TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS EDUCATION IN KENYA Analysis of Violence against Girls’ in Education

www.actionaid.org/kenya

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank the management of ActionAid International Kenya (AAIK) for the opportunity to carry out the Violence Against Girls in Education (VAGE) analysis for the Tackling Barriers in Education Project. To carry out the analysis successfully in a participatory manner, the study team worked with the AAIK programme staff and various programme stakeholders. We would therefore like to thank all the staff who arranged for field logistics and those who volunteered to be interviewed. We are highly indebted to all the programme beneficiaries who participated in the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and the respondents who engaged in community conversations.

We would also like to thank stakeholders, especially the Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and community resource persons, who collaborated and made themselves available for discussion. We acknowledge the County and National Government Officers, including the County Executive Committees for Education and Gender in all counties, the Children’s Officers, the Judiciary staff, the Police, school heads, and School Management Committees and area chiefs in all Local Rights Programmes (LRPs) visited.

Finally, we would like to particularly express sincere thanks to Agnes Kola, Valentine Wanjihia, and Kevin Majoni, who guided the study, besides reviewing the tools and the report to its conclusion.

This study was successfully completed under the leadership of Dr. Marygorety Akinyi, a Research Fellow at the African Women Studies Centre (AWSC) of the University of Nairobi. She was ably supported by co-researchers - Margaret Olande, Director, Gender and Reproductive Health Solutions (GARSH); and Samwel Oando, Senior Researcher at MICRODE CONSULT. We thank all the research assistants who supported the data collection in each of the eight counties.

August 2018

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 3 TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid 4 ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... 5 ACRONYMS ...... 6 GLOSSARY ...... 7

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 9 1.1 Background of the organisation ...... 10 1.2 AAIK Strategic Objectives ...... 10 1.3 ActionAid’s interventions in education ...... 10 1.4 ActionAid Initiatives on Violence Against Girls ...... 10 1.5 Tackling Barriers to Girls’ Education ...... 10

2.0 METHODOLOGY ...... 13 2.1 Scope of the assignment ...... 14 2.2 Objectives of the study...... 14 2.3 Design of the study ...... 14 2.4 Sampling ...... 14 2.5 Data collection ...... 14 2.6 Data analysis ...... 15 2.7 Confines of the study ...... 15

3.0 BARRIERS TO GIRLS EDUCATION ...... 17 3.1 Violence Index ...... 18 3.1.1 General barriers to girls’ education: Violence index ...... 18 3.1.2 FGM index: Prevalence and procedure ...... 23 3.1.3 Factors linked to FGM as a barrier to girls’ education ...... 28 3.2 Status of girls’ education due to the violence indices ...... 30 3.3 Existing initiatives to promote girls’ education and challenge FGM ...... 32 3.3.1 Empowering girls and young women facing violence or at risk of violence...... 32 3.3.2 Building capacities of women’s networks to ably support girls and young women to access education and in economic empowerment ...... 32 3.3.3 Interventions by government, AAIK and other agencies to tackle FGM and promote girls’ education ...... 32 3.3.4 Existing and proposed/possible alternative rites of passage in each county ...... 33 3.3.5 Challenges experienced in tackling FGM / promoting girls’ education ...... 33 3.3.6 Status of law enforcement ...... 35

4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 37 4.1 Conclusions ...... 38 4.2 Recommendations ...... 38

APPENDICES ...... 41 Appendix 1: County Specific Reports (listed alphabetically) ...... 42 I. Baringo County ...... 42 Ii. Embu County ...... 47 Iii. Garissa County ...... 50 Iv. Isiolo County ...... 53 V. Kajiado County ...... 57 Vi. Migori County ...... 61 Vii. Taita Taveta County ...... 65 Viii. West Pokot County ...... 67

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 5 Acronyms

AAI ActionAid International AAIK ActionAid International Kenya AEO Area Education Officer ASALs Arid and Semi-arid Lands BoM Board of Management CBOs Community Based Organisations CDF Constituency Development Fund CEC County Executive Committee CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child CSG County Steering Group CSO Civil Society Organisation DDP District Development Plan DEO District Education Officer DP Development Plan DSG District Steering Committee EFA Education For All FGD(s) Focus Group Discussion(s) FGM Female Genital Mutilation FPE Free Primary Education GOCESO Gokeharaka Central and South (Women’s Group) HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus KDHS Kenya Demographic and Health Survey LRP Local Rights Programme MCA Member of County Assembly NDMA National Drought Management Authority PCR Primary Completion Rate PSU Partnership Support Unit RH Reproductive Health TBGE Tackling Barriers to Girls’ Education TAWN Tangulbei Women Network VAGE Violence Against Girls in Education

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid 6 ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION Glossary

Access to education: Conditions, circumstances or requirements (e.g. qualifications, education level, skills or work experience, etc.) governing admittance to and participation in education and training institutions or programmes.

Barriers to education: Situational (day-to-day life), institutional (rules and procedures), dispositional (attitudes to learning) and/or financial factors which impede, dissuade from or prevent engagement in learning programmes or activities.

Disadvantaged: Excluded from social rights or from social life or whose situation is precarious.

Female genital mutilation (FGM) comprises all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.

Literacy: The ability to communicate by reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Reading - The ability to understand and interpret ideas, opinions and information presented in texts. It includes handling information to make reasoned and informed decisions.

Writing - The ability to create texts which communicate ideas, opinions, and information, to meet a purpose and within a context.

Local rights programme (LRP): This refers to the region covered by programme implementations. It is the geographical scope of areas where ActionAid works to tackle poverty and denial of human rights at the local level, and challenge the causes. In Kenya. AAIK works in solidarity with women and people living in poverty and exclusion in such locations; connecting their voices, sharing ideas, spreading inspiration, campaigning, advocating, and formulating public policy to eradicate poverty and ensure social justice.

Primary education: Children are expected go to school for early childhood education by the age of four and start their primary school level when they are six years old. They spend eight years at primary school (P1-P8) before going on to secondary school around the age of 13 or 14 years.

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Girls out of school in Kamuthe at their textile workshop after the interview. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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1.1 Background of the organisation unions, researchers, and education coalitions to undertake evidenced-based advocacy, and campaigning ActionAid International Kenya (AAIK) is a non-partisan, to inform innovative community-based interventions and non-religious, development organisation that has research efforts. been working in Kenya since 1972 to end poverty and injustices. ActionAid Kenya is among the leading anti- 1.4 ActionAid’s initiatives on violence against poverty agencies in Kenya, having a presence in 21 girls counties and working directly with over one million people living in poverty and exclusion. ActionAid International “Violence or the fear of violence is an important reason Kenya is unapologetic in advancing women’s rights and for girls not attending school. Besides being in itself an ensuring that women living in poverty and exclusion are infringement of girls’ rights, violence is also denying girls at the centre of its work. AAIK commits to work with their right to education,” ActionAid 2004. In 2004, as part women, children and youth living in poverty and exclusion of its broader programme of education work, ActionAid to claim and realise their constitutional rights through undertook detailed research into girl education in 12 three main human rights based approach (HRBA) different countries across Africa, Asia, and Latin America pillars of empowerment, solidarity, and campaigning. and found that violence and the fear of violence were Partnerships are the foundation of AAIK’s work. among the key factors preventing girls from attending school and completing their education. The research 1.2 AAIK strategic objectives revealed that regardless of their age, race, class, caste or location, girls were vulnerable to many forms of violence ActionAid International Kenya’s work has revolved including rape, sexual harassment, intimidation, teasing, around its Revised Country Strategy Paper, Making and threats, whilst factors such as poverty, war, and long Our Rights Count 2015-2017. Since January 2018, journeys to school increased the risks. ActionAid International Kenya (AAIK) developed a new strategy paper, Our Rights for Justice1 which covers the To effectively address the issues of Violence Against period between 2018 and 2028. Girls in Education (VAGE), ActionAid’s human-rights based theory of change consists of three main axes - 1.3 ActionAid’s interventions in education empowerment, solidarity and campaigning. The theory aims to achieve sustainable change through “linking local Over the past 40 years, ActionAid has been working to groups to wider movements, gathering strong evidence, increase access to quality primary education globally. promoting policy analysis, building campaigns and using The approach has evolved from delivering education mass communications.” This approach empowers rights services to adopting a rights-based approach. Beyond a holders, builds solidarity, and campaigns to make core mere focus on access to education, ActionAid believes duty-bearers accountable to citizens. It also seeks to in improving the quality of education while amplifying enable the voices of the most marginalised, especially children and young people’s voices. The three areas of girls and women, to be an integral part of decision- ActionAid’s intervention focus have been: making spaces.

1. Promoting rights in schools by supporting 1.5 Tackling Barriers to Girls’ Education active mobilisation, enabling citizens to This project contributes to the attainment of this hold the State accountable for providing organisational objective, which seeks to reach 500,000 quality education in a concrete and beneficiaries. The project specifically aims to enable sustainable manner. over 2,000 girls to challenge violence and overcome the 2. Securing adequate resources for education barriers that prevent them from achieving their potential, by equipping citizens with the tools to with a focus on female genital mutilation (FGM). The demand and monitor a just, equitable and Tackling Barriers to Girls’ Education (TBGE) Project is effective allocation of resources. part of the initiatives addressing challenges and barriers 3. Empowering women and girls through that girls, both in and out of school, face in accessing literacy, using reflective methodology to and attaining education. social change. Phase I of the project was implemented in Kongelai and Key to achieving these goals is challenging and Marafa Local Rights Programmes (LRPs) in partnership transforming the socio-economic and political factors with KOMESI and Sauti ya Wanawake. Evaluation that keep girls out of school, including violence, HIV and of phase one revealed that TBGE was relevant and AIDS, and poverty. To achieve the initiatives, ActionAid responded by targeting the triggers that expose young has always used a multi-stakeholder approach involving women and girls to violations, and hence deny them children, parents, teachers, communities, teachers’ access to education. The project has since employed innovative and dynamic strategies to break down the

1 See details in appendix 4 cycle of abuse and has restored hope and a life of dignity

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid 10 ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION INTRODUCTION to vulnerable young mothers and girls. The project is therefore consistent with ActionAid’s Kenya strategy as well as the LRP strategies that focus on empowerment of women and girls. It is implemented in the following LRPs:

Table 1: Local Rights Programme areas for the project Area / Partnership Support Unit (PSU) Local Rights Programme (LRP) / County Khwisero PSU Tangulbei LRP / Baringo County Kongelai LRP / West Pokot County Kuria LRP / Migori County Makima PSU Kamuthe LRP / Garissa County Elangata Wuas LRP / Kajiado County Makima LRP / Embu County Bamburi PSU Kishushe LRP / Taita Taveta County Nanyuki PSU Oldonyiro LRP/ Isiolo County

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2.0 METHODOLOGY

Researcher leads girls in drawing a map of their village since the study used participatory methods including mapping. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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2.1 Scope of the assignment all the relevant duty–bearers, focusing on the indicators. The study also used a multi-stakeholder approach, taking This analysis was significantly qualitative, using a feminist into consideration sex, age, location, and social status lens, intended to highlight the relationship between among others. This bottom-up approach was beneficial gender roles and conventional research practices. While in the sense that it was based on an enhancement, rather the traditional research methods are biased towards than a deficit, approach to beneficiary participation in the men’s experiences, this study lays more emphasis on process that is promoted in the reflect methods for data girls’ and women’s experiences, aspects that have been collection and interventions. During the formative stage, particularly missing. The use of a qualitative approach the goal was to learn as much as possible about how the has strengthened the analysis to better reflect on the respondents think and behave in relation to the issue of nature of human rights experiences. The approach FGM and the link it has to education of girls. provides insights to challenge norms like Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), mostly established by men. 2.4 Sampling

The feminist lens helped to challenge the existing Purposive sampling was used in selecting participants for stereotypes. It examined girls’ socio-cultural and political both focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant situation at household, community and public levels that interviews based on the existing number of girls’ forums hinders their access to education. The scope further in each school. The girls out of school were purposively used statistics (from secondary data) of the status of girls’ selected based on their previous engagement in the education through the parameters of school enrolment, project. This helped in gathering in-depth information retention, and transition, against the population of girls in from key beneficiaries and community members the counties. The assessment further interrogated how engaged in the project. Since the target population for the implementation and/or lack of relevant government the target beneficiaries was known in advance as stated policies affects girls’ abilities to access education and in the terms of reference (ToR), the overall sampling participate effectively in the lives of their communities. size for the study was determined using the probability Geographical coverage was limited to AAK’s area of formula. This combination enabled the teams to obtain a operation. high representative sample size. The probability formula was as follows: n = [(z2 * p * q) + ME2] / [ME2 + z2 * p * q 2.2 Objectives of the study / N], Where: n= sample size required =?; Z= confidence level = 1.96; P= population proportion from which the The main aim of this assignment, according to the terms sample was picked = 0.75 (75%); q= the population of reference (ToR), was to conduct an in-depth analysis difference = 0.25 (25%); ME= confidence interval = 0.04 of the status of girls’ education in each of the eight (4%) and N= target population = (2,100). This gave a counties. Specific objectives of this analysis documented random sample of 467 respondents. The respondents in county-specific index reports was conducted with the were then apportioned in the ratio of 3:2:1 (girls: women: specific aim of understanding: stakeholders). To eliminate decimals, we adjusted the sample size upwards to 468. Hence: girls selected = • Girls socio-cultural and political situation at 234; women = 156; and stakeholders = 78. household, community and public levels that hinders their ability to access education; 2.5 Data collection • Statistics of the status of girls’ education through the parameters of school enrolment, retention, and The data collection tools included key informant and transition against the number of girls in the counties. focus group discussion guides with target participants. • How the implementation and/or lack of relevant The key informant interviews schedules were used to government policies affects girls’ abilities to access solicit the views of key stakeholders including AAIK education and participate effectively. staff, women group leaders, community leaders, project partners, government officials and male community 2.3 Design of the study members. This was further directed by the information obtained through document analysis of related project The study used a cross-sectional survey design to progress reports; relevant research publications; and from combine secondary data from document analysis the direct observation made during field visits to project and qualitative approaches. The secondary sources sites. The focus group discussions were conducted with generated progressive data which provided the status girls and boys, while the community members were of education and aspects of violence against girls in reached through community conversations. education. Qualitative aspects provided the detailed reasoning behind the barriers to girls’ education. The approach adopted for this study was essentially participatory and bottom-up in the sense that it took into account the practices and perceptions of the target beneficiaries - especially children (specifically girls) - and

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2.6 Data analysis

The qualitative data gathered from the field was recorded according to the responses in line with the items in the relevant instruments. This proved a useful organisational tool enabling researchers to look at responses by question, theme, or by individual participant. Field notes taken during FGDs and interviews were later organised into patterns of data. Identity of respondents was concealed by coding instruments, participants, schools, and communities rather than using names, and by securing data so that only those who needed to access the data for the project could do so. The detailed analysis was organised broadly by research questions. The qualitative analysis examined in depth similarities and differences between the accounts of different groups, considering, for example, variability in the perspectives of girls in and out of school, or between girls and boys of different ages, or between children and adults.

2.7 Confines of the study

This study was exclusively qualitative hence there were no statistics collected. While the research team planned to sample the schools representatively, the actual number visited were 16 primary schools (two in each LRP). Each school and community was conveniently selected by ActionAid staff depending on planned intervention areas. It was therefore found sufficient to use the qualitative evidence in determining the violence index. The other challenge was met in collecting secondary data. In any case, the available data for the county level could not be represented by the two schools visited in each LRP. The study is therefore complete with narratives and quotes especially, to represent the status of education in each region.

Table 2: Sample frame Instrument and participants No of FGDs Total per Total county sample Category I: Phase II counties Baringo, Garissa and Kajiado • FGD F1 (Girls and boys in school) – Classes 5/6 (2) 3 groups (of 11 - 12 girls each) 33 - 36 99 and 7/8 (2) 1 group of 11 - 12 boys 11 - 12 33 • FGD F2 (Girls out of school) – ages 13 – 17 1 group (of 12 girls) 12 36 • Community FGDs with women and men: 3 groups (of 10 - 11 women) 33 99 • Category below 40 years x2 groups; above 40 1 group of 10 - 12 men 10 30 years x2 groups • Key informant interviews: 0 7 21 Category II: Other counties Embu, Isiolo, Taita Taveta, Migori and West Pokot • FGDs with girls and boys in school 1 group of girls and 1 group of boys 20 100 • Key informant interviews 0 11 55 • Community conversations (Informal discussions/ 2 informal interviews At least two Open interviews), 1 – youth and 1 – adults) mixed or same sex Grand Total 471

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TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid 16 ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 3.0 BARRIERS TO GIRLS EDUCATION

A girl from Kongelai narrating how cultural practices remain as barriers to girls' education ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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3.1 VIOLENCE INDEX access, participation, and retention. Incidentally, in Elangata Wuas (Kajiado) the enrolment of girls is low Analysis in this section provides an overview of the girls’ but almost equal to that of boys (especially in the experiences in education based on the socio-cultural schools visited). That shows how both boys and contexts. The children in all the LRPs are socialised to girls are adversely affected by cultural values. The believe that it is mostly girls who should help their families situation reflects a very strong cultural influence on with housework, and that women do all the domestic the gendered preference between girls and boys, work including construction of houses in some regions. which also leads to implied discrimination against The majority of girls responded that housework is meant girls. In public life, community members generally for girls. These very girls, however, are conscious that have a low opinion of girls and women and do not the chores are part of the barriers to their education. perceive them as possible leaders. This view is The boys who were interviewed likewise held a similar reportedly changing, though slowly. Even in school, opinion that girls should help more with housework. The girls themselves do not believe they should be household chores are part of the cultural practices that leaders during and after school. In general, some children are socialised on from a very early age. In Kuria, of the factors affecting the education of girls and Kongelai (West Pokot), Oldonyiro (Isiolo) and Elangata women in the respective counties include: Wuas (Kajiado) local rights programme (LRP)2 areas, cultural practices are strongly reported to negatively (i) Insecurity influence girls’ participation in education both at primary and secondary school level. The insecurity reported here refers to inter- ethnic conflicts, cattle rustling, inter-communal Compared to other areas, these communities still value violence and elements of terrorism. Counties strongly some retrogressive cultural practices. In effect, most affected are Baringo (East Pokot) and West unless these factors are addressed, girls’ education Pokot - both of which face inter-ethnic conflicts will continue to lag behind that of boys. Members of and cattle rustling. The frequency of incidents Gokeharaka Central and South (GOCESO) Women’s was reported to be occasional. Noticeably, no Group, who work on aspects of empowerment by incident was reported in the project area, except promoting girl’s education, indicated during the study some distant relatives reported to have been that cultural practices are the greatest challenge affected in the recent past. Garissa and Isiolo had affecting access and participation of girls in education. incidents of violent extremism (terrorism)3 as The discussion indicated that: reported in some undisclosed locations outside the project area. The big challenge for education “Our community is good, but it has many in this regard lies in the possibility of insecurity cultural beliefs that have made us lag behind in leading to attacks and civilian casualties. High the development and education of girls. These risk groups are those who live along the ethnic are practices like female genital mutilation border points, and areas where contingents of (FGM) and patriarchy” (FGD with women, security officers are deployed. Without citing Kuria). any personal experience, the girls alleged that security forces have been perpetrators of rape In this section, the report starts by analysing general and torture (as in Garissa) of women and girls. factors that keep girls out of school other than Female Some girls are also reported to have dropped Genital Mutilation (FGM). Based on the feminist approach, out of school and married some security officers most of the factors discussed below are linked to the deployed in the region. It is argued that such girls possible violation of human rights especially with regard elope and choose to get married to men already to the existing space for girls and women in each county working, rather than stay in school. context. (ii) Distance to school 3.1.1 General barriers to girl’s education: Violence index Most of the LRPs fall in marginalised regions of the country. Such regions are characterised by Access to education remains a challenge for both girls poor infrastructure and long distance between and boys in all the LRPs. Even though the majority schools. The fewer the schools in an area, the of the community members and stakeholders in longer the distance that children have to walk to each county report that both girls and boys should the nearest school. The distance is also affected be supported in terms of interventions to promote by the movement of pastoralist communities to education, it was apparent that girls are still lagging different grazing fields which may not necessarily behind in the counties under study in terms of have schools. Counties which reported this challenge include Kajiado, West Pokot, Isiolo,

2 Local rights programme (LRP) – refers to the area of implementation in each County where ActionAid establishes partnership with community 3 Terrorism in these regions is associated with threats of Al Shabaab organisations adherents who occasionally attack security agencies and even civilians.

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and Baringo. In Kajiado for instance, some sit together with boys, just like women girls were noted to have dropped out of school are not allowed to worship together because of the long distances of three to five with men in the mosque. This silent rule kilometres they had to cover to and from school affects girls’ confidence when they are every day. Some boys who also have to travel forced by conventional school practices long distances to school have rented houses that often puts girls to even share desks around the school, something that girls are not with boys. When girls reach teenage some permitted to do. It’s unthinkable for a girl to live would be very uncomfortable with class away from home, unless she is married. environment. But the most serious thing is the emphasis on madrasa at the expense “We come from far, like five kilometres of formal school by many parents. No one (from school), but we have rented some would worry when girls don’t attend school place in the neighbourhood. But girls can’t regularly but when they fail to attend leave their homes to rent the way we have ‘duksi’ even once, they will be reprimanded done because it is a taboo,” (FGD with boys, very strongly” (FGD with girls out of school, Indupa). Kamuthe).

On further interrogation on why boys think it is This narrative, by girls who dropped out of taboo for girls to rent houses, they laughed, and school, presents the voice of girls, and carries a then responded; lot of weight. Islamic religion prefers madrasa to formal (Western education) and that is why girls “It forces them to walk even 10 - 30 km would rather attend duksi (religious teachings) every day to reach school because it is a than go to school. taboo for girls to rent a house until they are married. Even some girls became tired (iv) Parental illiteracy and left schooling,” (FGD with boys, Indupa Primary School). In all the LRP counties, it was reported that most of the adult community members are illiterate. Based on observations during field visits, this The most affected counties are Kajiado, West narrative exaggerates the distance the children Pokot, Baringo, Isiolo, and Garissa. According have to walk. It is however a clear indication of to the Curriculum Development Officer in Isiolo, their concern that girls have no way of mitigating based at Oldonyiro, 60% of the Samburu adults the long distance to school, as boys do, unless living in Isiolo county are illiterate. She argues that they are in a boarding school. The long distance because of this, girl-child education in Samburu to school therefore affects more girls than boys, is not seen as important as girls are considered especially in the four listed counties. mere assets to be ”sold off” in marriage.

