Creation Research So ciety

Q u a rt e r ly VolumeQ 50 Winter 2014 Number 3

• The Little Ice Age: Part V • Critique of Modern Oort Comet Theory • The Wind River Terraces • Adaptation of Endotherms to High Altitudes • Four Meanings of “Worldview” Q 130 Creation Research Society Quarterly Volume 50 Creation Research Number 3 Society Quarterly Winter 2014

Articles Departments

Notes from the Panorama of Science...... 193 Adaptation of Endotherms to High Altitudes...... 132 Jean K. Lightner Letters to the Editor...... 195

Media Reviews...... 199 Clarifying Four Meanings for “Worldview”...... 141 Steven Chisham Instructions to Authors...... 203

Membership/Subscription Application Critique of Modern Oort Comet Theory...... 146 and Renewal Form...... 205 Wayne Spencer Order Blank for Past Issues...... 206 Were the Wind River Terraces Caused by Multiple Glaciations?...... 154 Michael J. Oard

The Little Ice Age in the North Atlantic Region Part V: Greenland...... 172 Peter Klevberg, Michael J. Oard

Minutes of the 2013 Creation Research Society Board of Directors Meeting...... 191

Haec Credimus For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh.—Exodus 20:11 Volume 50, Winter 2014 131 Volume 50 Creation Research Number 3 Society Quarterly Winter 2014

Cover design by Michael Erkel: Michael Erkel and Associates, 1171 Carter Street, Crozet, Virginia 22932

Design services by Cindy Blandon, [email protected] CRSQ Editorial Staff Danny Faulkner, Editor The Creation Research Society Quarterly is published Bill Barrick, Biblical Studies Editor by the Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway Jerry Bergman, Biology Editor 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323, and it is indexed in the Don B. DeYoung, Book Review Editor Christian Periodical Index and the Zoological Record. Eugene F. Chaffin, Physics Editor George F. Howe, Assistant Biology Editor Send papers on all subjects to the Editor: Jean K. Lightner, Biology Editor [email protected] or to Robert Mullin, Assistant Managing Editor Danny R Faulkner, 1414 Bur Oak Ct, John K. Reed, Geology Editor Hebron, KY 41048. Ronald G. Samec, Astronomy Editor Theodore Siek, Biochemistry Editor Send book reviews to the Book Review Editor: Jarl Waggoner, Managing Editor Don B. DeYoung, 200 Seminary Dr., Winona Lake, IN 46590, [email protected].

All authors’ opinions expressed in the Quarterly are not CRS Board of Directors necessarily the opinions of the journal’s editorial staff Don B. DeYoung, President or the members of the Creation Research Society Eugene F. Chaffin,Vice-President Glen W. Wolfrom, Membership Secretary Copyright © 2014 by Creation Research Society. All Danny Faulkner, Treasurer rights to the articles published in the Creation Research Mark Armitage, Financial Secretary Society Quarterly are reserved to the Creation Research Gary H. Locklair, Recording Secretary Society. Permission to reprint material in any form, in- Robert Hill cluding the Internet, must be obtained from the Editor. D. Russell Humphreys Jean K. Lightner ISSN 0092-9166 Michael J. Oard John K. Reed Printed in the United States of America Ronald G. Samec Creation Research Society Quarterly 2014. 50:132–140.

132 Creation Research Society Quarterly Adaptation of Endotherms to High Altitudes

Jean K. Lightner*

Abstract od created His creatures to reproduce and fill the earth. As they Gdo so, numerous challenges are faced in different environments, requiring creatures to adapt. High altitudes present serious challenges for endotherms, including a reduced partial pressure of oxygen. Through a variety of mechanisms, many creatures adapt quite successfully to this hytpoxia. Adaptation includes immediate, short-term responses followed by longer-term, more sustainable responses. For mammals and birds that have lived for generations at high altitudes, genetic changes have been identified, reflecting a more permanent response. The neo- Darwinian model does not account for the observed phenotypic and genetic changes. Instead, this adaptation is clear evidence of the care God bestows upon His creatures, even in our current fallen world.

Introduction Flood (Genesis 6–8). Yet despite these environments, each of which poses a The Bible provides an eyewitness ac- judgments that serve to remind us of unique array of challenges. Similarly, count of the origin of life, given to us the horridness of sin, God still intended foxes, ducks, and numerous other crea- by the very Author of life Himself. From for His creatures to fill and inhabit the tures have a cosmopolitan distribution. it we gain valuable information regard- earth (Genesis 8:15–17; Isaiah 45:18). Adaptation can seem so commonplace ing the history of life and its purpose. He provides for them even in this fallen that we fail to consider what is required Animals were created according to their world (Psalm 147:9). for this to happen. kinds and directed to reproduce and As animals have reproduced and One well-studied type of adaption is fill the earth (Genesis 1:20–22, 24–25). filled the earth, they have had to adapt the adaption to high altitudes. While we Disease and death entered the world to different environmental niches. For have only begun to understand all that at the Curse (Genesis 3), and a severe example, we can see hares in the desert, is involved, what is already known high- population bottleneck occurred at the hares in the arctic, and hares in other lights the incredible robustness of design in God’s creatures. They are faced with multiple stresses that are potentially life threatening, yet many are able to adapt and even thrive under these incredibly challenging conditions. * Jean K. Lightner, [email protected] The most obvious high altitude chal- Accepted for publication January 27, 2014 lenges for endothermic vertebrates are Volume 50, Winter 2014 133 the reduced partial pressure of oxygen high altitude (Storz et al., 2010; Ainslie Ravikurma et al., 2009). In some in-

(PO2) and the generally cooler tem- et al., 2013). stances this is adaptive. Animal studies peratures. This reduction of atmospheric Further, increasing ventilation have demonstrated an increase in gas oxygen (O2) can result in serious deple- has other significant consequences exchange surface area and diffusion ca- tion of O2 in the tissues, impairing me- in addition to increasing water loss as pacity in response to (usually simulated) tabolism. This not only may jeopardize mentioned above. The rise in PO2 is high-altitude exposure. Many of these the maintenance of normal activity, but associated with a drop in the partial studies were done on growing animals; also may impair the capacity to maintain pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2). This at least one study failed to show such a constant internal temperature in the causes a rise in pH and respiratory alka- changes in adult beagles. So it would face of the cooler ambient temperatures losis. Ironically, CO2 and hydrogen ion seem that significant adaptive changes (Storz et al., 2010; Cheviron and Brum- concentration ([H+], which declines as affecting diffusion are more commonly field, 2012). pH rises) normally stimulate breathing the result of augmenting normal devel- Another challenge is maintaining via central and peripheral chemorecep- opment. Effective adaptation affecting adequate hydration. Several responses to tors. It is possible that the decrease in diffusion is not well documented in + high altitude hypoxia (low O2) also lead CO2 and [H ] play a role in reversing adults (Ravikurma et al., 2009). to increased water loss. Increased venti- the initial spike in ventilation. This lation results in an increased respiratory reversal occurs within the first 10 to 20 water loss. Down-regulation of the renin- minutes. However, ventilation is still Increasing Oxygen angiotensin-aldosterone system results in maintained at a significantly higher level Delivery by the Blood increased urinary output (Yanagisawa et than it would be at sea level (Ainslie et There are several strategies that can in- al., 2012). These responses necessitate al., 2013). crease the amount of O2 carried by the + an increase in water intake to avoid de- Given that CO2 and [H ] are impor- blood. The first is simply to pump more hydration. This highlights the fact that tant signals for breathing, and that the blood per minute. An increase in total the many body systems are intricately concentration is reduced as ventilation cardiac output is observed with exposure interconnected. Changes are not made is increased, what is the signal to main- to acute hypoxia. This is the result of in isolation; instead they often impact tain this higher ventilation rate at high an increased heart rate. The degree of many other areas that also must be kept altitudes? At this point there is consider- tachycardia can vary with factors such as in balance. Maintaining homeostasis able conjecture as to how this occurs. It rate of ascent. Cardiac output declines is critical to survival and often involves seems that changes within the central to sea-level values within a few days, an astounding array of details. Five nervous system as well as interactions though generally the heart rate remains components of the O2 pathway where between central and peripheral che- high with an accompanying decreased physiologic and/or genetic adaptation moreceptors must be involved. Further, stroke volume (Naeije, 2010). may compensate for high altitude stress interindividual differences have been The increased cardiac output is transient are described below. noted in the specifics of the response. as the body employs other strategies

It has been suggested that in individu- to maintain O2 delivery to the tis- als with a more dramatic ventilatory sues. Hypoxia results in an increase of Increasing Oxygen response, the drive to breathe is more hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs). HIFs in the Lungs peripheral, while a blunted response are protein heterodimers consisting of One of the first physiologic responses allows for a more acidic pH and the one of three α-subunits and a β-subunit to hypoxia is an increase in ventilation drive to breathe depends more heavily also known as aryl hydrocarbon receptor (breathing). The carotid bodies, chemo- on the central chemoreflex (Ainslie et nuclear translocator (ARNT). ARNT receptors located in (or near) the neck, al., 2013). and the HIF α-subunits are constitutively sense the drop in PO2 and stimulate a expressed, with the 2α-subunit being rapid rise in ventilation within minutes. more tissue specific than the α1 -subunit.

This increases the PO2 in the lungs, Increasing These α-subunits are broken down rap- helping to compensate for the drop Pulmonary Diffusion idly in an O2-dependant pathway. A drop in PO2 in the atmosphere. While this Once O2 is in the lungs, it must diffuse in O2 leads to a proportional increase in helps significantly, it does not restore from the alveoli to the blood. Hypoxia HIF levels, allowing for a rapid response lung PO2 to sea-level values. This means is known to induce pulmonary alveolar to hypoxia. HIFs are transcription factors other physiologic changes need to take and vascular remodeling (Semenza, that regulate a number of genes involved place for the creature to adapt well to the 2004; Weir and Olschewski, 2006; in the response to hypoxia, including 134 Creation Research Society Quarterly

the one encoding erythropoietin (EPO; The drop in PO2 presents several cial because it allows for oxygen loading Semenza 2004; Haase 2013). challenges. The first is to maintain ad- and unloading over a steeper portion

Serum EPO levels peak within a day or equate delivery of O2. O2 delivery is of the ODC. A chronically left-shifted two of arriving at a high altitude. Among represented on the ODC by the differ- ODC is seen in various mammals and its functions, EPO stimulates erythropoi- ence in the y-axis values between the birds that have genetically adapted to esis, the production of red blood cells points representing arterial and venous alpine living. The left shift has been (RBCs). Within a few weeks of arriving blood saturation (A1-V1 and A2-V2 in correlated with genetic polymorphisms at a high elevation, an increased number Figure 1). The decrease in PO2 under affecting the α- and/or β-globin por- of RBCs are circulating. The increased hypoxic conditions (A2-V2) is partially tions of the Hb molecule, which either hemoglobin (Hb) allows for increased compensated for because O2 loading and directly increase the O2 affinity of Hb binding of O2 for transport to the cells. unloading is occurring over a steeper or decrease its sensitivity to allosteric However, this response also needs to be portion of the ODC. Thus, despite a cofactors (Weber 2007; Storz et al., 2010; carefully modulated. Excessive polycy- significantly smaller difference in PO2 McCracken et al., 2009). themia can increase the viscosity of the between arterial and venous blood, the The α- and β-globin subunits of adult blood, lower cardiac output, and result amount of O2 delivered is nearly the Hb are surprisingly variable, but only in other adverse outcomes (Gore et al., same as the normoxic example given a few sites have been demonstrated to

2007; Storz et al., 2010; Naeije, 2010; (A1-V1). make significant contributions to O2 Cheviron and Brumfield, 2012). The second challenge is to maintain binding affinity (Weber, 2007). One ex-

In addition to this physiologic re- adequate PO2 to drive diffusion at the ample of molecular adaptation is found sponse, various genes in the HIF path- tissue capillaries. Adequately addressing in Andean camelids: llamas and vicuñas. way exhibit polymorphisms, presumably these dual challenges of maintaining ad- The high O2 affinity of their Hb is cor- from mutations (i.e., changes in the equate O2 delivery and PO2 at the tissue related with an amino acid substitution DNA sequence), which are associated capillaries may require a change in the in the second residue of the β-globin with an adaptive phenotype at high affinity of Hb for O2, which will result polypeptide which decreases binding altitudes. The egl nine homolog 1 in a change in the shape and position of of DPG. The vicuña, which inhabits (EGLN1) protein, also known as prolyl- the ODC. Figure 2 (p. 136) illustrates a the highest elevations (4,000–5,000

4-hydroxylase domain 2 (PHD2), is a decrease in O2 binding affinity resulting meters) and has the highest oxygen af- key enzyme in hydroxylation of HIF-α. in a right shift in the ODC (red), and an finity, possesses an additional amino acid

Endothelial PAS domain protein 1 increase in O2 binding affinity resulting substitution in the α-globin polypeptide (EPAS1) is another name for HIF-2α. in a left shift in the ODC (green). (Storz, 2007). The peroxisome proliferator-activated A number of factors can shift the The most extensive research on receptor-α (PPARA) also affects erythro- ODC, including changes in pH (Bohr genetic adaptation in Hb has been car- poiesis. Genetic variants in these three effect) and temperature. The body ried out on deer mice, which inhabit genes are found in Tibetans and are asso- can also change the concentration of elevations from below sea level in Death ciated with lower Hb levels (compatible allosteric cofactors within the RBC to Valley to 4,300 meters in some mountain with those of lowlanders at sea level) and modulate Hb-O2 affinity. The most po- ranges within North America. Lowland protection against chronic mountain tent example in mammals is 2, 3-diphos- populations differ from those at high- sickness compared to other humans phogylcerate (DPG), which decreases altitude by 8 amino acid substitutions living at high altitudes (Cheviron and Hb-O2 affinity by binding and stabilizing in the α-chain and 4 in the β-chain

Brumfield, 2012; Haase, 2013). the deoxygenated conformation. This subunit. The high Hb-O2 affinity in Another strategy for dealing with the will shift the ODC to the right and fa- alpine populations appears to be from decline in PO2 is to adjust the affinity of cilitate unloading of O2 at the tissues. An reduced binding affinity with allosteric – Hb for O2. Ideally, it is best if Hb binds increase in DPG has been documented cofactors (DPG and Cl ions) and is as- strongly to O2 when it picks it up (load- to occur in humans within 24 hours of sociated with a greater maximal rate of ing) at the lungs but releases it readily ascent to a very high altitude (Storz et al., O2 consumption at high altitudes. This when delivering (unloading) it to the 2010; Cheviron and Brumfield, 2012). allows for greater aerobic activity and tissues. The binding affinity of Hb to 2O A right shift in the ODC is thought thermogenic capacity in these active, changes with PO2, but this change is not to be most adaptive under moderate non-hibernating rodents. Interestingly, linear. The relationship is described by hypoxia and is readily accomplished the lowland genotype is correlated with a the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve through phenotypic plasticity. In severe higher maximal rate of O2 consumption (ODC; Figure 1, p. 136). hypoxia, a left shift can be more benefi- at low altitudes (Storz, 2007; Cheviron Volume 50, Winter 2014 135 and Brumfield, 2012; Natarajan et al., In contrast, studies have shown that different altitudes were tested after ac- 2013). some high-altitude species have adap- climating to a common low-altitude Genetic adaptation is usually be- tations improving diffusion. The bar- environment (i.e., common garden lieved to require extensive periods of headed goose has an increased number conditions). It remains to be elucidated time. However, Andean chickens, which of capillaries in the flight muscle and as to whether the underlying basis of were introduced to that region about 500 heart in addition to mitochondria that differential gene expression is from years ago, have a higher Hb-O2 affinity are redistributed closer to these capillar- genetic- or epigenetic-based differences than their lowland counterparts. This ies. These morphologic features appear (Cheviron et al., 2012). putatively genetic characteristic was to be genetic, as previous exposure to retained after moving some to a low high altitude is not required for their ap- altitude for a year, and it was passed on pearance. However, not all high-altitude Failure in the to their offspring (Velarde et al., 1991). species have this phenotype (Storz et al., Adjustment Process There was a gradual trend toward a 2010). This indicates that there is varia- The previous sections highlight some lower Hb-O2 affinity over the lifetime tion in the genetic responses of different of the most elementary components of in both generations. This has not been high-altitude populations. adaptation to high altitudes. God’s crea- characteristic of other high-altitude spe- tures were not only designed to be able cies transferred to long-term residence at to make the necessary adjustments, but low altitude (León-Velarde et al., 1997). Adjusting Oxygen Utilization there is also interindividual variation al- Thus, it could be that this is a heritable to Accommodate the Supply lowing for a response that meets specific epigenetic trait. Apparently no investiga- There is also variability in the response individual needs. This certainly testifies tion to identify Hb polymorhpisms has of the tissue as lowland species become to a wise and caring Creator. However, been published. acclimatized to high altitudes. Meta- given the reality of the Curse, failure in bolic capacity may decrease in muscle the process is expected to occur. tissue through reductions in cell size and Acute mountain sickness (AMS) Increasing Diffusion number of mitochondria. A shift in fuel can occur when ascending rapidly to a

to the Tissue Mitochondria preference may also help decrease O2 high altitude. Symptoms appear within

