of the shikhara. Above the kalasha, trishul, a symbol of Shiva, is placed on Shaivite shrines. It is broken in many cases and only the metal rod remains.

Jora-Shiva temple in sikir Taraf cluster

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 45 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

All the temples are built on plinths of varying size and are approached by steps. The temples have a single entrance and a narrow doorway with the height hardly 4’6”. The door is mostly wooden, as has been preserved in some temples, with a wooden or stone lintel and fixed on hinges. The temples generally do not have windows.

The height of the temples varies from 15 feet to 50 feet The temples have only one chamber, mostly square, which is the garbhagriha of the temple. The temples have shiva-lingas in the garbhagriha. The interior is plain and is not embellished with any terracotta work.

Within the garbhagriha, there used to be a decorated linen or silken canopy or covering was hung over the deity. One such example is seen in temple 59.

Temples also have a gomukha, an outlet for the water to drain of the temple after the puja is performed. It is a well laid out channel from the interior and is also distinctly marked on the plinth as well.

Terracotta work is seen mostly on the façade of the temples and in the corners which create bands of horizontal ridge elements. There are tiny niches seen in the cornice as well as run on the façade as vertical bands which house the deities as well scenes from mythological stories such as Krishna-lila and Ramayana.

There is one temple of the Rekha model existing in Maluti dedicated to Shiva.

Left: Terracotta work on the façade of a temple Right Top: A chala temple on a plinth approached by steps Right Bottom: Rekha Temple in Rajar Bari cluster

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The solitary example of Ek Bangla style is the There are two Durga temples, both in Sikir Mauliksha Temple. The style is a typical Taraf, both oriented to the South. They have product of Bengal. The temple has a do- a rectangular pillared porch in front of a chala roof, i.e. sloping roofs on two sides. rectangular sanctum. The roof of the There is a verandah in front of garbhagriha, temples does not exist any longer. The British which has three pillars, which is a influence is visible in the temples. characteristic feature of Ek Bangla temples. The flat-roofed temples at Maluti are simple The garbhagriha has a single entrance and constructions dedicated to Goddess Kali. two windows on either side. The icon of The only listed Kali Temple is placed in goddess Mauliksha has been placed on a Madhyam Bari and is a flat roofed structure square alter inside the garbhagriha. with a single entrance.

Left Top: Ek-Bangla temple Left Bottom: Durga temple Right Top: Flat-roofed Kali temple

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A solitary Rasamancha is seen in Rajar Bari Some of the temples at Maluti are plain but cluster. It is likely that it was meant for some temples represent a very high quality Radha-Krishna worship as the place was of terracotta carving with profuse open from all sides. It was probably used ornamental decoration upon its wall. The during festivals, What is important is the terracotta has been fixxed on the façade location of the temple next to a chala using lime mortar. temple, the most significant temple in Maluti. Most of the chala temples have shiva-linga Now a platform has been installed for Kali in the chamber, which shows their worship. association with Shaivism. There are some There are three temples in Rajar Bari which temples which have two to three lingas the are joined together through a common wall. reason for which is unknown. They are hexagonal in plan and have The Shakta cult is very popular all over peculiar conical roofs. Bengal and the worship of Goddess Kali is The principal construction material used is predominant in Maluti. A platform is seen brick and lime-mortar as seen elsewhere in permanently installed in the temples at Bengal. Different sizes of bricks have been Maluti, on which the image is installed used for the plinths as well as temples. Stone during Kali Puja. Durga temples do not have is used in some cases in door jambs and any image inside, thus it is not clear as to lintels. Wood is used mainly for doors, lintel, how the goddess was worshipped. etc. Metal is used for door locks, for hanging Radha-Krishna worship was also popular in the canopy in the interior as well as trishul as Bengal especially after Shri Chaitanya the finial of the temples. Shiva-lingas are popularized the Vaishnava movement. mainly carved out of black stone. Rasamancha was the form of temple which The mixture of lime and surkhi was used as is used was used for Radha-Krishna worship. the binding material. Sometimes only stucco Many temples are under worship, where work was used on the raised portion of people offer daily worship in the form of pilasters of the sidewalls of the temples flowers, incense burners, etc. providing a contrast.