(iii) Religion “The parents here are not educated, hence the mothers would prefer that their In Garissa, issues linked to religious beliefs were daughters indulge in domestic chores like cited strongly as part of the challenges affecting fetching water and child care in order girls’ education. For instance, in Muslim society, to acquire income to support the family, men (and boys) should not sit together with before they are married. Girls who are able women (and girls) especially during public events. to partake in intensive domestic chores This applies even in schools and is seen in are considered strong assets for marriage most secondary and all primary schools. Islamic which means wealth for the family” (FGD influence is invoked to justify the importance of women, Oldonyiro Primary). duksi4 (or madrasa)5 as opposed to formal schools. Basing their arguments on these Parents with no education have low regard for teachings, some community members think education, especially for girls. Boys too may be that religion has a bearing to the attendance and withdrawn from school for long periods in order completion of education by girls, and even boys. to herd animals, and may end up dropping out of school. “The challenge of girls in this region is very complex but religion plays a very (v) Parental neglect significant role. Girls are not allowed to The challenge of insufficient parental care and

4 Duksi is the place of learning Islamic religious teachings (like catechism for support stands out in the findings. In all the Christians) counties, there are cases of parents neglecting 5 Madrasa is an Islamic religious school where pupils learn different subjects their responsibilities. Some children believe their and memorise the Quran

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parents do not support their education. This and providers for the family in future. Girls, on kind of neglect, especially of the special needs the other hand, are viewed simply as caregivers of girls - like sanitary towels - frustrates them, who do not need formal education before they leading some to engage with boyfriends who get married. Sadly, it is reported that even some are willing to support them. When such support teachers have not overcome the bias against leads to sexual relationships, they often up not girls, despite their training. It is reported that only in child pregnancy or marriage, but also some male teachers enjoy scolding girls, even school drop-out. The lack of sufficient provision using abusive language when teaching. Boys of basic needs for girls is a major concern that are thus given first chance to answer questions connects with several other factors to push girls in class. Girls reported that; out of school. “Parents always think of boys as being (vi) Strained relations and communication superior and more deserving to get between girls and parents education than girls in the family. Some teachers, though not all of them, also At the household level, girls report difficulty in normally ask questions in class and give communicating with their parents. This, and boys priority to answer. Girls raise their occasional strained relations in families, often hands many times but will not be pointed lead to physical violence against girls. This cuts to answer the question. And when a girl across all the counties, but girls in Migori is given an opportunity to attempt the shared their personal experiences on this. Some question and gives an incorrect response, parents become excessively hostile when girls the boys will laugh at her. The boys just feel make ”even slight” mistakes. When parents we are not equal to them. These mentalities learn of the relations between girls and boys, are very discouraging for girls to progress for instance, some of them become hostile and with education” (FGD with girls, Makima). force the girls out of their homes. Such girls have no alternative but to run away even from school. In almost all the LRPs, there is a common belief Girls herein lament saying: that educating girls is a waste of money as they will eventually get married and the education “Our parents are at times too hostile and benefits the families they marry into. As a result, most of the times there is no freedom of these girls have developed a negative attitude speech, association or movement for girls towards schooling, which impacts their own hence we cannot share our grievances with education, affecting their progression and them. Remaining options for us to befriend retention. boys and men who can listen to our problems. The result is that some parents (viii) Elaborate initiation ceremonies can beat you to death even excommunicate you from home if they learn that a girl is in The traditional initiation ceremonies are a relationship. They tell you to get married characterised by major differences among the instead.” (FGD with girls, Gokeharaka- communities in all the eight LRPs. It was noted for Kuria). instance, that circumcision of both boys and girls is practised by the majority of the communities, Other challenges are domestic violence where except for the Turkana community in Isiolo girls and their mothers are subjected to assault county who do not circumcise even the boys. or corporal punishment by the fathers. Such In Garissa as well, circumcision of boys is done violations push the girls from school into forced at infancy, according to Muslim teachings, and marriages. Some girls, especially in Kuria, Taita is not accompanied by elaborate ceremonies. Taveta, and Embu, reported to have experienced Taita Taveta County also do not have elaborate threats from their drunken fathers. They are ceremonies for female circumcision as it is done sent away from home. Others reported having in infancy, experienced physical violence (assault), which they could not cope with and thus ran away from However, among the remaining communities, home. the initiation rites are normally associated with elaborate ceremonies. Kuria LRP remains (vii) Gender role stereotypes outstanding by being open and forthright and even daring the law enforcement agencies Some parents are biased outright and see girls when they hold their ceremonies in August every as inferior to boys. Such parents give boys year, after the harvest period. In most cases, preferential treatment over girls. They send boys these ceremonies are associated with teachings to school so that they would be breadwinners that prepare boys and girls for adulthood. The

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teachings touch on family matters and the and told they would not find suitable husbands expected societal responsibilities which include within the community. Men in such communities marital duties. It is important to note that these feel that such girls (referred to as women) are instructions are taken very seriously among the “spoilt” and not fit to be wives. It means that in Kuria, the Maasai, Samburu, Mbeere, and the all the LRPs, girls are likely to be married off in Pokot communities. The topics of discussion childhood (average age 15 years) and are often during those sessions focus on the dominance subjected to risky child pregnancies especially of men over women. These teachings are a after circumcision ceremonies. hindrance to education for the teenage girls. “Some of the girls around here who have In Kuria, the community also plans extensively completed form four feel that they are for these ceremonies that are carried out much educated and they may stay for in public to enable the initiates to graduate long before getting married. Therefore, into adulthood. The worst aspect of these we (community) see them as “spoilt”’ ceremonies is the unchallenged pressure by the girls (loosely called prostitutes). In fact, parents of the initiates to make the boys and they don’t get married to the men in this girls indulge in unprotected sexual intercourse community but rather outside…. Men in after the circumcision to confirm if their wounds this community are not educated hence have healed. The girls become victims after they lack the courage to approach such they become pregnant and the story quickly ladies who are educated.” (FGD with changes into pressure for them to get married. women, Makima). Discussion with girls revealed that: In Taita Taveta, even though there are no cases “When girls are circumcised, they feel of initiation ceremonies as in other areas, child they are adults who should try sex with pregnancies are still reported as rampant. The boys or men and hence a large number of source of such child pregnancies is rather us (girls) drop out of school, feeling they disturbing. Many girls are victims of incest. are ready for marriage. After initiation, Unfortunately, whenever girls get pregnant their there is pressure from either their parents, mothers ask them to go and work for “well- village elders or relatives for the girls to get off” families as house helps. This serves two married because now they are considered purposes. First, the affected girl is kept away women and not girls. This also leads to from the family after becoming pregnant by a school dropout. Mostly after initiation, close relative. Secondly, this push provides an girls and boys engage in sexual activities opportunity for the affected girls to start fending as a sign of showing maturity. This leads for themselves and bring some money to the to early pregnancies that lead girls to drop family. It is noted that Wundanyi, in particular, out of school” (FGD with girls, Kuria). has a higher incidence of incest compared to other parts of the county, with reference to actual The narrative shows a double challenge for girls. cases reported to the Sauti ya Wanawake. In all They are pressured by the cultural practices to cases of child pregnancy or child marriage, girls confirm maturity after which they stand blamed drop out of school. for the outcomes in case of pregnancy. These scenarios push the girls from the education (x) Broken families: system. Cases of divorce, separated families, and single (ix) Child pregnancies and child marriages parent families were reported as a challenge in a few counties. Taita Taveta seems to be the most Following the initiation ceremonies and affected followed by Garissa. When families teachings, child marriages are common. break up, single mothers (or parents) face more Culturally, in all the LRPs, the age of maturity problems especially in educating their children. for girls is associated with puberty. In Embu, for If the children in such broken families remain instance, the community believes girls entering with their fathers, it is possible they would be puberty are mature and they are told to get frustrated by step mothers married after such married instead of continuing with education - separation. The children would not get parental even when the girls are only 12 years old. Some encouragement in their education and may families tend to reason that instead of “wasting”’ lack school fees and other necessary support, money on girls, they should be advised (forced) especially to join secondary school. Dropout of into marriage to bring that wealth to the family. girls from school in Taita Taveta has been directly In a few circumstances, some girls who manage linked to family problems such as divorce and to go beyond primary school are stigmatised separation. The main cause of separation in

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Taita Taveta is protest by women after cases of advantage of those who may be lacking basic incest are detected. In Garissa, the problem of needs. and provide support in exchange for divorce is blamed on the power given to Muslim sexual favours. In another context, boys and men to declare talaka (divorce) at will. Some men have become sex pests who would not men take advantage of the situation such that if spare any girl, including their close relatives. they want to marry more than the four permitted In Kajiado, it is the men harvesting sand and wives, they just divorce one and replace her drivers of lorries transporting sand who are with a “fresh catch.” reported to be the main perpetrators of sexual abuse of girls. (xi) Sexual violence against girls (xii) Lack of sanitary facilities The female respondents (girls and women) confirmed a high prevalence of sexual violence Menstruation remains a challenge to girls, against girls at home and on their way to school. especially due to a water shortage in schools. The leading areas are Taita Taveta, Kajiado, The government supplies sanitary pads but the Kuria, and Embu. Cases of defilement are supply is neither consistent nor adequate. This reported to be meted on girls by relatives and adversely affects girls when they are in their their peers especially those who have dropped menses. out of school. “Up to last year girls were supplied with “Girls are subjected to multiple problems those sanitary towels by the government. of defilement. Some get into relationships But this term I have not seen such a thing. from the age of 12. Others are defiled by It affects their education because during force (‘raped’) by boda boda riders who their periods, one can lack self-confidence drop or pick them from school. Others are to be in school. Some girls even cry in shame victims of their own fathers who defile them when they soil themselves and this affects at home. In fact, in Kishushe after class them psychologically. Some girls often give seven, the girls would rather go to work in flimsy excuses of illness and stay home town but while there, many girls are still at for that period of time.” (FGD with women, risk as they meet rich people who exploit Isiolo). them sexually and they come back with children” (KII, teacher, Kishushe). Retention and performance are reported to be below standard. Performance is reflected in the Girls seem to remain vulnerable because low marks girls score in class. Citing the recent some men (especially boda boda riders) take education statistics of Kamuthe, the dropout

Table 3: Summary of Violence Against Girls in Education Index

Barriers Baringo W. Pokot Migori Garissa Kajiado Embu T. Taveta Isiolo (Tangulbei) (Kongelai) (Kuria) (Kamuthe) (ElangataWuas) (Makima) (Kishushe) (Oldonyiro) 1. Sexual violence against girls

2. Insecurity

3. Long distance to school

4. Parents’ illiteracy

5. Religion

6. Parental neglect

7. Strained communication - parents vs. girls 8. Gender role stereotypes

9. Elaborate initiation ceremonies

10. Child pregnancies and marriages

11. Broken families

12. Lack of sanitary facilities

13. Climatic conditions (drought)

14. FGM prevalence

Key: Represents presence and high prevalence of the barriers listed in each county

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rate for primary schools was 43% for girls and 31% for boys. In secondary school it was 15% In Taita Taveta some respondents indicated and 22% for boys and girls respectively. Among that due to drought, families have limited food the primary school going age (6 – 13 years) supply and many needs competing for meagre only 12.5% of this population is in school. The resources. It follows then that there is inadequate situation is not very different in other LRPs. money to support education, whether for girls or boys. Some children have to engage in different (xiii) Drought forms of child labour like selling charcoal or doing casual work to supplement their parents’ Continuous dry spells are a major problem income. Still, the income is not enough for the in all the counties except Migori and Embu. needs of the whole family. In such situations, For instance, Kajiado, West Pokot, Baringo, girls lack basic needs both for school and at Garissa, Isiolo, and Taita Taveta counties all home and they occasionally leave school to go experience severe drought. Children as well as and look for work, mostly as house helps .Some their parents spend as much as ten months girls are also left at home to take for their siblings in a year addressing the impact of drought. In as their mothers go out to work. In the affected Kajiado, women report that drought affects the counties, there are many cases of school whole family. It affects boys too as they move absenteeism during extreme drought because with livestock looking for pasture and thus drop there is no water and food at home. out of school. This in turn distracts the education of girls. 3.1.2 FGM index: Prevalence and procedure

“Many children have dropped from school, This section discusses female genital mutilation both girls and boys. During drought, (FGM) as one of the forms of violence that keeps some boys move with livestock to look for girls out of school. Since FGM is manifested as a pasture. When they come back (much later) barrier through different effects on girls’ education, they refuse to return to school and some it is important that we dwell on the prevalence of venture into motorbike riding and sand FGM before tackling the factors associated with it. harvesting. These dropouts are dangerous The FGM index is discussed below by county (listed to the education of girls. They lure girls alphabetically) as follows: into sexual affairs and the girls drop out of school.” (FGD with women, Elangata Wuas).

Boys in Kuria share their opinion on factors affecting girls' education. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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• Baringo County (Tangulbei LRP) marry. They get back to the parents and say “I have seen your girl and I am ready to In Baringo County, Female Genital Mutilation give my wealth…” The bidders request the (FGM) is still commonly practised. The parents even if the girls are in class 4 or 5 respondents pointed out a higher ratio of so, they do not progress well. (KII, Chief, circumcised, compared to uncircumcised, girls Tangulbei). in the community. Most of the participants agreed that 3 out of 5 girls in the community are • Embu County (Makima LRP) circumcised. Moreover, the respondents are of the opinion that in the interior, isolated parts of Embu, being a cosmopolitan area, is a the county, 4 out of 5 girls undergo FGM. The multicultural society with different sets of practice is more prevalent in Koloa, Riko, Churo, beliefs and traditions, therefore Female Genital and Silale. Mutilation (FGM) is not widely practised as reported among the Mbeere community. “The problem of FGM as you see in Tangulbei, also affects Koloa, Riko, Churo, “They do it secretively that it would be very and Silale, among others. Three out of every difficult to know exactly the frequency the five girls are circumcised. So, the advocacy practice is done in a year.” (KII with AAIK should reach these interior parts of the staff) community which are more affected by the traditional practices…” (KII, Children’s Though FGM is done in secret within the Mbeere Officer, Kabarnet). community, it was mentioned that the medics are the main perpetrators of the practice. It The practice is carried out once a year between is alleged that there is collusion among the June and July The circumcision season comes perpetrators – the community, the legal officers, with elaborate ceremonies, which attract the area chiefs, and administration police. Due to young girls and motivate them to undergo FGM. advocacy initiatives, there are no remarkable In such an atmosphere of elaborate ceremonies, celebrations and periods for the practice. the girls are unlikely to pursue education. The However, it is reported that some girls voluntarily respondents demonstrated that FGM has led to go for circumcision in hospitals even when they several cases of death, fistula, and other health are over 18 years old. This happens because the complications that continue to plague women in girls are under pressure to comply with cultural the community. needs for marriage. Like in other counties, the few girls in Mbeere who have undergone the “Last week we had a case of a girl who died practice feel grown-up and mature enough to while she was eight months pregnant . The get married and hence drop out of school before girl was subjected to FGM while pregnant even reaching class eight. and when they tried to remove the scar during childbirth, the girl began bleeding. • Garissa County (Kamuthe LRP) She began to bleed even before graduating with the rest who were circumcised because Female Genital Mutilation is commonly practised the circumcisers cut the scar in her private in the entire county though in different scales. part to create space for delivery. Attempts In Kamuthe, the community members are quick to rescue her failed and she died before to deny that FGM still exists in the community. reaching Kabarnet…” (KII, Tangulbei However, when interviewed, girls in and out of Women’s Network (TAWN) representative). school confessed to the researcher that most of them were already circumcised. This shows that Moreover, FGM is considered the community- the community is just living in denial or would given ticket for marriage and it results in want to hide the fact in the face of the law. The automatic suitors or bidders – a decision that girls out of school confirmed that they were all lies solely with the parents of the girls. The circumcised between the ages of ten and 15 discussions further revealed that young men will years. This gives an index of 4 out of every 5 ensure that their wives get circumcised in case girls in Kamuthe. The demographic health they were uncircumcised at the time of marriage. survey 2015 shows that the prevalence of FGM This demonstrates the high prevalence of FGM in Garissa County stands at 96%. and its effects on girls’ access to education in Baringo County. The respondents said that any girl who is not circumcised is not allowed to worship and “…while the girls are in seclusion, men could easily be killed. This means that the identify the ones (girls) they would like to practice remains mandatory. The community

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has changed and female circumcision is now • Kajiado County (Elangata Wuas LRP) performed in secrecy. There are no celebrations any more in Kamuthe during the circumcision Among the Maasai, FGM is a traditional events. On the appointed date, about ten girls practice that involves partial cutting of the are taken to the appointed venue, circumcised female genitalia as practiced among the Maa and then they are stitched back to close the community. According to personal testimonies, wound. The legs of the girls are tied together FGM is commonly advocated for by the old with ropes after circumcision to ensure that they women, usually referred to as the “Gogo” who do not open up, leading to the separation of the regard this practice as the best way to preserve genitalia. This is meant to protect them from the and instil high moral standards among girls as risk of infection during the healing process. they transition to adulthood. The girls who have undergone the cut are regarded as adults and Specialised women called awotta (circumciser) can therefore be married off, irrespective of their are trained for the work. Over time, the age. It was observed that FGM is done secretly circumcisers, because of their expertise, are especially in the rural areas. It was however referred to as fundis. They are paid KES 1,000 reported to be on the decline in both Indupa and (USD 10) for every girl they circumcise. These Elangata Wuas locations. specialists are usually assisted by apprentices, other women undergoing training for the same The practice is highest in areas where moranism profession. The initiates are then cared by their (where the youth still recognise age-set mothers. The awotta (circumcisers) also use graduation) is still practiced. No girl from those traditional therapy to treat the initiates. It should areas has ever completed class eight without be noted that while FGM is still rampant, there are getting pregnant especially after FGM as the girls no elaborate accompanying ceremonies and it are initiated during these traditional ceremonies. does not necessarily take place in the bush due This was noted from a discussion with the sub- to pressures from the anti-FGM campaigners. county police commandant who alluded that The practice has thus gone underground.v FGM is high in Oltepesi, Naudat, and Gurumane.

• Isiolo County (Oldonyiro LRP) “In areas where Morans are highly valued such as Oltepesi and Gurumane, every girl Isiolo County is inhabited by the Turkana, has always been circumcised. In those areas Samburu, and the Gabra communities. Among traditions are still followed to the letter and these, it is only the Turkana who do not practice initiation ceremonies are elaborately held. FGM. The LRP covers are area inhabited by The girls are taught that they are adults the Samburu and a few Turkanas. About 92% after circumcision. As the boys graduate in of the Samburu girls are circumcised as a rite their age sets (moran), they are mentored of passage, according to the area curriculum to get girls for marriage and the newly development officer. Out of this population, circumcised girls are the best candidates. almost 40% are forced to drop out of school Because of such practices, no girl has ever to get married. Most of the parents observe gone beyond class eight in those areas to traditional practices because they fear erosion date,” (Police Commandant, Kajiado) of traditional values when girls are exposed to education. The study therefore found that After FGM, girls are considered to have boys and girls dropout of school after initiation graduated from childhood into adulthood and to adulthood. This was attributed to cultural therefore they can do what mothers do, including ceremonies which lead to their long absence getting married or pregnant. They can start a from school. family, either voluntarily or by force, and agree that there is no need to continue with school. Samburu girls as young as six years must FGM thus contributes to child marriages and undergo FGM to be considered mature enough school dropout. for marriage. Any girl who does not undergo FGM is not likely to get married as she is Another challenge is witnessed during the considered immature. Therefore, almost every manyatta ceremony where many girls are left Samburu girl is circumcised as a mandatory rite alone at home. Boys move in with them for the of passage. This signifies a very high prevalence six-month period of the ceremony. This is the of FGM in the community. There is no pattern in period when the Morans graduate into adulthood terms of seasons for the practice but it becomes through the age set system to become elders more prevalent during the rainy seasons when Traditionally after circumcision, the Morans families are settled together. are only allowed to marry circumcised girls.. In school, it was noted that girls who have

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undergone circumcision show high levels of from the planning to the execution, and women indiscipline as they consider themselves to be only play a supportive role as circumcisers. adults and equal to their female teachers. The prevalence of FGM in Kuria remains high • Migori County (Kuria LRP) (estimated at 98% by the latest government statistics). It is estimated that out of every ten Migori County is inhabited by many ethnic girls in a village, nine are circumcised. Even when groups, but it is only the Kuria community that girls are taken to safe homes or rescue centres practices FGM. In the initial conversations with to save them from the practice, some girls sneak women in Kuria, there is an interesting tale that out to be circumcised. The main reason for this points to the origin of FGM in the culture of the is pressure from boyfriends or possible marriage Kuria that is directly linked to male chauvinism suitors. A key concern by County government and selfish pursuit of benefit for men. The officials indicates that: women narrated that: “One of the thirty girls whom we had “In fact, FGM was not practised here in rescued from their parents when they were the past in our community. At some point to be circumcised seems to have sneaked in time we are told there was a man who into the camp with a phone. They kept the never got a boy child in his family, so he communication with her boyfriend who could not host any circumcision ceremonies helped her to sneak out of the camp last of his own boys, but he had to go to other year, threatening that if she didn’t leave, people’s circumcision ceremonies. Since the boy would get another girl who is no one could come to his household due to circumcised to marry. Such peer pressure lack of boys to circumcise he became bitter is a major challenge.” (CEC Education, because of being side-lined and felt violated Kuria, Migori County). by the community. He then decided to take his girls to be circumcised and Such fear of not getting a husband if one does organised ceremonies for the community not get circumcised is real. Other factors are members to attend to avoid the shame. It associated to sorcery (magic) believed to be was at this point that girls started to be conducted by the elders so that everybody, circumcised, and many members of the including the law enforcers, can remain docile community adopted the practice which in pursuing the issue. Another major issue is mainly planned by men.” (Community is that FGM is a key source of money for the conversation with women). elders. Every girl circumcised must pay KES 500 (USD 5). If a school has about 100 girls in This may sound like a myth but points to the one season, then that is a major boost of KES erroneous justification of FGM especially by 50,000/= for the elders’ kitty. The elders form men. In fact, FGM in Kuria is getting more defiant the planning committee for FGM ceremonies. All with public celebrations. It is a men’s affair right the collections from girls and their parents go to