As mentioned, sufficient PO2 in the blood demand (Storz et al., 2010). In athletes a day or two and may include headache, is necessary to drive the diffusion of O2 training under simulated high-altitude gastrointestinal upset (nausea, vomiting, from the blood to the tissue mitochon- conditions, adaptations were observed and/or anorexia), fatigue, dizziness, and dria, where it is used. Theoretically, O2 that allowed better coupling between insomnia. Symptoms tend to be more diffusion capacity could be increased to energy use and production sites resulting severe with a more rapid rate of ascent, offset some of the decline in PO2 relative in improved mitochondrial efficiency higher altitude, and more physical to sea-level values. This could be accom- (Gore et al., 2007). However, in other exertion. However, for most people plished by increasing the density and dis- instances mitochondrial efficiency is they resolve within three days to a week tribution of capillaries in the tissues and/ merely sustained or even impaired (Beidleman, et al., 2013). or changing the cellular arrangement (Storz et al., 2010). Sometimes AMS will progress to a of the mitochondria (Storz et al., 2010). One study in deer mice, which have more severe and potentially fatal syn- While the transcription factor HIF is also high thermoregulatory demands, dem- drome: high-altitude pulmonary edema known to affect angiogenesis (Gore et onstrates that changes in expression lev- (HAPE) or high-altitude cerebral edema. al., 2007; Semenza, 2004), it is unclear els for genes in the oxidative phosphory- In the case of the former, there is an how much vascular remodeling occurs lation and fatty acid oxidation pathways exaggerated pulmonary vasoconstriction when adult lowland species become ac- contribute to an adaptive enhancement response to hypoxia with resulting hyper- climatized to high altitude. Some of the of thermogenic capacity in high-altitude tension and increased leakage of fluid debate over this may be related to differ- populations. This is intriguing, as fatty from the vessels as a result of this stress. It ences in interindividual responses, which acid utilization produces more energy is a condition that has claimed the lives produce ambiguous results within and per gram than carbohydrates but re- of strong, young mountain climbers over between studies. Storz and colleagues quires more O2. Therefore, the altera- the centuries. Though these conditions (2010) conclude that there appears to be tions in the oxidative phosphorylation are serious and potentially fatal, they negligible plasticity in the morphological pathway appear necessary to allow for can be readily reversed if recognized capacity for O2 diffusion during high- the increased use of lipids as a fuel early and treated promptly. Prevention altitude acclimatization. source. The wild-caught mice from and treatment is based on giving one’s 136 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 1. An oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve (ODC) Figure 2. Examples of changes in shape and position has a sigmoidal shape. A1 and A2 represent theoretical that can occur in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation examples of arterial blood under normoxic and hypoxic curve (ODC). A right shift (red) can result from a conditions, respectively. V1 and V2 are the corresponding drop in pH or an increase in temperature or allosteric values for venous blood after oxygen (O2) unloading at the cofactors that decrease O2-hemoglobin affinity. Un- tissues. The difference between arterial and venous (A1-V1 der cases of mild hypoxia, a right shift can often be and A2-V2) values on the x-axis shows the difference in PO2 beneficial as it facilitates 2O unloading at the tissues. between the normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Note that A left shift (green) can result from an increase in pH the amount of O2 delivered to the tissues (the change in or a decrease in temperature or allosteric cofactors value on the y-axis) is almost the same in both cases be- affecting O2-hemoglobin affinity. The latter is viewed cause O2 was loaded and unloaded over a steeper portion as the most advantageous under extreme hypoxia since of the curve in the second case. The shape and position it maximizes O2 loading in the arteries and both load- of the ODC will often change under varying conditions, ing and unloading occur over a very steep portion of as illustrated in Figure 2. the curve. Adaptive mutations that affect hemoglobin affinity resulting in a left-shifted ODC are found in various endotherms that have lived for generations at high altitude.

body the time to adapt: ascending more 2012b; Luo et al., 2012c; Srivastava et et al., 2012a). Finally, the overall health slowly, avoiding extremely high altitudes, al., 2012). However, despite the inten- and behavioral choices of the individual decreasing physical activity, and add- sity of research on this serious disease, greatly impact the development of the ing supplemental oxygen to alleviate is has been difficult to elucidate the disease (Paralikar, 2012). symptoms if it becomes necessary. There pathogenesis of this condition. This People living long-term at altitudes are also some medications that can be is partially because the disease is rare, over 2500 meters may develop a syn- helpful for individuals who are more making it difficult to obtain a large drome known as chronic mountain sick- susceptible (Paralikar, 2012). enough sample size for statistical com- ness (CMS). Symptoms vary somewhat, Studies suggest that genetic poly- parisons. Further, there are numerous but commonly include breathlessness morphisms in mitochondrial DNA, biological pathways interacting to and/or palpitations, cyanosis, decreased genes of the renin-angiotensin-aldo- maintain homeostasis under hypoxic exercise tolerance, headache, impaired sterone system, and genes of several stress. This explains why a number of mental function, tinnitus, and paraesthe- other pathways may affect the risk of different polymorphisms have been sia (tingling or other skin sensations with HAPE (Luo et al., 2012a; Luo et al., implicated as having some effect (Luo no obvious physical cause). Underlying Volume 50, Winter 2014 137 features include excessive pulmonary endotherms, it would seem that these produced some impressive literature hypertension (which is correlated with genetic changes are merely a further co- that is largely ignored in popular-level maladaptive pulmonary vascular remod- ordinated response to the high-altitude evolutionary explanations. It is well rec- eling that increases the diffusion bar- environment. ognized in this field that the frequency rier) and/or excessively high hematocrit. This idea that physiologic adaptation of a particular lineage will fluctuate These symptoms will normally disappear is somehow linked to evolution (i.e., over time; this is termed genetic drift. within a few weeks if the person moves genetic change) actually was suggested It is well established in this naturalistic to a low altitude (Hainsworth and Drink­ by evolutionists over a hundred years model that most beneficial mutations hill, 2007; Naeije and Vanderpool, 2013; ago (reviewed in Kirschner and Gerhart, that arise would be lost due to genetic Gonzales et al., 2013). 2005). It has never been a popular part drift! Of those that survive drift, they CMS has not been documented of evolutionary explanations for several are unlikely to become prominent or among the Ethiopians of the East Af- reasons. It fails to account for major ana- fixed in a population unless they have rican high-altitude plateau. It is rare tomical innovations (e.g., eyes or wings). a large selective advantage, something among Tibetans. Andeans are more It also requires the preexistence of well- that would be absent where phenotypic susceptible to this disease. A recent integrated, complex systems that allow plasticity allows for robust adaptation genome-wide association study identi- for both physiologic and genetic change. (Patwa and Wahl, 2008). fied 11 regions associated with CMS These preexisting systems clearly exist, Population genetics models did susceptibility in Andeans. Two genes but neo-Darwinian mechanisms cannot not predict the patterns of change we (SENP1, a regulator of erythropoiesis, account for their origin or the observed observe. The idea that many mutations and ANP32D, an oncogene) from these adaptive changes within them. of miniscule effect should be the under- regions were transcribed at a higher level lying basis of evolution was reinforced in response to hypoxia in individuals by the work of Ronald A. Fisher, who with CMS compared to those without. Failure of Neo-Darwinian showed that as the size of the mutational Further studies of the orthologs in flies Mechanisms to Account effect increased, the probability that indicate that down-regulation of these for Observations it would be beneficial became vanish- genes enhanced survival in flies exposed The neo-Darwinian mechanisms of ran- ingly small. This was largely due to the to hypoxia (Zhou et al., 2013). This dom mutation and natural selection are effects of pleiotropy, where a mutation again highlights the point that the more proffered as a naturalistic explanation for can affect a number of characters, some we study adaptation to high altitude, the genetic adaptation. It is well known that in a positive way and others in a nega- more it is evident that an astounding mutations aren’t truly random in that tive way. Yet the reality is that we have a array of genes needs to be properly con- there are hotspots where they occur far number of clear examples where one or trolled for maintenance of homeostasis. more frequently. However, it is assumed a few mutations of sizable effect underlie that mutations are essentially errors, in- adaptation (Orr, 2005). duced either by environmental insults Evolution by natural selection An Obvious Trend (e.g., UV radiation) or replication errors should occur only if each mutation Endotherms exhibit a profoundly that are not properly repaired (Akashi added provides some benefit. Further, complex, well-integrated response to and Yoshikawa, 2013). If mutations are only a few steps are predicted to occur high-altitude hypoxic stress. As a lowland biased to produce beneficial changes, in a typical adaptive walk (Orr, 2005). species adapts to a high altitude, there it would be evidence of design, which This creates a serious problem when are immediate effects (spike in ventila- is rejected a priori by evolutionists. Of attempting to account for the dozen tion and increased cardiac output) that course, random mutation and natural amino acid substitutions in the two Hb subside as more long-term adjustments selection are believed responsible for far subunits of high-altitude-adapted deer are made. Young mammals developing more than just the type of adaptation ac- mice. Epistasis was demonstrated among at high altitudes have been shown to cepted by biblical creationists; they are these adaptive mutations (Natarajan, adapt even more than adults (e.g., in invoked to explain the origin of all the 2013). This epistasis would obstruct the remodeling alveoli and vasculature to diverse life-forms today from a putative pathway of an adaptive walk. improve diffusion between lungs and the common ancestor—a natural history at Although some newer models do blood). Populations that have lived for odds with the biblical history of original allow for mutations of sizable effect, generations at high altitudes often carry created kinds. they do so by ignoring the reality of adaptive genetic changes. Given how The field of population genetics, nonlethal harmful mutations (Orr, effectively adaptation occurs in most which is highly mathematical, has 2005). Most mutations are near neutral 138 Creation Research Society Quarterly and not significantly affected by natural the Flood for any of the unclean kinds also violates the assumptions of models selection. Realistic numerical simula- on the ark. The variety added by these using statistical tests to identify selec- tion shows that deleterious mutations, mutations can be adaptive. So at the tion, meaning that where biased gene which would be far more frequent than very least, some genes were designed to conversion is occurring to a significant beneficial ones unless mutations are allow for adaptive mutations. Given the degree, it is being mistaken for natural biased to be beneficial, would become amazing responsiveness of endotherms selection. So while considerably more fixed in a population via genetic drift at to environmental challenges, it is rea- research needs to be done to establish a rate that vastly exceeds the rate that sonable to assume that many mutations the significance of these meiotic muta- beneficial ones are fixed. This means may be biased to be at least potentially tions, it already appears that the Creation postulating more time for beneficial adaptive. This would account for why model provides the most robust scien- mutations to arise and become fixed will most mutations seem to be near neutral; tific explanation for genetic adaptation. result in a staggering load of deleterious their effect is often difficult to discern genetic mutations. Rupe and Sanford without extensive study, and they may (2013) term this phenomenon “Hal- be advantageous only in a limited set of Summary dane’s ratchet.” Thus, natural selection circumstances. God created His creatures to repro- of randomly generated mutations is not It is clear that when adaptive mu- duce and fill the earth, and so they a plausible mechanism for the genetic tations arise, natural selection is not have. Even today He provides for His adaptation that is observed. an adequate mechanism to preserve creatures in amazing ways so they can them. The vast majority would be lost adapt to some incredible challenges. to genetic drift. Therefore, God must High-altitude adaptation is one example Explanatory Value have designed some way for adaptive where numerous changes must be ef- of the Creation Model mutations to increase in frequency in fectively made so that life can inhabit If neo-Darwinism cannot account for populations. In some instances individu- even some surprisingly high regions of genetic changes that allow creatures to als with adaptive alleles might be the the world. In some instances there can adapt to new environments, it certainly ones that migrate into a new area. In this be failure in the process, highlighting cannot account for the origin of the case the adaptive alleles would become the fact that we live in a world that has complex, well-integrated pathways that common in the resulting population due been cursed because of sin. Yet in most allow for adaptation to begin with. In to the founder effect. Yet it appears that cases the process of adaptation proceeds contrast, the biblical creation model more than this is occurring. A coherent remarkably well. Immediate, short-term accounts elegantly for all these obser- creation model predicts that many mu- responses are followed by longer-term, vations. Creatures can adapt to new tations are biased to be beneficial and more sustainable responses. For mam- environments, which present challenges that a created mechanism must exist mals and birds that have lived for that may not have been encountered to increase allele frequency of adaptive generations at high altitudes, genetic by their ancestors. This is attributable mutations. changes have been identified, reflect- to the fact that there is a Creator who The exciting part is that recent sci- ing a more permanent response. In all designed them with the capability to entific research provides evidence that these details, it is clear that we have an adapt to new environmental challenges. biased mutations could likely be the case awesome Creator who provides for the As a result of the Curse, not everything (reviewed in Lightner, 2013). It is well needs of His creatures. works perfectly today. There is enough known that homologous recombina- disease and death to make it clear the tion, which occurs during meiosis, can world is broken; this should lead us to change the DNA sequence. This process Abbreviations recognize that we need a Savior. Yet is initiated by enzyme-induced double- AMS — acute mountain sickness when examined in detail, it is clear that stranded DNA breaks. While crossing Cl– — chloride adaptation is an amazing process that we over is the best-known outcome, gene CMS — chronic mountain sickness have barely begun to understand. conversion may actually be more com- CO2 — carbon dioxide There are a number of genes where mon. Other break-repair mechanisms DPG — 2, 3, diphosphoglycerate; also mutations have occurred since the incorporate other changes into the known as 2, 3 biphosphoglycerate Flood (Lightner 2008, 2009). We know DNA sequence. Further, biased gene (BPG) this because, regardless of the standing conversion has been documented to EPO — erythropoietin, a hormone variation at Creation, a maximum of 4 al- occur in mammals. Biased gene conver- that stimulates erythropoiesis, the leles would have been preserved through sion would increase allele frequency. It production of RBCs Volume 50, Winter 2014 139

[H+] — hydrogen ion concentration altitudes. Respiratory Physiology & Neu- polymorphisms and high-altitude pul- Hb — hemoglobin robiology 188:152–160. monary edema susceptibility: a 2011 HAPE — high altitude pulmonary Gore, C.J., S.A. Clark, and P.U. Saunders. update. Respiration 84(2): 155–162. edema 2007. Nonhematological mechanisms McCracken, K.G., C.P. Barger, M. Bulgar- HIF — hypoxia inducible factor of improved sea-level performance after ella, K.P. Johnson, S.A. Sonsthagen, J.

O2 — oxygen hypoxic exposure. Medicine and Science Trucco, T.H. Valqui, R.E. Wilson, K. ODC — oxygen dissociation curve in Sports and Exercise 39(9): 1600–1609. Winker, and M.D. Sorenson. 2009. Par-

PCO2 — partial pressure of carbon Haase, V.H. 2013. Regulation of erythro­ allel evolution in the major haemoglobin dioxide poiesis by hypoxia-inducible factors. genes of eight species of Andean water-

PO2 — partial pressure of oxygen Blood Reviews 27:41–53. fowl. Molecular Ecology 18:3992–4005. RBC — red blood cell Hainsworth, R., and M.J. Drinkhill. 2007. Naeije, R. 2010. Physiological adaptation of Cardiovascular adjustments for life at the cardiovascular system to high alti- high altitudes. Respiratory Physiology & tude. Progress in Cardiovascular Disease Acknowledgments Neurobiology 158:204–211. 52:456–466. This research was supported by funds Kirschner, M.W., and J.C. Gerhart. 2005. Naeije, R., and R. Vanderpool. 2013. Pulmo- from the Creation Research Society. The Plausibility of Life: Resolving Dar- nary hypertension and chronic mountain win’s Dilemma. Yale University Press, sickness. High Altitude Medicine & Biol- New Haven, CT. ogy 14(2): 117–125. References León-Velarde, F., O. Mejía, J.A. Palacios, Natarajan, C., N. Inoguchi, R.E. Weber, A. Ainslie, P.N., S.J.J. Lucas, and K.R. Bur- and C. Monge. 1997. Changes in whole Fago, H. Moriyama, and J.F. Storz. 2013. gess. 2013. Breathing and sleep at high blood oxygen affinity and eggshell Epistasis among adaptive mutations altitude. Respiratory Physiology & Neu- permeability in high altitude chickens in deer mouse hemoglobin. Science robiology 188(3): 233–256. http://dx.doi. translocated to sea level. Compara- 340:1324–1327. org/10.1016/j.resp.2013.05.020 tive Biochemistry and Physiology. Part Orr, H.A. 2005. The genetic theory of ad- Akashi, M., and H. Yoshikawa. 2013. Rel- B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology aptation: a brief history. Nature Reviews. evance of GC content to the conserva- 118(1): 53–57. Genetics 6:119–127. tion of DNA polymerase III/mismatch Lightner, J.K. 2008. Genetics of coat color Paralikar, S.J. 2012. High altitude pulmonary repair system in Gram-positive bacteria. I: the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R). edema — clinical features, pathophysiol- Frontiers in Microbiology 4:266. doi: Answers Research Journal 1:109–116. ogy, prevention and treatment. Indian 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00266 Lightner, J.K. 2009. Karyotypic and allelic Journal of Occupational and Environ- Beidleman, B.A., H. Tighiouart, C.H. diversity within the canid baramin (Cani- mental Medicine 16(2): 59–62. Schmid, C.S. Fulco, and S.R. Muza. dae). Journal of Creation 23(1): 94–98 Patwa, Z., and L.M. Wahl. 2008. The fixa- 2013. Predictive models of acute moun- Lightner, J.K. 2013. Meiotic recombina- tion probability of beneficial mutations. tain sickness after rapid ascent to various tion—designed for inducing genomic Journal of the Royal Society Interface altitudes. Medicine & Science in Sports change. Journal of Creation 27(1): 7–10. 5:1279–1289. & Exercise 45(4): 792–800. Luo, Y.J., W.X. Gao, S.Z. Li, X.W. Huang, Ravikurma, P., D.J. Bellotto, R.L. Johnson Cheviron, Z.A., and R.T. Brumfield. 2012. Y. Chen, F.Y. Liu, Q.Y. Huang, and Y.Q. Jr., and C.C.W. Hsia. 2009. Permanent Genomic insights into adaptation to Gao. 2012a. Mitochondrial haplogroup alveolar remodeling in canine lung in- high-altitude environments. Heredity D4 confers resistance and haplogroup B duced by high-altitude residence during 108:354–361. is a genetic risk factor for high-altitude maturation. Journal of Applied Physiol- Cheviron, Z.A., G.C. Bachman, A.D. Con- pulmonary edema among Han Chinese. ogy 107:1911–1917. naty, G.B. McClelland, and J.F. Storz. Genetics and Molecular Research 11(4): Rupe, C.L., and J.C. Sanford. 2013. Using 2012. Regulatory changes contribute to 3658–3667. numerical simulation to better under- the adaptive enhancement of thermo- Luo, Y., W. Gao, Y. Chen, F. Liu, and Y. stand fixation rates, and establishment genic capacity in high-altitude deer mice. Gao. 2012b. Rare mitochondrial DNA of a new principle: Haldane’s ratchet. In PNAS 109(22): 8635–8640. polymorphisms are associated with high Horstemeyer, Mark (editor), Proceedings Gonzales, G.F., J. Rubio, and M. Gasco. altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) sus- of the Seventh International Conference 2013. Chronic mountain sickness score ceptibility in Han Chinese. Wilderness & on Creationism (Digital edition). Cre- was related with health status score but Environmental Medicine 23(2): 128–32. ation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA.

not with hemoglobin levels at high Luo, Y., Y. Zou, and Y. Gao. 2012c. Gene Semenza, G.L. 2004. O2-regulated gene 140 Creation Research Society Quarterly

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Volume 50, Winter 2014 141 Clarifying Four Meanings for “Worldview”

Steven Chisham*

Abstract ecause the majority of authors and speakers discussing the world- Bview concept have focused primarily on its effects and not its causes, they have been largely unsuccessful at clearly defining the initial origin and functional operation of the human worldview in certain key ways. Lacking this clarity, the term “worldview” is often used intuitively and even inaccurately. Moreover, different senses of the term are used as if all meanings were equivalent. The result, unfortunately, is that an individual may simultaneously reference distinctly different aspects of the worldview paradigm, thus either causing confusion by his or her statements or perhaps even becoming confused as to what he or she is actually discussing. Hence, four distinct potential meanings for “world- view” are identified and clarified: the worldview mechanism, worldview structure, worldview perspective(s), and the social worldview. It is this last sense, which is a second-order construct of the individual’s worldview perspective, where one will find collective views such as the creationist worldview and atheistic worldview.