Left: Rasamancha in Rajar Bari Right: Shiva-linga in the interior of a chala temple

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Inscriptions

Some temples have inscriptions which help Another inscription in Chhai Taraf group in reconstructing the history of temples as records – well as forming important sources for the “Shri Shri Kali Sahai. Shrimant Gokul socio-political history of the village. The chandrasya matu Shrimati Ghriavati Devi inscriptions are in early Bengali script, while Shhri Shri Shiva Sthapana. Swashida the language is a mixture of Sanskrit, Prakrit chakabda 1691 B, 401 **** II ****” and Bengali. The dates are mentioned in Shaka era, while in some cases, Bengali era Here also the last brick is missing. The has been used. inscription states that Shriyut Gokulchandra’s mother Shrimati Ghritavati Inscriptions are present on some temples in Devi got constructed the Shiva temple on a band just below the cornice portion of the 1691 Shaka Samvat (1769 A.D.). temple and form an important source to date a particular temple and often, they There is no difficulty in understanding these also describe the donor’s name and types of writings but in few places the dates genealogy of the dynasty. It is important to are not mentioned directly. They are written note that the inscriptions show that the in cipher. The inscription of a temple in temples were dedicated in the name of ‘Rajar Bari’ group registers- women as well. “Shri Shri Durga, Shake Khastau dadhi Temple number 61 is the earliest temple in Chandra parimane cha abda Paushe masi Maluti. The inscription in this temple reads: site pakshe trayodashyang Shanaischarang bhabadhautran hetwarthang etang ‘Raja Rakhar Vitta Sahodaka Sashaddha saadhyang Bhavayabe 1641 Kirtihaimabarto Vaishnabodoro Vishyeshwarajadhyaya Devi ati yatnai Gaman **** Rajchand ****rathadi yadakina. San 1265 sal.” ettavasojastibeta akya. Margashirsen Samapta Mithun rash Sourash paksha****’ This inscription does not mention the year directly. It has been kept in secret writing. This inscription clearly mentions that Raja The date can be read from right to left as Rakharchandra was the patron of this well as in the reverse direction, which temple. His father’s name was Rajchand creates confusion. The temple however can (Rajchandra, the defeated Nankar king of be assigned to 1859 A.D. stylistically, as the Damra) and the name of his mother was other date, i.e. 1949 A.D. seems unlikely. Haimavati. This particular temple was completed in the month of Margashirsha. After deciphering the date, the meaning of The day on which the temple was the inscription stands that Bisheswari Devi dedicated was Miithun rasha (month of established the temple in the month of Ashadh), Shukla paksha on 1641 Shaka Pausha, Krishna paksha, Trayodashi tithi, Samvat (1719 A.D.). The last brick containing Saturday 1859 A.D. the remainder of inscription is missing.

Inscriptions are found in the band just below the cornice

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Cluster 1: Sikir Taraf This cluster is located in the North-East. It can be further divided into two clusters, eastern and western side on either sides of the road. There are 22 temples in the cluster. There are 20 chala temples with variations; 1 standard chala, 7 standard chala with ridges and ratha projection, 1 chala with heightened façade and ridges and ratha projection, 1 chala with straight cornice, 2 Jora-Shiva temples and 3 couples. There are 2 Durga temples.

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Temple 1

This temple is located in isolation from other temples in Sikir Taraf and is oriented to the East. It is a hut-type (standard chala) temple with a char-chala roof. It has few terracotta plaques preserved on the façade. Terracotta work is not elaborate as compared to other temples since some niches are kept plain.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva and has a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha. The entrance doorway has a multi-cusped arch, a motif that emerged from the Indo-Islamic Sultanate archtype.

The step-rails of the temple have an elephant tusk motif.

This temple has been restored by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

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Temple 2

This temple is also located a little far from the main cluster of temples in Sikir Taraf. It is oriented to the West and This temple has a shikhara of a char-chala type with ridges and ratha projection. What is peculiar in this temple is the bada structure which similar to that of Orissan Rekha temple. Moreover, the ratha projection on the temple is continued on the lower portion of the temple (bada) itself.

The peculiarity of the temple is that it is the only chala temple in Maluti temple complex, which has straight cornice unlike the other temples which have a curved cornice.

No terracotta work is visible on the temple face, which may have been lost over time.

This temple too is dedicated to Shiva.

The Archaeological Survey of India has carried out conservation work for this temple.

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Temple 3 & 4

These Jora-Shiva temples are located in the eastern cluster in Sikir Taraf and oriented to the East.

These two temples are situated on the same platform and are similar in plan, though they have a different apex (amalaka and kalasha).