Girls engaged in a focus group discussion at Chacha Maroa Primary School. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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the committee of elders, who then decide how has happened. Sometimes when this causes much to pay the circumciser and how much to fever to the child, only the mother knows why.. retain to share among themselves. But this practice is reported to have reduced drastically in the recent past. High prevalence is • Taita Taveta County (Kishushe LRP) suspected to be in the zones near the border with the Maasai like Mwanda area. In Taita The situation seems to be very different in Taita Taveta therefore, it appears that the community Taveta. Originally the community did not practise is changing its attitude towards FGM, because FGM but after interacting with the Maasai, who of the anti-FGM campaigns and interacting with are their neighbours, the Taita Taveta borrowed communities that do not practice FGM. the practice believing it would help reduce women’s sexual desire. In this region however, • West Pokot County (Kongelai LRP) FGM is done in secret locations. As such, many people believe that the practice no longer exists. Female genital mutilation forms a major pillar of the culture of the Pokot. However, some “When you talk to the community well, they slight changes are reported to have occurred may give you isolated cases in confidence. over the years concerning the practice, sites There is increased awareness on the rights of circumcision, cutting object, and age limit of the child given by key stakeholders and for the initiates. The age limit has reduced from schools. It happens when the children are 18 years to eight years. Depending on the clan, still infants, and it is not an elaborate cut.” there are different ways in which the practice is (KII, Children’s Officer). performed, which means that there is no longer uniformity in the procedure due to fear of law In Taveta, the practice of FGM is also reported enforcement. The findings further show that the to be done by a witchdoctor facing a certain practice has a direct effect on education since it direction. Some families visit the witchdoctor is performed for almost half the year, from May to across the border in Tanzania with their children December. As much as there are some specific to perform the cut. dates for performing the procedure, any other day after that is still suitable and those who feel “Some people here have relatives in like performing their ceremony only need to call Tanzania, so you can’t tell what happens on the circumciser. This randomised approach in when they go visiting there. But FGM is timing has a direct impact on school attendance very hidden. Some girls stay there for the since the affected girls are likely to miss school full holiday with relatives until the girls after circumcision as they wait to heal. The who are circumcised heal. Taveta has ceremony is performed during times of plenty of larger number of FGM cases compared to food to allow for the celebrations. Taita. We need a research in this area to confirm more” (KII, Education Officer). The ceremony starts with elders going to the forest where they slaughter a goat and pour Respondents also reported that in some cases the blood on the ground. They then cook the FGM among the Taveta is undertaken in private goat with the skin then eat the meat as they hospitals in Tanzania. Once in a while those with drink alcohol made out of honey. Before the relatives in Tanzania would travel to visit and circumcision, girls are first smeared with cow come back when their mission is accomplished. dung. Then on the day of circumcision the girls are taken to the river very early at around 6 “Some say they are going to Moshi Mission a.m. to take a bath. While they are bathing, the Hospital because of better services but you parents and community members celebrate by might find that maybe it is part of the story. singing and dancing. The girls come out of the Maybe they are not going to that exact river naked and walk towards the circumcision hospital” (KII, women leader). chamber. They are given some leaves to chew, which give them courage and make them It is clear that FGM exists in Taita Taveta but it has not even feel ashamed or shy of being naked remained a secret. The narrative shows that it before their parents and the community. Women happens when children are very young (infants)., engaged in community conversation explain the Some may not even be aware that they have procedure as follows: gone through it. Some women confide that they use blunt objects like fingernails to chop off the “Once at the circumcision site, every girl tip of the clitoris when the child is very young. In sits on her stone with legs apart. The such cases, it is difficult for an outsider (anyone circumciser comes with a blade which in who is not a member of the family) to know what old times was made from anything metallic

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and sharpened. The circumciser cuts the school so that they can go to the circumcisers to tip of the clitoris and both labia and the appease them by taking gifts and helping with girls are expected to remain still with no household chores. Girls do this voluntarily to create tears at all, as a sign of bravery. The girls a rapport with the circumcisers. It is interesting that are then taken into the hut as the rest of the process of challenging FGM also makes girls the community continues to sing and dance miss school especially those who do not want to as they go back to their homes to continue undergo the cut. During this time the girls must go with the celebrations. The girls’ legs are into hiding, so they do not go to school. Preparation then tied together so that the wound heals, begins from the fifth month of the year because leaving a small hole. During the month it is the planting season so there is food for the while the girls are healing, the interested celebrations. The traditional elders go to the forest to men go to the girls’ respective homes to perform rituals and choose a circumciser and agree book them for wives.” (FGD with women, on the specific day and venue for the circumcision. Kongelai). These things are done secretively, and it is during such ceremonies that the elders choose the girls The girls would stay in the ‘pigh’ (a Pokot word they would marry after the planned circumcision. In for place of circumcision) from two weeks to a Kuria it is usually done in August. The exception is month depending on the healing process. The Garissa where there are no ceremonies. Enrolment circumcisers would check on the girls’ progress is therefore rarely affected by FGM, but attendance and apply oil on them until they heal. When and completion are affected because during the they have healed there is a celebration like a preparation period and during the circumcision and graduation ceremony. the period when they are healing, not many girls will attend school regularly. In most areas, almost all girls have been circumcised. However, because of interventions Health hazards during the operation: The findings by ActionAid and government agencies, out of show that risks experienced during the cut may ten girls, one or two may have escaped the cut. make a girl not to go to school or even lose her life This leaves a very high level of prevalence of altogether. Some of the risks they mentioned were FGM. excessive bleeding, cutting wrongly or if a girl cries or makes noise during the procedure, she risks 3.1.3 Factors linked to FGM as a barrier to girls’ being killed by a spear. Health risks such as wrong education cutting or failure to heal properly and fistula are among problems that affect girls during and after the Community members and the respective key cut. Some girls get complications during childbirth informants in all the LRPs are generally convinced that causes fistula, The girls are embarrassed to go that FGM has had a negative impact on the education back to school even when their parents are willing to of their daughters. Circumcision is also the first step support them. towards marriage. The informal education that the initiates receive as described above affects the Preserving virginity: Preserving the girls’ ubikira participation of girls in education. For example, the (virginity) is the main reason communities, especially feeling among the initiates that they are now ‘grown in Garissa (Kamuthe) continue practising FGM. up women’ is likely to divert their attention from Intentionally, the practice is meant to inflict as much educational activities into child marriages thereby pain as possible to the girls to deter them from halting their academic careers. One key informant promiscuous behaviour. The findings indicate that said: this community value the virginity of their daughters so much that they can go to any length to preserve “Those who were never circumcised remained it, including withdrawing the girls from school. This is children irrespective of their age and were associated with the general thinking that the school never allowed to marry” (FGD with men, set-up is secular and steeped in Western culture Kongelai). which could spoil the girls. Uneducated parents would thus not hesitate to withdraw their daughters Such views and many other factors intertwined from school if it means preserving them for marriage directly with the practice of FGM have kept girls from to avoid shame to the family. enrolling in school or absent themselves from school and consequently drop out from school altogether. Fear of premarital sex: The practice of FGM Some of the violence related factors highlighted among the Muslim communities (in Isiolo and include: Garissa) is meant to seal the birth canal purposely so that should such a girl engage in premarital Ceremonies for FGM: During the preparation for sex, then the canal would be perforated by the undertaking female genital mutilation, girls miss boy. Such girls would then be divorced soon after

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marriage. Interestingly, the women also cherish FGM old man of 70 years can marry a 12 years or as an effective mechanism for instilling good moral 15 years old girl provided he is able and has behaviour among their daughters. The women are agreed to pay dowry.” (KII, women leader, directly responsible for socialising the girls into the Kamuthe) This view is shared by respondents norms of the society and therefore take this practice in Kuria, Kongelai, Tangulbei, and Oldonyiro. as an effective mechanism for controlling their girls. If girls happen to have a sexual encounter with boys, Accordingly, girls in some cases demand FGM especially during school, they would be forced to as a “marketing” strategy for marriage. After the flee for safety before it is discovered. Some girls procedure therefore, some parents start to arrange disappear to Mombasa while others go to Eastleigh for marriage of their daughters before they can be (Nairobi) to stay with friends where their own family “spoilt” by their peers. Such arrangements are a cannot reach them. This fear is therefore a major great threat to the girls’ education, because the girls reason why girls are out of school. do not have a say about such arranged marriages. The girls cannot say no their parents for fear of being Cultural values on marriage: Some cultures cursed. promote child marriage and place such a premium on marriage that if a girl reaches the age of eighteen Excess bleeding and occasional deaths: In before getting married, then it is cause for concern. Kamuthe, FGM is associated with a series of health The situation becomes worse if the girls do not risks and consequences on the girl. Almost all girls perform well in school. Such girls are forced out who had undergone FGM reported experiencing of school to stop wasting time and money and get excess bleeding as a consequence of the procedure. a husband instead. That complicates life for girls This was confirmed in an FGD with girls out of school who also yield to the pressure, one for fear of being who reported that: ridiculed and also to save the face of her parents. “Over bleeding during the process of The fact that in these communities bride price is circumcision if the veins are tempered with valued more than education for girls is also a source and the healing of the wound itself is a problem, of worry. The family wealth is from and for marriage especially if the cut is so deep” (FGD with out of and not school and girls are the source of this wealth. school girls, Kamuthe). An education officer links FGM to specific education parameters as follows: In case such consequences happen to the girls, (as confided by one particular respondent), they would “I may not talk about enrolment because FGM stay away from school for quite a long time, leading comes way past the age of enrolment, so it to loss of school days. Since female circumcision does not affect enrolment but attendance, yes, can take place any time during the year, it is very maybe. Though I also do not think so because likely that no consideration is given to education time it is done during school holiday, so I don’t so long as the parents (or the girl herself) feels like think it affects attendance to a great extent. undergoing the rite. This obviously impacts on the But for dropout, absenteeism, retention and performance of the girls in class owing to the lost performance, FGM is a major factor because study time. If the healing takes longer, it is possible the girls now see themselves as adult women that the affected girls would naturally drop out of so they behave like women and do all the things school quietly. women do.” (KII, Education Officer, Kuria). Pain and trauma: The procedure of FGM is very Child (pre-arranged) marriage: In all the counties, painful and traumatic. The girls are physically held FGM is used to bestow social status to the girls, down to deter them from any movement and/or a mark of adulthood that in most cases paves the resistance. As mentioned earlier, those who are way for marriage. FGM is considered a necessary infibulated often have their legs bound together for step in raising a girl properly and preparing her for several days or weeks thereafter. In case the healing adulthood and marriage. As a consequence, girls process makes the virginal opening to fully close, themselves desire to undergo the procedure due to it becomes very painful to pass urine or menstrual social pressure from peers and because of fear of blood, especially if there are blood clots on the small stigmatisation and rejection by their communities if opening left after stitching. It makes the girls so they fail to abide by the demands of the tradition. uncomfortable. Such cases would be referred back to the circumciser for another round of circumcision “Circumcised girl remains to be a respected to slightly open it up. The trauma that comes with member of the community. About 20% such pain would not allow the girls to remain in girls drop out of school to child marriages class and listen to the teachers. At the same time, it immediately after FGM. Such marriages are lengthens the days of absenteeism as healing takes prearranged by parents to very old men. An long,.

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Truancy: In all the counties, it was reported that the parents take children to witchdoctors in Tanzania for girls would be rude to female teachers especially FGM. It is also reported in Kuria where girls go into those from other communities that do not practice hiding with their relatives in Tanzania. In West Pokot, FGM. Such girls believe that they are superior to sometimes families migrate to Uganda in search the uncircumcised teachers. A male teacher put it of pasture only to have their girls circumcised while candidly that: there.

“After circumcision, the girls are Superstition: In Baringo, discussions with the psychologically prepared to become adults and focus groups revealed the role of superstition in therefore fail to give much attention to class promoting the practice of FGM. The respondents work. They do not respect teachers, especially believe witchdoctors use magical powers to ensure female ones from other communities, any compliance to the practice of FGM among the girls. more. Some have already been ‘given out’ (engaged) to rich old men. This practice clearly “If a girl refuses to go for FGM, sometimes the impacts negatively on girls’ education. (KII, parents consult a witchdoctor who sends a head teacher, Tangulbei). spirit in the form of a squirrel or a snake. The animal will chase the girl until she reaches The practice is known to affect the psychology of home and gets circumcised. Sometimes the the initiates in a big way. Most of the girls start to ghost would make girls to cry in class saying think about marriage as the most important thing ‘acha niende nyumbani’(let me go home) then and soon after circumcision, they drop out of school. when she reaches home, she becomes sober…” (FGD with girls, Tangulbei Primary - GRP1) Menstruation is also a factor affecting girls’ education the way FGM does. Menstruation affects When such problems occur, the affected girls would girls’ education because they are not free to go to not go back to school easily because they remain school especially if they are negatively affected after traumatized. circumcision. In such cases, they will have missed several lessons by the end of the term or year and 3.2 STATUS OF GIRLS’ EDUCATION DUE TO this may lead to poor performance. THE VIOLENCE INDICES

Self-esteem and peer pressure: This affects the Due to the barriers discussed whether in general or girls emotionally, physically, and psychologically. The associated to FGM, the status of education remains girls who have undergone the cut suffer low self- low in many of the LRPs. In Taita Taveta, the community esteem as they cannot openly admit it due to the members are reported to be quite informed, and they fear of campaigns against FGM by the government. have been trying to support the education of girls. One In these cases, the girls lack confidence and key informant commenting on the level of awareness and concentration in class. This is because of the support available for girls’ education gave an affirmative debates carried out against FGM in the public answer. domain. At community level the peer pressure is mostly on those who have not been circumcised. “The community here knows so much about They are mocked and called names by the members education and they support girls’ education. of their community.. Hence the girls hide and go for From my perspective, there are two instances the cut and never come back to school. show that confirm that they know and support girl’s education. In March this year, we were Exodus from law enforcement: One risk is that electing children’s government and were it not the anti-FGM policies are resisted greatly by the for our intervention, all the seats would have community. However, because parents are now been awarded to the girls. Another scenario aware of the consequences they would suffer was witnessed in the bursary awards. As a from the law enforcement officers for taking their department, we give bursaries and 66 out daughters for the cut, some opt to take their of 99 applicants were girls. The women here daughters across the border to Tanzania or Uganda understand the importance of education for (where the practice is not illegal or not monitored girls.” (KII, Wundanyi). strictly) and they only come back after FGM. Though this does not affect schooling much because FGM Despite this level of awareness, girls’ education still faces in the affected areas is usually done during holidays, several challenges. A report by ActionAid raises an alarm the fact is that the girls come back with changed over diminishing confidence in public primary schools, attitude - that she is now an adult and ready for saying more than half of the community members are marriage. Some also sneak away before the end dissatisfied with the quality of education offered. There of the school term and end up missing exams. The are even fears that boys are worse affected compared to exodus is commonly reported in Taita Taveta where girls in the county.

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Reformed circumciser (right) narrates how they campaign against the practice in Tangulbei. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

In Isiolo on the other hand, teachers and education from class five and six is most likely caused by those stakeholders cited the provision of sanitary pads and the who are forced to repeat class as they prepare for class feeding programme by the national government to have eight. Most of those who are forced to repeat end up contributed a lot to the large number of pupils that enrol dropping out before they complete primary education. in school and attend class. Those who miss classes In the meantime, the number of girls gets smaller and because of household chores or child marriages, have smaller up to class eight which has the largest gender been helped back to school through the intervention of the gap between girls and boys. The teacher pupil ratio is head teachers in collaboration with the chiefs. As a result 1:38 in primary schools and 1:18 in secondary schools. of these efforts by the government and other partners, The primary school going age (6-13 years) was 50,000 the enrolment of girls in Isiolo has improved significantly. for males and 43,529 for females in 2002. Only 12.5% Free primary and compulsory basic education has since of this population was in school while the others were enabled more pupils to be enrolled into various schools engaged in child labour, including herding cattle. in the county. However, the introduction of free and compulsory basic education has since complicated In Kuria, culture and viewing of girls as “property” or issues in Isiolo County. The list of challenges is very a source of wealth through bride price, are the main long and includes shortage of classrooms, teachers, causes of gender disparities between boys and girls stationery, seats, the national flag, and perimeter fence in terms of supporting girl’s education. Fathers would among other necessities required of any school. From rather keep their cows than sell them to pay school fees our observation and collaborated testimonials from the for the girls. Absenteeism and dropout rates in schools education stakeholders, we realised that a teacher in are high, leading to low progression and transition. public primary schools in Isiolo County teaches almost Sensitisation of the community has however helped all the subjects due a to shortage of teachers. A high raise awareness leading to increased progression but school drop-out rate is also seen when children are transition from primary to secondary school remains a expelled from school and the lack of an environment big challenge. Unfortunately, dropout rates for boys are conducive to learning for girls who get pregnant while higher in some locations because of child labour when at school. Parents also claimed that girls are “spoiled” they go to harvest sand and work in tobacco farms. before completing their education. Girls, dropped out of school due to early pregnancies and child marriage. So far, FGM remains the biggest In Kamuthe, enrolment is quite high in early childhood hindrance to girls’ and women’s education, with the education (ECD) and class one, but starts dropping majority (9 out of 10) of the girls having been subjected drastically at class two. The reduction continues steadily to FGM. Even when a few girls have been rescued from up to class six when the pattern changes to become the practice, some still do not perform well due to stress irregular. The enrolment levels also exhibit imbalance and pressure from their families. between boys and girls in favour of boys, especially in the upper classes. The sudden increased enrolment

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3.3 EXISTING INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE yielded fruit. While awareness programmes have GIRLS’ EDUCATION AND CHALLENGE FGM focused on empowering girls and women, their impact has reached the entire population. Such 3.3.1 Empowering girls and young women facing initiatives are more prominent in the areas around violence or at risk of violence Tangulbei Centre, Marigat town, and other urban areas of Baringo County. The respondents also Initiatives have been put in place in all the regions pointed out the contribution to expand space in to empower women through civic education. Such schools through infrastructure improvement. The interventions have helped to address issues of county government, the Kirira Foundation, and AAIK gender-based violence and denial of the rights of have built classrooms and dormitories to promote women. As a result, some community members girls’ education. have built strong movements that advocate for women’s rights. “The county government organises events to sensitise the community members with a focus ActionAid has worked in partnership with government on boys and girls. In our recent visit to Tuyotich agencies and Community Based Organisations with the first lady of the county to talk to local (CBOs) to address rampant and negative practices leaders, parents and stakeholders, we also affecting girls. Previous interventions have included talked to girls and boys on the issue of FGM. We regular discussions with girls on issues affecting them also supported the rescued girls in Tangulbei to increase their confidence (especially through girls’ Primary School by purchasing mattresses. So, forums). ActionAid has also supported construction we offer support…” (Longonope - Baringo CEC, of classrooms, toilets, and desks and providing water Education, Culture, Sports, Gender, and Social tanks in various schools to promote girls’ education. Services) It is reported that so far, the community members in the intervention areas understand their rights with 3.3.2 Building capacities of women’s networks to regards to education, even if they still value their ably support girls and young women to access traditions and religion much more than education. education and in economic empowerment

“The challenges we face are not because the Government agencies working in collaboration community do not know their rights, but it is with ActionAid have engaged with community because FGM is still respected and must be done groups to support them through capacity building to meet the cultural and religious requirements and campaigning for education of girls. Despite of the Somali community.” (Community leader, some challenges, the community members have Kamuthe). been trained through local CBOs to embrace girls’ education and the need to abandon FGM. The stakeholders have mobilised the community to understand the importance of education and the “Local leaders, CBOs and NGOs like ActionAid dangers of FGM. are working together trying to reduce FGM and promote the girl child education but Similar efforts were reported in Baringo and West the religious leaders and traditionalists still Pokot. AAIK has for instance worked in collaboration outnumber them. This makes their impact to be with Tangulbei Women Network (TAWN) to provide rarely felt. Instead, the girls are now subjected soap, toothpaste and other basics to girls in boarding to FGM earlier than before between the ages of primary schools. In addition, the County government 5 -10 years old when they are still too young offers bursaries to support girls’ education. Other to resist, and they also still fear curses from stakeholders such as Kirira Foundation and World their mothers or community.” (KII, Education Vision also support girls’ education through the Officer, West Pokot County) supply of food as well as sponsorship of top performers. 3.3.3 Interventions by government, AAIK and other agencies to tackle FGM and promote girls’ “In East Pokot, it is only Action Aid that education promotes awareness. However, the rural areas are not reached effectively, and the community The local leaders are making strong attempts to members do not know the rights of girls and control FGM and promote girl’s education. While women…so the girls are not involved in any their efforts seem to yield some results in promoting way” (KII, CEC Baringo County) education of girls, FGM remains a challenge as the community devises new ways to evade the law. A The respondents also demonstrated that advocacy local chief reported that the national administration, initiatives such as community forums to educate working through the County Commissioner’s office, members on the benefits of girl’s education have has been in the frontline of the campaigns.