This, I think, I may at least say, that we should have a great many fewer disputes in the world, if words were taken for what they are, the Introduction potentially making it invisible! Indeed, signs of our ideas only; and It is important to understand the hu- it can be like trying to remove one’s own not for things themselves…. man worldview because it provides eye to better understand its limitations And if men would tell what the conceptual tool a person uses to and examine its defects. ideas they make their words understand both himself and the mean- Complicating this already difficult ing of his existence. Unfortunately, for matter, people often equivocate on stand for, there could not be that very reason it can be tremendously different meanings and unknowingly half that obscurity or wran- difficult to grasp. Our worldview is switch between nuanced meanings, ap- gling in the search or support such an immediate component of our plying characteristics to one aspect that perceptual mechanism that in evaluat- belong to another. Chisham (2012) did of truth that there is. ing it, it becomes nearly impossible to not specifically label these meanings, (John Locke, 1690, III:10.5) differentiate reality from perception, but did describe their systematic interac- tion in perceiving and predicting truth. Consequently, it seems best to clarify these so the various senses of meaning * Steven Chisham, Wichita KS, [email protected] can be utilized properly and interrelated Accepted for publication January 23, 2014 correctly and clearly. 142 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Potential Meanings worldview, a Republican or Libertarian the worldview structure (created by the for the Term “Worldview” worldview, and an atheistic or com- worldview mechanism). He is speaking The first meaning for “worldview” refers munistic worldview. These essentially of a reservoir into which one’s world- to the overall functional system generat- express Gaussian distributions of opin- view perspectives are inserted (i.e., the ing one’s opinions. We will call this the ion for topical areas of social interest, answers to that “final” question: How do worldview mechanism. Chisham defines reflecting societal influences upon col- I understand myself relative to ultimate this process, pointing out that a world- lective populations. It should never be truth?). view is a natural by-product of rational- forgotten, however, that worldviews are In our next example, R. C. Sproul’s ity. Because rationality drives it, people first and foremost personal. Thus, social website introduces his “Christian World- will typically develop their worldview worldviews are merely second-order ex- view” teaching series with the claim, only as far as their rationality demands pressions of views accepted or adopted “Everyone has a worldview, a framework (Chisham, 2012, p. 70). Consequently, by individuals. that helps them to interpret reality and some will think deeply, while others answer life’s ultimate questions. Many may focus only on areas of personal in- people, however, are unaware of their terest, and still others may seem to care Discerning These Differences presuppositions” (Sproul, 2013). The very little about developing their ideas in the Discussion first sentence refers to a ubiquitous on broader worldview issues. However, of Worldview “worldview framework,” referring to the even the latter may exhibit a surprising Note carefully that the worldview mecha- worldview structure, while the second outburst of anger when a moral nerve is nism and the worldview structure it sentence speaks of “presuppositions,” touched, indicating they do hold some creates are objective aspects of human indicating specific worldview perspec- things to be universally true! reality, not just “notions.” Their exis- tives. Sproul is clear but moves from a A second meaning for “worldview” tence is not at all optional, imaginary, universal to particulars without warning, mentioned by Chisham (2012, p. 70) or subjective. Rather, these two aspects as if they were the same. comes from the fact that this worldview of worldview are quite real, predictable, Notice how this division fades with mechanism automatically creates a “file” and, frankly, nonnegotiable. They rep- Francis Schaeffer (1990, p. 132): “Let us and thereafter uses it for reference. This resent how humans actually think and remember that every person we speak to, functions like a jar where one deposits the mental structures and substructures whether shop girl or university student, his answers to the universal worldview created as a result. The third item, how- has a set of presuppositions, whether he question Chisham identifies (i.e. How ever—one’s personal worldview perspec- or she has analyzed them or not.” In one do I understand myself relative to ulti- tive—is subjective and unique for each sense, he acknowledges a universal “set mate truth?), indicating a certain retain- individual, consisting of various subjec- of presuppositions” (i.e., the worldview ing object within the human psyche— tive personal notions or observations on structure), but the presuppositions them- the worldview structure, if you will. life. Because the social worldview is a selves represent the individual’s unique Third, every individual places his second-order expression of one’s world- worldview perspectives; so in a sense he personal worldview perspective(s), or view perspective, it also is subjective; but fails to distinguish the universal from truth values that define his unique this is not always clear to the individual the specific. system of thought, into this container because his surrounding community This can become increasingly uncer- we labeled worldview structure. One’s seems to hold a very similar view. It is tain in the context of a live discussion personal worldview perspective (singular often only by comparison to other cul- because at any moment the speaker or when referring to the collective whole, tures that one can perceive the influence author may begin with universal con- plural when referring to certain specific of his or her cultural paradigms. cepts (the worldview mechanism or world- values) is what most people are referring So, for example, when Summit view structure) and without warning turn to when they talk about “worldview” (or Ministries founder David Noebel says, to particulars of a worldview perspective, think they are, anyway). “Every individual bases his thoughts, as if the principle and the position were Fourth, and finally, a social world- decisions, and actions on a worldview” one in the same. In the blink of an eye, view is a person’s worldview perspective (Noebel, 1997, p. 1), he is not suggesting the discussion may flip between the two, within his social context. Usually the everyone holds the same opinions on confusing both participants. social worldview is stated as the ag- life! Rather, he is referring to a collection This extremely common error con- gregate opinion of a group. Examples of opinions serving a specific, unified fuses the information in the jar (world- of this might include a Christian or function—a collective truth definition view perspectives) with the jar itself Hindu worldview, a German or Asian matrix, if you will. He is indicating (worldview framework). David Naugle Volume 50, Winter 2014 143

demonstrates this problem when he definition had not already been found. However, it might be suggested that claims, The fact that so many have found this Naugle is looking at the backside of the Presently I will show how any theory elusive for so long points to a different tapestry. Certainly, semiotics plays a or definition of “worldview” is itself fact: extracting your own worldview is role in the worldview mechanism. (If you a function of the actual worldview tremendously difficult when discussing think about it, language is nothing more of the theorist or the definer…. it, whether conceptually, personally, or than symbolic sense or sense-derivative What nuances, in other words, does otherwise. This is because separating information used programmatically to Christian theism as a Weltanschau- your personal definitions from concepts create sentences describing more com- ung impart to the notion of Weltan- and other people’s ideas (while people plex thoughts.) René Descartes made a schauung itself? ... A worldview is a are freely interchanging terms) sim- similar epistemological mistake in think- semiotic system of narrative signs ply becomes mentally overwhelming. ing his “method of doubt” was the basis that has a significant influence on Little wonder that confusion ensues! of knowledge. Consider the sequence the fundamental human activities Furthermore, as Chisham points out, by which humans come to know things of reasoning, interpreting, and the common definition everyone seeks (in reverse order): (3) You cannot use knowing. I begin here with a look is probably best posed as a question, symbolism (in the case of Naugle) or at how any view of “worldview” is not a statement (Chisham, 2012). If doubt (in the case of Descartes), which itself worldview-dependent. (Naugle, Naugle’s anthropologists were hoping both involve rationalization, without 2002, p. 253) everyone could agree on a uniform having already acquired a language. Interestingly, the title of Naugle’s worldview perspective, they were in (2) Language, however, is necessarily book is Worldview: The History of a error, for they would have to share a acquired through first-order sense expe- Concept, indicating there is a single single mind to have a single perspective, rience. Thus, (1) analogy-to-self (i.e., via concept. He intuitively senses a single, which is clearly physically impossible. personal sense experience) is the basis underlying concept toward which he is The fact they could not demonstrates upon which language and, subsequently, reaching but fails to precisely identify they could not separate concepts from rationality are built. Consequently, what that concept is. In this case, he beliefs. Understanding the four usages the proper rubric for understanding is infusing “weltanschauung” with two discussed here likely have would solved worldview is simply that people acquire meanings: (1) the definition for the their dilemma. knowledge by way of analogy-to-self. As concept (worldview structure) and (2) Contemporary usage of “worldview” Chisham explains by way of an analogy the definitions provided by the concept typically refers to what we have labeled to matter, (worldview perspectives). Further con- the worldview perspective and/or world- In summary, sense experiences fusing the matter, in common usage view structure. It is extremely rare to find provide the particles from which “Weltanschauung” typically refers to any writers who even attempt discussing language is formed, and language a social worldview. Later in the same the worldview mechanism as a functional provides the matter out of which chapter, Naugle demonstrates that an system. Most people cannot even put the intellectual thoughts are constructed. entire conference of anthropologists fell terms “mechanism” and “worldview” in Lacking initial sense experience, into the same error. the same sentence, until the principles none of this intellectual hierarchy One major goal of this gathering given in Chisham (2012) describing this will materialize. If a language does was to discuss and define the term global mechanism are explained. Naugle form, some alternative sense proxy “worldview” itself. The conveners’ comes close to stumbling upon this when was found. Thus, every opinion or perspectives were plentiful, their he defines a worldview to be a “semiotic understanding is ultimately trace- agreements few, their negotiations system of narrative signs.” He explains able to individual, not communal mostly unsuccessful. There was a that semiotics (the study of the nature perception—at least not in any pri- simple reason … for their patented and relationships of signs in language) mary sense. (Chisham, 2012, p. 65) lack of progress on this front. As is best conceived as a general theory Consider one final example from Jones tells the story in his report, as of culture, and all cultural studies Chuck Colson and Nancy Pearcey, the conferees were openly discussing can best be explained and under- coauthors of How Now Shall We Live? “worldview,” they were tacitly reveal- stood under the rubric of semiotics. (1999), who use “Creation, Fall, and ing their own. (Naugle, 2002, p.254) This would include the cultural real- Redemption” as a method for under- Noebel’s assertion above that “every- ity and the fundamental mechanism standing worldview. Broad usage of this body’s got a worldview” is so common of Weltanschauung. (Naugle, 2002, three-point shorthand for “worldview” it seems surprising a comprehensive p. 292) can be traced from Reformed teachers 144 Creation Research Society Quarterly such as Kuyper and Dooyeweerd (e.g., who might take offense to the suggestion if they use ambiguous and/or equivo- Pearcey, 2005, p. 26), through Cornelius something had “gone wrong.” Because cated terms. This causes the worldview Van Til to his student Francis Schaef- the points of disagreement are presented concept to appear even more ghostlike fer, and through him to Pearcey and up front in the form of loaded questions, than it is—occurring as an object in one Colson. In fact, Schaeffer influenced they are likely to preclude objective case, a personal perspective in another, many modern worldview thinkers such discussion of core principles, which and a mechanism elsewhere, as if these as David Noebel, founder of Summit in turn precludes resolution. Pearcey different meanings were synonymous. Ministries, and Del Tackett, host of has so thoroughly embedded her own However, diligence and precision regard- Focus on the Family’s The Truth Project. worldview into her definition that she is ing these four meanings of worldview The “Creation, Fall, Redemption” motif not able to articulate the concept generi- can provide more careful and accurate answers three common questions, which cally, having intertwined the universal diagnosis of what is being discussed. Of according to Colson and Pearcey are: principle with her individual perspec- course this comes ultimately from un- (1) Where did we come from? (2) What tive. A better, more neutral restatement derstanding the worldview mechanism went wrong? (3) How do we fix it (p. 14)? of these three time domain questions and its principle question: How do I un- These can be understood as simply past, comes out roughly as: (1) Where did derstand myself relative to eternal reality? present, and future tense (time domain) I come from? (2) How did I get (to) restatements of the universal worldview here? and (3) Where is my life and the question: How do I understand myself universe headed, particularly after I die? Conclusion relative to eternal reality? As such, the Of course, Pearcey’s conclusion is right People have generally defined the term Creation, Fall, redemption sequence in any case because the definition of “worldview” by intuition, sensing an serves as shorthand Christian answers to one’s origin also logically defines one’s underlying principle of interpretation the universal worldview question, thus destiny and the nature of the universe coloring the human perspective without providing the Christian social worldview, for everything in between. ever really carefully dissecting, analyz- as we have defined it. In her book Total Atheism, however, also stands or falls ing, and systematically understanding Truth, Pearcey states: on the question of origins, though Pear­ the worldview. Unfortunately, this in- If the grid of Creation, Fall, and cey fails to recognize this in her state- tuitive usage has led to inaccuracy and Redemption provides a simple and ment. The unintended consequence of sometimes even error. Consequently, effective tool for comparing and con- being self-centric when speaking about this discussion was intended to provide trasting worldviews, it also explains worldview concepts with those holding additional precision to and structural why the biblical teaching of Cre- a different view is that the discussion is definition for “worldview” to facilitate ation is under such relentless attack not particularly useful in helping the onward development of these principles. today. In any worldview, the concept other individuals understand they hold If a worldview’s purpose is to discover of Creation is foundational: As the many of the same sorts of presumptions truth and predict true courses of action, first principle, it shapes everything in many of the same areas. it seems incumbent on us to speak that follows. Critics of Christian- The benefits Pearcey advocates are about the concept itself and its pieces ity know that it stands or falls with achievable for all faith positions—if the in precisely true ways. This paper is not its teaching on ultimate origins. three questions are stated in a neutral intended to be the definitive corrective (Pearcey, 2005, p. 150) way. And, as any Christian apologist reference but merely a step toward She is right about this grid being understands, getting an individual to better dialog in that regard. Thus, four an effective tool for diagnosing world- admit his own presumptions and engage distinct concepts were presented for the view differences—if she is addressing in fair and equitable debate is sometimes term “worldview.” The first and most a Christian—because she presumes 90% of the battle. Understanding the common use refers to the individual’s a Christian perspective as her starting fourfold nature of “worldview” can subjective worldview ideas, or worldview point. In fact, her second and third ques- help Christians understand their own perspective(s). Second, while everyone’s tions presume Christianity (i.e., “What hidden assumptions, as well as create answers are not the same, rationality went wrong?” and “How do we fix it?” an expectation of honest reciprocity in causes the common human experience [cf. Pearcey, 2005, p. 25]), as was also dialog with others. of collecting such answers, forming a the case in How Now Shall We Live? Thus, understanding of the world- mental retaining object or “file” identi- noted above. This presumption would view paradigm’s definitions, concepts, fied herein as the worldview structure. become immediately apparent if these and principles can be impeded by Third, as described by Chisham (2012), same questions were asked of an atheist, those who speak or write about them as well as in this paper, the worldview Volume 50, Winter 2014 145

mechanism is the tool that rationality References Noebel, D. 1997. Understanding the Times, uses to assemble the worldview structure Chisham, S. 2012. Anatomy of a worldview: 8th printing. Harvest House Publishers, and worldview perspective(s) and governs the eternal self-identity. CRSQ 49:63–72. Eugene, OR. the concept, as a whole. Finally, a social Colson, C., and N. Pearcey. 1999. How Now Pearcey, Nancy. 2005. Total Truth: Liberating worldview is a second-order consequence Shall We Live? Tyndale House Publish- Christianity from its Cultural Captivity. of humans rationalizing within social ers, Carol Stream, IL. Good News Publishers, Wheaton, IL. settings. Locke, John. 1690. Essay Concerning Hu- Schaeffer, Francis. 1990. The God Who Is man Understanding. http://www2.hn.psu. There. Good News Publishing. Whea- edu/faculty/jmanis/locke/humanund.pdf ton, IL. (accessed January 23, 2014). Sproul, R.C. 2013. Christian worldview. Naugle, D. 2002. Worldview: The History of Ligonier Ministries, www.ligonier.org/ a Concept. Eerdmans Publishing, Grand learn/series/christian_worldview (ac- Rapids, MI. cessed January 1, 2013). Creation Research Society Quarterly 2014. 50:146–153.

146 Creation Research Society Quarterly Critique of Modern Oort Comet Theory

Wayne Spencer*

Abstract he Oort comet theory proposed in 1950 has been extended and Tmodified by modern research. Creationists have used short-period comets as a young-age indicator and suggested that comets caused impacts on the moon and the earth. The original ideas of Jan Oort from 1950 have been modified by scientists today to deal with difficul- ties in Oort’s original proposals. This paper reviews modern theories on comets, especially regarding the orbital dynamics of the different types of comets. Short-period comets are considered as two separate groups: the Jupiter-family comets and the Halley-type comets. Both groups of short-period comets have a limited “lifetime.” Long-period comets and near-parabolic comets also are considered as the original rationale for the Oort theory. A young-age view suggests that long-period and near-parabolic comets may have been created along their current orbits, headed inbound toward the sun. Naturalistic comet theories have experienced difficulties related to explaining how comets could make the necessary transitions from one type of orbit to another. The Oort theory is also believed to apply to extrasolar planetary systems. This implies that it should be possible to observe interstellar extrasolar comets, yet none have been observed. These issues show that though it is widely accepted by astronomers, the Oort comet theory has not been successful.