These temples depict a chala style with curved cornice and char-chala shikhara with ridges and ratha projection. A minor variation is seen in the temple roof, while temple 3 has a rounded char-chala roof, temple 4 has a straight-edged pyramidal roof.

There is no terracotta work to be seen on the façade. The temples are dedicated to Shiva.

Here, conservation work has been carried out by ASI.

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Temple 5 There are two Durga temples in Sikir Taraf There is row of busts in a straight line in the cluster. frieze. The pediment on top with fairies and flanked by lions on either side also are clear This temple is in the eastern cluster of Sikir evidence of British influence. The temple Taraf and is oriented to the South. The doesn’t house any image of a deity. temple has a porch with three arched entrances. The garbhagriha also has three entrances. There are no windows.

The temple is in dilapidated condition, with the roof having collapsed.

A strong British colonial influence is visible in the architecture in case of pediment flanked by lions and arch forms.

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Temple 6

The temple is located in the eastern cluster of Sikir Taraf and is oriented to the West. It is a temple of the chala type with curved cornice. It has a char-chala roof and ridges and ratha projection. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

There are a few terracotta images depicting Krishna iconography visible on the façade, in the niches in a frieze, the rest have disappeared.An inscription is seen on the band just below the cornice.

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Temple 7

This temple is in the eastern cluster and is oriented to the East. The temple is of chala style and has curved cornice and a char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

The doorway is surmounted by a multifoil arched from, reminiscent of those developed in the Sultanate and seen in Imperial Delhi structures such as Alai Darwaza. The terracotta work is seen on the façade above the doorway, which depicts the war between Rama and Ravana.

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Temple 8 & 9

These twin temples located in the eastern cluster of Sikir Taraf are oriented to the West. Both stand on the same platform and share a common wall. The temples are of chala type. They have a curved cornice, char- chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.

Both the temples have shiva-lingas in the garbhagriha, which shows their association to Shaivism. ASI has carried out conservation work of the temples.

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Temple 10

This temple is located in the western cluster and oriented to the West. It is a chala temple with curved cornice and chala roof and ridges and ratha projection.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

It has been recently conserved by the ASI.

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Temple 11

This temple is located in the western cluster in the Sikir Taraf next to temple 13 and is oriented to the West.

The temple is a chala temple with curved cornice and char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.

It preserves terracotta panels above the door opening, which depicts the fight between Rama and Ravana.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva. It has been conserved by ASI.

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Temple 12

This Durga temple in the western cluster is an exposed brick structure oriented to the South. The temple is in dilapidated condition and has no image in the garbhagriha.

The profile of arches, columns and receeding door jambs demonstrate a colonial influence on architecture. It has a verandah with a four arched entrances. The garbhagriha has two entrances and windows on the front side.

The roof of the temple has fallen. There is no image of deity in the temple.

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Temple 13

This temple, located in the western cluster faces West. The temple has a char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection and thus belongs to chala style of architecture.

It is an important temple as it preserves a large number of terracotta panels on the façade. The panel above the door opening depicts the war between Rama and Ravana. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 14 & 15

These Jora-Shiva type of temples stand on the same platform and are similar in plan. While temple 14 is oriented to the South, temple 14 is oriented to the North.

Both the temples have a similar style of architecture, i.e. chala type with curved cornice and char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.

Both have a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha, i.e. shrine chamber.

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Temple 16

The temple is located in between temples 14-15 and 17 in the western cluster of Sikir Taraf and is oriented to the North.

It is a chala temple with curved cornice and char- chala roof, with ridges and ratha projection.

This temple has an inscription in a band below the cornice. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

In the interior, there is a metal ring seen in all four corners, which must have been used to hang canopy over shiva-linga. The traces of the same detail are seen in many temples.

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Temple 17

This temple in the western cluster of Sikir Taraf seems to be the most important temple in the cluster. It is evident from the scale of the temple and elaborate terracotta decoration on the façade. Fortunately, the panels have been preserved to a large extent.

The terracotta panels include the war between Rama and Ravana depicted in the central panel above the door opening, stories from Krishnalila, Ramayana, other deities, social scenes as well as floral patterns.

The temple is oriented to the North. The temple belongs to chala type of architecture. The characteristics of the temple are heightened façade, curved cornice and a char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.The temple has a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha and thus is dedicated to Shaivism.

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Temple 18

This temple in the western cluster of Sikir Taraf is oriented to the East.

It is chala structure. It has a curved cornice and a chala roof with ratha projection.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 19 & 20

These twin temples are located in front of temple 14. The temples are oriented to the North. They stand on the same platform and share a common wall.