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3.3.4 Existing and proposed/possible alternative “As a chief I have worked strongly with my rites of passage in each county colleagues on the ground to promote education through barazas, and people are changing. The big issue in this study was whether the The County Commissioner has been fully communities are ready and prepared to abandon supporting our work. We have also educated FGM. Reports show a reduction in the elaborate the public about the dangers of FGM, but some rituals that accompany the circumcision process. resistance still prevails. Recently, for instance, Discussions by various groups indicate there is I was informed of a girl whose mother forced hope for change. Modification of traditional initiation into FGM against her will and I called in the practices is in progress. Communities are willing police who arrested her mother. Later in the to embrace alternative rites of passage although day I faced very strong pressure from other these are yet to be identified and agreed on. women, religious leaders and opinion leaders Community members themselves were hesitant who came to my home pleading for the release to make proposals for appropriate alternatives as of that mother from police station. Some elders they cling to the hope that education of girls will threatened to curse me, and I had to pay for be the key to ultimate change. This is because the her release because I too want to live free life.” perceptions and expectations of parents and local (KII, chief, Kamuthe). leaders are slowly, but surely, changing. There is need to appreciate the fact that some members of The above, as narrated by the chief shows great the communities under review are beginning to re- awareness among the community which is a positive examine their attitudes towards the two practices – impact. The fact that some girls are forced by their FGM and child marriage. One positive aspect is that mothers against their will to undergo the procedure although they still circumcise their girls, the mode shows that campaigns have yielded some fruit among has changed compared to the traditional practice. the children and they have consciously challenged Various stakeholders including teachers, religious the practice. It should be noted that education and community leaders have shown willingness to campaigns are getting embraced by the community. stop the practice if given alternatives. There is hope that very soon the girls who are being forced to undergo FGM may not force their children In Baringo, the county government organises in future. The resistance reported by the chief is life alternative rites of passage (ARP) ceremonies, threatening, but it shows that a different strategy especially in Kabarnet. According to the key should be used alongside enforcement of the law, informants, the process involves various to ensure the safety of local leaders campaigning stakeholders from the community such as educated against FGM. girls, reformed circumcisers, role models, and policy makers. Respondents also pointed out that At the community level, many women have been there are such initiatives including Ketagha Rotwo engaged through the efforts of ActionAid and (Let’s abandon the knife) during the August and other agencies, but they seem to face the same April holidays. During these events organised by predicament of resistance from fellow community the county government, the girls who have attained members. the age of circumcision are taken for a two-week training after which there is an organised ceremony “In the villages, women advocate for FGM much to indicate that they have graduated from childhood more than the men. At the same time, it is the to adulthood without undergoing circumcision. women groups that are working to challenge the practice. But just as I said, even those 3.3.5 Challenges experienced in tackling FGM / women fear being cursed.” (KII, community promoting girls’ education leader, Kamuthe). Basically, ActionAid and Government agencies have It is clear that interventions are in place at all levels tried to change the attitudes and perceptions of the of the community. The most encouraging is the communities with regard to girls’ education. . Some fact that government agencies are working with of the prevailing challenges to the change include: non-state agencies and community members to challenge FGM, despite the obstacles. While it is Community resistance: Despite concerted efforts, not stated categorically, there is hope that support sustainable impact has remained elusive because for girls’ education is picking up as it is getting of the community resistance. Closely linked to embraced by the community. This would initially the observations where religion has been used to break the association of FGM as an obstacle to justify the continued practice of FGM, is the belief the education of girls, and later girls will have the that circumcision makes girls clean. Some of the capacity to challenge the practice. community members confessing the Islamic faith believe that only those who have gone through the

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procedure should be allowed to pray/worship or not seen as being “economically relevant”. Another even read the Quran. One female informant said: perspective in this regard is the payment made to the circumcisers. The circumcisers and their “... religiously we are told that circumcision supporters view this “business of FGM” as an makes girls to be clean before God and it is only income generating activity. Circumcisers would not after undergoing this practice that the girls like to lose this source of income, It is therefore a tall can be allowed to read the Koran or to worship” order to get them to stop this “trade” unless a viable (KII, women leader, Kamuthe). source of income (which cannot be guaranteed to many people) is established. Despite this account, there are however counter reports by ActionAid staff that in Garissa, some “…..the women who are believed to be Imams (not specified) have been preaching openly specialised in the act of administering FGM are against FGM. paid minimum of Ksh 1,000 per child. They see this as an economic activity which is difficult Stigma: To some extent, the traditionalists who to stop.” (KII, Gender officer, Elangata Wuas). resist change have managed to stigmatise those advocating for change through stereotypes. The Concentration of actors in urban areas: In some employees of any agency working on ending FGM regions, advocacy and sensitisation activities are first grouped as non-believers or people who are are reported to be mainly concentrated in urban “spoiling” the girls and women. Out-of-school girls centres. As a result, most people in the interior, rural are concerned about the actions of some religious areas lack awareness on the negative effects of FGM leaders. In a discussion, they reported; and the need to educate girls. For instance, there are places such as Silale Ward around Tangulbei where “Even the Somali women who walk with AAIK the retrogressive culture continues to bar access to and CBOs, working as their agents in the education, but very little effort has been made to Somali community are disparaged as ‘malaya’ reach the community. (prostitutes) who are out to brainwash the women especially when they try to address “In Silale Ward, there has never been a single FGM. Men in the Somali community do very girl in class eight but many of the interventions minimal to challenge the practice because they have not reached such communities. Only fear embarrassment from their wives” (FGD, people who attend workshops in hotels are Girls out of school, Kamuthe). always invited.” (CEC Education, Baringo County). The link to religion makes FGM a very delicate topic to handle in such areas. Some women would The above demonstrates the lack of awareness therefore participate in advocacy meetings but later campaigns in the interior parts of the counties. This remain silent. has a negative influence on the campaigns and thwarts progress and success in advocacy and Insincere actors at community level: Some empowerment programmes even in urban areas. women’s group members in Kuria and Garissa are alleged to champion the anti FGM campaigns just Limited boarding facilities in schools: In some to get some travel allowances. It is not clear if all other cases, the awareness campaigns have the women would continue with the campaign on succeeded, and girls have moved from their homes their own without the support of ActionAid. In Kuria to pursue education sometimes in schools far from for instance, it is alleged that some of the crusaders home. But in some cases, there are no provisions for have actually gone back to practising FGM, or boarding facilities or rescue homes to accommodate simply keep quiet even as female circumcision goes the girls especially where the families are nomadic on around them. In Tangulbei and Kongelai, it has like in Kajiado, Baringo, and West Pokot. The been reported that the same groups of people have available institutions of learning are few and widely participated in workshops and training time and spread. Lack of adequate space in schools remains again, without reaching out to new beneficiaries. It one of the sustainability challenges that the girls face is like preaching repeatedly to the converted without in their efforts to access education. The girls give in reaching new people over the years. to FGM in order to gain acceptance and get married.

Economic gain on FGM: Another challenge is the The respondents also pointed out the lack of economic angle. There are perceptions that girls are comprehensive programmes to cater for girls who a source of wealth through the bride price they fetch. manage to reach class eight. Notably, there are girls However, in these communities, the girls would only who complete primary education because of the fetch bride price if they are circumcised. Such views support from campaigners who promote education are a big threat to girls’ education. Education is for girls. However, due to lack of sustainable

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programmes, the girls end up in the community because men are most likely out with cattle looking whereby they are subjected to FGM. for pasture and water, so it is mostly women who are reached with the advocacy opportunities. To achieve “For a long period of time, partners advocate change, men must be reached with the message for change without aspects of sustainability. because they wield all the powers in these societies. There are very few rescue homes in Tangulbei Any action taken by the women while the men are built either by the government or with support away is likely to be overturned by the men. of other organisations. So, some girls who run from their homes to escape FGM lack a place 3.3.6 Status of law enforcement where they can be accommodated, and they end up going back to the traditional practices. Law enforcement is a critical process in the fight In future when Action Aid will get out of the against FGM nationally. The law enforcement place, how will the community sustain the agencies include the National Police Service, the initiatives?” (KII, Office of the Governor, Children’s Department, The Judiciary and the Baringo) Education Department in all the respective counties. It is encouraging that every agency has made both Inadequate follow-up and psychosocial support: statutory interventions by ensuring that perpetrators Community members indicate there is a lack of are arrested and convicted besides undertaking programmes to support girls who are rejected by sensitisation campaigns on the law. In Taita Taveta parents due to their quest for education as well as where the practice is most hidden, the Children’s those who complete primary school. This points to Officer elaborates on the nature of collaboration in a gap in the government’s efforts in curbing FGM. the fight against FGM. However, reports indicate ActionAid has constructed safe houses in Churo and Tangulbei that are used by “This fight against FGM is multi-sectoral. girls rescued in Tangulbei. Despite this, little effort is When we have the chief’s baraza or community made to follow up on the progress of the girls who forums organised by the women, all agencies graduate from the safe houses. converge to educate the community. Around April this year we jointly launched the “Male Inadequate resources for intervention: Another champions” so that it doesn’t appear to be a challenge mentioned that cuts across all counties women’s affair so that they (men) too can is a general concern of resource constraint to talk about defilement, FGM and other forms of undertake advocacy programmes or promote girls’ violence. It was a concerted effort by everyone. education. The awareness campaigns and attempts The actors included the Children’s Department, to offer alternative rites of passage are characterised Sauti ya Wanawake, County Commissioner’s by inadequate financial resources. As a result, Office, the Judiciary, and the Police who always these initiatives cannot reach the most affected work together in the campaign against FGM.” areas neither can they be done on a regular basis. (Children’s Officer, Wundanyi). Therefore, the interventions do not yield the desired impact. This shows that government agencies have been partnering with non-governmental organisations to “We have seen some girls who go for training from support the campaigns. In West Pokot, the child this village. They take two weeks and participate welfare officer further indicated that the success of in the graduation ceremonies. But when they law enforcement relies on the level of awareness and come back, they again get circumcised. Even that understanding of the policies. He says: alternative is not helpful…” (Participant, FGD men) “When it comes to policy, you need people Capacity of the community resource persons: to be knowledgeable. So, when it comes to Finally, both sensitisation and awareness creation implementation of laws, at times there are programmes rely on community support. For challenges because of the low literacy level of instance, the alternative rites of passage as well the local populations.” (Child Welfare Officer, as barazas require the contribution of reformed Kongelai). circumcisers and senior members of the community who act as volunteers. However, the reformed It is argued that people who have no understanding circumcisers and senior members of the community of the law cannot support its enforcement. This is lack training and the tools to ensure they deliver the especially true of the women champions and local message against FGM effectively. leaders. Since FGM is part of their culture, such community actors are likely to go silent due to fear of All these challenges are intertwined in the cultural the impact prosecution and conviction will have on context of patriarchy and nomadism. Being a their community members. They find it difficult to join pastoralist community, it is difficult to control FGM forces with the police to take the cases to successful

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conclusion. In such cases, the community members end up in local arrangements to destroy evidence or hide the complainant.

In all the regions, the police reported concerted efforts to successfully enforce the policies. In Kuria for instance, a circumciser had been arrested, prosecuted and sentenced to seven years in prison. In Kamuthe, the practice is changing in form due to fear of convictions that have been witnessed in the past, while in West Pokot, some families cross the border to Uganda in fear of prosecution. This is sufficient evidence that efforts to enforce the law are yielding some fruit despite experiencing a few challenges.

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4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Community leaders share their commitment to challenge FGM and promote girls' education in West Pokot. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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4.1 CONCLUSIONS 4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Access to education remains a challenge for both girls Discussions with various groups from the community and boys in all the LRPs. Even though the majority of indicate that there is scope for change – by accepting the members of the community and stakeholders in girls’ education and on modification of traditional each county report that both girls and boys should practices. Perceptions and expectations of parents be supported to access education, it was apparent and the local leaders are slowly, but surely changing. that girls are still lagging behind in the counties under Some members of the communities are beginning to study in terms of access, participation, and retention re-examine their attitudes towards FGM and to promote in education. The general barriers to education affect girl’s education. communities in different ways in each LRP. The practice of FGM is however the common barrier, and is often 4.2.1 ActionAid interventions should consider: upheld by local structures of power and authority such as traditional leaders, religious leaders, circumcisers, i. Building on what some communities have elders, and even some medical personnel. already opted for like Alternative Rites of Passage (AROP) in Baringo County In many societies, older women who have themselves been circumcised, often become gatekeepers of the Since it is not possible to stop FGM at once, as a practice, seeing it as essential to the identity of women stopgap measure, it is possible to build on what and girls. This is probably one reason why women, and some counties have already adopted. In Tangulbei, mostly older women, are more likely to support the the county government of Baringo has initiated practice, and tend to see efforts to combat the practice a programme that can be emulated. Some of the as an attack on their identity and culture. Although these suggestions include the declaration that no FGM practices continue to this day, they have undergone will be performed in the bush and they will not use some modifications. For example, while girls in the past traditional circumcisers. While some community were circumcised in elaborate ceremonies and at an members insist on the need to “spill blood” as older age of 15 to 18 years, today the practice is carried symbolism of fulfilling the community and/or religious out on girls as young as five years. The procedure is requirements, an alternative to the idea of “spilling done without the accompanying ceremonies due to blood” needs to be developed in collaboration with the enforcement of new laws and anti-FGM campaigns the community members, eventually leading to that have been mounted in the areas where ActionAid total declaration of “No FGM”’ in all regions. With operates. The perceived “benefits” of FGM are keeping continued advocacy and sensitisation, the practice girls clean and enhancing discipline to protect their will end as has been reported to have happened in virginity (for the benefit of men). many educated families.

FGM has been shown to affect the education of girls ii. Organising, enriching and evaluating girls’ in a number of ways. Some initiates take long to heal empowerment camps and are forced to miss class. The trauma associated with the practice also affects their concentration in class Continuing with the education and sensitisation and hence their performance. Again, after circumcision, camps organised for girls aged 11-18 years during some girls feel they are now grown up women and opt the school holidays. These can take the form for marriage while others feel equal or superior to their of community dialogue meetings, general civic female teachers, especially those from outside their education meetings, or special camps. In such community. This presents a discipline problem and such sessions, discussions to be led by professionals girls are unlikely to remain in school. In the same way, and community resource persons should range transition to secondary school remains minimal. from children’s rights to adolescent issues, including body changes; retrogressive traditions and culture; It has been noted that despite heavy resistance, some the role of women and men in modern society; members of the community in the LRPs are willing to specific academic topics; leadership issues and role leave their traditional practices and adopt new ways. modelling can be incorporated. This is mainly due to the introduction of new laws that impose heavy penalties on those who perform FGM. iii. Guidance and counselling by community Campaigns to promote girls’ education have also borne specialists fruit. There is need therefore to enhance religious debates aimed at challenging FGM and heighten the sensitisation A group of women felt that programmes on campaigns by government agencies and NGOs, among guidance and counselling that can teach girls about other factors. proper moral conduct, responsible norms and values, especially on how to relate with peers of the opposite sex, are necessary. This can enhance their understanding of the dangers of casual sex and

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play an important role in convincing some of the 4.2.3 Engaging with government officers, religious sceptics to accept girls’ education and abandon the leaders, cultural leaders, elders, and school practice of FGM. The women especially should be management committees to initiate and encouraged to support girls’ education as a priority. popularise the alternative rites of passage This can be enhanced through planned interaction with women from other communities in Kenya so as Since there is scope for alternative rites of passage, to know that they need to change their culture just there is need to pilot the three suggested alternatives. as women in other communities have done. There is need to implement them, monitor their progress and evaluate their effectiveness / outcomes 4.2.2 Advocacy to enhance support for girls’ before rolling them out on a county or national scale. education needs from devolved funds Some of the suggestions include:

• A workable intervention to address the education • Declaring that no FGM should be done in the of girls beyond primary school level will provide bush and no traditional circumciser should be adequate empowerment to the girls. The local engaged for female circumcision. leaders of devolved funds should be lobbied to take • Organising, enriching, and evaluating girls’ a keen interest in the education of girls at secondary empowerment camps. These are education and and higher levels. sensitisation camps organised for adolescent girls between ages 11 -18 years during school • Establishing community-based institutions such holidays. as the ‘madrasa’ (Islamic classes) for girls who • Mounting guidance and counselling programmes refuse to get circumcised to teach them how to that can teach girls about proper moral conduct, live responsibly. This would be an important step to responsive norms and values, especially on how show the girls that FGM does not bestow any status to relate with peers of the opposite sex and the to a woman in the community. dangers of casual sex. Such initiatives can play an important role in convincing some of the sceptics to abandon the practice of circumcising girls.

Official handover of safe house and resource center by ActionAid Kenya Board Chair, Thomas Mwita in Kongelai, West Pokot. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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4.2.4 Engage with religious leaders

• Some of the religious leaders who invoke religious teachings to justify the continuation of FGM should be targeted in the advocacy strategy. The sheikhs who are custodians of religious teachings and faith should be sensitised and trained on the dangers and consequences of promoting retrogressive traditional practices like FGM and child marriage. • There should be an effort to identify the religious leaders who propagate false teaching on FGM for possible legal action. • All stakeholders should dialogue on the way forward especially with regard to the claim that Islam supports FGM. Those who support this view should be challenged to explain why many other predominantly Muslim communities do not circumcise their girls. Such candid discussions will certainly change the community members’ perceptions since it has been shown that religion is at the core of the continuation of these traditions.

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid 40 ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION APPENDICES

APPENDICES

Young Mothers Self-help Group showcase their livestock acquired from support by Kamuthe Women Network. ©ActionAid Kenya 2018

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APPENDIX 1: COUNTY SPECIFIC REPORTS (LISTED ALPHABETICALLY)

I. BARINGO COUNTY (TANGULBEI LRP) i. Girls socio-cultural and political situation at household, community and public levels that a. County context on girls’ education hinders their ability to access education

Tangulbei is located in East Pokot in Baringo The responses from Baringo County revealed County, Kenya. The Local Rights Programme (LRP) that the socio-cultural aspects such as lifestyle, in Tangulbei began in 2007. The programme mainly customs, and attitudes hinder the girls’ access covers two divisions in East Pokot - Tangulbei to education. and Churo. Due to the hot and dry climate in the area, the residents rely on cattle keeping as their “Once a Pokot girl is circumcised, she main economic activity. The population is sparsely becomes a woman therefore, such a girl distributed and moves from place to place in search finds it very difficult to go back to school of pasture and water. Given the challenges that face and concentrate. The circumcised girl feels women and girls in the community, the Tangulbei suitors are eying her.” (Lokidor, CEO, Office LRP focuses on three key areas. These are rights to of the Governor, Kabarnet) education, women’s rights, and food rights. Some of the major contributions of the programme include The general barriers to girls’ education are as the construction of physical facilities in the area discussed as follows: such as dining halls in Churo Primary and Tangulbei Secondary schools respectively; supporting women • Community perception on girls’ education and girls’ forums in Tangulbei and Churo; as well The community perception regarding as community awareness training, among other girls’ education is that girls who pursue initiatives. higher education are immoral and may not readily get a man to marry them, In as much as Tangulbei LRP has created significant especially considering that many men have impacts in the area, women and girls in Baringo low education. . Therefore, there is lack of County continue to experience noticeable violence community and parental support for girls which hinders them from accessing education and who express the desire to acquire post achieving their potential in life. According to the primary school education. This perception is County Integrated Development Report (2012 - embedded on the customs that require girls 2017, p.272), the female enrolment rate in Baringo to learn how to take care of their husbands. primary schools is 71,509 against the national rate The training on the cultural ways is only of 9,433,494. Tangulbei has the highest illiteracy offered during seclusion after FGM. level of 76% (CIDP, 2012 - 2017). The women and girls in Baringo County experience significant • Alcoholism barriers in their attempt to access education due to Besides cattle keeping, brewing of (and the retrogressive culture especially the practice of trading in) illicit alcohol is a major economic female genital mutilation (FGM) among other factors. activity and source of livelihood. Therefore, Against this backdrop, the present report seeks to many community members are engaged in outline the analysis of the findings on the status of brewing and girls offer look after cattle and girls’ education. brew alcohol instead of going to school. In some instances, marriage arrangements for b. Barriers to girl’s education girls are made during drinking sprees.

Analyses of the barriers to girls education in Baringo “My mother and father brew and drink a lot County, based on the responses from the field of alcohol. I used to help them in brewing research, encompasses three key areas, namely, changaa (alcohol). It is while doing this the socio-cultural and political situation, education that my parents discussed and agreed with parameters at the county level, as well as the policy an old man, with whom they drink, the implementation aspects. plan for that man to marry me. He would come home and buy for them (my parents) changaa (alcohol). My father easily accepted the man’s request and I told off my father that I would not marry that old man.” (FGD - G1, Blessing, Tangulbei)

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• Distance from schools the circumcisers cut the scar in her Schools in some parts of Baringo are far private part to create space for delivery. apart thus compromising the ability of girls Attempts to rescue her failed and she died to access education. Most of the girls have before reaching Kabarnet…” (KII, TAWN to walk distances like five kilometres to representative). reach a primary school. As a result, they get discouraged and drop out of school. Moreover, FGM is considered as the community- given ticket for marriage as it results in automatic “I come from far to reach school. I left suitors or bidders, a choice that lies solely with home and went to stay at my Aunt’s the parents. The discussions further revealed place when my parents wanted me to that young men will ensure that their wives are get married. My father came after me circumcised in case they were uncircumcised but my aunt refused that I must go to at the time of marriage. These instances school. She even went to the police for demonstrate the high prevalence of FGM and its my parents to give up. Since then, I stay effects on girls’ access to education in Baringo with my Aunt and I never go back home. County. So I have to walk all the way. Some girls however give up and stop going to “…while the girls are in seclusion, men school because of such distances.” (FGD identify the ones (girls) they would like to - G1, Tangulbei) marry. They get back to the parents and say “I have seen your girl and I am ready to ii. Impact of female genital mutilation give my wealth…” The bidders request the parents even if the girls are in class four or Female genital mutilation (FGM) is still highly five so, they do not progress well. (Chief, prevalent in Baringo County. The respondents Tangulbei). pointed out at the high ratio of circumcised compared to uncircumcised girls in the iii. Barriers to education associated with FGM community. Most of the participants concurred that 3 out of 5 girls in the community are As apparent from the responses, there are circumcised. Moreover, the respondents are of several factors that are associated to FGM the opinion that in the deep rural areas of the among the Pokot community in Baringo County. county, 4 out of 5 girls have undergone FGM. The practice of FGM is more prevalent in Koloa, • Dowry as source of wealth Riko, Churo, and Silale. The prospect of receiving dowry motivates parents to train the girls in preparation for “The problem you see in Tangulbei also FGM. As stated earlier, dowry is a source of affects Koloa, Riko, Churo, and Silale among wealth in the community. Other beneficiaries others. So, the advocacy should reach these of FGM include the circumcisers who interior parts of the community which are receive payment for their services. Since more affected by the traditional practice” circumcised girls fetch a higher dowry in (FGD with girls). terms of cattle, compaed to uncircumcised girls, most of families ensure that the girls The practice is carried out once a year at the are socialised to embrace FGM at an early onset of the rainy seasons between June and age. FGM thus results in early marriages, July. The ceremonies mounted during the which hinder girls from accessing education. circumcision season lure the girls to undergo FGM. As a result, there are limited chances that • Superstition they will pursue education in an environment Discussions with the focus groups also where FGM is common. The responses further revealed an aspect of superstition in demonstrate that FGM in the community has promoting FGM. The respondents believe resulted in some cases of death, fistula, and witchdoctors use magical powers to ensure other health complications. girls agree to undergo FGM.