Introduction of astronomical units from our sun 1989; Faulkner, 1997; Looy, 2006). Yet In 1950, the well-known Dutch as- where many comets are believed to the concept is widely accepted by the tronomer Jan Hendrik Oort proposed reside (Oort, 1950, 1951). Creationists scientific community, though variations the existence of what is now called have consistently doubted and rejected on the original proposal have been in- the Oort Cloud, a region thousands the concept (Slusher, 1980; DeYoung, vestigated. Many studies of comet orbits and the Oort cloud have taken place, including many types of computer simu- lations. After over 60 years of research on the Oort proposal, it is appropriate to * Wayne Spencer, Irving, TX, evaluate the theory. In fact, a number of [email protected] persistent problems with the Oort theory Accepted for publication January 23, 2014 have not been adequately explained. Volume 50, Winter 2014 147

These include problems related to Today there are additional categories of Short-Period Comets short-period comets (for Halley-type and comets. One category is for those with Creationists have used short-period Jupiter family comets), the number of orbital periods between 20 and 200 years. comets as an argument for a young solar long-period comets observed, and what These are often referred to as Halley-type system for some time. This argument happens to comets in the Oort cloud. comets, or sometimes simply as interme- hinges on the destruction of short-period Another interesting question arises as an diate-period comets. The Halley-type comets and that proposed mechanisms implication of the Oort theory: Why are comets often are in highly inclined and of replacing the short-period comets there not extrasolar interstellar comets sometimes retrograde orbits. Another are inadequate. It was once generally entering our system? class of short-period comets is known thought that short-period comets were It is appropriate to review termi- as Jupiter-family comets (JFCs). JFCs replaced from the Oort cloud as longer- nology on comets and orbits before are observed in orbits that lie mostly period comet orbits are modified by dealing with the Oort theory. Recall between Mars and Jupiter. Their orbits the planets into shorter orbits. Today it that perihelion (often designated with are also more frequently modified than is generally believed that short-period lowercase letter q) is the point on an other comets, even over timescales less comets come from either the Kuiper elliptical orbit that is closest to the sun. than 100 years. A significant number belt (the region from about 30 to 55 Aphelion is the point that is at the great- of JFC objects have been discovered A.U.) or from what is called the “scat- est distance from the sun (designated in recent years by various observations. tered disk” beyond the Kuiper belt. with capital Q). The semimajor axis The JFC objects are defined in terms Faulkner addressed the Kuiper belt as (usually designated with lowercase a) is of something known as the Tisserand a comet source (Faulkner, 1997). The one-half the longer distance across an parameter, which essentially measures Kuiper belt is a plausible source of elliptical orbit, from the perihelion to their tendency to be perturbed by Jupiter the Jupiter-family, short-period comets. the aphelion. Another helpful concept (Danby, 1962; Jewitt, 2004). Short-period comets are still a valid in- regarding orbits is the concept of total The Tisserand parameter is a num- dicator of a young solar system. However, energy, which is defined as the kinetic ber usually defined in relation to Jupiter. because so much has been learned about energy plus the gravitational potential It is used in studying the dynamics of the dynamics of the various classes of energy (usually written as E=T+V). asteroids and comets. The Tisserand pa- short-period comets, there is a need to Gravitational potential energy (V) can rameter, sometimes called the Tisserand update the subject. Halley-type comets be written as -GMsm/r, where G is the invariant or the Tisserand criterion, is are believed by scientists to have longer gravitational constant, Ms is the mass of an application of the restricted, three- lifetimes than the Jupiter-family comets. the sun, m the mass of the comet, and r body problem to comets. It assumes the For example, one estimate of the physi- represents the distance from the sun. If comet’s mass is negligible compared to cal lifetimes of Jupiter-family comets the total energy (E) of an object in orbit Jupiter and that the center of mass of the gives a range between 3,000 and 30,000 is positive, it will travel on a hyperbolic sun and Jupiter as a pair is essentially at years, with 12,000 years being a most orbit and will likely escape the sun’s in- the sun. The Tisserand parameter (TJ) likely time for the object to be visible fluence. If an object has a negative total is defined below and is a constant of (Levison and Duncan, 1997). This ap- energy, it will travel on an elliptical orbit the motion as a small body is perturbed plies to JFC objects near the ecliptic, and will be bound to the sun. If an object by a planet like Jupiter to a good ap- and it supports the view that they come had a total energy of exactly zero, then it proximation. In this equation a, e, and i from the Kuiper belt. One recent list- would follow a parabolic trajectory and represent the semimajor axis, eccentric- ing of known observed comets from the possess an orbital eccentricity of exactly ity, and inclination of the comet orbit. University of Central Florida has 479

1.0. In astronomy, elliptical orbits have The semimajor axis of Jupiter’s orbit, aJ, JFC objects and 70 Halley-type objects eccentricities between 0 and 1.0, and is 5.2 A.U. (Fernandez, 2013). hyperbolic orbits have eccentricities The Halley-type comets (HTCs) greater than 1.0. have presented unique challenges to Comets are grouped into certain comet researchers hoping to explain categories according to the periods of their origin and dynamics. Halley-type their orbits. Short-period comets have comets have Tisserand parameters less long been considered those with orbital If the Tisserand parameter of a comet than 2, their orbits are generally more periods less than 200 years, and long- has a value between 2 and 3, it is usu- inclined than the JFC objects, and a period comets have been those with ally considered a Jupiter-family comet. significant number of them orbit retro- orbital periods greater than 200 years. Main-belt asteroids generally have TJ > 3. grade (orbit inclination is greater than 90 148 Creation Research Society Quarterly degrees). They also tend to have more perihelia would initially be in the region Some conclusions from recent research eccentric orbits and longer periods than of the Kuiper belt. Levison et. al. (2006) on short-period comets include the fol- the Jupiter-family comets. Since their study a scenario in which scattered disk lowing: orbits are more inclined, the Kuiper objects first have their orbits lengthened • It is plausible for orbits of Kuiper-belt belt is not a plausible source for many by the outer planets to put them in the objects to be modified by influence of them. Thus, some scientists argue Oort cloud. They may stay in the Oort of the outer planets into centaur or they originate from the Oort cloud. On cloud for a long period of time, but they Jupiter-family comet orbits. the other hand, it has been argued that eventually have a tendency to come • Both Jupiter-family comets and if they were from the Oort cloud, their near Neptune. Neptune can then alter Halley-type comets have a short life- orbits would cover a greater range of the orbit so that the perihelion is pulled time that is consistent with a young inclination angles and the retrograde in (to about 1 to 4 A.U.), and the orbit solar system. cases would outnumber the prograde tends to have its inclination altered in • Models of the Oort cloud and of cases. However, this is not observed. the process. Thus, Neptune can alter comet orbital dynamics imply there Therefore, some scientists have argued the orbits of scattered-disk objects so that should be more Halley-type objects that the HTC objects come from the they become Halley-type comets. This than are observed. region beyond 55 A.U. distance known scenario works in simulations but often as the scattered disk. “Transneptunian requires times of over a billion years. region” is a broad term that includes Modern observations of objects in Long-period Comets both the Kuiper belt and the scattered the transneptune region have noted a What observation or observations of disk. The distinctions between the few objects that are considered scattered- comet orbits provided the impetus for Edgeworth-Kuiper belt and the scattered disk objects. Extrapolating from these the Oort theory? The observation mo- disk are not totally consistent among re- observations, the implication is that tivating the Oort theory was mainly the searchers. Morbidelli and Brown (2004) there are fewer objects in the scattered- properties of the orbits of the long-period consider Kuiper belt objects those from disk region than models estimate and comets. The long-period comets suggest- about 30 to 50 A.U. distance that are not there are fewer observed Halley-type ed to Oort the existence of another, more likely to interact with Neptune. But the comets than models imply should ex- distant population of source objects, scattered disk starts in the same general ist. Levison et al point out, “So there which are often referred to as the near- region near Neptune and then extends appears to be a discrepancy between parabolic comets. Some long-period out to distances of about 100 to 200 A.U. the value of NSD (d>10) needed by our comets are considered nonperiodic The scattered disk objects, according to model to make enough HTCs and the because they have been observed only Morbidelli and Brown, are more likely observations of the scattered disk, and once near the sun and it is believed they to interact with Neptune. The scattered perhaps with models of Jupiter-family will never be observed again. The term disk is believed to include objects with comet origins” (Levison et al., 2006, p. “near-parabolic” is sometimes taken as a broader range of orbit inclinations. 630). The same authors give a value of synonymous with the term “new comets.” There has been significant debate 69,000 years for what they call the “death A “new” comet would be a comet that among researchers regarding how many rate” of HTC objects. This would be the is approaching its perihelion for the objects are in the scattered disk. Orbital time for these objects to be destroyed first time, thus it would be on its first simulations have generally convinced near the sun, become inactive from loss trip toward the sun. It is debated by sci- researchers that the HTC objects are of volatiles, be captured, collide with entists how many of the near-parabolic not likely to come from the Kuiper belt a planet, or be ejected out of the solar comets are actually “new” comets. A or from Jupiter family comets. system. Observational evidence does not few near-parabolic comets are observed Therefore, the scattered disk is suggest an adequate source to replenish each year. They are in extremely long, becoming the preferred source for these objects. Computer simulations narrow elliptical orbits with eccentrici- replenishing the Halley-type comets. do not explain the HTC objects’ orbital ties being a decimal value very close to The scattered disk is believed to consist characteristics in a plausible way, even 1. An issue that is debated today is how of objects left over from solar system if they did come from the scattered disk. to determine if a long-period comet is formation. Many of them never were in Also, note that the scattered disk is a a new comet or a returning comet; that the Oort cloud, though it is thought that largely hypothetical construct. It is not is, is it on its first trip toward the sun, or some of their orbits would be modified known how many objects are present has it passed its perihelion before? This to put them in the Oort cloud. After at that distance since opportunity to distinction turns out to be an important the formation of the solar system, their observe those objects is very limited. issue in comet studies. Volume 50, Winter 2014 149

Jan Oort’s theory proposed that com- perturb comets out of the comet cloud enough comets to explain observations ets formed along with planetesimals in so they would head inward toward the through history. Today it is generally the region near the outer planets very sun and possibly become observable accepted that the forces that perturb early in the history of our solar system. (Oort, 1950, 1951). comets out of the Oort cloud are three. They would have been deflected out- In order of their importance, they are ward away from the sun occasionally by (1) galactic tidal forces, (2) passing stars, the outer planets into longer orbits that Modern Modifications and (3) occasional nearby giant mo- put their aphelia at distances on the to the Theory lecular clouds. The galactic forces from order of tens of thousands of A.U. from Modern theory attempts to explain com- the plane of the Milky Way galaxy are the sun. Oort (1951) reasoned that the ets by thinking of them as if moving up believed to be the most effective of these cloud would range in distances from the and down a ladder. Some of the steps forces in nudging comets out of the Oort sun from approximately 30,000 A.U. to in the ladder were not envisioned by cloud and sending them inward toward 150,000 A.U. Estimates both from Oort Jan Oort. The comets with the longest the sun so that they may be observed. and more recent scientists suggest the orbits are those referred to as the near- A second change from Oort’s original number of comets in the Oort cloud parabolic comets, whose aphelia are in concept regards short-period comets. It would be approximately 1011. Oort also the farthest regions of the Oort cloud. was thought that short-period comets considered that if an object reached These represent the “top” of the ladder. could have come from the Oort cloud, distances of tens of thousands of A.U. Then there are long-period comets with as could long-period comets. But from the sun, perturbations from the orbital periods ranging from hundreds today it is generally understood that planets would be negligible and the per- of thousands to millions of years. Within short-period comets could not come turbations of nearby stars would become those orbits are the comets of the inner from the Oort cloud (though for HTC significant compared to the gravitational Oort region (aphelia distances from objects this is still debated). Where the pull of our sun. Thus, as comets would roughly 3,000 to 20,000 A.U.); then, short-period comets come from is still a form in the early solar system, they moving inward, we find the short- mystery debated by astronomers, but the would form in nearly circular orbits period comets. To explain all the comets, Edgeworth-Kuiper belt is considered the originally as other planetesimals and modern scientists attempt to argue that best candidate source. After a comet has asteroids; then planets such as Jupiter comets can move both up and down been perturbed out of the Oort cloud, or Saturn could modify orbits of some this “ladder” of distance scales, thus it will require hundreds of thousands or of these small objects and increase the explaining our observations on the one even millions of years for it to make its eccentricity and size of the orbits. hand and sustaining the Oort cloud on way near to the planets so that it might Once an orbit is made more el- the other hand. But there have always be observed. The outer planets, espe- liptical, it becomes likely for it to cross been difficulties explaining the various cially Jupiter and Saturn, tend to modify the orbits of the planets. Thus, some orbital transitions required for objects to incoming comet orbits. An incoming kind of gravitational interaction with a move up and down the distance ladder. long-period comet is about equally likely planet would also be more likely. This The scattered disk, which lies outside to get accelerated such that it is ejected is believed to lead to comet orbits being the Kuiper belt, and the inner Oort out of the solar system or have its orbit altered into very long eccentric orbits cloud can be thought of as the “middle” modified so it is a smaller, less elliptical that would put their farthest point (the of the distance ladder. They constitute orbit (Dones et al., 2004). aphelion) possibly at tens of thousands transition regions from which comets These long-period comets may have of A.U. distance. At the aphelia, comets are evolving both inward and outward their orbits further modified as they would be moving very slowly, and thus in the theory. make more frequent passes near the they would be easily perturbed by forces In recent years scientists have modi- outer planets. Jupiter tends to capture from outside our solar system, such as fied the original Oort proposal. First, it or deflect comets relatively frequently. nearby stars. If there were many other has been found through many computer So the comets that are thought to come comet objects in the same region, the simulations that passing stars are not very in from the Oort cloud will face one of objects essentially could be “caught” by efficient at perturbing comets inward several fates, according to theoretical the cloud while they moved slowly near toward the sun (Fernandez, 1994; Dones, studies. They may pass near enough the aphelion of their orbit. The comets et al., 2004). This mechanism was the to Jupiter (or Saturn) that they get ac- then could be stable in the comet cloud only one seriously considered by Oort, celerated into a hyperbolic path that for millions of years. Oort suggested that but it is generally accepted today that by causes them to escape the sun’s gravity nearby passing stars could sometimes itself this mechanism would not provide and continue indefinitely into space. Or 150 Creation Research Society Quarterly they may collide with a planet or other any other objects in our solar system again. But a young-age alternative may object in the solar system. They could and would have eccentricities much be to understand almost all the inbound, fall into the sun or be broken up near more than 1.0. In other words, even if long-period comets as being on their the sun. Or they could be deflected a comet were “at rest” in space relative first orbit. by Jupiter or Saturn back out toward to the galaxy, it would still approach our the Oort cloud again. Of comets that sun at a significant speed if coming from are deflected outward into long orbits, another star. Since no extrasolar comets Difficulties with some of these could get “caught” in the have been observed approaching our Modern Comet Theories Oort cloud once again (about 5% return system, there is no prospect of the Oort It is important to test comet models to the Oort cloud by one estimate in cloud being refilled from outside our against observations and ask how suc- Dones et al., 2004). Even some of the solar system. Thus, it is not just short- cessful the models have been in their objects in the Oort cloud may also get period comets that must be replenished explanatory power. One obvious issue perturbed out into space and escape over long periods of time. The Oort with the Oort theory, even with modern the sun’s gravity after being in the Oort cloud itself must be replenished to last observational techniques, is that devel- cloud for a long period. Oort seemed to for billions of years. opment of the theory depends greatly underestimate the tendency of objects Astronomers have proposed that on supposing populations of objects that in the Oort cloud to be lost into space, there is an inner Oort cloud, sometimes cannot be observed, such as most of the escaping the sun’s gravity. referred to as the inner core of the Oort scattered disk, all of the inner Oort cloud, Because of the issue of how often cloud. The inner Oort region ranges and all of the main Oort cloud. There objects in the Oort cloud could escape from about 3,000 A.U. out to about are valid insights from the many orbital into space, as well as move inward 20,000 A.U. It is believed that Jupiter evolution simulations of comets. But toward the sun, astronomers have modi- and Saturn could occasionally “pump these studies do not actually establish fied the dimensions of the Oort cloud. up” the orbital energy of comets in the the existence of a spherical comet cloud. Oort believed the cloud would continue inner Oort region to replenish comets in The orbital studies do show that there possibly somewhat beyond 150,000 A.U., the outer Oort region. Thus, the outer are objects (the long-period comets) but today scientists argue it would not planets, particularly Jupiter and Saturn, that tend to have aphelia on the order of continue farther than about 100,000 are believed to have a crucial role in 10,000 to 50,000 A.U. But this does not A.U. Today it is generally understood explaining both inbound comets that we establish the existence of the Oort cloud; that the outer part of the Oort cloud can observe and outbound comets that it merely establishes that these objects has a tendency to lose objects into outer are thought to replenish the Oort cloud are in extremely long elliptical orbits. space. This has been shown in computer over billions of years. The near-parabolic comet orbits simulations studying stellar perturba- Jan Oort did not believe that objects possess the longest and most eccentric tions. Nearby stars are just as likely to would be stable in the region now called orbits known of all objects gravitation- make a comet in the Oort cloud escape the inner Oort cloud. Significant re- ally bound to our sun. The existence into space as come inward toward the search has been done on perturbations of these comets may be one of the best sun. Thus, it is believed tidal forces from to comets that could reside in the Kuiper arguments in favor of the Oort theory. the galactic plane are more effective at belt region and the inner Oort region. It These objects seem to move as if they perturbing comets inward. In addition, is believed some objects from this region were started almost at rest and allowed there have been no observations of could be modified to become Jupiter- to fall toward the sun. This is essentially comet objects on trajectories suggesting family comets or centaur objects (if their what the Oort theory says. It has these they could have come from outside our orbits are shortened). Other inner Oort objects existing for a long period at great sun’s influence. comets could be modified into longer distance from the sun, where they drift Considering the relative speed of orbits that move them farther out into in quasi-stable orbits until some effect our sun compared to the local standard the Oort cloud. Thus, the inner core re- imparts a small acceleration to them— of rest in our galaxy, objects coming gion in essence is treated as an important enough to make them begin falling from other stars and passing into our transition zone. Orbital periods of inner toward the sun. Then after a few million solar system should be travelling at core comets would range from several years, they come nearer to the planetary very high-speeds (such as tens of km/ thousand to a few million years. Note region, where they can be observed sec at the outer Oort cloud). Thus any that in an old-age perspective, some in the highly elliptical near-parabolic extrasolar interstellar comets would be long-period comets have been able to orbits. This may be consistent with the on hyperbolic orbits very different from orbit the sun multiple times and return Oort theory, but a creation perspective Volume 50, Winter 2014 151 could allow for them being created or suggest it is questionable that research- comets hard to observe. This could be forming at a lesser distance along their ers can make a reliable determination an indication long-period comets do current orbits. It is not necessary to as- of whether a particular observed comet not transition into the planetary region sume that comets have traversed their is “new” or not. We may know about as often as suspected. Long-period entire orbits or even half of their orbits how many orbits an observed comet has comets are not generally believed to since creation. The period of a comet or- made, but comet researchers attempt to be modified into short-period comets bit does not tell us the age of the universe, use statistical analyses of comet orbits to directly. But once a long-period comet the galaxy, or the solar system. infer whether comets not observed near comes near the outer planets, the outer A significant difficulty with today’s the sun are new or not. This effort has planets tend to further modify the orbit, comet theories is that the number of not been successful in my opinion. often by reducing the semimajor axis observed, returning long-period com- Hughes (2001) also summarized his and reducing the eccentricity. Without ets are less than that predicted by the results modeling comet visual magni- adequate numbers of transitioning long- models. For example, Jewitt states “The tudes (represented by H) and distance period comets, this leads to difficulties dynamical part of Oort’s model predicts and compared them to observations by with explaining the short-period comets, a ratio of returning comets relative to another study. He says, “In passing, equa- as well as the frequency of comets be- first-appearing comets that is larger than tion (10) predicts that 15 long-period ing deflected outward to replenish the is observed” (Jewitt, 2004, p. 660). Gen- comets per year pass the Sun having q Oort cloud. erally, researchers assume that comets < 1 A.U. and H < 10.5, in comparison Planetary science has in recent times with aphelia greater than 10,000 A.U. with the 3 yr-1 quoted by Fernandez been propelled by an enhanced moti- are new; they have never reached their (1999)” (Hughes, 2001, p. 523). A num- vation from the discoveries regarding perihelion before. However, research- ber of studies of the statistics of comet extrasolar planets. The evidence for the ers admit this is a crude assumption. magnitudes and aphelia distance have existence of extrasolar planets is good, Hughes stated, “We are not able to divide noted that the number of long-period and many examples now exist (Spencer, the long-period comets sensibly into comets seems to “fade” or drop off with 2011). It is generally accepted among different ‘age’ groups” (Hughes, 2001, p. decreasing distance more than would scientists that solar systems outside our 523). Here “age groups” assumes there be expected. Jan Oort referred to this in own generally form in a manner similar will be identifiable orbital characteristics his 1950 paper, and it is still noted by to how our system is believed to have that indicate something about how many researchers today. On the other hand, formed. A solar disk contracted and orbits comets have made. This is a very some have applied special analysis meth- condensed into our sun and planets. questionable assumption for the long- ods that give somewhat better agreement Comets are believed to have formed in period comets. It is true that a comet will with observations (Francis, 2005). But the regions of our system near the form- be brighter at its first perihelion passage various methods of comparing models to ing outer planets, where ices and volatile than it will be at later perihelions. How- observations give widely varying results. compounds could condense into small ever, brightness variations do not seem Francis (2005) shows discrepancies in bodies. Therefore, if the processes that to give much insight into long-period how the LINEAR mission observations formed many comets in our solar system comets that have not yet been observed of comets compare with his own and two also occurred in other solar systems, this near perihelion. It is also possible to other comet models, especially regard- has an interesting implication. Models calculate backward and determine the ing the number of comets as a function have estimated that of all the comets prior position of a comet, within limits. of perihelion distance. Here LINEAR that could form near the outer planets Dybczynski (2001) proposed a different represents the Lincoln Near Earth Aster- early in the history of our solar system, definition of new comets, saying they oid Research project conducted by MIT. only a small percentage would traverse must have a previous perihelion of at In studying near-earth objects, LINEAR to the Oort cloud and be stable there. least 15 A.U. Dybczynski’s approach has discovered 279 comets. Astronomers Some comets that would form among attempts to account for planetary per- have not arrived at a consensus on an the newly forming planets may collide turbations on observed comets to deter- explanation for this “cometary fading” with a planet or fall into the sun. Others mine their previous perihelion. By this effect. This fading effect is not related stay in orbit relatively near the sun and definition only 44 comets would qualify to a comet being less bright after pass- never make it to the Oort cloud. In our as new. It has proved difficult to identify ing near the sun. This is assumed to be solar system, Jupiter and Saturn are able orbital characteristics that would be re- some effect occurring before the comet to accelerate comets to escape velocity lated to the number of orbits a comet has exhibits a coma—before it reaches the in a number of cases, leading to objects completed. Thus, comet orbit studies inner solar system that makes these that are observed to follow hyperbolic 152 Creation Research Society Quarterly