The temples belong to the chala type of architecture with curved cornice and have char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.

Both the temples are dedicated to Shiva.

Other characteristics of the temples include engaged columns and arched doorway. Temple 20 has an original wooden door, with hinges and a lock. Many wooden doors are seen in other temples as well.

Both the temples are dedicated to Shiva.

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Temples 21 & 22

These temples are located towards the southern end of Sikir Taraf. The temples are located next to a shrine dedicated to Goddess Kali which is a modern structure. These twin temples are oriented to the East. The temples stand on the same platform and share a common wall.

They are of standard chala type with char- chala roof and curved cornice.

The temples are dedicated to Shiva and have a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha.

Temple 22 has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Cluster 2: Rajar Bari This cluster is located to the west of Sikir Taraf. There are 17 temples in the cluster. There are 12 chala temples with variations; 4 standard chala with riddges and ratha projection, 2 chala with heightened façade and ridges and ratha projection, 3 twin temples. There is one triplet. The solitary example of Rasamancha in Maluti is seen in Rajar Bari. There is also 1 Rekha temple in the same cluster.

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Temple 30, 31 & 32

These three temples are attached to each other and share a common wall. They are oriented to the East.

These temples are peculiar hexagonal shape in plan and have conical shikhara, not seen in other clusters.

All three temples have shiva- lingas inside.

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Temple 33 & 34

These twin structures are totally in ruins.

The temples are oriented to the West.

The common wall between the temple gives an idea that this must be a couple of chala style.

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Temple 35

This temple stands on a low plinth and is oriented to the North. The temple is in chala style of architecture with its curved cornice. The roof is of char-chala type with ridges and ratha projections.

The façade preserves some terracotta panels on pilaster and some decorative bands on the facade.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

The temple has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Temple 36

This temple is a unique temple among the group of temples at Maluti as it is the only temple in rekha style of architecture. It stands next to temple 35, and faces East. It is a ridged rekha type with tri-ratha projection.

It stands on a low plinth.

It has terracotta panels above the door opening, which depicts the battle between Rama and Ravana.

Its association to Shaivism is evident from a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha.

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Temple 37

This temple is in an advanced stage of structural distress. The temple is oriented to the East. The temple has a heightened façade, curved cornice and a char-chala shikhara with ridges and ratha projections.

The interior of the temple has however survived. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 38

This temple with heightened façade and curved cornice is the most important temple in Rajar Bari and perhaps in Maluti. This is evident from the scale of the temple, elaborate terracotta work on the temple, and the size of the shiva-linga inside.

The temple is oriented to the East and stands in between temple 37 and temple 39, which is a rasamancha. The temple is in chala style with ridges and ratha projections and a rounded shikhara.

The terracotta work on the façade is almost intact. It depicts the war between Rama and Ravana in the central panel above the door opening and divinities such as Vishnu and his incarnations, Dasha- Mahavidya, scenes from Ramayana and Krishna-lila in the niches,

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.There is an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Temple 39

This is a solitary example of Rasamancha in Maluti.

The temple stands next to temple 38. The entrance is oriented to the South.

The temple has an octagonal plan with eight archway openings. The roof is missing, but it is likely that it must have had a curvilinear roof.

When built, it must have been used for the purpose of some festivals or to house image of Radha-Krishna. But at present, it is used for Kali worship as is evident from the platform installed for Kali worship.

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Temple 40

This chala temple stands on a low platform. It is oriented to the East. It has curved cornice and char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projection.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 41

This temple located in Rajar Bari stands on a low plinth. The temple is oriented to the West.

The temple is of chala style of architecture and has char-chala roof and ridges and ratha projections.

Some terracotta plaques are visible on the front façade, which depict floral and geometric patterns.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 42

This temple stands on a low plinth and is oriented to the South. The temple is in ruins but preserves terracotta plaques on the existing façade which are masterpieces of art.

The temple must have been of chala style, predominantly seen in Maluti.

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Temple 43 & 44

These twin temples stand on a low plinth. These temples stand on the same plinth and share a common wall. The temples are oriented to the North.

The temples are of chala type and have a chala roof with ridges and ratha projections. Temples have curved cornices.

Terracotta plaques are seen above the door opening and pilasters on both sides.

Both the temples preserve original wooden doors. Both are dedicated to Shiva.