“Last week we had a case of a girl who died “If you refuse to go, sometimes the while she was 8 months pregnant. The girl parent will go to a witchdoctor to was subjected to FGM while pregnant and send you a spirit in form of a squirrel, when they tried to remove the scar during goat, hen, snake, and other forms of childbirth, the girl began bleeding. She animals. The image of the animal will began to bleed even before graduating with chase you until you reach home and get the rest who were circumcised because circumcised. Sometime they confuse

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the girl and she cries in class until she c. Impact of government policies on girls’ abilities is released to go home then when she to access education and participate effectively reaches home, she becomes sober…” (FGD with girls, Tangulbei Primary - The findings revealed that stakeholders, including GRP1) Action Aid International Kenya, working in collaboration with the Tangulbei Women Networks • Cases of child pregnancy (TAWN), Kirira Foundation, community members, Interviews with out-of-school girls who and government agencies among others, implement became pregnant while in school reveal various programmes to promote girls’ education in that the only way to gain acceptance from Baringo County. the parents and the general community members after child delivery was through This section focuses on the different interventions by FGM. Parents reject their daughters who government agencies, AAIK, as well as community become pregnant unless they undergo members in tackling barriers to girls’ education. FGM. i. Interventions to promote girls’ education Discussions with boys in school demonstrated the value that the community Girls experience unique challenges in their attaches to the boy child. In this case, the attempt to seek primary education. As a result, dowry received from marrying off girls is the county government has programmes for used to support the boys’ education. distributing sanitary towels to girls in primary schoolswithin the county. Respondents reported • Peer pressure similar efforts by the TAWN. For instance, the Finally, external pressure from peers and AAIK and TAWN provide soap, toothpaste, and associated ceremonies lure the school- other basics to girls in boarding primary schools. going girls into accepting FGM. Those who In addition, the county government offers refuse to accept FGM are mocked. bursaries to support girls’ education, although the amount is insignificant compared to the “They (circumcised girls) insult those needs in these institutions. Other stakeholders who are not circumcised by calling such as Kirira Foundation and World Vision them names such as cheptuura, sorri, support girls’ education through the supply of chepta. Sometimes they come and ask food as well as sponsorship of top performers. you “For how long will you continue to pull that thing (clitoris)?” (FGD with “In East Pokot, it is only ActionAid that girls, Tangulbei Primary). promotes awareness. Previously, the World Vision was there but they are no longer The responses also indicated that during the effective. The rural areas are not reached circumcision season, girls perform chores at and the community members do not know home while the women in the community the rights of girls and women…so the girls take care of the FGM candidates. are not involved in any way.” (CO, Baringo County) “Every second term there is low attendance. In Kacheptuiya Primary The respondents also reported on community where we were yesterday, less than forums to educate people on the benefits of girl’s 50 pupils were in school due to the education. While the awareness programmes circumcision ceremonies. The young focus on empowering girls and women, the girls who have not attained the age of impact of such programmes was felt more in circumcision look after goats while the areas around Tangulbei centre, Marigat, and their mothers take care of the FGM other urban areas. candidates in the forests. So, the enrolment and attendance are highly The respondents also pointed out the affected. Like in this case, most of the contribution of the county government, Kirira pupils cannot attend school” (KII, the Foundation, and AAIK in building facilities such TAWN representative) as classrooms and dormitories to promote the education of girls. For instance, the key The trend affects access to education informant interviews (KII) with the board of because even afterwards, the girls are management (BoM) in Seronu Primary School expected to look after goats as a way of acknowledged that the facilities in the school being responsible in the family. were courtesy of Kirira Foundation. Similarly, women leaders mentioned that ActionAid had

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built a dormitory in Churo Primary School to circumcisers, role models, and policy makers. support the education of girls who are rejected Respondents also pointed out that there are by their parents. Additional efforts are also initiatives such as Ketagha rotwo (Let’s abandon apparent in the individual initiatives by leaders the knife) whereby during the August and April and members of the community to sensitise holidays, the girls who have attained the age of community members and support girls in circumcision are taken for a two-week training accessing education. The following sentiments after which they graduate from childhood to indicate individual contributions toward the fight adulthood without undergoing circumcision. against FGM. While there is limited access for girls in the rural areas to attend such activities, the respondents ii. Intervention by government, AAIK and other acknowledged that such alternative rites of agencies to tackle FGM passage have a positive impact in the fight against FGM. The respondents agreed that the county government has passed policies to protect the iv. Community participation/involvement in girl child from FGM. The interviews revealed that addressing FGM as much as the practice is common in the rural areas, there are policies that protect girls from While the empowerment, advocacy, and other violence. In this regard, there are a few instances initiatives to promote girls’ education require when the chiefs take action against perpetrators. community involvement, the responses indicated The implementation of the anti- FGM policy has that there is limited involvement of the community resulted in a shift from the open ceremonies members in the efforts to address FGM. Most of that used to mark FGM especially near urban the community members, especially in the rural centres. AAIK has worked through the TAWN areas, are pro-FGM. However, a few members to create awareness among girls and women. participate in the anti-FGM campaigns such as TAWN also undertakes advocacy programmes, barazas to educate the locals on the impact of working with the enlightened community FGM. Apart from members of the TAWN, the members through such activities like drama research revealed that the only participation competitions in schools. Notably, the women among the community members is their networks empower women by educating them willingness to attend the sensitisation meetings. on the impact of FGM on health and the general wellbeing of women and girls. d. Challenges experienced in tackling FGM and promoting girls’ education “Sometimes when we organise barazas (community meetings), men feel that The responses from the discussions and interviews women should not talk in their presence. revealed the following challenges in the attempt to So, they [women] tend to avoid such promote girls’ education or tackle FGM in Baringo barazas. Therefore, we insist that the County. First, the advocacy and sensitisation activities area chief invites them and they get an are mainly concentrated in the urban centres. As a opportunity to speak….” (Winnie Kapedo, result, most people in rural areas lack information on TAWN representative) the negative effects of FGM and the need to educate girls. There are places such as Silale Ward around The TAWN organises interschool debates and Tangulbei where the retrogressive culture continues drama competitions on the theme of FGM to bar access to education. This is a manifestation where girls get the opportunity to narrate their of the absence of awareness campaigns in the experiences on FGM. Similarly, women who interior parts of the village. This thwarts progress undergo capacity building training speak during and success in the advocacy and empowerment the community meetings, and this motivates programmes. fellow women within the communities. TAWN also encourage actual narrations of FGM Secondly, there are sustainability challenges which experiences. affect the efforts of community members, especially girls, who make the decision to attend school. In iii. Existing and proposed/possible alternative most cases, the awareness campaigns succeed rites of passage and girls move from their homes to seek education in primary schools. However, there are no provisions for The county government of Baringo undertakes boarding facilities or rescue homes to accommodate alternative rites of passage (ARP) especially in them. Moreover, the available institutions of learning Kabarnet. According to the key informants, the are few and widely spread. A scarcity of schools process involves various stakeholders from the remains part of the sustainability challenges that the community such as educated girls, reformed girls face in their efforts to access education.

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Such girls resort to FGM as the only way to gain compromises the ability of the project to achieve the acceptance into their society and consequently desirable success because exposure to the community get married. The respondents also pointed out the during school holidays results in pressure to undergo lack of comprehensive programmes that cater for FGM. The anti-FGM campaigns have also lead to an the girls who manage to reach class eight. With increase in the number of girls seeking education while support from stakeholders, some girls manage to the number of schools and rescue homes is not rising. complete primary education. Nevertheless, due to The lack of facilities frustrates the girls and they end up lack of sustainable programmes, they end up in the embracing the traditional practices. The sustainability community where they are subjected to FGM. This is approaches should also involve up-take measures that a demonstration of the shortage of programmes to will ensure the continuity of the programmes beyond the support girls who are rejected by parents due to their project life. Awareness creation and capacity building quest for education as well as those who complete are needed to encourage continuation of projects. primary school. Empowerment approaches: The research reveals that Thirdly, there is a general resource constraint among girls and women have been the focus of the initiatives by stakeholders in their attempt to undertake advocacy various stakeholders to promote access to education. programmes or promote girls’ education. The drama Meanwhile, the boys are largely neglected yet their in schools awareness campaigns and attempts to preference for circumcised girls is part of the pressure promote and sensitise people on alternative rite of that girls face to undergo FGM. passage are characterised by inadequate financial resources. As a result, these initiatives cannot reach Recommendations for AAIK and other stakeholders the most affected areas neither can they be held regularly. Therefore, the interventions do not yield Based on the stated factors, the following general the desired results. recommendations formed part of the respondents’ views regarding the need to heighten the fight against Finally, both sensitisation and awareness creation girls’ education and promote access to education: programmes rely on community support. For instance, the alternative rites of passage as well i. The AAIK and other stakeholders should support the as barazas require the contributions of reformed regular alternative rites of passage within the region circumcisers and senior members of the community to ensure girls of the age of circumcision graduate who act as volunteers. However, the reformed from childhood to adulthood without necessarily circumcisers and senior members in the community undergoing FGM. lack training and capacity to ensure they deliver the ii. The interventions by the stakeholders should be services effectively. accompanied by sustainable programmes such as building schools and rescue homes to improve Conclusions the success of the advocacy programmes. AAIK should establish an office in the region to oversee The discussions and interviews in Baringo County during the implementation of the programmes. From the the research period gave significant insights into the discussions, it was apparent that there is no single various aspects of the project, Tackling Barriers to Girls’ rescue home in the region yet the number of girls Education. Based on the challenges stated above, the rejected by parents is on the increase. Therefore, following general conclusions were captured from the there is an acute need for the AAIK and stakeholders respondents: to establish a rescue home where girls can get refuge. Alternative sources of income: The reliance on cattle iii. Awareness creation should reach the interior parts and brewing of alcohol in the community significantly of the rural areas which are hard hit by FGM and compromises the success of the interventions to traditional practices. Similarly, the inter-school promote girls’ education. There is a general lack of campaigns should be done regularly to increase alternative sources of income such as business and awareness among the pupils. In particular, farming. As such, parents rely on girl child labour to look reproduction health should be part of the awareness after cattle and brew alcohol and this continues to be a campaign to enlighten community members on such hindrance to education access. In addition, parents rely matters as family planning and sexually transmitted on dowry as the main source wealth, and are thus not infections. motivated to support girl child education. iv. The stakeholders should have diverse approaches to tackling the barriers to girls’ education, including Sustainability: The interventions to promote girls’ training the locals on alternative sources of income education lack focus on sustainability. The respondents to avoid overreliance on alcohol brewing and cattle pointed out the absence of rescue centres and schools keeping. where girls who seek educational opportunities after v. The empowerment programmes should also rejection by their parents can be accommodated. This target men and boys so that there is a common

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understanding on the need to protect girls from on small businesses that usually do not yield FGM. enough income to maintain families. . They also vi. The stakeholders should ensure capacity building practise subsistence farming, which they cited for the community members such as reformed to be doing poorly due to infertile soils and circumcisers and volunteers as part of the onward frequent droughts. adoption upon the end of the project initiatives. “The enrolment rate for both boys and II. EMBU COUNTY – (MAKIMA LRP) girls in urban areas is nearly equal but in the rural areas, enrolment rate for girls is a. County context on girls’ education approximately 30%. The rural dwellers are poor. They depend on subsistence farming Makima Local Rights Programme (LRP) is located in and all their efforts are channelled towards Makima division which is one of the four divisions that putting food on their table. Education, constitute Mbeere South District, Embu County. The especially for girls, is not a priority.” (KII other divisions are Kiritiri, Mwea, and Gachoka, with with CEC Education) Kiritiri as the district headquarters. The LRP consists of three locations, Makima, Mwea, and Mbondoni The Makima community does not put a high locations. The population in the LRP is estimated premium on educating girls; rather they prefer at 23,100 comprising various ethnic groups namely taking the boy child to school. They have a the Kamba, Embu, Kikuyu, and Mbeere. Being a perception that boys and girls do not have cosmopolitan area, it embodies a multicultural set equal rights to access education. Instead, they of beliefs and traditions; therefore, FGM is not fully believe that boys are superior to girls. This has embraced by all communities within the area. made girls’ access to education a challenge in the community even though girls have been There have been intermarriages among the four enlightened and have woken up to crave for ethnic communities in the area. This has resulted in education. culture change and belief transformation. There is a significant level of gender-based violence that affects There is no electricity in the whole community. mostly girls and women. Wife battering is common This was cited as one factor that reduces and is seen as a way of instilling discipline and children’s learning time and makes it impossible making women to be good wives. Therefore, women to power computers normally used for the digital in these ethnic communities are highly discriminated learning. against. • Child marriages It was reported that the Mbeere are the only The community believes that girls entering community still practising FGM. It is done secretly, puberty are mature enough for marriage and which makes it very difficult to determine the should get married instead of continuing with frequency of the practice. These communities also education. Girls are regarded as a source of have a common belief that the boy child is superior wealth when they get married off, especially to the girl child; hence, almost all the focus is on to well-to-do men. Some families reason boys while girls are neglected. Moreover, the girls are that instead of “wasting” cash on girls, they given many chores at home compared to the boys. should be forced into marriage to bring These retrogressive cultural practices have led to a wealth to the family. Any girl who manages rise in the school dropout rate, especially in Makima, to advance with education finds it hard to and have highly affected the village, where many get married within the community. Men in girls are out of school. the community feel that such girls (women) are loose, not fit to be traditional wives. b. Barriers to girl’s education “Some of the girls around here who i. Girls’ socio-cultural and political situation have completed form four feel that they that hinders their ability to access education. are much educated, and we see them as ‘spoilt’. In fact, they don’t get married to The responses from Embu County revealed that the community but rather outside. Men socio-cultural factors such as lifestyle, customs, in this community are not educated and attitudes are a great barrier to girls’ access hence lack courage to approach such to education. The general factors affecting girls’ ladies.” (FGD with community) education in Makima include poverty due to the frequent drought and infertile soils in the area. • Inadequate schools in the community There are no alternative sources of income for The area has only a few scattered schools, the people in the area. The community depends forcing children to walk long distances to

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school. This makes it difficult for girls to ii. Impact of female genital mutilation attend school, resulting to low enrolment for girls. They finally get married early. Being a cosmopolitan area, Embu is a multicultural society with different sets of beliefs • Rape and defilement and traditions therefore female genital mutilation It was reported that there is high rate of (FGM) is not widely practised within the area defilement and rape in this community. The except by the Mbeere community. major culprits are said to the large number of motorists who offer the girls rides from “They do it secretively that it would be very home to school and ask for sex in exchange. difficult to know exactly the frequency the The girls give in. This has led to many cases practice is done in a year.” (KII with AAIK of early pregnancies in the community and staff) many girls dropping out of school to avoid the shame. When these girls give birth, the Although FGM is done in secret within the parents, especially the mothers, advise them Mbeere community, it was mentioned that to get married despite their tender age. the medics are part of the perpetrators of the practice. It is alleged there is collusion among “There is an issue of defilement and rape the perpetrators within the community, the legal that has emerged in this community. officers, area chiefs, and administrative police. It The girls are being defiled by their was alleged there is corruption, resulting in a very fathers and it is covered up as their serious barrier in handling cases of defilement, mothers feel that if this is heard outside rape, and FGM in the community. in the community, it would be shameful to both the girl and the mother. The few girls in Mbeere who have undergone the Motorists also offer the girls free rides procedure are reported to perceive themselves and since they travel long distances to as grown-up and mature enough to get married reach school, the girls easily fall into and hence drop out of school before even these traps and are raped.” (KII with reaching class eight. Those who get back to head teacher) school become very stubborn and rude to teachers and even to fellow pupils, leading to The Women Rights group stated that poor performance. They also feel discriminated defilement and rape are high and are mostly against as other pupils who are aware that committed by close relatives, parents they have undergone the cut will laugh at and themselves, or the boda boda operators. ostracise them. This is discouraging to many They stated that most girls are raped by girls and lowers their self-esteem. They do not their fathers because their mothers are busy feel part of the school community and eventually from morning to late at night, having no time drop out of school and get married, the majority for their husbands. In addition, some of of them as second wives. these girls were born to their mothers before marriage, so are not the fathers’ biological daughters. c. Impact of government policies and intervention by stakeholders on girls’ access to education • Bias of parents and teachers Teachers tend to be biased against girls. The discussions and responses revealed that It is reported that they scold girls, some stakeholders, including Action Aid International using abusive language, thus eroding the Kenya (AAIK) through Mwangaza Women Rights girls’ confidence and sense of belonging Group, Afya Plus, and government agencies have to school. Parents, on the other hand, see initiatives that aim at promoting girls’ education boys as superior and give them priority in within Embu County. access to education. In class, teachers give first chance to boys to answer questions. i. Interventions by government, AAIK and other “Some teachers, not all of them, normally agencies to promote girls’ education ask questions in class and give boys priority. Girls raise their hands many times but will Violence against women and girls in the Makima not be pointed to answer the question. community in Embu County, which directly affects And when a girl is given an opportunity to girls’ education, has attracted government, Afya attempt the question and gives an incorrect Plus, and AAIK interventions. These interventions response, the boys will smile. I just feel they have had a definite effect in promoting girls’ (boys) think we are not equal with them.” education as well as empowering women to be (FGD with girls in school) independent.

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The government provides sanitary towels for (GBV) through building of referral pathways girls and food for children in certain primary that involve a multi-sectoral approach with schools within the county. AAIK has supported all the key governmental departments, law the feeding programmes financially in the enforcers, office of the Director of Public targeted primary schools. AAIK has also given Prosecutions (DPP), and the judiciary the Mwangaza Women Rights Groups financial working as a team. support as well as training on entrepreneurship, e. By accessing the essential services and and promoted girls’ and women’s rights. acquisition of support in persons of justice. Mwangaza Women Rights Group then holds f. By coordinating all issues that encompass forums in schools to educate girls on their rights all aspects that violate the rights of women and provides them with sanitary towels. among the stakeholders.

However, Afya Plus has exited, but has left a d. Challenges experienced in tackling FGM and legacy. It has provided water tanks across the promoting girls’ education county to women groups and schools, which has greatly helped the community in storing The responses from the discussions and interviews water during the dry seasons. This is more revealed the following challenges in the attempt to evident within the Makima community. promote girls’ education or tackle FGM in Embu County. ii. Interventions by government, AAIK and other agencies to tackle FGM Lack of funding by government: The sentiments by county government officials clearly indicate the Almost all the respondents acknowledged lack of funding to undertake programmes against that FGM is a violation of girls’ rights and FGM in the local communities in the rural areas. is traumatising. Although FGM is no longer practised widely in Embu, the government and “...this is the least funded ministry in the county. AAIK have sensitised the community on the We have a lot of programmes to undertake with impacts of FGM and the legal route to take in the community and since we don’t have proper case it happens. AAIK has, through community funding, we are forced not to undertake these sensitisation, educated women on their rights, programmes/forums.” (KII with Ministry of making the whole community fully aware that Gender, Culture and Social Services) FGM is illegal. Through their law enforcers like the chiefs and administration police, the Corruption: Secondly, perpetrators many times get government has also taken firm action against away due to alleged corruption in the judiciary. The the few cases of FGM done in secret that later Gender Officer cited missing files and cases taking came to be known. too long in courts before hearing.

iii. Existing and proposed/possible alternative “There is a lot of corruption in the judiciary rites of passage in each county whereby you will find a file missing in court or the case takes too long before hearing or Since there are very few cases of FGM reported, sometimes the case is taken for hearing far the community noted that there is no need for from the known courts around and all these alternative rites of passage. These sentiments happen especially when the victim comes from were shared by the girls and the boys. a very poor family and the other from a well- off family. The perpetrators find their way iv. Community participation in addressing FGM out and back to the community as a free man just because of corruption.” (KII with Gender The communities in Embu County have Officer) advocated for the rights of women, especially the rights to education, by: e. Conclusions

a. Organising women networks into alliances. The discussions and interviews conducted during b. Using these women alliances - built out of the research revealed various significant aspects the women networks to key partners like of the project “Tackling Barriers to Girls Education.” AAIK - to offer capacity-building sessions to Even though much sensitisation has been done in fight inequality in the community. the county, the community lives in abject poverty c. Sensitisation of women on their rights and this makes the girls drop out of school. by empowering them to take up their Economic empowerment for young women and responsibilities. girls is needed sorely in this community. This would d. Fighting against gender based violence ensure increased enrolment and retention rates of

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girls in schools. In addition, sensitisation of girls, III. GARISSA COUNTY – (KAMUTHE LRP) women, and the whole community is not fully done hence the need for the same. This would further a. County context on girls’ education enlighten the community on the importance of girls’ education. There is a need for reach out to the Kamuthe LRP covers three main locations, namely, Mbeere community especially in Mbeere South, who Bura, Kamuthe, and Warable of Garissa County. are known to be still practising FGM. However, Warable was not reached by the study. This region is an extensively semi-arid area, whose f. Recommendations population is largely pastoralist, with livestock keeping serving as the major source of livelihood. The following general recommendations were made The current drought that has ravaged the better part by the respondents with regard to the fight to barriers of the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) has had a to girls’ education and eventually promote access to major impact on this community, with an estimated education: 80% of the animals have been lost. This has further deepened the vulnerabilities of the community and i. Provision of changing rooms for girls in schools. especially the women who many times are left behind The respondents mentioned that there are as men migrate in search of pasture and water. The no proper toilets in schools around Makima, locations are characterised by acute food shortage making girls stay away from school during their and lack of water. Livestock keeping, which is the menstruation. main source of livelihood, has been threatened by a ii. Provision of feeding programmes in various four- year prolonged drought. schools, especially for the Makima community, where there is abject poverty. This will improve Overall estimated poverty index in Kamuthe LRP girls’ retention in schools rather than been is 75%. Basic amenities are few, far apart, and married off early to fetch some wealth for their poorly equipped, denoting persistent neglect families in the form of dowry. and marginalisation by successive governments. iii. Government intervention in expediting defilement This means that communities have to walk long and rape cases reported. Respondents noted distances to access essential services. The road that there are a few defilement cases but the network is poor, further making it nearly impossible area chief and police officers seem not to take for people to access services and information from action. neighbouring towns. iv. Government, especially the judiciary, should look into the issue of offering bonds to perpetrators as b. Barriers to girls’ education some of them walk freely in the community after being freed on bond, threatening the victims’ i. Girls’ socio-cultural and political situation at families. Even the human rights activists in the household, community and public levels that community are not protected from any harm. hinders their ability to access education v. The boy child should be educated and sensitised on the rights of girls as their future is tied to these The children of Kamuthe believe that girls should girls. The women groups noted that boys drop help their families with housework, and women out of school at an alarming rate and since these should do all the domestic work including boys will marry the girls, there is need for them construction of houses. Four out of every five too to be empowered. girls responded that housework is meant for girls vi. Women groups, religious leaders and the and the majority of boys likewise hold a similar community members we interviewed mentioned opinion. However, two thirds of the male and that the forums organised in the community female teachers mentioned that both girls and should also involve men as they are the key boys should help with household chores. decision makers in the family. The men were said to complain a lot and had developed negative General factors affecting girls’ education attitudes towards the forums and organisations Even though the majority of teachers report that targeting girls and women only, saying even boys both girls and boys should be responsible for and men should be included in these forums. household chores, it is clear that such views are informed by their education and knowledge of the laws of the land. . Members of the community generally have a low opinion of the leadership capacity of girls and women, although it is reported that this view is slowly changing. This means that even in schools, girls don’t believe they should be prefects.