trajectories out of the solar system. So researchers seem to always agree that no traverse only a small part of their orbit the only objects that would make it to one has ever observed an object like this. in several thousand years. Observations the Oort cloud in the beginning would It might be objected that these in- of comets tell us about comet orbits, but be those that happened to pass by one terstellar comets would be so faint that they do not really confirm the Oort the- of the planets so that it was deflected they would be impossible to observe. ory. It would be appropriate for creation outward away from the sun; then of If you assume traditional observation scientists to examine the research on those that were deflected outward, a techniques with one person using a tele- comet orbits. The shortage of observed few might get captured into the Oort scope, it may be impossible to observe Halley-type comets, the shortage of ob- cloud. This is how the Oort cloud is such objects. But today there are mul- served returning long-period comets, the believed to have formed. Valtonen and tiple projects that do totally automated young physical lifetime of short-period Innanen estimated that “at least one out searches of the sky in which multiple comets, and the lack of any observed of 1000 original comets would remain CCD cameras collect large amounts of extrasolar interstellar comets all imply in the solar system in the Oort cloud” data. Some of these projects can detect the Oort theory has not been successful. (Valtonen and Innanen, 1982, p. 307). very faint objects. Thus, astronomers A young-age creation perspective does This implies that many more escape are more hopeful now than in the not dictate how many comets should be from the Oort cloud into interstellar past that interstellar comets could be observed or how long their orbits should space. Thus, if this were happening for observed. There are only a few projects be. We should question the assumption most nearby stars, there should be many active today that can observe objects of that all comets can be explained by their comets in the interstellar medium. We 24th magnitude. Others are planned. orbits transitioning up and down a great should then be able to observe some of There is at least one new telescope that “distance ladder.” Orbital simulation these extrasolar interstellar comets. is especially well suited to detecting studies of comets give insight into the Since 1982 other estimates that faint interstellar comets. It is called the dynamics, but they do not tell us the consider more modern observational Pan-STARRS telescope at the University actual history of long-period comets or techniques have led to discussions of of Hawaii. The Pan-STARRS results the near-parabolic comets. the issue of “missing interstellar comets.” website shows that since its mission This review has not addressed issues Sen and Rana (1993, p. 298) refer to began in 2010, 14 long-period comets regarding the composition of comets. estimates saying that for every comet have been discovered, but no interstel- This is an area where much has been “trapped in the Oort cloud, there should lar comets have been reported (Hsieh, learned in recent years as well. Young- be 30–100 comets lost into the interstel- 2013). There are a number of efforts to age creationists should explore alterna- lar medium.” A more recent study by do automated data collection and auto- tives to the Oort theory that begin with Francis (2005) uses a lower estimate mated software searches of image data supernatural biblical creation and for the number of long-period comets to find faint objects in our solar system. yet deal with the scientific evidence and arrives at the conclusion that with The near-earth asteroid search is one of realistically. Comets also could have modern methods a 5-year observational the drivers of this effort; the search for ex- relevance to explaining cratering in the study could detect one or two interstellar trasolar planets is another. There is also solar system and some of the effects of comets if the work could detect objects interest in mapping objects in the Kuiper Noah’s Flood. of 24th magnitude. So even with the belt. It is these automated searches with most conservative assumptions regard- wide-field cameras specifically made for ing the number of comets, it should be finding faint objects and doing sensitive References possible to observe interstellar comets. photometric measurements that would Danby, J.M.A. 1962. Fundamentals of As two researchers said, “This lack of be most likely to find interstellar comets. Celestial Mechanics. The Macmillan detections of extrasolar comets is becom- Why is it no interstellar comets have Company, NY. ing an embarrassment to the theories of been observed? First, it may be that they DeYoung, Donald B. 1989. Astronomy and solar system and cometary formation” aren’t there in the numbers predicted the Bible: Questions and Answers. Baker (McGlynn and Chapman, 1989, p. by the Oort theory. Also, if both the Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. L105). These comets would have a very galaxy and our solar system are young, Dones, L., and P.R. Weissman, H.F. Levison, distinctive hyperbolic trajectory and we would not expect to see such objects. and M.J. Duncan. 2004. Oort cloud for- would travel at velocities at least several Such extrasolar comets, if they exist, mation and dynamics. In Festou, M.C., kilometers per second faster than any would not have had time to cross space H.U. Keller, and H.A. Weaver (editors), other observed comets. Such a finding from nearby stars in a time frame of Comets II, pp. 153–174. University of would be a newsworthy event. But comet 6,000 years. Long-period comets would Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Volume 50, Winter 2014 153

Dybczynski, P.A. 2001. Dynamical history hawaii.edu/~hsieh/panstarrs.shtml (ac- per Belt and the primordial evolution of of the observed long-period comets. As- cessed November 20, 2013). the solar system. In Festou, M.C., H.U. tronomy and Astrophysics 375:643–650. Hughes, David W. 2001. The magnitude Keller, and H.A. Weaver (editors), Com- Faulkner, Danny R. 1997. Comets and the distribution, perihelion distribution and ets II, pp. 175–191. University of Arizona age of the solar system. Creation Ex flux of long-period comets. Monthly Press, Tucson, AZ. Nihilo Technical Journal (Now Journal Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Oort, J.H. 1950. The structure of the cloud of Creation) 11(3):264–273. 326:515–523. of comets surrounding the solar system, Faulkner, Danny R. 2001. More problems for Jewitt, David C. 2004. From cradle to grave: and a hypothesis concerning its origin. the ‘Oort comet cloud.’ TJ (Now Journal the rise and demise of the comets. In Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of of Creation). 15(2):11. Festou, M.C., H.U. Keller, and H.A. the Netherlands 11(408):91–110. Fernandez, Julio A. 1994. Dynamics of Weaver (editors), Comets II, pp. 659–676. Oort, J.H. 1951. Origin and development of comets: recent developments and new University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. comets. The Observatory 71(863):129– challenges. In Milani, A., M. Di Mar- Levison, Harold F., and Martin J. Duncan. 144. tino, and A. Cellino (editors), Asteroids, 1997. From the Kuiper Belt to Jupiter- Sen, A.K. and N.C. Rana. 1993. On the Comets, Meteors 1993, pp. 223–240. family comets: the spatial distribution of missing interstellar comets. Astronomy International Astronomical Union, Bel- ecliptic comets. Icarus 127:13–32. and Astrophysics 275:298–300. girate, Italy. Levison, Harold F., Martin J. Duncan, Luke Valtonen, M.J., and K.A. Innanen. 1982. The Fernandez, Yan. 2013. List of Jupiter-family Dones, and Brett J. Gladman. 2006. The capture of interstellar comets. Astrophysi- and Halley-family comets. University of scattered disk as a source of Halley-type cal Journal 255:307–315. Central Florida Physics website. http:// comets. Icarus 184:619–633. Slusher, Harold S. 1980. Age of the Cosmos. www.physics.ucf.edu/~yfernandez/ Looy, Mark. 2006. The tale of a comet. Institute for Creation Research, San cometlist.html (accessed November Answers in Genesis, http://www.answers- Diego, CA. 16, 2013). ingenesis.org/articles/2006/05/06/tale-of- Spencer, Wayne R. 2011. Retrograde exo- Francis, Paul. 2005. The demographics of a-comet (accessed October 29, 2013). planets challenge theories. Answers in long-period comets. Astrophysical Jour- McGlynn, Thomas A. and Robert D. Chap- Genesis, http://www.answersingenesis. nal 635:1348–1361. man. 1989. On the nondetection of org/articles/aid/v6/n1/retrograde-exo- Hsieh, Henry H. 2013. Pan-STARRS solar extrasolar comets. The Astrophysical planets-challenge-theories (accessed system results. Institute of Astronomy, Journal 346:L105–L108. November 21, 2013). University of Hawaii. http://www.ifa. Morbidelli, A., and M.E. Brown. 2004. Kui- Creation Research Society Quarterly 2014. 50:154–171.

154 Creation Research Society Quarterly Were the Wind River Terraces Caused by Multiple Glaciations?

Michael J. Oard*

Abstract eologists believe that fifteen terraces in the upper Wind River GBasin of northwest Wyoming are correlated to multiple ice ages. However, field examination reveals only four significant terraces: WR1, WR3, WR7, and WR9. The bottom two, WR1 and WR3, were connected to glacial outwash from an ice cap over the Wind River Mountains but were likely formed during the same glaciation, not from two distinct ice ages, called the Pinedale and Bull Lake glaciations in the unifor- mitarian scheme. Although terrace WR7 is claimed to be linked to the Sacagawea glaciation, the moraine in the type area for this glaciation is not physically connected to terrace WR7. This moraine has similar geomorphology to the “Bull Lake” and “Pinedale” moraines, suggest- ing just one glaciation for all these moraines. Terrace WR7 also has contradictory dates ranging up to about 660 kyr, based on dates from the Lava Creek B ash in WR7. This date indicates three missing glacia- tions. The few terraces above WR7 are not associated with any glacial feature, despite geologists’ claims. Due to uncertain dating of WR7, the dates of higher terraces are equally uncertain. Terraces above WR3 are best understood as pediments and planation surfaces formed during channelized Flood erosion and runoff in currents moving toward the southeast through the Upper Wind River Basin.

Introduction There are two main types: depositional ing flooding. When the river returns Multiple, elongated terraces flank the and erosional. Depositional, or gravel, to normal stage and erodes its bed, it sides of river valleys all over the world. terraces are composed of gravel, cobbles, leaves flat terraces of gravel with a steep These terraces lie parallel to and above and boulders, collectively called coarse embankment along the valley sides. This the river and its immediate floodplain. gravel, laid down on a floodplain dur- can happen more than once, resulting in a flight of gravel terraces (Figure 1). Some valleys can have a dozen terraces. Terraces are especially common and * Michael J. Oard, Bozeman, MT, [email protected] large if the valley was a drainage conduit Accepted for publication January 29, 2014 for glacial meltwater from an ice sheet, Volume 50, Winter 2014 155

The second type of terrace is ero- sional on hard rock and is called a strath terrace. Strath terraces are elongated planation surfaces cut in bedrock along valley slopes and covered with a thin layer of coarse gravel. Uniformitar- ian scientists believe strath terraces are remnants of a broad, flat bedrock floor, called a strath that extended across the whole valley from an earlier age in which the river eroded laterally and not downward. Upon subsequent downward cutting of the bedrock, the strath is left hanging on the sides of the valley with a thin veneer of coarse gravel on top (Neuendorf et al., 2005, p. 632). Just like with depositional terraces, multiple strath terraces can form in a single valley (Figure 3). Both types of terraces occur in the upper Wind River Valley, northwest Wy- oming. They are predominantly strath terraces, and are attributed to multiple uniformitarian ice ages associated with the classical location for mountain gla- ciers in the Wind River Mountains. Ge- ologists have identified 15 depositional and strath terraces, which they correlate to different ice ages, although each ice age did not form a distinct terrace that remains. This is based on a possible date of 1.7 Ma (million years ago) for the top terrace (Chadwick et al., 1997). This date is based on the astronomical theory of the ice ages in which ice ages occur every 100 kyr (thousand years) for the last 900 kyr and cycle every 40 kyr older than 900 kyr. Figure 1. The formation of two gravel terraces in a river valley. (A) The river val- ley is first carpeted with a layer of coarse gravel. (B) The river erodes this gravel, leaving gravel terraces on either side of the valley. (C) A second depositional event General Geology of the partially fills the eroded valley with coarse gravel. (D) The river erodes the second Upper Wind River Area layer resulting in new gravel terraces. (Drawn by Peter Klevberg) The upper Wind River broad valley lies between the Absaroka and Owl Creek Mountains on the north and the Wind River Mountains on the south. Yellow- stone National Park lies to the northwest and Teton National Park to the west ice cap, or mountain glacier at the end River Valley of Jackson Hole Valley, (Figure 4). The rocks in most of these of the Ice Age. For example, two large Wyoming (Figure 2) during the melting mountains are quite different. Those in terraces formed along the upper Snake of the Yellowstone ice cap. the Teton, Beartooth, and Wind River 156 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 2. Two large, coarse gravel terraces along the Snake River at Snake River Overlook, Jackson Hole, caused by outwash from the melting Yellowstone ice cap.