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Cluster 3: Madhyam Bari This cluster is located next to Rajar Bari, little to the south of Rajar Bari. Only three temples remain in this cluster out of which 1 is in ruins. The other two are chala temples with char-chala superstructure and ridges and ratha projections. There are 7 other temples situated in different locations, which have been added to Madhyam Bari for the purpose of description though their exact association with Madhyam Bari remains unknown. There is a couplet, a triplet and one chala structure with char-chala roof and ridges and ratha projections. The only Kali temple which has been numbered by ASI is in the same cluster.

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Temple 47

This temple is in ruins. It is oriented to the West.

From whatever remains, it can be discerned that the temple must have had a char- chala roof.

It is likely that the temple was dedicated to Shiva though no shiva-linga can be seen.

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Temple 48

This temple stands on a plinth and is oriented to the West. This temple is standard chala type with char-chala roof and curved cornice. The roof has ridges and ratha projections and a trishul on the finial.

Few Terracotta panels are visible on the façade. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.There is an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Temple 49

This temple stands on a plinth and is oriented to the North. It is also a chala temple dedicated to Shiva.

The temple has a curved cornice and char- chala roof with ridges and ratha projections.

This temple was once adorned with terracotta work, the traces of which are visible on the façade.

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Temple 23

This is a flat-roofed temple dedicated to Goddess Kali. The segmental arch, pediment flanked by two lions are indicative of British colonial influence. The shrine has no image of the goddess, but has a platform and a wooden plank, which is used to install the image of the goddess during Kali Puja.

Worship is also offered daily in the temple.

The temple is an important place for social gathering.

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Temple 24 & 25

These twin temples stand next to the Kali temple. These two temples share a common plinth and are oriented to the West. These two temples are of standard chala type with a char-chala roof and curved cornice.

There is no terracotta work on the temples.

The temples are dedicated to Shiva as is seen from shiva-linga in the garbhagriha.

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Temple 26, 27 & 28

These three temples stand on the same plinth. They are oriented to the West. They are similar in plan. They are of chala style of architecture with char-chala roof and ridges and ratha projections and curved cornice.

The temples are dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 29

The temple stands next to Kali structure which is a modern structure. The temple stands on a plinth and is oriented to the West.

The temple has a char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projections and curved cornice, thus belongs to the chala style of architecture popular in Bengal.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Cluster 4: Chhai Taraf This cluster is located to the South. There are 11 temples in the cluster. All these are chala temples with variations; 2 are standard chala temples, 5 are with ridges and ratha projection, and 2 couplets.

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Temple 50 & 51

This couplet faces North East. These temples stand on the same plinth along with temples 52, 53 and 54.

These two temples share a common wall, and have a similar plan as well as similar style of architecture. The shikhara is of char- chala type with ridges and ratha projections.

There are some terracotta panels on the façade. These seem to be later additions.

The temples have shiva-linga in the garbhagriha.

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Temple 52 & 53

These twin temples stand next to temple 54 on the same plinth. They face South East. Temple number 52 is intact, but temple number 53 has collapsed and only the doorway and part of the side wall remains.

Temple 52 is of chala type with curved cornice and char-chala roof and ridges and ratha projections.

Both the temples are dedicated to Shiva. Temple 52 is peculiar since it has three shiva- lingas in the garbhagriha.

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Temple 54

Temple 54 shares plinth with temples 50, 51, 52 and 53. It is oriented to South East.

This is a Shiva temple in a chala style with ridges and ratha projections on char-chala shikhara and curved cornice, the style which is commonly observed in Maluti.

The temple has terracotta work preserved above the doorway and on pilasters on either sides.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 55

This temple shares plinth with temple 56. The temple is oriented to the North West. This temple is of chala type with char- chala shikhara and ridges and ratha projections.

The terracotta work is seen on the façade of the temple above the doorway and in the pilasters on both sides. It shows scene of battle between Rama and Ravana in the central panel as well as depicts floral and geometrical motifs.

There is an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

The temple has a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha.

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Temple 56

This temple shares its plinth with temple 55. It is oriented to the North West. Like temple 55, this temple is a of chala type with curved cornice, char-chala shikhara with ridges and ratha projections.

This temple has preserved terracotta panels on the façade to a great extent. The central panel depicts the battle between Rama and Ravana. Social scenes such as nauka-vilas, chaturanga sena, moving in a palanquin are depicted at the base of the temple. Floral and geometric motifs are also used for ornamentation.

The temple has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 57

The temple is oriented to the North West.