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Some of the general factors affecting the iii. Barriers to education associated with FGM education of girls and women include: Members of the community are convinced that Insecurity: The high incidence of insecurity FGM has a negative influence on the education presents a big challenge for education in of girls. Circumcision is seen as the first step Garissa County. The area is inhabited by large towards marriage. Initiates view themselves as populations of security officers who alternate grown up women ready for marriage. This ends every six months. There have been reports of their academic pursuits. sporadic cases of rape and torture of women by the security forces. On the other hand, some Other factors that promote FGM include: girls are even reported to have eloped with security officers when theofficers’ tour of duty Preserving virginity: Preserving the girls’ ends. The girls choose to get married to these ubikira (virginity) is the main reason community men, rather than stay in school. members in Kamuthe to continue practising FGM. Traditionally, FGM was meant to inflict as Long distance to school: Respondents much pain as possible to the girls to deter them reported that lack of security and the risk of from promiscuous behaviour. The community sexual violence among girls who walk long valued the virginity of their daughter so much so distances to schools affect their education. that they could go to any length to preserve it, Some parents choose to keep their daughters at including withdrawing them from school. home rather send them to far off schools. Fear of premarital sex: Women in the Somali Religion: Issues linked to religious beliefs affect community see FGM as an effective mechanism girls’ education. Among Muslims, for instance, for instilling good moral behaviour among their men (and boys) should not sit together with daughters. women (and girls) especially during public events. Islamic influence is invoked to justify Early (prearranged) marriage: FGM is used to the preference for duksi (madrasa) over formal bestow social status, is a mark of adulthood, schools. Some community members think and paves the way to marriage. As a result, girls religion affects attendance and completion of themselves desire to undergo the procedure to education by girls, and even boys. fulfil the demands of tradition.

Parental illiteracy: According to an education Bleeding and occasional deaths: FGM is officer, most of the community members are associated some health risks. Almost all the illiterate. Such illiterate parents do not value girls who had undergone FGM reported excess education, especially for girls. Such children end bleeding as a consequence of the procedure. up dropping out of school and girls are affected the most. When this happens, girls have to stay away from school for a long time, leading to loss of Traditional beliefs: Some community members school days. This obviously affects a girl’s school in Kamuthe believe that educating girls is a waste performance and in the end, she may drop out of money as they will eventually get married into from school silently. another family. Girls are instead trained to do household chores to make them good wives in Pain and trauma: FGM is very traumatic as future. As a result, these girls develop a negative girls are usually physically held down during attitude to schooling, which affects their grades. the procedure to deter any movement and/or resistance. As mentioned earlier, those who are ii. Prevalence and impact of female genital infibulated often have their legs bound together mutilation for a number of days or weeks thereafter. If the healing process makes the virginal opening In Kamuthe, community members are quick close fully, it becomes very painful to pass urine to deny that FGM still exists. However, most or menstrual blood, especially if there are blood girls in and out of school who were interviewed clots on the small opening left after stitching. It confessed to being already circumcised. All of makes the girls very uncomfortable. Such cases them were circumcised between the ages of would be referred back to the circumciser to ten and fifteen years. They say that anyone not slightly open it up. The trauma that comes with circumcised would not be allowed to worship such pain would not allow the girls to remain in and might even be killed. FGM is still done but class and listen to the teachers. in secret; and is not accompanied by elaborate celebrations.

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Truancy: In some cases, it was reported that the ii. Building capacities of women’s networks to girls would be rude to female teachers especially support girls and young women to access those from other communities that do not education and get economic empowerment practice FGM. Such girls believe that they are superior to the uncircumcised teachers. Government agencies work in collaboration with ActionAid to engage with community groups in Most of the girls now focus on marriage and campaigning for education of girls. Despite some drop out of school. challenges, the community members have been trained through local CBOs to embrace girls’ c. Statistics of the status of girls’ education education and the need to abandon FGM. through the parameters of school enrolment, retention and transition against the number of iii. Interventions by government, AAIK and other girls in the counties agencies to tackle FGM and promote girls’ education In Kamuthe, enrolment of girls is quite high in early child education and class one, but starts dropping The local leaders are making strong attempts drastically at class two. The ratio of girls to boys gets to control FGM and promote girls’ education. smaller and smaller up to class eight which has the While their efforts seem to yield some results largest gender gap. Dropout rate for primary schools with promoting education of girls, FGM remains is 43% for females and 31% for males while in a challenge as the community devises new secondary schools it is 15% and 22% for males and modalities to evade the law. A local chief females respectively. The teacher pupil ratio is 1:38 reported that people are changing, but some in primary schools and 1:18 in secondary schools. parents force their daughters to undergo the procedure. Again, elders still support FGM and d. How the implementation and relevant they carry influence in the community. government policies affect girls’ abilities to access education The fact that some girls are forced by their mothers against their will also shows that i. Empowering girls and young women facing campaigns among the children have yielded fruit violence or at risk of violence At community level, many women have been The community promotes women empowerment engaged through the efforts ActionAid and through civic education and supporting initiatives other agencies, but they seem to face the to address issues of gender based violence same predicament of resistance from fellow and denial of rights. The community has built a community members. strong women’s movement that is advocating for women’s rights (also called Sauti Ya Wanawake). While it is not stated categorically, there is hope that the community is changing and supporting Girls are encouraged to hold regular discussions girls’ education. This would initially break the about issues affecting them. ActionAid has link between FGM as an obstacle to education supported the construction of classrooms, of girls, and later girls will have the capacity to toilets, desks, and water tanks at various schools challenge the practice. in the districts. The community recognises the right to education but they value their traditions iv. Existing and proposed/possible alternative and religion much more than education. rites of passage in each county

Interestingly, the very stakeholders who have The big issue in this study was whether the mobilised the community to understand the community members are ready and prepared importance of education and the dangers of to abandon FGM. Some indicate a reduction FGM seem unable to dissociate themselves in the elaborate rituals that accompany the from the practice. Older Somali women strongly circumcision process. The discussions by various believe that it would be better for a girl not to go groups indicate that there is scope for change to school, but she must go through FGM to earn – modification of traditional initiation practices respect in the community. and willingness to embracing alternative rites of passage, which are yet to be identified and agreed on by the community.

Some members of the communities are beginning to re-examine their attitudes towards FGM and early marriage. One positive aspect is

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that although they still circumcise their girls, the IV. ISIOLO COUNTY – (OLDONYIRO LRP) mode has changed compared to the traditional practise. Various stakeholders including a. County context on girls’ education teachers, religious leaders, and community leaders have shown willingness to stop the Isiolo County is cosmopolitan in nature with a diversity practice if given alternatives. of cultures. The dominant communities there are the Borana, Somali, Samburu, and the Turkana. Except e. Challenges experienced in tackling FGM/ for the Turkana, all the other communities practise promoting girls education FGM. In addition, all of them are involved in child marriages. ActionAid and government agencies have tried to promote girls’ education and eliminate FGM but not Girls’ education in these four communities is not much has been achieved can be reported because prioritised as girls are considered as assets to be of community resistance. Some of the community sold off in marriage. “The Borana and the Somalis members who profess the Islamic faith believe that don’t really care much about girls’ education” said a only those who have gone through the practice gender officer. should be allowed to pray/worship or even read the Quran. b. Barriers to girls’ education

Traditionalists who resist change have branded those i. Girls’ socio-cultural and political situation at who advocate for change as non-believers who household, community and public levels that are “spoiling” girls and women. This makes FGM a hinders their ability to access education; very delicate topic to handle. The women therefore remain silent during anti- FGM campaigns but some Cultural practices such as pastoralism, FGM, go back home to continue with the practice. Another and early marriage have hindered education challenge is the economic angle. Girls are seen as a for girls at all levels in Isiolo County. There are source of wealth through dowry, but only if they are however, ideological and cultural differences on circumcised. how these communities are organised. All the four communities living in Isiolo County practice All these challenges are intertwined in the cultural a nomadic way of life, which has been found to context of patriarchy and nomadism. Being a be one of the greatest contributors to high levels pastoralist community, it is difficult to control FGM of illiteracy. In all the four communities, the father because men are most likely out with cattle looking is the head of the family hence the custodian of for pasture and water, so it is mostly women who all assets in the family. It is worth noting that in are reached with the advocacy opportunities. Any these communities, women are categorised as change in the community needs to involve men as “children” under the care and guidance of the they are the decision makers at family level. father, therefore, the women have no say in critical family decisions. g. Conclusions “Due to drought and other unforeseen FGM is often upheld by local structures of power natural disasters, men are always forced and authority such as traditional leaders, religious to migrate with their animals to look for leaders, circumcisers, elders, and even some pasture and water, leaving women with all medical personnel. In many societies, older women the male responsibilities including fending who have themselves been circumcised, often for the families, offering protection, become gatekeepers of the practice, seeing it as guidance, and shelter. During this time, the essential to the identity of women and girls. This is close relatives to the family would secretly probably one reason why women, and often-older organise for the marriage of the girls women, are more likely to support the practice, and without the consent of the mother. This tend to see efforts to combat the practice as an is mostly attributed to the Somali and the attack on their identity and culture. Borana community.”

However, the practice has undergone some The above statement was made by the County changes. Whereas in the past girls were circumcised Director in Charge of Children Protection in the in an elaborate ceremony and at an older age of 15 area. His sentiments were shared by the newly to 18 years, the practice is now being carried out posted Gender Officer of Borana descent. on girls as young as five years, and without the accompanying ceremonies due to the enforcement The Samburu and Turkana too are pastoralists. of new laws and anti-FGM campaigns. The four communities are highly patriarchal where men dominate all aspects of life in the society.

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This study mainly focused on the Samburu and kukamua na kuuza maziwa kabla ya kuja the Turkana. Women are prohibited from voicing shule. Aki jamani, si huwa wamechoka out their opinion in the presence of men. wakifika shuleni?” (Head teacher of Oldonyiro Primary School) “If in any case a woman has to give her opinion in the presence of men, she would Nearly all the respondent affirmed that FGM either be seated or standing holding a piece affects school learning. It was also mentioned of grass in their hands to signify their by the head teacher of Oldonyiro Primary School inferiority to men,” explained one woman that boys refuse to share textbooks and desks during the women FGD. with girls.

Women are not allowed to own land or livestock, • High level of illiteracy in as much as they hold the greatest responsibility According to the County Curriculum of taking care of livestock. Development Officer attached to Oldonyiro, the Samburu community in Isiolo County is “Sisi tunalisha kondoo na mbuzi lakini 60% illiterate. As such, girl child education wazee watawauza bila kutuuliza, ata is not accorded any importance as girls are sasa wameanza kuwachukuwa kuku considered mere assets to be sold off for tulizoachiwa kama mali zetu, sasa mama marriage. wa Samburu hana lolote aliloachiwa,” lamented one of the women during their • Parental negative attitude towards education FGD. We observed that parents in the rural areas of Isiolo and Samburu such as Marti sees Samburu men would marry off their daughters no need of retaining children in school> without the knowledge of their wives. The dowry Boys may be withdrawn from school for long collected would be owned by men and their periods to herd animals while girls spent sons without considering the role the mothers much time on household chores. have played in bringing up these girls. • Traditional beliefs “Msichana akiolewa, si wanapeana The Samburu and the Turkana believe that mahari, hiyo ni ya mzee na kijana yake, educating girls is a waste of time and money ata ile ng’ombe moja ya mama huwa mzee as they will eventually get married and the anaweza kuuza bila kuuliza sisi,” lamented education benefits the families they marry another woman during the FGD.] into.

Men occupy leadership positions in the society, “Sisi kama Wasamburu ata Turkana, with women playing second fiddle. Some women hatudhamini masomo ya msichana who venture into men dominated careers are sana. Si akiolewa atasaidia hiyo familia labelled as deviants and treated with suspicion. ingine.” This was a statement from one They are said to have traded their bodies for the of the young men present in the RAP position. Women and girls are ridiculed through youth FGD. proverbs, sayings, and name calling According to with the County Director in Charge of Child • Long distances from school Protection, the Turkana and the Samburu pay Lack of security and the risk of sexual violence less dowry for educated women because they among girls who walk long distances to believe such women have been polluted. school have affected their education. The area being an elephant corridor and bushy, ii. General Factors Affecting Girls’ Education poses a big threat to the young girls who have to walk in the thick of the darkness to Nearly all the respondents claimed that the get to school and back. Parents opt to keep culture of nomadic pastoralism and high levels their daughters at home rather than expose of illiteracy has mainly affected the areas of Marti them to these dangers. and Oldonyiro, causing low education standards and low enrolment of girls. The study also • High poverty levels reveals that girls are discriminated by parents Girls are married off early to rescue their and overloaded with household chores. parents from poverty. As stated earlier, girls are seen as a source of wealth among both “Wasichana wakitoka shule hutumwa Samburu and Turkana communities. kuchunga mbuzi, kutafuta maji, kuchana kuni, kupika na kila asubuhi lazima aamke

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iii. Prevalence and impact of female genital attendance to the provision of sanitary pads mutilation and the feeding programme by the national government. Those who miss school because of Samburu girls must undergo FGM to be household duties or even child marriages have considered mature for marriage. Therefore, since been helped back through the intervention about 92% of Samburu girls are circumcised. of the head teacher in collaboration with the However, the Turkana do not practise FGM. In chiefs. As a result, the enrolment of girls in Isiolo Oldonyiro, FGM is viewed as a retrogressive and has improved significantly. crude practice that is associated with shame and psychological trauma for girls. According to While the introduction of free primary and the focus group discussions (FGD) held with the compulsory basic education has enabled more community women group, youth groups, Rescue pupils to be enrolled into various schools in Girls, and the community, FGM is normally done the county, it has complicated issues in Isiolo during the school holidays when girls visit their County. The list of challenges is very long and grandparents. includes shortage of classrooms, teachers, stationery, seats, national flags, and perimeter iv. Barriers associated with FGM fence, among other necessities. Children drop out of school because of these challenges. In Early marriages are largely associated with addition, they drop out when girls who get FGM and cited as the biggest barrier to girls’ pregnant at school are not handled sensitively. education. Parents also claim that girls are spoiled before completing schools. “In our community, marriage cannot be officiated before FGM is done; therefore • Patterns of completion the practices are very much intertwined. Pupils face several challenges ranging from Early marriages, a practice that is highly natural calamities, poverty levels to the supported by old men in this community retrogressive cultural practices. These lead to is one practice conducted in an inhumane school dropouts, more so among girls. As a manner …” explained one of the young result, the completion rates have been affected Samburu men in the RAP focus group significantly. discussion. • Patterns of transition Immediately after the cut, the initiated girl would Oldonyiro area has no all-girls primary and be married off, sometimes to an old man, and secondary schools. There is a therefore low forced to walk a long distance to get into her transition rate for girls to secondary schools new home even before she fully recovers. This due to the shortage of girls’ schools. Poverty process is shameful and painful. For example, and cultural practices also contribute to the low the women group narrated the story of a six- transition rates among the girls in the county. year-old girl who was initiated and married off to an old man who converted her to a househelp. d. How the implementation and relevant Due exposure to unhygienic conditions before government policies empower girls and young she healed fully, the girl developed an infection women facing violence or at risk of violence in her genitalia and later died. By the time of the study, AAIK had not established c. Status of girls’ education any programme targeting the above-mentioned group. Currently, there is a programme funded by In terms of enrolment and performance, it was WFP to distribute relief food across the county. observed that both boys and girls are at per when it comes to the two variables. The enrolment ratio i. Building capacities of women’s networks was at 1:1 in Oldonyiro Primary School. This is to ably support girls and young women mainly attributed to the high level of commitment the to access education and in economic pupils in this area put when they are given a chance empowerment to perform in school. Majority of the girls enrolled in this school are the rescued girls while others are By the time of the study, AAIK had not yet from families that have since embraced education established any programme targeting the for girls. above-mentioned group. There is a programme funded by WFP to distribute relief food across • Dropout/retention rates the county. The teachers and education stakeholders we interviewed attributed the high school

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ii. Interventions by government, AAIK and other in the process of violating their daughter. In such agencies to promote girls education cases, the Office of Children Protection and the County Gender Office has constantly engaged During the study, it was determined that only with the justice system to flex its muscles against the government and the Catholic Church work all perpetrators regardless of their role in the act around issues affecting education for girls in of child’s right violation. the study area. The government, through its stimulus programmes such as the provision of The area magistrate cited witness interference sanitary pads, provision of learning materials and long distances as the main challenges that and the feeding programmes, has significantly deter his office from effectively delivering on their contributed to the rise in the enrolment and mandate. He also cited the disappearance of the attendance of girls in most schools in the case files. These challenges have abated justice area. The government has also ensured that all to the violated girls as their violators walk free. children of school-going age are enrolled and However, the magistrate however mentioned retained in school. that he and his fellow officers have taken it as a personal initiative to follow up on cases through The current CSOs are working on interventions a proactive investigation led by the county against poverty and drought. Only World Vision Directorate of Criminal Investigations (DCI) office. and Samburu Women’s Trust were said to be The magistrate has also taken it upon himself to working on general education issues. ActionAid conduct a community sensitisation process on was said to have sunk some boreholes to FGM as a retrogressive cultural practice. provide water for the community. However, at the time of the study, the AAIK water points were Nyuet Women Group has been going around not in operation. Besides sinking of boreholes, schools and rescue centres offering counselling AAIK was mentioned to be offering relief food and mentorship to violated girls and also to several households in the area. These to women in the community. Likewise, the interventions have contributed to the entire Samburu Women Trust has set up mentorship learning process in the area. programmes targeting the rescued girls and the other girls in the community. Successful In addition, some enlightened members of the women in the society have also been active as Samburu community have initiated projects to role models to girls in this community. Nyuet help the people. For example, Mrs Kulei has, Women Group was cited by a number of the through her foundation, been rescuing girls who key informants as going the extra mile to offer have been violated and enrolling them back material support and counselling to girls who to school. In addition, Mrs Kulei has single- have undergone the cut. Many of these women handedly helped the violated girls’ access justice are taunted and threatened by some individuals. against their violators. iv. Existing and proposed/possible alternative iii. Interventions by the government, AAIK and rites of passage in each county other agencies to tackle FGM The RAP youth group, suggested that the Most girls shy away from seeking justice for community - more so the elders - need to FGM cases. They are too young to fight for be educated on the negative effects of FGM themselves and fall victim to manipulation and later on used as models to sensitize the and tampering with evidence by some of the community on the same. The same senior male compromised law enforcers. However, the local members of the community can be used to administrators and the children’s officer in the bless the girls in a communal ceremony so that county have been keen to fight such cases. At they can be considered mature members of the the time of the study, we were informed that a community. They also suggested that education number of people had been arraigned in court in should be used to end FGM. connection with hindering justice in child rights violation cases. v. Community participation/involvement in addressing FGM The children protection coordinator cited the stringent court process that would require the The youths and the women were most vocal in circumciser to be present to the court as the advocating against the practice. Through the first respondent since it recognises the second community dialogue meetings, the community respondents (the parents) as circumstantial members are able to share more about FGM perpetrators (accused persons) who by law can and its negative effects on the community, and be set free in case they deny to have participated through this, the current and the old generations

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can dialogue and an amicable solution can V. KAJIADO COUNTY – (ELANGATA WUAS always be reached. LRP)

The community members have also identified the a. County context on girls’ education perpetrators of FGM and presented them to the relevant government agencies for appropriate Kajiado County is among the largest counties in legal action. Kenya; with five constituencies, 25 wards, and six sub-counties. According to the Ministry of Education, e. Challenges experienced in tackling FGM and the county has eight universities (both private and promoting girls’ education public), five registered colleges, 58 secondary schools, (both public and private), 388 public High illiteracy levels (60%) - as stated by the primary schools, over 70 private academies and curriculum development officer- and the rigid culture over 260 pre-primaries. Primary school enrolment have been mentioned as the main challenges to remains above 65%. However, this percentage tracking FGM and promoting girls’ education in goes down as one goes up the education ladder. the area. Women do not understand their rights as The enrolment rate reduces to 30% countywide nearly 80% of them are unable to read and write. upon reaching higher education, as reported by the The Gender Officer of Borana descent affirmed that county education officer. the women from her own community are there to be seen and not to be heard, making it difficult for them A number of factors hamper children from realising to express their opinions freely. their potential in education. Two respondents – a leader of Iloodokelani Women Self-help Group and Violence against women in this community is the head teacher of Indupa Primary School – cited accepted and 98% of both men and women believe the undeveloped infrastructure of many public in suppressing women as part of their culture schools where classes are conducted under acacia and traditions. About 92% of Samburu girls are trees; inadequate numbers of teachers; and poor circumcised. access to schools by children at lower grades due to distances, as key factors affecting the ability of Although FGM is illegal in Kenya, most of the cases students to perform. are not prosecuted for lack of substantive evidence and the rigidity in the judicial process. The high cost b. Barriers to girls’ education of the judicial process is also a major impediment to access to justice. i. Girls socio-cultural and political situation at household, community and public levels that Lack of cooperation among partners working on hinders their ability to access education; similar programmes was mentioned as one of the challenges experienced in tackling FGM and girl • General factors affecting girl’s education child education in this area. In was also noted that very few law enforcers work in the area, and the few Early sexual encounters: - It was noted that are there constantly face mobility challenges to that many boys in Elangata Wuas dropped follow up on cases reported from the rural interiors. out of school during the drought period to drive herds in search of pasture and water. f. Conclusions Upon returning from the nomadic life, a number of these boys opt out of school FGM is a health and social hazard, the effects of which for sand harvesting and the boda boda do not only affect its victims, but its repercussion business. The boys then entice schoolgirls reaches the marriage partner, the family and the into engaging in sex. Some villagers and community at large. Due to the sociocultural nature non-locals who come to buy sand were of FGM, a commitment is needed by communities also mentioned to be engaging schoolgirls as well as governments to ensure the end of this into early sexual encounters. Some of the practice. Therefore, it is essential to have cross- girls are way laid on their way to school or sectoral programmes providing an environment on their way back home. This was reported that is conducive to raising awareness, promoting by one of the participants in the community behaviour change, and abandoning FGM. FGD.