Mountains are composed mostly of Pre- believe the planation surface formed Unconformity overlying Precambrian cambrian granite and gneiss, while the during the Laramide orogeny of the igneous and metamorphic rocks over Owl Creek Mountains are composed Late Cretaceous to early Eocene with much of the western and central U.S. of an east-west uplifted Precambrian the final uplift during the Oligocene The same, or a similar, unconformity granite core covered by sedimentary (Steidtmann et al., 1989). Blackwelder is seen in Grand Canyon, separating rocks (the geological column and ages earlier deduced: Paleozoic sedimentary rocks from are used for discussion purposes only). The age of the Wind River summit underlying Precambrian sedimentary The Wind River Mountains are peneplain [planation surface] is de- rocks and igneous and metamorphic capped by an extensive planation sur- batable, but, by a process of finessing, basement (Figure 8). Arguments in favor face (Figure 5), while other flat surfaces it may be worked out with some de- of the one on the Wind River Mountains along their flanks are likely pediments gree of assurance. It will be admitted being an exhumed planation surface are (Figures 6 and 7). This mountaintop by all that, since it trunkates [sic] the (1) the faulted planation surface, on top planation surface is eroded into granite structures produced by the folding at of what is probably the same granite and and gneiss, as well as some of the steeply the close of the Cretaceous, it must gneiss on the Beartooth Mountains, has dipping sedimentary rocks, such as at be of Cenozoic age. (Blackwelder, a 480-meter thick, early Paleozoic ero- Gypsum Mountain. Because the plana- 1915, p. 202) sional remnant on top of the granite and tion surface is cut on both Precambrian However, it is also possible that the gneiss, and (2) the flat top of Mount Mo- granite and gneiss and Phanerozoic dip- planation surface cutting into the granite ran in the Teton Mountains, the same ping sedimentary rocks, some geologists could be exhumed—part of the Great Precambrian granite and gneiss, has a Volume 50, Winter 2014 157

15-meter thick patch of Cambrian Flat- head Sandstone on top. The evidence is well explained by a combination of early Flood erosion of basement rocks and late Flood erosion caused by Flood runoff during differential vertical tectonics. The uplift of the Wind River Moun- tains was caused by a thrust fault. Mo- tion was to the southwest, inclined about 30° from the horizontal with a vertical throw of about 14 kilometers and a horizontal displacement of 26 kilometers. It uplifted basement granite relative to the sedimentary fill of the Green River Basin. The Absaroka Mountains are com- posed of the Absaroka Volcanics (Figures 9 and 10), which were formed by mul- tiple debris flows of volcanic material that accumulated over an area of 23,000 km2 and reached a thickness of 1,830 m (Hergenrather et al., 2012; Sundell, 1993). This is the material in which the so-called fossil forests of Yellowstone Na- tional Park are located (Figure 11). The Absaroka Volcanics are dated as Eocene by uniformitarian geologists. The top has been planed flat, and the planation surface is still visible in the southern Absaroka Mountains (Love et al., 2007). Afterward, the mountains were deeply dissected by valleys up to about 1,200 m deep. This sequence of events fits well with the late-Flood, two-stage erosion— sheet erosion followed by channelized dissection—during the retreating stage of the Flood (Oard, 2008; Walker, 1994). In addition to the Absaroka Volca- nics in the northern and eastern park, volcanic rocks of Yellowstone National Park consist of almost all types of lava from basalt to rhyolite. It represents the Figure 3. The formation of three strath terraces in a river valley. (A) The river largest supervolcano in the world and first erodes a nearly flat planation surface, or “strath,” on hard rock and deposits is believed to be composed of three a thin veneer of coarse gravel across the entire valley. (B) The river erodes some major Pleistocene super eruptions: (1) of the bedrock, leaving strath terraces on either side of the valley. (C) A second Huckleberry Ridge dated at 2.1 Ma, erosional event creates a second set of strath terraces. (D) A third episode forms (2) Mesa Falls dated at 1.3 Ma, and (3) a third set of strath terraces. (Drawn by Peter Klevberg) Lava Creek dated at 0.65 Ma (Love et al., 2007). Ash from these eruptions spread over most of the western and central United States, and westward into the 158 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 4. Map of northwest Wyoming showing the study area of the upper Wind River Basin between Dubois and Riverton. (Drawn by Peter Klevberg)

Pacific Ocean, well off the West Coast, and were infilled by thick sediments that the Wind River Basin (McMillan et al., where it is believed to have been found now reach over 8,500 m in thickness 2006). Crowheart Butte (Figure 12) is a in deep-sea drill cores (Sarna-Wojcicki in the Wind River Basin (Love, 1960; remnant about 300 m high in the cen- et al., 1987). Thornbury, 1965). But the top of this ter of the upper Wind River Basin that As the mountain ranges uplifted, the valley fill has been eroded by as much as represents the minimum erosion in the Wind River Basin and other basins sank 850 m, based on erosional remnants in northwest part of the greater Wind River Volume 50, Winter 2014 159

Figure 5. Planation surface on the top of Wind River Moun- tains.

Figure 8. The Great Unconformity (solid line) on eastward tilted Precambrian sedimentary rocks in the eastern Grand Canyon. The Greatest Unconformity (dashed line) is be- tween the Precambrian rocks and the igneous and meta- morphic rocks below.

Figure 6. Pediment or planation surface remnant along the southeast Wind River Mountains.

Figure 7. Large pediment along the northeast Wind River Figure 9. Absaroka Volcanics (view northwest from Brooks Mountains. Lake, Wyoming, at about 2,900 m msl).

Basin. Erosional remnants north of the The Wind River Terraces WR1 to WR15, from the lowest to the Wind River in the northwest Wind River The upper Wind River is believed to highest (Hancock et al., 1999). However, Basin show about 700 m of erosion (Fan possess a classical series of terraces. It only WR1, WR3, WR7, and WR9 are of et al., 2011). So, during the formation is claimed that there are fifteen fluvial, any significant size (Figure 13). WR1 is to the Wind River Terraces, deep valley mostly strath, terraces in the upper Wind just above the modern floodplain in the erosion was occurring. River Basin above Riverton, labeled upper reaches but merges with the cur- 160 Creation Research Society Quarterly

rent floodplain downriver toward River- ton. WR3 is about 40 meters higher and is composed of around 25 m of gravel near Dubois, thinning to a few meters downstream near Riverton. Although shown as continuous on Figure 13, WR7 consists of isolated remnants and is about 140 meters above the river. WR9 is located around Riverton and is about 190 m above the river. WR15 consists of only one small fragment south of Bull Lake and is 300 meters above the river (Hancock et al., 1999). The coarse gravel on the strath terraces includes granite or gneiss from the Wind River Mountains, volcanics from the Absaroka Mountains, and exotic, well-rounded quartzite rocks from central Idaho (Oard, 2008). Most of the other terraces are not distinct or significant; some are just dis- Figure 10. Close up of Absaroka Volcanics at Brooks Lake. connected buttes and mesas (Chadwick et al., 1997). As a result of few distinct terraces, a considerable difference exists in mapped terraces between various in- vestigators (Hall and Jaworowski, 1999). Blackwelder (1915) could identify only three terraces in the area, which are now called WR1, WR3, and WR15.

Terraces Correlated with Multiple Glacial/ Interglacial Oscillations The terraces are assumed to have been caused by glacial/interglacial oscilla- tions from classical mountain glacial episodes in the Wind River Mountains (Hancock et al., 1999). Scientists claim there have been many such episodes every 100 kyr for the past 900 kyr and every 40 kyr older than 900 kyr, based on Milankovitch astronomical cycles. However, moraines for only three ice ages are claimed in the field; evidence for older ice ages cannot be found (Hall and Jaworowski, 1999). These ice ages are: (1) the Pinedale glaciation (WR1), (2) the Bull Lake glaciation (WR3), and (3) the Sacagawea Ridge glacia- Figure 11. Multiple levels of petrified trees in the Absaroka Volcanics at Specimen tion (WR7). WR1 and WR3 are both Creek, northwest Yellowstone National Park. strath and gravel terraces in different Volume 50, Winter 2014 161 locations. All the others are considered strath terraces. The youngest episode is the Pinedale glaciation, identified from moraines around Pinedale, Wyoming, along the southwest edge of the Wind River Mountains. Its glacial maximum is dated by cosmogenic beryllium-10 to about 21,700 years (Gosse et al., 1995). The classical ice age moraines from the next-youngest ice age, the Bull Lake glaciation, are from the northeast Wind River Range north of Bull Lake, which also has Pinedale moraines.

Figure 12. Crowheart Butte. Problems with the Pinedale and Bull Lake Glaciations It is difficult to link the Pinedale and Bull Lake terminal moraines to separate glacial episodes. The moraines may show a slight difference in weather- ing, but they appear similar. The Bull Lake terminal moraines (Figure 14) are composed of 15 nested moraines, some of which are supposedly from the Pinedale ice age (Chadwick et al., 1997). However, there is much confusion on the dating of these classical moraines. Thus, stratigraphic names, such as Bull Lake, are not tied to a clear understanding of glacial chronol- ogy in the type localities…. In the Wind River Basin, it has not been clear which, if any of the Bull Lake deposits represent late Illinoian ad- vances [from the second to the last or Bull Lake ice age]. (Chadwick et al., 1997, p. 1,443) Figure 13. A plot of the terraces in relation to the Wind River (redrawn from figure Regardless, these researchers sim- 3 of Hancock et al., 1999 by Peter Klevberg). In reality WR7 is patchy. ply correlate the Bull Lake ice age to marine isotope stage 6, which is the second to the last ice age, based on their belief in astronomical cycles. But they do admit there could be younger or older ice ages represented in the Bull pic record, which is based on deep-sea Mountains than the Pinedale terminal Lake terminal moraines. Although the cores (Chadwick et al., 1997; Hall, moraines. The sequence of terminal chronology of Rocky Mountain glacia- 1999). moraines look like nested terminal mo- tion has been under almost constant The Bull Lake terminal moraines raines from one ice age. The weathering revision, researchers simply correlate are simply farther out along the edges differences of the “Bull Lake glaciation” supposed ice ages to the marine isoto- of tributary valleys in the Wind River are likely due to longer exposure to acid 162 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 14. One of the terminal moraines at Bull Lake.

Figure 17. Coarse gravel of WR3 as seen from WR1.

Figure 15. Edge of either a Pinedale or Bull Lake lateral Figure 18. The Sacagawea Ridge lateral moraine east of moraine northeast of Dinwoody Lakes. Dinwoody Lakes.

Figure 16. Outwash and WR3 from moraine in Figure 15. Figure 19. Bull Lake lateral moraine east of Dinwoody Lakes. Volume 50, Winter 2014 163

Figure 20. The top of a Pinedale lateral moraine east of Figure 21. Small outwash fan from Sacagawea Ridge moraine Dinwoody Lakes. shown in Figure 18.

rain caused by Ice Age volcanism (Oard, Moreover, the Sacagawea Ridge the date of the Lava Creek B ash from 2004a). moraine has a small outwash fan to the the last Yellowstone eruption found Outwash fans from the Pinedale and east (Figure 21); although it is east of just above bedrock at several locations Bull Lake terminal moraines blend into Dinwoody Lakes, it is not connected to on WR7, including the terrace west of the two lower terraces, especially WR3, terrace WR7 west of Dinwoody Lakes Dinwoody Lake (Chadwick et al., 1997, which is very extensive (Figures 15 to (Figure 22). The correlation of WR7 p. 1,447). Therefore, the Sacagawea 17). WR1 and WR3 could simply be two with the Sacagawea Ridge moraine is event would have been the seventh most terraces from distinct erosional events based only on their similar altitude: recent glaciation with three leaving no during the same ice age, like the two large “Outwash adjacent to the younger of two evidence at all. Figures 23 and 24 show terraces in Jackson Hole that both formed Sacagawea Ridge moraines has been cor- one of the ash outcrops on WR7 west during the melting of the Yellowstone ice related with this river terrace [WR7] on of Dinwoody Lake. The ash is dated cap (Figure 2). This confusion in relative the basis of very similar elevations” (Hall by tephrochronology (Dethier, 2001; timing may explain why uniformitarian and Jaworowski, 1999, p. 1,248). I veri- Hancock et al., 1999). scientists have so many problems dating fied this in the field—there is no physical However, terrace WR7 has also been WR3 (Sharp et al., 2003). connection. This is probably why Han- dated by cosmogenic radionuclides cock et al (1999, pp. 47, 56) qualified (CRNs), radioactive nuclides formed by that the Sacagawea Ridge outwash may the cosmic ray bombardment of Earth’s Sacagawea Ridge be or appears to be correlated to WR7. It surface. The subsequent decay of the Glaciation Illusory and is also the likely reason that Blackwelder isotopes supposedly gives a time for the Not Connected to WR7 (1915) never included WR7 as one of his exposure at or near the surface. CRN The next oldest glaciation after the Bull glacial terraces in the area. dating of WR7 yielded an age of only Lake glaciation is the Sacagawea Ridge The supposed Sacagawea glaciation about 300 kyr (Hancock et al., 1999). glaciation. Its type area is just east of is fraught with problems. Based on Others think WR7 could be as young Dinwoody Lakes, and it is supposedly the location of its lateral moraine just as 250 kyr (Phillips et al., 1997). Sharp represented by terrace WR7 (Lindsey et outside the Bull Lake lateral moraine et al (2003) came up with dates ranging al., 2007). However, the lateral moraine east of Dinwoody Lakes, one might from 140 to 315 kyr. Such dating discrep- representing the Sacagawea episode is expect it to be the third most recent ancies are explained away by supposed still sharp-crested (Figure 18) and in- glacial episode. But there are three eolian erosion: distinguishable from the adjacent Bull missing glaciations between the Bull A possible explanation for these Lake (Figure 19) and Pinedale (Figure Lake and Sacagawea glaciations, based discrepancies is that eolian deflation 20) lateral moraines, suggesting that on the Milankovitch 100 kyr cycle and [erosion] reduces the thickness of these are simply nested moraines from the “solid” date of 660 kyr for terrace loess mantling Wind River terraces one ice age. WR7. This date for WR7 is based on through time leading to overestima- 164 Creation Research Society Quarterly

[thousand years] with CRN, because of the uncertainties in the geologic history of the surfaces and the large errors arising from calibrations of the rate of production which are inher- ent in dating surfaces with CRNs. (Hancock et al., 1999, p. 57) On the other hand, if the CRN dates are considered correct, an explanation must be found for the older date of the Lava Creek B Ash. The standard “re- working” explanation appears to be the current favorite, having been “reworked” from older terraces (Hancock et al., 1999, p. 57), which, unfortunately, do not exist. Figure 22. The top of WR7, a pediment erosional remnant along the Wind River Also, it is unclear how reworking from Mountains, west of Dinwoody Lakes. higher terraces would result in patches of nearly pure ash, like those found on terrace WR7 (Figures 23 and 24).

Problems with Terraces Higher than WR7 Terraces higher than WR7 are not associ- ated with moraines or any other glacial indicator (Chadwick et al., 1997, p. 1,450; Hall and Jaworowski, 1999, p. 1,247). WR9 is a large, flat terrace northwest of Riverton on which the airport was built (Figure 25). The ages of these higher ter- races are based on simple extrapolation of the linear incision rate of the upper Wind River from WR7 down to the river (Hancock et al., 1999), which makes the dating of WR7 especially crucial. If the date of 660 kyr is accepted, the extrapo- lated date for WR15, the highest terrace, is 1.7 Ma (Chadwick et al., 1997). That would imply that the very small WR15 is Figure 23. Lava Creek B ash layer from the last Yellowstone Park super eruption a remnant of approximately the 30th most on top of bedrock in WR7 (Hans and Lisa Reinhardt for scale). recent glaciation, based on the Milankov- itch cycle theory, which posits one every 100 kyr back to 900 kyr and one every 40 kyr from 900 kyr back through the 2.6 mil- lion years of the Pleistocene (Walker and tion of cosmogenic-nuclide produc- the difficulty of dating by cosmogenic Lowe, 2007). There are now supposed to tion in the underlying gravel and too radionuclides: be around 50 regularly repeating ice ages young cosmogenic ages. (Sharp et al., Our work on the older terraces il- during the Pleistocene. But if the younger 2003, p. 148) lustrates the continuing difficulty dates on WR7 are real, then WR15 is only Hancock et al (1999) earlier suggest- of precisely dating depositional 431 to 511 kyr (Hancock et al., 1999), ed this explanation, and they also admit surfaces older than a few 100 ka which is much younger. Volume 50, Winter 2014 165

Higher Terraces Carved during Channelized Flood Runoff If the glaciation explanation is unreli- able for all but WR1 and WR3, then how do we explain the other terraces and terrace remnants? First, we must accept the results from the field, not the hypothetical inferences of Milanko- vitch cycles. Second, we must look for alternate explanations. One such theory is that they were created by late Flood- channelized runoff. Do the predictions of that theory explain the field data bet- ter than the uniformitarian glaciation theory? WR7 really is the remnant of a pedi- ment (Figure 22), a planation surface at the foot of mountains. Pediments in valleys would also be considered strath Figure 24. Close up of Lava Creek B ash. terraces. Pediments are not forming today but being destroyed by local ero- sion. Pediments appear to have formed by strong channelized flow down a given valley, cutting its sides to form planation surfaces (Oard, 2004b). WR9 is a planation surface capped by coarse gravel (Figure 25), a small percentage of which is well-rounded quartzite rocks with percussion marks (Figure 26). WR9 formed in the center of the valley around Riverton. The closest source of the quartzite is cen- tral Idaho (Oard, 2008). Exotic rocks transported long distances and covering planation surfaces is not unusual; they have been explained by the late Flood runoff mechanism (Oard, 2008). Other terraces observed in the Wind River region can be explained by this Figure 25. WR9 northwest of Riverton upon which the airport is built. mechanism. If cut into the edges of mountains, they would be “pediments,” and if cut across valley fill, they would be planation surfaces. Both occur at multiple levels in the upper Wind River That basin was eroded an average of 470 ing uplift of the area. During erosion, Basin (Figure 27). Geologists claim that m (McMillan et al., 2006), leaving pedi- planation surfaces were carved by fast both pediments and planation surfaces ments along its edge and remnants of currents leaving behind a lag of coarse in the Wind River Basin are strath ter- two planation surfaces in the central and gravel as the currents slowed. The ero- races because both are cut into hard rock. northern parts of the basin. Similarly, in sion of the valley fill at the edge of the Adjacent basins, like the Bighorn Ba- the channelized flow of the Flood, the valley produced pediments with a coarse sin to the northeast, have similar features. top of a thick valley fill was eroded dur- gravel cap. Increasing and decreasing 166 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 26. A quartzite cobble with percussion marks from the gravel capping WR9.

Figure 28. Comparison of the two highly disputed hypoth- eses for the origin of valleys around the year 1800 (drawn by Mrs. Melanie Richard). One group believed the valley came first through catastrophic erosion (left), while others believed the valley was eroded slowly over millions of years (right).