This temple is a chala structure with standard char-chala roof. The side walls of the temple have collapsed but the front façade and terracotta work on the façade remains fairly intact.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

The temple has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Temple 58

This temple is oriented to the North West. The peculiarity of the temple is that it is octagonal in plan.

This temple is partly collapsed. It is a chala structure and has a char-chala roof with ridges and ratha projections as is evident from what remains of the shikhara.

The temple has a shiva-linga in the garbhagriha, which shows that it is dedicated to Shiva.

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Temple 59

This Shiva temple stands on a plinth and faces North East. It is a simple hut type construction with standard char-chala roof. It has an arched doorway. The temple has terracotta panels of the façade, which depicts the battle between Rama and Ravana as well as geometrical and floral ornamentation.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva as is evident from shiva-linga inside the temple. There is also a Nandi and a trishul in the garbhagriha. A canopy is hung in the temple above the shiva- linga, which gives an idea as to how the canopy was hung in the olden days.

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Temple 60

The temple stands behind temple 59. It stands on a plinth and is oriented to the North East.

The temple is of chala type, with ridges and ratha projections and curved cornice.

The façade has terracotta panels, such as battle scene, floral motifs, geometrical patterns.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

There is an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Cluster 5: Mauliksha Temple Complex This cluster is located to the extreme South in the village. It has two listed temples. Temple 61 is the oldest temple of Maluti dating back to 1719 A.D. Temple 62 is the main temple in the complex dedicated to goddess Mauliksha.

T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 99 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

Temple 61

This temple stands on a high plinth and faces East. This temple is a standard chala temple with char-chala roof and curved cornice. The façade of this temple is in a poor condition and only few terracotta figures remain in the niches on the facade.

The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

This is the oldest temple in the temple complex. The inscription on the façade mentions the date of its construction as 1719 A.D. This thus becomes the oldest dated temple in Maluti temple complex.

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Temple 62

The temple stands on a low plinth and is oriented to the West. The temple is dedicated to Goddess Mauliksha. It is a tutelary deity of the Rajas of Nankar and is worshipped as Simhavahini Durga. It is a temple of Ek Bangla style. It has a three- arched verandah which serves as an entrance to the garbhagriha with a single door. The garbhagriha has small windows on either side, not seen in case of any other temples in Maluti except the Durga temple number 12. The temple has a do-chala roof.

The mandapa in front of the temple is a newly built structure. Both the temple and the mandapa have been painted.

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Temple Complex

A wall is built around the temple of Mauliksha, which incorporates other two temples, which seem to be modern structures and a space around them.

In the complex, some images and other antiquities have been placed on the platform under a tree. It is likely that these remains belong to Pala period.

Since it is a pilgrimage place, Mauliksha temple is visited by many people. There are a few shops outside the temple wall to cater to the visitors.

A play area has also been developed outside the temples for the visitors who wish to spend some time in the area.

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2.3. Sculpture & Iconography in Maluti

The iconography visible in Maluti is to be seen at two levels. First is the deities which are worshipped in Maluti, the other is the art and iconography visible in the terracotta panels which adorn the temples of Maluti. Some of the temples at Maluti are plain but some temples represent a very high quality of brick carving with profuse ornamental decoration upon the front facade.

The largest number of temples in Maluti are dedicated to Shiva. Shiva is worshipped in the form of a linga. The base of the linga is made of earth on the temple floor and the stone linga is inserted into it.

Goddess Kali is worshipped through image, which is installed on a platform only during Kali Puja.

In other place, a beautiful plaque of goddess Durga killing the demon Mahishasura is depicted. Figurines of Lakshmi and Saraswati also appear in the same plaque.

Right Top: Shiva-lingas in the chala temle Right Middle: A platform in the Kali temple on which the image is installed during Kali Puja. Right Bottom: A frieze showing scenes of village life and war

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A wide range of themes are depicted in the terracotta panels. The most popular theme which becomes the focal point is the depiction of war between Rama and Ravana shown above the door opening. Rama is shown sitting on the arm of flying Hanuman or a chariot and shooting arrows. Lakshmana is shown behind him. His army is also engaged in this war. Ravana is depicted with 10 heads and 20 hands holding various types of weapons. He is on a chariot and he is also shooting arrows towards Rama. The scene comes alive as it is skilfully depicted by the craftsman

Right Top: Gopal Babu explaining the iconography Right Bottom: A frieze from the Ramayana with Rama shooting an arrow at the ten headed Ravana

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Temple 45 & 46

These temples stand on a low plinth and are oriented to the North-West. They are of chala type with curved cornices and char- chala roof with ridges and ratha projection. These temples stand as a couplet and share a common wall. Unfortunately a wall of the adjoining household also cuts through the temples. The temples have few terracotta plaques preserved above the door opening.