“Wacha tuseme ukweli, vijana wengi wamewacha shule. Kwanza wakati wa kiangazi, wengi walitoroka shule kulisha ng’ombe huko mbali, wakirudi wamekataa kurudi shule. Sasa wao

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wanauza mchanga na kukimbiza they end up destitute. One had this to say pikipiki. Hii vijana ni hatari sana, about child marriage: wamepeana mimba sana, ata hao dereva wa lori za mchanga pia wanashirikiana “A girl aged nine years was once na hiyo vijana kunajisi na kudanganya married to an old man. When she went watoto wetu. Mimi nasikia uchungu to look after goats, she got lost. At night, sana,” narrated one of the women in the a hyena came and ate the mother of community FGD/ the kid and left her with the kid in her arms. The following morning she traced Child pregnancy: - In both Elangata Wuas her way back to the village. She was and Indupa , the head teachers of the primary beaten by the husband and was accused schools mentioned that girls often drop out of trying to escape. Thereafter she was of school because of early pregnancies. rescued and said, ‘better the hyena Some of these pregnancies are as a result of than the man’.” rape or defilement. Poverty: Poverty was mentioned during the “So far five girls in class eight are at community FGD as the main reason why home as a result of pregnancy. We girls stop going to school. Many parents opt have followed up with the local chief to to marry off the girls so that their brothers ensure that they are back to class after can get school fees to enrol in secondary delivery. I am however sure they won’t school, a fact confirmed by the area chief. show up. It had been a continuous cycle as we lost about three of our female ii. Prevalence and impact of female genital candidates last year as a result of the mutilation same case,” said the Indupa Primary School head teacher. Female circumcision among the Maa community involves partial cutting of the female genitalia. Long distances to and from schools: - According to the testimonies we got during the Many girls were noted to have dropped out study, FGM is mainly advocated for by the old of school as a result of the long distances women – the ‘Gogo’ – who regard this practice they had to cover every day to and from as the best way to preserve and instil high moral school. We noted that the girls walked standards among their girls as they transition to long distances to school, alone, exposing adulthood. Girls who have undergone the cut themselves to dangers such as rape, being are regarded as adults and can therefore be mauled by wild animals and many other married off, irrespective of age. dangers. Many girls in the end drop out of school due to fear and fatigue. The boys We noted through our observation that FGM who come from far rent houses near their is done secretly in the interiors/rural areas and schools, but girls are not allowed to do this. is on the decline in both Indupa and Elangata Wuas locations. We noted only one case of FGM Parental illiteracy: - It was noted during in Indupa and eight cases in Elangata Wuas. For the community FGD that most parents are this study, the total number of people interviewed illiterate and therefore do not regard girl child was approximately 300. The prevalence of FGM education as important. This is especially so among schoolgirls was significantly reduced as for girls, whom parents regard as temporary mentioned by the Head teacher Elangata Weus members of the family. Primary School and collaborated by the area chief: Child and forced marriages: Early marriage is universally defined as marriage or “Yes there are some cases still, kama hapa cohabitation with a child or any arrangement tuko na eight cases. It is a very silent made for such marriage or cohabitation. This practice so many cases go unnoticed.” practice is common and is fully supported by the community because of their rigid The effect of FGM is early marriages, leading to tradition and cultural orientation. The child school dropout cases. It was noted that the girls bride or marriage is often a practice and it’s who underwent circumcision exhibit high levels an act of denying the love and care of the of indiscipline as they consider themselves to be family such as education and parental care adults equal to their teachers. to these young girls. The girl child in this situation is exposed to trauma caused by sexual experiences and if the marriage fails,

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iii. Barriers to education associated to FGM However, girls’ performance and attendance is As mentioned earlier, FGM is a rite of passage expected to improve as many of them are constantly from childhood to adulthood among the Maasai. in school since the feeding programme and the Girls undergo the procedure between the age provision of sanitary pads were initiated by the of nine and 18 years. FGM contributes to child government in 2018. marriage as any child who has undergone the cut is seen as mature enough to be given out Poverty was mentioned as the main reason affecting for marriage. Marriage brings wealth to the the transition rates of girls in the area. Many parents father of the girl in the form of dowry, always marry off the girls so that their brothers can get school paid in of herds of cattle. For the Maasai, wealth fees to enrol in secondary school. This has therefore is measured by the cattle one has. For this affected the transition rate of the girls the majority reason, the father of a girl would expedite her of the girls who ought to be in secondary school circumcision so he can marry her off to acquire are married off. The transition rate is however rising, wealth. thanks to stakeholders such as Equity Foundation and the Community Development Fund (CDF). It was deduced during this study that the girls who underwent FGM started engaging in sexual d. How the implementation and relevant activities, unlike those who didn’t undergo the government policies affects girls abilities to cut. Some of them would have sex with men access education and participate effectively brought to them by their brothers or with morans they met in the bushes. These early sexual i. Empowering girls and young women facing encounters resulted in many cases of HIV and violence or at risk of violence other STDs. The young women and girls out of school in the FGM has been said to have lowered the community are advised to join organisations like esteem of girls in this community as they are Iloodokelani Women Network, which receives looked down upon by the girls who have not financial support from AAIK. Through these undergone the practice. The same happens groups, they will be educated on entrepreneurial when campaigners and teachers speak against skills to and finally get financial support. FGM in their presence. The initiated girls thus segregate themselves from their peers. ii. Building capacities of women’s networks to support girls and young women to access c. Status of girls’ education through the education and in economic empowerment; parameters of school enrolment, retention and transition against the number of girls in the In Kajiado county, Iloodokelani Women Network counties has collaborated with AAIK to support girls and young women to access education through Enrolment rates for boys and girls in Elangata sensitisation and provision of sanitary towels. Wuas and Indupa primary schools were at the The Women Group also undertakes capacity ratio of 1:1. This was attributed to the government building training to the women who assist in feeding programme, Basic Education Act and more advocacy initiatives like land ownership and the sensitisation by several partners including AAIK. The right to education. performance at lower primary favoured the girls but there was a notable drop at the upper classes, as iii. Interventions by government, AAIK and other per the records covering 2016-2017. V According to agencies to promote girls education the picture chart below, the number of boys is twice that of the girls in class seven. However, at class five The government free primary education and six the girls’ population is relatively higher. It is programme and the enforcement of the Basic therefore evident that the number of girls begins to Education / Education For All policy have drop at class seven. ensured that all girls – and boys – are in school. In addition, government efforts to provide free From the statistical data collected from Indupa and learning materials, food, and sanitary pads to Elangata Wuas primary schools, the number of boys girls have also contributed to high enrolment and in class four at Indupa Primary School was 29 while retention of girls in schools. that of girls was 21. However, out of the 21 girls, eight were out of school because of pregnancy, AAIK and other non-state actors have been at leaving only 17 girls in class four at the time of the the forefront in ensuring that the community is study. The completion rate therefore favoured the well empowered economically so as to support boys. their families and ultimately their girls to get an

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education. Bursaries and scholarships offered endorsed a proposed alternative rite of passage by CDF and Equity Foundation have enabled for girls. The community agreed to adopt a rite bright but needy girls to transit to the next of passage that brings together girls from the level of education. Other stakeholders such age of 18 years to be blessed by elders so as to as ActionAid give girls, especially rescued transition from childhood to adulthood. girls, support by providing vocational training. Iloodokelani Women Network also collaborates The first such ceremonies were witnessed with ActionAid to support girls in school through in Kajiado and Bissil towns. They were the provision of sanitary towels and creating organised by the county government through awareness. the patronage of the county first lady, women representative and other female professionals. iv. Interventions by government, AAIK and other During the ceremony, the girls were prayed for agencies to tackle FGM and trained for three days by various traditional and professional practitioners on ethics and Since the entry of AAIK into the area about 13 morality, as they transitioned into adulthood. The years ago, some of the local CBOs, women girls were later blessed by the elders. groups, and networks such as the Iloodokelani Women Network have been able to sensitise vi. Community participation/involvement in women on their rights especially the rights addressing FGM to own property, -land rights, and the right to education, among other fundamental rights. The community members in both Elangata Wuas and Indupa are steadily shunning FGM. Many The educated women in this community started of those we interviewed, including traditional a mentorship programme to reach out to girls in Maasai elders, made it clear that through the schools with a clear message that targets all the sensitisation and education they have received violence perpetrated against women by men. about the dangers of FGM, they regret having Through such efforts, FGM, early marriage, and supported the practice and are now ready to wife battering have dropped significantly. campaign for its elimination. The community members in these areas have actively combated The local chiefs and community elders have the practice by identifying the perpetrators and ensured that Education For All is attained by presenting them to the relevant government pursuing all cases of violence against girls authorities for appropriate legal action. and discriminatory acts against women in the community. e. Challenges experienced in tackling FGM/ promoting girls’ education “Through the ‘Nyumba Kumi’ initiative, we have been able to pursue and make arrests From our observation during the study, we deduced on the perpetrators who have been reported that both Indupa and Elangata Wuas primary schools to have attempted or aided child marriages, lacked girl child friendly services and rooms. of the FGM or any kind of violence directed to girls need well-furnished washrooms furnished with women and young school going girls,” relevant toiletries and disposal kits said the Elangata Wuas chief, sentiments collaborated by the Indupa Location chief. A porous justice system was mentioned as one of the greatest challenges to tackling FGM, and the women However, some chiefs were reported to be mentioned the expense attached to acquisition of working with criminals in the community by justice discourages them from pursuing cases. covering up their evil acts and in some worst- case scenario, they have used their authority to f. Conclusion and recommendations intimidate and silence the offended women. The It is worth noting that Kenya has a lot of gender government, through the office of the Director of related violation of children human rights. All the Public Prosecutions (DPP) has pursued some of mentioned gender issues affect the girl child. Failing these cases and some arrests have been made. to grant the rights of the girl child in childhood affects In addition, according to the Indupa Location the child in future. Due to the sociocultural nature Chief, some state actors found to have abated of FGM, a commitment is needed by communities corruption have been dismissed. as well as governments to ensure its end. Thus, it is essential to have cross-sectoral programmes v. Existing and proposed/possible alternative providing an environment that is conducive to rites of passage in each county raising awareness, promoting behaviour change, and effecting an abandonment of the detrimental At the beginning of 2016, the Maasai community practice of FGM in its cultural context.

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VI. MIGORI COUNTY – (KURIA LRP) marriage. There is a very high prevalence of child marriages and hundreds of young a. County context on girls’ education girls are dragged from school to be married off, with serious consequences for their Kuria Local Rights Programme (LRP) is located in lives and education. A recent study (Marwa, Kuria West Sub-county of Migori County. The LRP 2015) to establish strategies to improve is located about 500 kilometres to the southwest transition rates to secondary school for girls of Nairobi and borders the Republic of Tanzania to in primary schools in Kuria West Sub-county the west. The LRP was started in 2003 and covered established that costs reduction, school the entire district, until a review carried out in 2006 infrastructure, quality of education, and made changes to its model of operation from a advocacy and awareness campaigns are policy based LRP to a sponsorship-based initiative. among the factors that have a great influence The LRP covers the administrative locations of on transition rate of girls from primary to Gokeharaka, Bukira South, and Bukira Central, all secondary school. The study, which covered of which are found within Kehancha Constituency, 31 secondary schools, concludes that school Kuria West Sub-county. The LRP area is inhabited fees were found to be the main reason why by an estimated 15,000 people, about 7,000 of most students are not in school. Similarly, whom can be classified as poor. The proportion of there is a shortage of school places,, uneven poor persons is evenly spread across the LRP, but distribution of schools thus difficulties of is more significant (85%) in Bukira South Location in access, poor quality of teachers, and poor Kehancha. quality of teaching and learning experience for children in schools. Poverty and retrogressive cultural practices are some of the factors that have led to a high school dropout Ochola (2013), in an earlier study, revealed rate especially in Kuria West. The impact is mainly that high prevalence levels of some felt at the village level, with increasing numbers of cultural practices negatively influence girls’ orphans who are in and out of school, particularly participation in education at the secondary girls. This increases female-headed households and school level in Kuria, Kenya. The study the high dropout rate in schools. The region also has challenges members of the community who significant levels of gender-based violence that affect still value retrogressive cultural practices mostly girls and women. to reconsider their stand. In effect, unless these factors are addressed, secondary The causes of sexual violence in Kuria are quite school education will remain a dream for complex and compounded by the dilemma of cultural girls in Kuria. practices. The rampant practice of wife inheritance The discussion indicated that: and households where women marry fellow women (known as “Nyumba Mboke” marriages), specifically “Our community is good but it has put girls’ lives at the risk of sexual violence by step- many cultural beliefs that have made fathers. The women are “married” by another woman us lag behind in the development and who is the head of such a household. These women education of girls in Kuria. These are import temporary husbands to sire children with practices like female genital mutilation their “wives.” The children born in such marriages (FGM) and patriarchy” (FGD with belong to the woman who is also the head of the women). household. The challenge is that the men who sneak in to sire children with the “wives” also attack the A discussion with girls provides a more stepdaughters sexually. Some such cases even lead credible opinion by acknowledging that into forced marriages if the girls become pregnant. while the participation of girls in lower and Incest is therefore a big challenge in Kuria, directly middle level primary education is at par with and indirectly perpetuated by culture. that of boys, the girls face obstacles from class six onwards. This means that factors b. Barriers to girls’ education linked to age affect girls’ education. Some such factors include: i. Girls socio-cultural and political situation at household, community and public levels that • Initiation: Circumcision of boys and girls hinders their ability to access education The initiation ceremonies which are normally • General factors affecting girls’ education undertaken in August are associated with life instruction for boys and girls who are Many girls do not attend school and then considered to be joining adulthood. remain uneducated as they move into early Such teachings and associated cultural

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ceremonies are themselves a hindrance to Education, the hidden costs of education education for the teenage girls. The initiates become a major hindrance to children to are inducted into the norms of the society education for such families. Some girls are when they reach adolescence and at a time therefore forced to stay out of school and most children are in class five to eight. The instead help their parents with household teachings touch on family matters and the chores while boys do odd jobs like sand expected societal responsibilities including harvesting in order to help provide for the marital duties. family. Girls on the other hand look for other means of getting money to satisfy their It is important to note that these instructions needs, for example engaging in sex with are taken very seriously among the Kuria boda boda riders. Both activities lead to and most of what is discussed during school dropouts. those sessions focuses on the dominance of men over women. The community plans • Parental neglect and hostility extensively for such ceremonies that are carried out publicly, to enable the initiates to Some children were of the opinion that some graduate into adulthood. The worst aspect of parents become excessively hostile when the ceremonies is the unchallenged pressure girls make even slight mistakes. Parents do by the parents of the initiates to make the not provide for the needs of the girl child, boys and girls indulge in unprotected sex like sanitary towels. This frustrates the girl circumcision to confirm if their wounds have child. Some opt to engage with boyfriends healed. The girls becoming pregnant and who are willing to pay. This leads to early the story quickly changes into pressure for marriage and school dropout. them to get married. ii. Prevalence and impact of FGM The narrative shows a double challenge for the girls, where they are moulded The levels of FGM in Kuria remain high and seem by the cultural ceremonies to confirm to be making a comeback compared to the maturation, after which they stand blamed recent past. It is estimated that out of every ten for the outcomes in cases of pregnancy. girls in a village, nine are circumcised. Even in the Both scenarios have push factors from the cases where girls are taken to the safe homes education system. or rescue centres to avoid the practice, some still sneak out to undergo the cut. Pressure for • Child marriages this seems to come from boyfriends or possible suitors. FGM is considered a necessary step in raising a girl properly and preparing her for Fear of remaining without a husband if one is not adulthood and marriage. As a consequence, circumcised is real. Other factors are associated girls themselves may desire to undergo the to the sorcery (magic) believed to be conducted procedure as a result of peer pressure and by elders so that everybody, including the law fear of rejection by their communities enforcers can remain docile in pursuing the issue. Another major issue is that FGM is a Additional pressure that is directly linked key source of money for the elders. Every girl to early marriages is the value placed on circumcised must pay K Sh 500 (USD 5). dowry. While families keep some livestock as part of family wealth, these can never be iii. Barriers to girls’ education linked to FGM disposed of to pay school fees, especially for girls. Instead, girls are seen as the source The community members link FGM to low of wealth in exchange with dowry when they access to education. It is reported that after get married off especially to well-endowed FGM, some girls do not go back to school. Some old men with livestock. Some families tend of the factors associated with FGM include the to reason that instead of “wasting” cash on retrogressive teachings during the ceremonies, girls, they should be forced into marriage to the direct link to marriage and dowry, and the bring that wealth to the family. health-related challenges.

• Poverty Retrogressive Ceremonies: Teachings during the initiation ceremonies discourage girls from Some families are unable to raise school pursuing education. Those who undergo FGM uniforms, sanitary pads, and incidental and manage to get back to school tend to fees. Despite the existence of Free Primary perform poorly or develop a negative attitude

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towards school. Some girls become outright daughters across the border to Tanzania (where disrespectful especially to teachers from other the practice is not illegal) and they only come communities or communities that they know back after FGM. Though this does not affect do not practice FGM. The girls look at these schooling much because it is done during the teachers as children. holidays, the girls now see themselves as adults ready for marriage. Irresponsible sex: After the initiation ceremonies, the boys are encouraged to prove that they are Status of girls’ education through the really men by grabbing and having sex with girls parameters of school enrolment, retention, (normalised defilement). The girls on the other and transition against the number of girls in hand are pressurised by their own parents to get the counties. into sexual contact with boys to confirm if they The government records estimate enrolment have healed properly. These practices result into levels in Kuria West and East at 90.4% for boys very irresponsible sexual encounters that put and 84% for girls in the 164 primary schools. girls at very high risk of conceiving and dropping The population in primary schools in 1999 was out of school immediately. 37,356 pupils, constituting 36% of the total population in the district. It was expected to Cultural values on marriage: The culture increase to 53,063 in 2008. In the 17 secondary promotes child marriages and lays a lot of schools in the sub-county, the enrolment in importance on marriage so that if a girl reaches 2012 was 2,896, which is only 18.5 of the total the age of eighteen years before getting population of the secondary school going (15- married, then everyone in the family becomes 19 years) children in Kuria. concerned. The situation becomes worse if the girl do not perform well in school. Such girls This study reveals that school attendance are literally forced out of school to stop wasting is highly dependent on Kuria culture. It is time and money and get a husband instead. very notable that culture and viewing girls as That complicates life for girls who yield to the “property” or a source of wealth through dowry, pressure, mainly for fear of being ridiculed and is the main cause of gender disparities between for saving the face of her parents. The cultural boys and girls value placed on dowry, more than education, is a source of worry. The family wealth is for Absenteeism and dropout rates in schools are marriage and not school and girls are the source high leading to low progression and transition. of this wealth. Sensitisation of the community has however helped raise levels of awareness with increased Menstruation is also a factors affecting girls progression but transition from primary to education and linked to FGM. Menstruation secondary school remains a big challenge. affects girls’ education because they are not free Unfortunately, dropout rates for boys are higher to go to school especially if they are negatively in some locations as a result of child labour, affected after circumcision. In such cases, the whereby they go to harvest sand and work girls will have missed several classes and by the in tobacco farms. Girls frequently dropped end of the term or year, this may lead to poor out of school due to early pregnancies and performance. early marriage. So far, FGM remains the most rampant problem affecting the girls and women’s Self-esteem affects girls who have had the cut education, with nine out of 10 girls having been as well as those who have not, and also affects subjected to FGM. their education. A girl who has not undergone FGM is mocked and called names. The girl c. How the implementation and relevant who has undergone FGM also still has a low government policies affects girls abilities to self-esteem because she will not openly admit access education and participate effectively she has undergone the cut, for fear of those who campaign against FGM. Both girls’ concentration i. Empowering girls and young women facing is not in class but on the issues of FGM being violence or at risk of violence. debated in the public arena. At community level, the peer pressure is mostly on those who have The empowerment of women and girls remains not been circumcised. Such girls hide and go for a challenge in the community which is strongly the cut and do not come back to school. embedded in cultural practices and traditions. The girls are viewed as a source of wealth to Policy risk: Since parents are now aware the family and community. It follows that a large of risks of prosecution from the government number of girls and women are illiterate. Parents for engaging in FGM, some opt to take their are unwillingness to embrace education for girls.

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 63 APPENDICES

Most girls were vaguely familiar with the laws of school because of different views and fears and policies that protected their rights within the at family level. society; a few that knew could not tell how the laws address their rights. It was observed that The CBOs and community resource persons there has been an effort to involve the children, believe that such efforts are yielding some fruit and girls especially, in decision making through as many parents are accepting to pay school clubs like Girls’ Forum and Boys’ Forum which fees for girls. So there are capacity-building have successfully seen girls get empowered. , efforts through groups and organizations such However, this empowerment quickly fizzles out as GOCESO, KUSAN, ActionAid staff, and as they approach upper primary out as the girls the other agencies that have been helping to drop from school. The key informant that deals pay school fees for girls who have not been with rights of children reported that: circumcised.