Figure 27. Multiple planation surfaces or pediments in the upper Wind River Basin.

flow during channelized Flood runoff planation surface remnants formed how Flood runoff could have formed would result in multiple erosion events during late Flood-channelized runoff pediments and planation surfaces in the with planation surfaces and pediments at and erosion moving southeast down the upper Wind River Valley. Table 1 com- different altitudes, as observed in the up- valley. The lower two, WR1 and WR3, pares the uniformitarian explanation per Wind River Valley. The last erosion were subsequently formed after the with the Flood runoff mechanism for event produced the narrow river valley Flood by glacial outwash erosion and the four significant upper Wind River that exists today, which was modified by deposition during the post-Flood rapid terraces. The other terraces are small post-Flood glaciation with the forming of Ice Age. Figure 28 presents a schematic and insignificant, and terraces older gravel-outwash terraces. on the origin of valleys, contrasting than WR7 are not related to glaciation, In summary, the “strath terraces” the uniformitarian and diluvial theo- the evidence of which supports only higher than WR3 are pediment and ries. Figure 29 is a schematic showing one ice age. Volume 50, Winter 2014 167

A D

B E

Figure 29. Schematic of valley erosion from Dubois to Bull Lake during the channelized-flow phase of the Genesis Flood (drawn by Peter Klevberg). (A) Thick sediments deposited in the Upper Wind River Basin. (B) As Floodwater continues to go down, sediments continue to accumulate (gray area in the valley represents the total Flood erosion). (C) As Floodwater channelizes, erosion develops. (D) Continued draining of the Floodwater with erosion and the formation of pediments and planation surfaces. (E) The Floodwater C drained leaving behind multiple pediments and planation surfaces before glaciation develops. 168 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Table 1. Comparison between the uniformitarian and Flood erosion/runoff explanations for the significant terraces in the upper Wind River valley of northwest Wyoming. The claimed Sacagawea moraine is similar to the Pinedale and Bull Lake moraines with three missing moraines earlier than the Sacagawea moraine. There is no evidence for glaciation for any ter- race higher than WR7.

Terrace Uniformitarian explanation Flood explanation WR1 Pinedale glacial outwash terrace Lowest Ice Age terrace WR3 Bull Lake glacial outwash terrace Highest Ice Age terrace WR7 Sacagawea glacial outwash terrace Pediment remnant from Flood runoff WR9 Glacial strath terrace remnant Planation surface from Flood runoff

Strath Terraces (Montgomery, 2004); Taiwan (Shyu et could have been cut during heavy, early- Common Worldwide al., 2006; Yanites et al., 2010); the Tien Ice Age rainfall. The above conditions Strath terraces are common in valleys Shan Mountains (Molnar et al., 1994); may be responsible for some of the lower all over the world. There are numerous along the Somme River of France (Mer- strath terraces west of the Oregon coast strath terraces in the western United ritts et al., 1994); and along the valleys range (Personius, 1995) and in the west- States (Hancock and Anderson, 2002; of the western Andes of South America ern Olympic Mountains of Washington Merritts et al., 1994). Nearly all the (Hall et al., 2008). These are just a small (Wegmann and Pazzaglia, 2002). terraces along rivers and streams drain- sample from the literature. Strath ter- Small strath terraces could have ing the western Oregon coast range are races likely are present by the thousands formed after the Flood by two pro- strath terraces (Personius, 1995). As in in valleys all over the world. cesses: (1) weathering of bedrock banks the upper Wind River Basin, uniformi- between the low and high water line tarian scientists propose formation by (Montgomery, 2004; Stock et al., 2005), glacial deposition and erosion in the Strath Terraces Can Form and (2) flood erosion along the banks valleys over dozens of ice ages: after the Flood (Crickmay, 1974). The well-preserved strath-terrace Although the strath terraces higher than sequences found in many river WR3 in the upper Wind River Basin are systems of western North America simply pediment and valley planation Origin of Most record discontinuous incision into surface remnants of the Flood (Figure Strath Terraces Unknown bedrock throughout the late Qua- 29), this research shows that “strath ter- Since the straths are remnants of flat, ternary. (Hancock and Anderson, races” also formed during Ice Age runoff. wide valleys carved in bedrock, their 2002, p. 1,132) That is consistent with the literature. formation appears to represent a pe- Strath terraces are also common Since post-Flood valley erosion has riod of valley widening with little or no in the valleys that have dissected the been slight since the Flood, post-Flood deepening. I believe the uniformitarian Appalachian Plateau Province west of strath terraces would be expected to be interpretation is close, but many strath the Valley and Ridge Province of the of limited extent and close to the altitude terraces are remnants of valleys tens of Appalachians. The most prominent is of the river. kilometers wide! In the uniformitarian called the Parker strath terrace and lies Like the lower two terraces in the model, this would require a river similar about 100 m above the bottom of the val- upper Wind River Basin, which vary to those of today to meander back and leys (Oard, 2011). Figure 30 shows the between being strath terraces and gravel forth over a wide area, planing the Parker Strath terrace along the edge of terraces, strath terraces can form in glaci- bedrock to a flat surface with little or the Cumberland Plateau of the southern ated areas from the action of extensive no downward dissection (Hancock et Appalachian Plateau. meltwater. These would be near the val- al., 1999, p. 42). This is mechanically Strath terraces are also reported in ley bottom, as seen in the Upper Wind inconsistent; meandering rivers typically Alaska, eastern Tibet, and eastern Bolivia River Basin. In addition, strath terraces are found in areas of low gradient and Volume 50, Winter 2014 169

Figure 30. The rolling Parker strath terrace (left arrow) west of the planation surface of the Cumberland Plateau (right arrow).

deposit sediment in a floodplain. Rivers Ice Age runoff, most strath terraces are that they are caused by an as-yet-un- in areas of higher gradient, which erode difficult to explain, especially when known factor that caused an accelerated into bedrock, typically do not meander the area never underwent glaciation: incision rate (Hancock and Anderson, and tend to incise in deeper channels. “Despite the widespread use of strath 2002). Accelerated uplift is suggested by The uniformitarian model simply as- terraces in fluvial and tectonic geomor- others (Merritts et al., 1994). sumes what they need, as indirectly phology, the conditions surrounding admitted by Hancock and Anderson planation of a strath surface are not (2002, p. 1,134): well understood” (Fuller et al., 2009, p. Summary and Discussion Investigation of the valley-widening 467). This is especially the case for the The two lower gravel-and-strath terraces processes in rock-floored channels relatively high strath terraces. Hancock in the upper Wind River Basin appear and of the controls on widening rates and Anderson (2002, p. 1,132) write: to be a result of deglaciation, and field is sorely needed. However, lateral The timing, duration, and mecha- evidence suggests both were cut during planation that far exceeds vertical nisms of strath terrace formation are the same glacial episode. But that does incision over time is a key field ob- difficult to infer solely from field ob- not necessarily imply that the higher servation that must be reproduced servations because terrace sequences terraces were also a result of glaciation. in this model. represent incomplete records, are Unfortunately, uniformitarians assume The formation of a valley-wide difficult to date, and formed during that to be the case, based on the circular planation surface seems difficult, if not fluvial conditions that differ from reasoning application of Milankovitch impossible, by river erosion, since rivers the present. cycles, which would include up to 50 normally cut downward and will cut Note that they admit a violation of episodes during the Pleistocene. This laterally only during flooding and can the principle of actualism. Some sci- circularity again appears when geologists leave strath terraces along the edge of the entists believe the valley-wide bedrock use the occurrence of strath terraces in river over only small areas (Crickmay, was beveled during a time of increased other river valleys and basins to infer 1974). To achieve large-scale terraces sediment supply when the valley was at a Pleistocene glaciation. An alternative and valley-scale planation by this process higher level (Fuller et al., 2009). Others explanation, supported by the higher would require much larger currents. think strath terraces were formed by me- terraces in the Wind River Basin, is pla- Although some strath terraces appear ander migration and cutoff (Finnegan nation and pediment formation during linked to river floods, especially during and Dietrich, 2011). Still others state channelized runoff during the last stage 170 Creation Research Society Quarterly

of the Flood (Oard, 2004b, 2008). Those Figures 1, 3, 4, 13, and 29 and for Mrs. Basin, Wyoming. Quaternary Research terraces higher than WR3 are pediments Melanie Richard for drawing Figure 28. 51:248–261. and planation surfaces that formed dur- Finally, I am indebted to the Creation Hall, R.D., and C. Jaworowski. 1999. ing high velocity, down-valley Flood Research Society for providing research Reinterpretation of the Cedar Ridge erosion and runoff during differential funds for this project. section, Wind River Range, Wyoming: vertical tectonics (Figure 29). implications for the glacial chronology Since strath terraces are common of the Rocky Mountains. GSA Bulletin worldwide, it is likely that the mid- to References 111:1,233–1,249. high-level, rock-floored terraces are pedi- CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quarterly Hall, S.R., D.L. Farber, L. Audin, R.C. Fin- ments or planation surfaces also caused JOC: Journal of Creation, Technical Journal, kel, A.-S. Mériauz. 2008. Geochronology by Flood runoff. If so, these Pleistocene- or Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal of pediment surfaces in southern Peru: aged terraces are best explained by the Blackwelder, E. 1915. Cenozoic history implications for Quaternary deformation Flood. This implies that the post-Flood of the mountains of central Wyoming. of the Andean forearc. Tectonophysics boundary is in the mid-Pleistocene, in Journal of Geology 23:97–117, 193–217, 459:200. some places, based on strath terrace 307–340. Hancock, G.S., and R.S. Anderson, 2002. remnants. This is the same location Chadwick, O.A., R.D. Hall, and F.M. Phil- Numerical modeling of fluvial strath- proposed by the late Roy Holt (1996) lips. 1997. Chronology of Pleistocene terrace formation in response to oscil- after extensive field research. glacial advances in the central Rocky lating climate. GSA Bulletin 114(9): A mid-Pleistocene post-Flood bound- Mountains. GSA Bulletin 109:1,443– 1,131—1,142. ary in the upper Wind River Basin is also 1,452. Hancock, G.S., R.S. Anderson, A.A. Chad- suggested by the existence of the Lava Crickmay, C.H. 1974. The Work of the River: wick, and R.C. Finkel. 1999. Dating Creek B ash between the bedrock and A Critical Study of the Central Aspects fluvial terraces with10 Be and 26Al profiles: the coarse gravel cap on pediment rem- of Geomorphology. American Elsevier application to the Wind River, Wyoming. nants of WR7 (Figure 23 and 24). This Publishing Co., New York, NY. Geomorphology 27:41–60. ash is dated as mid-Pleistocene, 660 kyr Dethier, D.P. 2001. Pleistocene incision rates Hergenrather, J., T. Vail, M. Oard, and D. in the uniformitarian timescale. Since it in the western United States calibrated Bokovoy. 2012. Your Guide to Yellow- is from the last major eruption of the Yel- using Lava Creek B tephra. Geology stone and Grand Teton National Parks: lowstone supervolcano, it demonstrates 29:783–786. A Different Perspective. Master Books, that the large Yellowstone eruptions oc- Fan, M., P.G. DeCelles, G.E. Gehrels, D.L. Green Forest, AR. curred late in the Flood, not afterward. Dettman, J. Quade, and S.L. Peyton. Holt, R.D. 1996. Evidence for a Late Cai- Since Yellowstone ashes are found across 2011. Sedimentology, detrital zircon nozoic Flood/post-Flood boundary. JOC the western and central United States geochronology, and stable isotope geo- 10(1): 128–167. and are used to date fossils, this Flood chemistry of the lower Eocene strata in Lindsey, D.A., W.H. Langer, and B.S. Van date would have radical implications for the Wind River Basin, central Wyoming. Gosen. 2007. Using pebble lithology and the death of these fauna, if the identifica- GSA Bulletin 123:979–996. roundness to interpret gravel provenance tion of Lava Creek B ash at these distal Finnegan, N.J., and W.E. Dietrich. 2011. in piedmont fluvial systems of the Rocky locations is correct. The occurrence of Episodic bedrock strath terrace forma- Mountains, USA. Sedimentary Geology Lava Creek B ash above fossils would tion due to meander migration and 199:223–232. suggest those organisms died in the cutoff. Geology 39(2): 143–146. Love, J.D. 1960. Cenozoic sedimentation and Flood, while those found above the ash Fuller, R.K., L.A. Perg, J.K.Willenbring, crustal movement in Wyoming. American would likely have died after the Flood. and K. Lepper. 2009. Field evidence Journal of Science 258-A:204–214. Clearly, more information from other for climate-driven changes in sediment Love, D., J.C. Reed Jr., and K. Pierce. 2007. locales is needed, along with an in-depth supply leading to strath terrace formation. Creation of the Teton Landscape: A Geo- analysis of tephrochronology. Geology 37(5): 467–470. logical Chronicle of Jackson Hole & the Gosse, J.C., J. Klein, E.B. Evenson, B. Lawn, Teton Range. Grand Teton Association, and R. Middleton. 1995. Beryllium-10 Moose, WY. Acknowledgments dating of the duration and retreat of the McMillan, M.E., P.L. Heller, and S.L. I thank Hans and Lisa Reinhardt for last Pinedale glacial sequence. Science Wing. 2006. History and causes of post- being field assistants during the study 268:1,329—1,333. Laramide relief in the Rocky Moun- of the Wind River terraces. I appreciate Hall, R.D. 1999. Effects of climate change tain orogenic plateau. GSA Bulletin the effort of Peter Klevberg for drawing on soils in glacial deposits, Wind River 118:393–405. Volume 50, Winter 2014 171

Merritts, D.J., K.R. Vincent, and E.E. Wohl egon. Journal of Geophysical Research W.E. Dietrich, and L. Sklar. 2005. Field 1994. Long river profiles, tectonism, and 100:20,193–20,210. measurements of incision rates follow- eustasy: a guide to interpreting fluvial Phillips, F.M., M.G. Zreda, J.C. Gosse, J. ing bedrock exposure: implications for terraces. Journal of Geophysical Research Klein, E.B. Evenson, R.D. Hall, O.A. process controls on the long profiles 99(B7):14,031–14,050. Chadwick, and P. Sharma. 1997. Cosmo- of valleys cut by rivers and debris flows. Molnar, P. et al 1994. Quaternary climate genic 36Cl and 10Be ages of Quaternary GSA Bulletin 117:174–194. change and the formation of river ter- glacial and fluvial deposits of the Wind Sundell, K.A. 1993. A geologic overview races across growing anticlines on the River Range, Wyoming. GSA Bulletin of the Absaroka volcanic province. In north flank of the Tien Shan, China. The 109:1,453–1,463. Snoke, A.W., A.W. Steidtmann, and S.M. Journal of Geology 102:583–602. Sarna-Wojcicki, A.M., S.D. Morrison, C.E. Roberts (editors), Geology of Wyoming, Montgomery, D.R. 2004. Observations Meyer, and J.W. Hillhouse. 1987. Cor- Geological Survey of Wyoming Memoir on the role of lithology in strath ter- relation of upper Cenozoic tephra layers No. 5., pp. 480–506. University of Wyo- race formation and bedrock channel between sediments of the western United ming, Laramie, WY. width. American Journal of Science States and eastern pacific Ocean and Thornbury, W.D. 1965. Regional Geomor- 304:454–476. comparison with biostratigraphic and phology of the United States. John Wiley Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl Jr., and J.A. magnetostratigraphic age data. GSA & Sons, New York, NY. Jackson. 2005. Glossary of Geology, Fifth Bulletin 98:207–223. Walker, M., and J. Lowe. 2007. Quaternary Edition. American Geological Institute, Sharp, W.D., K.R. Ludwig, O.A. Chad- science 2007: a 50-year retrospective. Alexandria, VA. wick, R. Amundson, and L.L. Glaser. Journal of the Geological Society, London Oard, M.J. 2004a. Frozen in Time: The 2003. Dating fluvial terraces by230Th /U 164:1,073–1,092. Woolly Mammoth, the Ice Age, and the on pedogenic carbonate, Wind River Walker, T. 1994. A biblical geological model. Biblical Key to Their Secrets. Master Basin, Wyoming. Quaternary Research In Walsh, R. E. (editor), Proceedings of Books, Green Forest, AR. 59:139–150. the Third International Conference on Oard, M.J. 2004b. Pediments formed by the Shyu, J.B.H., K. Sieh, J.-P. Avouac, W.-S. Creationism, technical symposium ses- Flood: evidence for the Flood/post-Flood Chen, and Y.-G. Chen. 2006. Millen- sions, pp. 581–592. Creation Science boundary in the Late Cenozoic. JOC nial slip rate of the Longitudinal Valley Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. 18(2):15–27. fault from river terraces: implications for Wegmann, K.W., and F.J. Pazzaglia. 2002. Oard, M.J. 2008. Flood by Design: Receding convergence across the active suture of Holocene strath terrace, climate change, Water Shapes the Earth’s Surface. Master eastern Taiwan. Journal of Geophysical and active tectonics: the Clearwater Riv- Books, Green Forest, AR. Research 111 (B08403):1–22. er basin, Olympic Peninsula, Washing- Oard, M.J. 2011. Origin of Appalachian geo- Steidtmann, J.R., L.T. Middleton, and M.W. ton State. GSA Bulletin 114(6):731–744. morphology, part II: formation of surfi- Shuster. 1989. Post-Laramide (Oligo- Yanites, B.J., G.E. Tucker, K.J. Mueller, and cial erosion surfaces. CRSQ 48:111–113. cene) uplift in the Wind River Range, Y.-G. Chen. 2010. How rivers react to Personius, S.F. 1995. Late Quaternary stream Wyoming. Geology 17:38–41. large earthquakes: evidence from central incision and uplift in the forearc of the Stock, J.D., D.R. Montgomery, B.D. Collins, Taiwan. Geology 38(3):639–642. Cascadia subduction zone, western Or- Creation Research Society Quarterly 2014. 50:172–190.