The temples are dedicated to Shiva.

Temple 46 has an inscription in a band just below the cornice.

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Other scenes depicted in the niches are scenes from Ramayana and also from Krishnalila, etc.

Among the themes are scenes of Ramayana, Rama and Lakshmana with Hanuman, the meeting of Rama with Bibhishan, Sugriva saluting Rama, Ravana killing Jatayu and Sita sitting on a chariot, Rama, Lakshmana and Sita proceeding to the forest, the killing of Rakshasa Maricha, the abduction of Sita, are significant whereas among the scenes of Krishnalila, the scenes of Krishna raising Govardhana, Krishna with a calf, Krishna playing the flute, Radha-Krishna, Krishna killing the demon Bakasura, Krishna with Balarama, stealing of clothes of bathing gopikas by Krishna, churning of curd to procure butter by Yashoda are depicted in the tiny plaques.

There is a typical terracotta plaque in which Krishna is shown with six hands, with two hands holding a bow and arrow, with other two a flute and in the fifth hand he has a bugle and in sixth hand he is holding a sword.

The theme is taken from a ballad, where the devotee is saying to his tutelary goddess that you hold bow and arrow as Rama, flute as Krishna, bugle as Shiva and sword as Kali.

Scenes from mythology, Puranas, epics influenced the artists. The walls of the temples provided them with a wide scope to display their mastery and skills and their inspirations, observations got reflected on this canvas in the most beautiful way.

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The other Hindu deities like Durga, Lakshmi, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Brahma and even incarnations of Vishnu, Dasha Mahavidya are depicted mainly in the niches above the scene of battle between Rama and Ravana.

Some mythological composite figures are also used for decorating the temples.

Different terracotta panels on the façade of the temples

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What is also interesting is the depiction of social life at the base of the temple on the façade.

Scenes like Nuaka-vilas, Setu-bandha, Chaturanga sena moving for hunting are depicted at the bottom of the temples. The scene of a palanquin carried by bearers is also very interesting. A person, in all probability Raja, is sitting inside with a hookka. A dog is following the palanquin closely. Moving with dogs was traditional practice among the tribal people. Maluti is encircled from all sides by Santhals, hence this particular terracotta art of Maluti.

Dancing, worshipping, milking of cows and ploughing of field are common scenes depicting daily life. Even soldiers are shown with guns. This not only gives insight into local life, but also shows different influences on the local life.

Social life was depicted at the base of the temple

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Terracotta plaques which are purely decorative and used for ornamentation are also impressive. Different forms of flora and fauna are used. Floral and geometric devices like vertical creepers, petalled rosettes, an arched recess enclosing floral devices, scroll work with tendrils and leaves, full and half-blown lotuses and lotus buds, crenellations resembling arrowheads, triangular devices containing an inset of multipetaled rosette hanging, swirling drapery have been used. Ornamented and curved pilasters are also attractive.

Various animals are depicted in the scenes which shows their close association with human life.

The flat surface is divided into horizontal and vertical divisions. The divisions are found to be filled with terracotta plaques and panels of which the themes are mythology, animals and human activity. There is repetition of decorative border.

The scenes were influenced by the episodes of Indian epics, mythological scenes, and provide testimony to artistic excellence. Human activities, life of aristocrats, their sports and pastimes, their amusements, ornaments, jewellery, arms and weapons, their tastes, customs, costumes, their sentiment and culture, their affluence and poverty, their joy and sorrow, relationship of different sections of society, is also immortalised in terracotta art.

The temples provided artists with canvas for expression of their ideas. They drew inspiration from society around them. Thus these panels provide a panorama of society and constitute valuable materials for reconstructing the social and cultural heritage.

Floral, geometric forms adorn the spaces of the façade.

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3.1 Significance

The village of Maluti is a ‘temple village’. The sheer number of temples makes it clear Originally 108, over 60 terracotta temples that the site was witness to great building survive from the 18th and 19th centuries. activity in the period. Thhe patrons were the These structures have survived the members of the royal family and these vicissitudes of time and speak of traditional included women patrons. This gives an beliefs and practices, artistic influences, interesting insight into the practices of the technical developments and the Nankar kingdom and at the same time, construction vocabulary of the period. reflect on traditional Bengali society.