“According to me, girls and women iii. Interventions by government, AAIK and other here have not yet known their right to agencies to promote girls education education. Around 70% have no idea of the The analysis shows that every agency is importance of education as a right. You can trying to do its best to promote education and see the neighbours’ kids and you tell them challenge the practice of FGM. The education to go to school and they easily brush you off department is doing follow-ups on any reported as if you are talking nonsense. Like in my cases of FGM or early marriage. The police area Kitarisia there was a case where my have also made some arrests including the neighbour was jailed for circumcising her circumcisers. The only challenge reported is that daughter but the daughter still never went whenever a case goes to court, the community back to school. She now does menial jobs to intimidate the complaint before they can testify. get cash. For FGM, most women and girls That complicates the hearing process with no do not take it as serious. To them it is a rite witness, no evidence, and no complainant so of passage and a way of womanhood so it the case is thrown out. However, the court is is a must, and that is their right instead.” reported to have developed new guidelines to (KII, children’s office). curb this challenge. The community members have also tried to talk on FGM, but they make It is however noted that some measures have very little progress unless they are helped by been taken to address the challenges by the other agencies. government and the projects implemented by ActionAid. Noting that some people have been A woman reported that: sentenced to jail for practicing FGM shows that “As a person I have tried talking to girls. the state agencies have made some strides. I came here in September, I am married However, they also need to be careful because here and my girls have not undergone the they cannot jail everybody in the community, so cut so when their friends come over to visit instead they need to encourage community level them, I advise and talk to them against advocacy through barazas. FGM and give them examples with my own daughters. Some have heard but others ii. Building capacities of women’s networks did not. If I was in a position, I would build to ably support girls and young women a home for the girls who do not want to to access education and in economic undergo FGM, house them, educate them empowerment and they can leave once they have their It was evident that as much as the practice degrees, certificates and all.” (Non-local, remains enormous, ActionAid and some CBOs government officer). have worked in challenging the practice through women networks. Groups like GOCESO have ActionAid is widely acknowledged to have been formed to educate women. These groups educated the communities, supported and have been empowered and supported to established a rescue home that has helped link with other local networks like churches to several girls. Interventions by government, empower more women and girls. AAIK and other agencies to tackle FGM are enormous but the result seems to be slow due Capacity building is strongly taking place at to community resistance. community level and adult community members are being reached in large numbers even if this does not translate into immediate change at community level. The girls however, do not seem to engage collectively while they are out

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid 64 ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION APPENDICES h. Conclusion the survey with AAIK’s county-based partner in Taita- Taveta, Sauti Ya Wanawake Pwani in February 2016. Members of the Kuria community are convinced The survey was undertaken in the sub-counties of that FGM has a negative impact on the education Wundanyi, Taveta, and Mwatate. The report indicated aspirations of girls. Many girls get married immediately that 45% of parents surveyed are of the opinion that after the practice, thus dropping out of school. For education provided in public primary schools in Taita the few who remain in school, the pain and trauma Taveta County was not satisfactory. Of the parents associated with FGM affects their concentration who hold this opinion, 26% cite inadequate number in class and they end up not performing well in of teachers. It was further shown that 41% of parents examinations, and in most cases end up dropping are of the opinion children face inconveniences in out of school. accessing education in the school. Forty six per cent of parents who hold this opinion cited teacher Some of the girls take a long to heal and are forced absenteeism. Based on this, the study found that to stay away from school thereby missing classes the community members are quite informed, and and eventually dropping out completely. FGM is they have been trying to support the education of known to affect the psychology of the initiates. girls. One key informant commenting on the level of Most of the girls start to think about marriage soon awareness and support available for girls’ education after circumcision and this in most cases leads to give an affirmative answer: termination of their schooling for marriage. “The community here knows so much about VII. TAITA TAVETA COUNTY – (KISHUSHE LRP) education and they support girls’ education. From my perspective, two instances confirm a. County context on girls’ education that they know and support girls’ education. In March this year, we were electing Taita Taveta County is one of the six counties in the children’s government and were it not for Coastal region of Kenya. It is located approximately our intervention, all the seats would have 200 kilometres northwest of the coastal city of been awarded to the girls. Another scenario Mombasa and 360 kilometres southeast of Nairobi, was witnessed in the bursary awards. As a the capital city of Kenya. It borders Tana River, Kitui department, we give bursaries and 66 out and Makueni counties to the north, Kwale and Kilifi of 99 applicants were girls. The women here counties to the east, Kajiado County to the north- understand the importance of education for west, and the Republic of Tanzania to the south and girls.” (KII, Wundanyi) south-west. The county covers an area of 17,084.1 sq. km and lies between latitude 20 46/ south Despite this level of awareness, girls’ education and 40 10/ south and longitude 370 36/ east and still faces several challenges. A report by ActionAid 30 0 14/ east. Taita Taveta County is divided into raises the alarm over the diminishing confidence in various administrative and political units crucial for public primary schools, saying more than half of the management of the county and also service delivery community members are dissatisfied with the quality to the public. The county has four constituencies of education offered. There are even fears that boys namely, Wundanyi, Mwatate, Voi, and Taveta. are worse affected compared to girls in the county.

Projections indicate that the total county population i. Girls’ socio-cultural and political situation at would increase to 329,383 (in 2015) and 345,800 household, community and public levels that (in 2017) respectively. Already there is a strain on hinders their ability to access education existing facilities, with some public primary schools sharing some facilities with their respective pre- • General factors affecting girls’ education primary units. This is undoubtedly one of the main reasons behind the low primary to secondary school There are several challenges affecting transition rate, which stands at 67.5% (2010). 32.5% education in general, and others especially of pupils completing primary education are not affecting parents and families as a whole. progressing to secondary school. The main reason These are as follows: most do not transit is that they cannot get space in the few schools available, especially for those who Drought: Taita Taveta County as a whole do not perform well and come from poor families is prone to drought, and children as well as and cannot afford far-flung boarding facilities. their parents spend as much as 10 months addressing the impact of drought. Due to b. Barriers to girls’ education drought, families have limited food supply from farming, hence they have meagre Action Aid Kenya (AAIK) in collaboration with The resources competing with other needs. Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA-Kenya) undertook It follows then that there is no money to

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 65 APPENDICES

support education. Some children have to by a witchdoctor facing a certain direction. Some engage in child labour like selling charcoal families visit witchdoctor across the border in or doing casual work. Girls may work as Tanzania with their children to circumcise them. househelps. Everyone has to work, forgetting the education needs of both girls and boys. However, cases are reported to have drastically Some girls may even be left at home to take reduced in the recent past. It appears that care of their siblings as the mother goes to the community is changing their attitude very work. strongly based on the campaigns and having interacted widely with other communities who Broken families: School dropouts of girls do not practice FGM. have been linked to family problems such as divorce and separation. When families break iii. Barriers to education associated to FGM up, single mothers have problems educating more than two children. If the children of There are no direct challenges of the FGM such broken families remain with their father, practiced in Taita Taveta on girls’ education. it is possible they would be frustrated by the Since it is done at infancy, not even the girls stepmothers. The children are unlikely to get themselves are aware that they have gone fees, especially to join secondary school. through the practice by the time they enrol in school. It is however remotely reported that Early pregnancies: Cases of child girls get to start feeling the impact while in high pregnancies are rampant. Whenever girls school when they bathe. Some of them notice become pregnant, their mothers would ask the difference in their genitals for the first time. them to work for others as househelps so Those who are circumcised hide since it is very they can start to bring some money to the visible and their peers ridicule them. It is therefore family. In the same context, it is noted that difficult to link FGM among the Taita Taveta to there are many incest incidents in Wundanyi. education, except that their self-esteem would Sauti ya Wanawake are involving the police go down and class performance may drop to deal with some perpetrators. especially in high school when they discover.

Sexual violence against girls: The girls’ c. How the implementation and relevant interviewed confirmed a high prevalence of government policies affects girls abilities to sexual violence at home and on their way to access education and participate effectively. school. Girls are defiled by relatives and their peers especially those who have dropped i. Empowering girls and young women facing out of school. Girls may easily become violence or at risk of violence vulnerable because some men may take advantage of their need for toiletries and The women and girls in Taita Taveta seem to be hygiene products provide these in exchange doing well in terms of understanding of their rights for sexual favours. to education. Likewise, they seem to be quite aware of the challenges associated with FGM. Lack of sanitary facilities: Menstruation ActionAid works in close collaboration with Sauti remains a challenge to girls especially Ya Wanawake which has helped the community with the water shortage in schools. The by raising awareness and empowering women. government supply of sanitary pads lacks consistency. Most girls stay away from The members of Sauti ya wanawake advocate school during menstruation. Absenteeism for human rights in Taveta, working in churches may leads to dropping out of school. through the girl friendly society and they meet girls to educate them. During political rallies, they meet the elders to address community issues. ii. Prevalence and impact of GM ii. Interventions by government, AAIK and other It is reported that the Taita Taveta originally did agencies to tackle FGM and promote girls’ not circumcise women but copies the practice education from the Maasai, their neighbours. The Taita Taveta borrowed the practice believing it would Interventions in this region are multi-sectoral. help reduce women’s sexual desire. FGM is Most government agencies work together and however done so secretively that one may think in collaboration with ActionAid. Community it does not exist. members are engaged through chiefs’ barazas or awareness raising forums. ActionAid launched In Taveta, female circumcision is said to be done the “Male champions” in April 2018 to bring men

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on board to champion for girls’ rights. This has e. Conclusion helped to boost the campaigns to empower women so that they do not look like they are only Education is a key agent of change capable of breaking women’s concerns. The children’s department, the cycle of violence, not just against children but Sauti Ya Wanawake, the national government, among adults, too. It can encourage children to learn the judiciary, and the police work together and self-respect, respect for others, and how to express they do campaigns even in churches. their feelings and negotiate for what they want without resorting to physical or psychological violence. In Taita At community level, the women are the majority Taveta, there are issues affecting education, and FGM in any single baraza. Sometime in 2017 for is not one of them.. Female circumcision is undertaken instance, there was a serious demonstration for in infancy and not even the girls themselves are aware a mentally challenged child who was defiled and they have been circumcised. It is therefore challenging the women gathered the children from school to that girls have no capacity to say no to the practice. demonstrate until the courts. The following recommendations are intended to support education authorities, school heads, teachers, students, Sauti ya wanawake also holds workshops parents, and communities as they seek to create non- with community members and invite the DPP, violent environment in schools. members of the judiciary, and the children’s department to talk to the girls. After joint VIII. WEST POKOT COUNTY – (KONGELAI discussions, the girls hold their own forums LRP) to discuss their own issues. At school level, teachers invite different stakeholders to talk to a. Context the students on issues of concern, like incest for instance. Kongelai Local Rights Programme was started in November 2007 in Baringo County. The LRP is based d. Challenges experienced in tackling FGM or in in Kongelai Division of West Pokot District and partly in promoting girls education Kacheliba constituency of North Pokot District It covers Miskwony, Riwo, and Serewo locations in West Pokot Lack of community support: Sometimes people District and Kopulio location in North Pokot District. It who are caught on the wrong side of the law resist replaced the old West Pokot LRP which covered the and tend to oppose the activities of ActionAid. They larger West Pokot District and which was purely focused say that the Sauti ya Wanawake are unmarried on policy work. women who want to break up families and create chaos rather than bringing peace. Because of such Kongelai Local Rights Programme mainly deals with resistance, the families that would like to report cases the sponsorship work with three thematic focuses: of violence and follow the law might be scared and Right to Education, Human Security in Conflict and settle disputes at home and this can be a challenge. Emergencies, and Women Rights. According to the Ministry of Education West Pokot District, the illiteracy Lack of sufficient funds: There is minimal financial levels in Kongelai Division stand at 95%. The enrolment support in government. For instance, the OCS may and retention rates for children in the schools are also have askaris but no fuel their cars to follow up cases. poor, largely due to prevailing negative cultural practices. Some of these practices include; female genital To ensure good follow up for cases affecting children, mutilation, forced early marriages, moranism, and cattle even ActionAid needs to increase its funding. The rustling. The girls are the most affected as parents tend Sauti ya wanawake members argue: to marry off their daughters at a tender age so as to acquire wealth to support boys’ education. Other factors “We can see a positive impact through Action that have contributed to the high rate of illiteracy in the Aid, but we need additional funding for community include poor physical facilities in schools and most of the activities to be successful. Let us ignorance about the importance of education. Kongelai have yearly empowerment and possibly in LRP has responded by facilitating intensive campaigns, December and combine locations and involve training, and exposure visits targeting the community as many girls as possible from class six to eight members. It has also supported the construction of for four to five days so that girls are able to permanent classrooms and boarding facilities for girls. understand their bodies, express their fears, perceived risks and we shall be able to know the way forward.” (Sauti ya Wanawake leader)

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 67 APPENDICES b. Barriers to girls’ education is being taught.

i. Girls socio-cultural and political situation at Public ridicule: Girls also drop out of school household, community and public levels that for fear of being discussed or laughed at by hinders their ability to access education community members especially their peers when they have not been circumcised. • General factors affecting girls’ education There is also peer pressure from older girls who have undergone FGM, attempting Girls are seen as property and fathers would to influence those who have not. In such rather keep their cows than sell to pay school situations, the girls who have not been fees for girls. Level of absenteeism and circumcised end up running away from dropout rates in schools are high leading to school to go for the cut. low progression and transition. Sensitisation of the community has however helped raise Irregular menstruation: Some issues faced levels of awareness with minimal increase in during menstruation, such as excessive progression and transition. Girls frequently bleeding, seem to emanate from FGM. drop out of school due to early pregnancies When girls get such irregular bleeding, they and early marriage. FGM is rampant, with the fear going to school because they are afraid majority of the girls having been subjected of messing up their clothes or being laughed to FGM. We observed that both girls and at by boys. Some girls even contract boys seemed to have learnt about their infections and may take long to heal or be rights, mainly as a result of the interactions unable to walk properly. Such girls may drop during girls’ and boys’ forums which are out of school. done separately, However, the boys were more open. Some of the factors highlighted ii. Prevalence and impact of female genital as obstacles to girls’ education range from mutilation (FGM) hostile climatic conditions, early marriages, and FGM. FGM forms a major pillar on the culture of the Pokot, although some slight changes have Climatic conditions: The boys raised occurred over the years on the trend, sites of many issues about their community, in circumcision, cutting object and age of the particular pointing out the unfavourable procedure. The age has reduced from 18 weather conditions as one of the factors years to girls who are as young as eight years. affecting girls’ education. They reported Depending on the community (clan), there are that the areas can be very hot at times. different ways in which the cut is performed. This has implications on education in that more girls drop out of school compared to The findings show that the practice has a boys due to the hardship associated with direct effect on education since it is performed household chores like fetching water. Due almost throughout half the year, from the May to the drought, many families have lost to December. As much as there are some their livestock and so remain poor. The specific dates, still any other day after that is area experiences severe food and water still suitable and those who feel like performing shortages. This brings a situation where their ceremony can call on the circumciser. family members cannot even support their This has a direct impact on the school days as own themselves, and both girls and boys those girls are likely to miss school immediately are affected adversely. after circumcision as they wait to heal. FGM prevalence among the Pokot is very high. In Lack of adequate sanitary pads: Girls in many areas, all girls have been circumcised, but school are given sanitary towels. However, because of the interventions by ActionAid and the supply is not adequate. In addition, since government agencies, some one or two girls out girls don’t discuss their periods openly, the of ten may be safe from the cut. pads are given to the girls who are tall or bigger in body size even when they have iii. Barriers to education associated to FGM not started menstruation, while those who start their periods early are not given Value on girls: The women reported that girls sanitary towels. Some girls miss school for are viewed by the community as property, to fear of boys knowing what they are going be exchanged for cattle when they get married. through. Girls also reported that some lose “Properties” cannot be taken to school. They concentration because their minds are on also indicated that the traditional teaching given what is happening to them rather than what to girls during circumcision makes them tough

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headed (think differently) and they consider How the implementation and relevant themselves as adults so they tend to value government policies affects girls abilities to marriage more than school. access education and participate effectively.

“Customarily, a girl who is circumcised iv. Empowering girls and young women facing fetches more cows compared to one who violence or at risk of violence is not, hence no parent would want to have fewer cows. Parents who want wealth will A good number of community members, mostly want their girls to be circumcised so that living in the rural areas, hardly understand their they can marry them off and get wealthier rights to education. With the exception of the and increase the number of cows.” (KII, mixed communities living in Kapenguria town, Education Officer). the rest of the inland residents are hugely disadvantaged. Ceremonies for FGM: School enrolment is not affected by FGM but attendance is because Lack of education among community members, during the preparation period and during the coupled with the parents’ unwillingness to circumcision and the period after when they embrace the education for girls is a major are healing, not many girls will attend school challenge in Kongelai. In case of any human regularly. During the preparation period for rights violation in the rural areas, silence is undertaking FGM, girls miss school so that they the way to go. More seriously, women have can visit the circumciser to appease her by no room to ask questions or make decisions taking gifts and doing house chores for her. Girls at community level. Not even the decision to would voluntarily do this to create a rapport with promote education or stop FGM. The effect of the circumciser. Ironically, girls who do not want this is helplessness worsened abject poverty. to undergo the cut also end up missing school because they have to go into hiding. The empowerment of women and girls therefore remains a challenge in the community. Health hazards during the operation: The findings show that risks experienced during the The community has thus embraced NGOs like cut may cause a girl not go to school. Some ActionAid which have come to assist them. of the risks they mentioned were excessive Through the initiatives of ActionAid, many bleeding, wrong cutting or if a girl cries or makes CBOs, especially for women have been formed noise during the procedure, they risk being to support women in promoting education. It is speared. Failure to heal properly and fistula are through the CBOs that women have been trained among problems that affect girls during and after on the challenges of FGM and the benefits of the cut. Some girls get complications during educating girls. However, some respondents childbirth that causes fistula, so the girls are have reservations, saying that even the CBOs embarrassed to go back to school even when are disjointed from each other and have silent their parents are willing to support them. mistrust of the main government agencies.

Early marriage: Cases of early and forced v. Building capacities of women’s networks to marriages due to FGM are predominant. These support girls and young women to access marriages lead to child pregnancies This is a education and in economic empowerment major obstacle to education. Early marriage and FGM keeps girls out of school. Action Aid has worked in very strong partnership with local CBOs which they have supported Truancy of initiates: Cases of indiscipline are for education of girls. Women representatives reported to rise due to ‘tough headedness’, and have a kitty for issuing schoolgirls with sanitary contempt for education hence levels of girls’ towels. The women are also educated on the performance drop. The poor performance is also negative effects of FGM, and how they can work believed to be ‘as a result of cutting the nerves with others to challenge the negative cultural that connects the clitoris to the brain’ so girls practices. The CBOs led by women have since forget easily or cannot concentrate in class. This become change agents to those practising is a big myth but remains to be a real obstacle. FGM. The challenge that comes with low performance is that very few girls progress to the next level or transit to secondary schools so majority tend to drop out soon after undergoing FGM.

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 69 APPENDICES

vi. Interventions by government, AAIK and other community level. A community leader cautiously agencies to promote girls education and shared his opinion regarding this challenge challenge FGM arguing that:

The government agencies have been working “I will not talk about the risk but something with the police, the children office, and that has been of great concern. We should the judiciary to implement the FGM Act by involve more locals in the fight against arresting and prosecuting the perpetrators of FGM. When organisations bring a person the procedure. The government officers also who does not come from this community or reported that they have also taken initiatives to any community that practises FGM to talk promote child protection by helping schools in about it, the message does not get across rescuing girls when they get reports of forced because the community feels such people female circumcision and forced marriage. The (from outside) do not know or understand children’s office have managed to put some of what FGM is all about. I would suggest the affected girls in to safe houses and provided that more locals are engaged in this fight. police security to prevent any invasion by defiant Organisations supporting our community community members. Some agencies like the should also put resources together and children’s department have been engaging the have offices in the villages or remote areas community through campaigns and training to rather than the urban centres because in the community through public barazas. the urban centres the residents are mixed” (KII, community leader). ActionAid and other NGOs like World Vision have promoted sexual and education rights of girls. In Employing locals is not easy very few locals a bid to challenge FGM, the non-state agencies are educated enough to be employed in such occasionally have joint sessions when both boys positions. On the other hand, the “outsiders” and girls are taught and graduate and become could serve as role models to the locals on ambassadors of change on the ground. The reasons to challenge FGM. However, active joint work with government departments has participation of community beneficiaries in all also worked well in that the children have now interventions must be taken into account if they become the change agents in the community. have to own the process of change. Participation ActionAid has specifically supported the can also be enhanced by moving the site offices education of girls in the region. to the community if security situations would allow. Other community groups have also helped in awareness creation. The Child Welfare office c. Challenges experienced in tackling FGM/ specifically has helped in repatriation and promoting girls’ education rescuing the girls. They have also worked with other partners in advocacy initiatives both in The organisations are fought especially by the the print media and radio talk shows, and by traditional leaders when it comes to issues of FGM. going out to the field to engage with the children Community members give suggestion for bringing in assembly. The police have been commended for the traditional elders and educate them on the risks being responsive to arrest the culprits and the and effects of FGM. court has charged them without hesitation. “The talk on FGM has brought me problems vii. Community participation/involvement in because the cultural leaders have fought me addressing FGM but at least now it has cooled down. I have girls that I taught and never underwent the cut and Community participation in all initiatives to are in schools both secondary and colleges. address FGM and to promote education for girls Some are even in the university and it gives is considered the cornerstone for any success to me pride to see them around so when they be seen at community level. Attempts made by walk around I thank God for enabling me teach the different agencies to involve the community them. I will continue educating and preaching have contributed to realisation of some change against FGM in church and also in the villages in attitude. and community at large.” (Community leader)

Despite this progress, some risk has been Now the circumcision is no longer in August but in reported on the side of NGOs which seem to April and not during the day but at night, which most generate resistance by community members. organisations and stakeholders are not aware. That is the risk of employing “outsiders” (non-locals) to lead advocacy programmes at

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid 70 ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION APPENDICES d. Conclusion and recommendations

Traditions, as they say, die hard. That has been the case with most African cultural activities. Even with exposure to western cultures for close to 200 years, a number of traditional practices have remained resilient to this cultural onslaught. This trend has been seen clearly in communities that have exhibited a certain amount of conservatism. It is against this background that one can begin to understand the practice of FGM and early marriages among the Pokot. The decision to abandon the circumcision of women and also scale-down rituals accompanying male circumcision require both national and community-based activities that bring the practice into the public arena for debate. Religious leaders and the media are in a position to play a crucial role in educating, sensitising, and bringing correct information to households. They can also inform people about positive social change that needs to take place in communities. As indicated above, various groups need education, public awareness and correct information to enable them do away with retrogressive traditional practices such as FGM and early marriages.

TACKLING BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN KENYA ActionAid ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS’ IN EDUCATION 71 NOTES NOTES NOTES

ActionAid Kenya

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