The temples have a distinct place in the Moreover, what is significant is the architectural development of Bengal in the harmonious co-existence of different deities late medieval period. The location of the like Shiva, Kali, Durga, Vishnu as well as local village is important as it forms the deities like Dharmaraj, village deity easternmost boundary in the spread of Mauliksha, etc. This reflects the spirit of temple activity in Bengal. At the same time, religious freedom and tolerance. the temples depict a very high quality of Maluti is the among the rare villages of its regional art of Eastern India. The temples at kind with such a large number of temples of Maluti were constructed of brick in such a such a high standard of craftsmanship, distinguished way that the use of moulded making this temple village unique. bricks and terracotta plaques depicting naturalistic and realistic scenes enhanced the beauty of these temples.

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3.2 Values

“Values can be defined as the relative A heritage site preserves a number of values. social attribution of qualities to things; The presence or absence of values will lead values thus depend on society and can to the safeguarding and preservation of change over time. The aim of conservation cultural heritage resources or in other is to safeguard the quality and values of the instances, could lead to their neglect and 2 resource, protect its material substance and destruction. At the same time, these values ensure its integrity for future generations.”1 determine the policies for conservation at any particular heritage site.

1 Bernard Feilden & Jukka Jokilehto, Management Guidelines for World Cultural Heritage Sites, ICCROM, Rome, 1998 2 Ibid. T h e T e r r a c o t t a T e m p l e s o f M a l u t i : A C o n s e r v a t i o n R e p o r t 111 Abha Narain Lambah Associates for Global Heritage Fund

The village engenders a multitude of values: Archaeological and Historic value

The village of Maluti preserves over 60 terracotta temples belonging to 18th and 19th century. These temples, with their elaborate terracotta work become important sources for the reconstruction of history of the area, development of temple activity, etc. They also provide glimpses into socio-economic life of the Nankar Kingdom. They also enrich our knowledge about the religious practices of the 18th and 19th century. The inscriptions on the temples not only help date the temples, but also give an interesting insight into the development of Bengali script.

Moreover, the village exhibits traces of habitation right from the pre-historic period, which adds immensely to the archaeological value of the site.

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Artistic and Aesthetic Value

The artistic and aesthetic value lies in the high-quality terracotta work visible on the temple facades. The art at Maluti continues the terracotta tradition of late medieval Bengal. The representation of scenes from Ramayana, Krishnalila as well as depiction of social life at the base along with wealth of flora and fauna form important evidence of the local beliefs and practices and tradition current in Bengal in the late medieval period. They provide important evidence of the skills and mastery achieved by the local craftsmen and artisans and are masterpieces of Indian art.

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Architectural and Technical Value

The temples of Maluti bear witness to the high quality of craftsmanship and the skills of the builders in the use of terracotta ornamentation and brick construction. The main construction material employed in construction was brick and lime mortar, with terracotta panels on the façade. The result is the beautiful amalgamation of different styles of architecture prevalent in Bengal during the late medieval period. This has given a unique character to the village. Over 60 temples survive in the village even today, and stand testimony to the high quality of craftsmanship achieved by the builders.

Setting and Landscape Value

The setting of the temples within the vernacular village architecture gives a special character to the village of Maluti. The temples are oriented in such a manner that they form important public squares in the village, creating spaces for social gathering. Moreover, the landscape of the village, with open grazing lands and a number of lakes adds to the overall experience on site.

Religious and Spiritual Values

Many of the temples in Maluti are still under worship. Most of the temples are dedicated to Shiva. Moreover, deities like Durga, Kali, local deities like Dharmaraj are also worshipped. The Mauliksha temple has become a place of pilgrimage. The temples are testimony to the religious spirit and spirituality of the Nankar kingdom, which is still reflected in the village today.

The village truly deserves the title of ‘temple village’.

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Socio-economic Value Research and Educational Value

Many traditional social activities still There is scope for research in various continue in the village of Maluti. Thus the aspects like art, architecture, socio- village can be looked at as a storehouse of economic, religious practices, etc. and also information on religious and social practices the important place the village has in and traditions, which are otherwise lost in overall development of temple architecture other parts of Bengal. in Bengal. The site also provides opportunities for public understanding and The temples of Maluti have a potential to appreciation of the rich terracotta tradition generate revenue by attracting tourists. The and development of indigenous temple tourists would get enthralling experience architecture of Bengal through proper when they visit this heritage village. interpretation.

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