172 Creation Research Society Quarterly The Little Ice Age in the North Atlantic Region

Part V: Greenland

Peter Klevberg, Michael J. Oard*

Abstract he first paper in this series introduced methods of studying past Tclimate change. Subsequent papers addressed the historicity of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age, the importance of the Little Ice Age in understanding climate change and constraining climatic models, and an account of effects of the Little Ice Age in Iceland and Norway. This paper presents a summary of the climate change record in Greenland, especially for the Little Ice Age.

The Uniqueness of Greenland is 0.1 percent the size of the Greenland Greenland lacks a good historical Greenland is the focus of much atten- ice sheet and typically referred to as an record. The few written accounts come tion in the climate change debate. It is “ice cap.” Evaluation of data from the mostly from Iceland, as very few written referred to as a “subcontinent” because Greenland ice sheet has been provided records have survived from Greenland the island verges on the size of land- elsewhere (Oard, 2005); this paper fo- from the time of the Little Ice Age. Proxy masses we refer to as continents. Its high cuses on the features and history of data therefore have greater importance latitude and place between the North Greenland as they relate to the Little for Greenland than for Iceland or Nor- Atlantic and Arctic Oceans make it of Ice Age. way. Proxy data, including foraminifera, particular value to this study. Nearly the Greenland shares our North Atlantic pollen, insects, and oxygen isotope ratios, entire island is covered by ice (Figures 1 study area with Iceland and Norway therefore have greater importance for and 2), approximately two miles (three (Figure 2) but is much larger. Iceland Greenland than for Iceland or Norway. km) thick in the central region. This is is relatively small and surrounded by As described in part I of this series, proxy the world’s second largest ice sheet. If it ocean (with some sea ice); Greenland data are useful but greatly inferior to were to melt, it would result in a rise in is large and surrounded by sea ice (and historical records. sea level of more than six meters (about some open ocean). The combination three fathom). The Antarctic ice sheet of ocean island, continental peninsula, is more than an order of magnitude and subcontinent makes it possible to Greenland and larger than Greenland’s ice sheet, while distinguish regional from hemispheric or World Climate Change Vatnajökull in Iceland, the third largest, global climatic effects in the study area. Greenland has a prominent place in current world climate research. Figure 3 shows locations of important ice core projects. Data from ice cores, particu- larly oxygen isotope ratios, are used to * Peter Klevberg, B.S., P.E., Great Falls, Montana, [email protected] infer the climatic history (i.e., paleocli- Michael J. Oard, M.S., Bozeman, Montana mate) of Greenland and by extension the Accepted for publication January 24, 2014 world. While methodological problems Volume 50, Winter 2014 173

It is possible that seven or more cultures have existed on the main island and the smaller islands that make up the country of Greenland (Table I and Figure 4): Independence I and II, Saqqaq, Dorset I and II, Norse, and Thule (Andreasen, 2003; Gabriel et al., 2002; Høegh-Knud- sen et al., 2003; Jensen, 2002; Jensen et al., 2008; Raahauge et al., 2003, 2005; Sørensen and Pedersen, 2004). It is also possible that some or all of the first three, for which we have only archaeological evidence, may not have been separate cultures (Andreasen, 2003).

Postdiluvial Settlement of Greenland It is reasonable to infer that the early postdiluvial climate of Greenland was very hospitable, more supportive of plant, animal, and human life than at any time thereafter (Oard, 1990). Whether people actually reached Greenland during that time is unknown; if they did, evidence of occupation would have a low probability of surviving the Great Ice Age that likely followed. Thus, evidence for human habitation is likely to be from after the Great Ice Age—a position shared by both evolutionists and creationists.

Norse Landnám We know a good deal about Eirík Rauða (Erik the Red). His life and the found- Figure 1. Southern Greenland from 35,000 feet (10,000 m). The river of ice is an ing of Norse Greenland are recounted outlet glacier draining the Greenland Inland Ice (ice sheet). in Eiríks soga Rauðu (Saga of Erik the Red) and Grönlendingesaga (Saga of the Greenlanders), which are available sources (Ingstad and Ingstad, 1996). He and his father were banished from Jæren in Norway for killing a man, so are not insignificant (Vardiman, 1997), than evolutionists realize, and a history Eirik settled in Iceland. Later, a feud and results become virtually unusable marked by significant climate change. arose when Eirik retaliated against a at significant depth (Oard, 2005), we neighbor over the death of one of his believe the top few centuries’ worth of servants. Banished from Iceland, he ice provide reasonably reliable paleocli- History of Habitation sailed westward in search of land that matic data. These centuries include the At least three peoples have settled Green- had been sighted by other Icelanders, Little Ice Age. land in its history: at least two Hamitic the nearest part of which was known as This paper summarizes the history peoples from the west, and one Japhe­ Gunnbjørnsskjær (Figure 5). Eirik was of Greenland, a history that is far shorter thetic people from the east (Genesis 11). gone from AD 983 to 985. During that 174 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 2. Map of North Atlantic Region. Austrbygd and Vesterbygd were the medieval Norse settlements in Greenland. Warm currents are shown by gray arrows and cold currents by black.

time, he explored the entire west coast country devoid of people, but he found one knows. Greenland’s climate would as far as Disko Island (Norðrsetr, modern evidence of earlier human habitation. In never have been what one would call Qeqertarsuaq—see Table II). He then today’s terminology, these artifacts would balmy, even during the Medieval Warm returned to Iceland and recruited a size- be described as Independence I, Saqqaq, Period, and the sources say Eirik called able number of his former neighbors to or Dorset I (Figure 4). While it is possi- the country “Greenland” to make it immigrate to Greenland. ble that Dorset people were in northern- attractive to settlers, but it also seems The Norse settlement of Greenland most Greenland at the time, no one was that it really was greener than it is now. was a true landnám, i.e., settlement of a in the more habitable south. Did they Dwarf birch (Betula pubescens), which previously uninhabited country. When leave during the Medieval Warm Period is bigger than a bush but small for a tree, Eirík explored Greenland, he found the to continue their cold weather ways? No grew much more widely, and trees were Volume 50, Winter 2014 175

larger than later (Ingstad, 1959). Even today, the areas settled by the Norse respond well to the short summers and are capable of supporting large flocks of livestock (Ingstad, 1959). For the Norse, the most important crop was grass. The chieftains or clan leaders (hövðingar) chose the best farm sites, with those from the lower social strata settling in the less desirable areas (Arneborg, 2002). As the leader of the immigration, Eirik became the recognized leader of the tiny new nation (Figure 6).

Medieval Greenland The sagas indicate a stable, hierarchi- cal society. Archaeological research confirms this (Arneborg, 2002; Ingstad and Ingstad, 1996; Møller and Madsen, 2006). Like contemporary European society, the Greenlanders had to struggle to survive. Eirik’s saga provides insight that life was often difficult, with bad years when many hunters failed to re- turn, and food could be scarce. The Greenlanders ranged widely, and it was not long after the settlement of Greenland that Leifur Eiríksson (aka Leif Erikson or “Leif the Lucky”) bought a ship and explored the coasts of Helluland, Markland, and Vinland, Figure 3. Ice core drilling locations on Greenland. known today as Baffin Island, Labrador, and Newfoundland. In the 1960s, the Ingstads excavated what is probably Leif’s Vinland settlement at L’Anse Aux Meadows and established the veracity Table I. Peoples of Greenland of the history provided by sagas, history long discounted by academics and even Estimated Dates Culture denied long after excavation was finished 2000–800 B.C. Independence I (Ingstad and Ingstad, 1996)! L’Anse Aux Meadows was forested in AD 1000 2000–800 B.C. Saqqaq when the Norse settled there, but the climate later became too cold to support ca. 800–1 B.C. Independence II woodland. Pollen analyses indicate that 700 B.C.–200 A.D. Dorset I while it was measurably warmer in 1000 than later—and possibly than today—it 800 A.D.–1300 A.D. Dorset II was not dramatically warmer than now (Ingstad and Ingstad, 1996). 986–ca. 1540 A.D. Norse Norwegian traders sailed to both Aus- trbygd and Vestrbygd (Figure 2), though 1150–2010 A.D. Thule the journey from Iceland to Greenland 176 Creation Research Society Quarterly

was replete with dangers. While sailing as far up the coast as Vestrbygd was clearly feasible, ice sometimes blocked the mouth of the fjords on Greenland’s southwest coast, as noted in Einar’s þåttur, an account from the early 1100s. Trade was at first quite regular between the trading center of Bergen in Norway and Greenland. Over time, at least four factors worked against this trade: increas- ing sea ice, the Black Death, Scandina- vian politics, and German hegemony in trade (Bjørvik, 1994; Fagan, 2000; Helle, 1994; Heyerdahl and Lillieström, 1999; Ingstad, 1959). Sea ice forced the route south, made the voyage more dangerous, and shortened the trading season. The Black Death was imported to Norway from England via Bergen and decimated the population. Scandinavian politics resulted in Greenland being “forgotten,” and the German Hanseatic League took power over virtually all trade through Bergen. A Norwegian ship did arrive from Greenland in 1410, but it had been blown off course on its way to Iceland (Ingstad, 1959). Another is recorded from 1484—the crew was said to have been murdered by the German merchants for breaching their monopoly, but Ingstad (1959) finds this story doubt- ful. The value of walrus ivory and furs, the most valuable trading wares of the Greenlanders, also sank steadily through medieval times (Bjørvik, 1994). Climate appears to have been an important factor but far from the only one in the decline in trade. Clergy in medieval times were gen- erally the only people who were literate, but runic inscriptions from Greenland indicate that some of the laity also were literate. Whereas church records are Figure 4. Map of Greenlandic cultural history. In southern Greenland, Eirik an important historical source for Eu- discovered earlier human settlements described as Independence I, Saqqaq, or ropean history, those from Greenland Dorset I. are rare; the most famous is the wed- ding record from the Hvalsey church in 1408 (Ingstad and Ingstad, 1996). The main churches in Greenland were all destroyed by fire (Arneborg, 2001; Hey- erdahl and Lillieström, 1999). Einar’s Volume 50, Winter 2014 177

þåttur (Einars þáttr sokkasonar) records the Greenlanders’ decision to request that the king of Norway assign a bishop to Greenland. At this time (1123), Vestrbygd was an important community with leading men, a fact confirmed by the nature of archaeological discoveries at Sandnes (Arneborg, 2001). The first Roman Catholic bishop to visit Green- land was likely Erik Gnupson, who ap- parently established his see in Sandnes in Vestrbygd; he went to Vinland in 1121 and never returned (Ingstad and Ingstad, 1996). The last ecclesiastical head to live at the see in Garðar is believed to have been Alf (bishop 1367–1377), though Bishop Anders may have been there in 1406 (Ingstad, 1959). Records indicate that ecclesiastical levies for building Saint Peter’s Cathedral in Rome and for paying for crusades were collected by Bishop Arne (bishop 1314–1343). Others were named bishop of Garðar clear up to 1537, but none apparently went there after 1400. “An old priest” was said to have officiated in Hvalsey in 1408, the time of the last surviving document. Climate apparently contributed to the demise of the see of Garðar. A Vati- can letter from 1492 expressed belief that no ship had ventured to Greenland in eighty years (Fagan, 2000). That must re- fer to trading ships or ships that Catholic officials could use to reach Greenland, as a papal record from 1448 speaks of “foreign ships that raided Austrbygd and destroyed the holy buildings”(Ingstad and Ingstad, 1996, p. 100). Grove (1988, p. 1) believes grain Figure 5. Photographs from the air of southeastern coast of Greenland (Gunn­ was grown in Greenland, though oth- bjørnsskjær?). Need one wonder why this region has never been the site of sig- ers dispute this (Ingstad, 1959; Seaver, nificant human habitation? 2010). The Konungsjugsá, a literary source composed ca. 1250, mentions efforts by hövðingar at growing grain in Greenland, apparently without success (Ingstad, 1959). Grain was an import (Ingstad, 1959). Diet varied with social had a climate similar to the south coast ware, and Greenlanders were not ac- status, and common people would not of Iceland today, i.e., milder than the customed to eating it; they subsisted on have eaten grain. If grain was a marginal present climate. There is no doubt that a diet largely of meat, fish, sour butter crop at landnám, it is likely the interior after 1350 at the latest, grain cultivation or cheese, and various native plants fjord areas of Austrbygd at that time would have been impossible. 178 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Table II. Equivalent Place Names disinterred from Norse graveyards, and the description of the poor state of his Norse Inuit Danish knife matches what could be expected in fuel-starved Greenland. She disputes de- Anavík Ujarassuit Anavik tails of the story but accords it a basis in Nanortalik, Qaqortoq, and fact. If true, it is at present the last record Austrbygd Østerbygd Narsaq of contact with Norse Greenland—such Bjarney Qeqertarsuaq Disko øer as it was. Seaver (2010, p. 99) also argues that a “large festal hall” at Herjolfsnes Brattahlið Qassiarsuk Brattahlid near the southern tip of the subcontinent Einarsfjörðr Igalikup Kangerlua Einarsfjorden could not have been built before the middle 1400s, and evidence appears to Eiríksfjörðr Tunuglliarfik Eriksfjord support a functioning Norse community Eysunes Nfgssuaq Ildnæs at Herjolfsnes into the 1500s (Ingstad, Garðar Igaliko Gardar 1959), but a German expedition in 1542 found Greenland uninhabited (Ingstad, Herjolfsnes Ikigaat Herjolfsnæs 1959). The Arctic explorer Frobisher Hvatnahverfi Vatnahverfi apparently did not encounter Norse during his 1576–1578 expedition, nor Karlsbuðir Arfersiorfik Nordre Strømfjord did the Danish Dannels expedition in Kvalseyfjörðr Qaqortukulooq Hvalseyfjord 1652–1654. Langey Tugtutôq In 1721, Hans Egede Saabye ob- tained royal permission to go to Green- Lysufjörðir Kangerlussuaq Søndre Strømfjord land as a missionary to the Greenlanders. Midtfjörðir Sermilik When he arrived, he found no Norse. So he mastered the Inuit language, Norðrsetr Nordresæter translated the Bible into Inuit, and Nyland, Duneyar Ittoqqortoormiit Scoresbysund spent the rest of his life ministering to Sandnes Kilaarsarfik Sandnæs them. His son Paul recorded accounts of the Inuit (Ingstad, 1959). Some of Straumfjörðr Niaqungunaq Fiskefjorden the Inuit believed the Norse were still Vestrbygd Nuussuaq Vesterbygd in Greenland just as Hans Egede had expected. They told of peaceful coex- Qaanaaq Thule istence but also of ships that sailed into Paamiut Frederikshåb Austrbygd and attacked the farmers. A Narsarsuaq “Bluey One” Dano-Norwegian expedition in 1481 had written of encountering “pirates,” Nuuk Godthåb though it is difficult to interpret their Nanortalik Lichtenaufjord descriptions, which could easily have been skin boats. The Inuit were neither well-armed nor practiced in war and would make unlikely “pirates.” Evidence points to peaceful coexistence between Arguments have been made that if true, this dietary change would provide Norse and other peoples (Ingstad, 1959; Norse diet changed to an increasingly circumstantial evidence for climatic Seaver, 2010). marine one with time (Arneborg et al., deterioration. 1999). These studies are hamstrung by Seaver (2010) tells of some Iceland- Modern Greenland attempting to compare human remains ers who in 1540 happened across the Most of today’s Greenlanders are Inuit. from different locations, times, and body of a man in Austrbygd who had They are descendants of the Thule social strata, without mentioning depen- recently died. The description of his people who reached Greenland from dence on radiocarbon dating. However, clothing matches that of many bodies the Canadian Arctic in medieval times Volume 50, Winter 2014 179

Figure 6. The most famous Norse Greenlandic farm was Eirík the Red’s Brattahlið on Eiríksfjörðr (Eriks Fjord). Note on the satellite photograph that a lake traps calving ice so that this fjord is free of icebergs at its head and with the best climate for agriculture in the region. Qassiarsuk is the traditional site for Brattahlið, but another possibility is nearby Qinngua. Aerial from NASA Earth Observatory, other photographs from Can Stock Photo.

and continued expanding their range Most archaeological investigations and elsewhere in the world (Grove, 1988). southward along the west coast until investigations of Greenlandic cultures Although the media frequently report they were living side by side with the have been conducted by the Danish stories of receding glaciers in Green- Norse (Fagan, 2000; Raahauge et al., National Museum. Work has also land, recent decades have actually been 2002). When the Norse disappeared (see progressed on measuring glacial fluc- cooler than “normal” in both air and Appendix A), the Inuit continued their tuations and investigating the ice sheet. sea temperatures (Fagan, 2000). “The traditional existence. Widespread extension of glaciers from past 40 years’ cooling trend in Southern As a Danish protectorate, Greenland late medieval times, with minor reces- Greenland shows that climate change is has long had significant Danish influ- sion during the twentieth century, is far from a simple, even process” (Hansen ence and a sizable Danish minority. evident and matches observations from and Cappelen, 2003, p. 1). 180 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Greenland’s history provides impor- permanently frozen after 1350 (Grove, a combination of these factors. In any tant data for climate change research. 1988). This may indicate a markedly case, they came to live in the same areas Interpretation of these data is not colder climate, though some dispute this as the Norse and competed with them without difficulty and controversy, but (Ingstad, 1959) and believe the climate for seal, caribou, and other resources. in general it agrees with Grove’s (1988) became only slightly cooler. Unfortunately, it was then that cooling interpretation that the Little Ice Age was climate increased the need for resources. a global phenomenon. The Inuit survived and have remained in Changes in Fishing Austrbygd to this day, but there is much and Sea Routes evidence for starvation and deprivation Proxy Data While sea ice fluctuates from year to year, (Ingstad, 1959). Oxygen isotope dating of tooth enamel Barðarsson’s account that the trade route and benthic foraminifera have been had to be moved farther and farther used as proxies for the temperature his- south indicates a decadal to centennial Glacial Studies tory of Greenland (Grove, 2001), but scale for this change. Disappearance of Melting glaciers is a popular theme in the primary data come from ice cores. cod and their return in recent decades the media. Scientific studies attempt to These proxies are limited but seem to is a clear sea temperature signal (Fagan, quantify changes through mass balance reinforce the Little Ice Age timing seen 2000). comparisons, studying the accumulation elsewhere in the study area (Johnsen et of snow on the inland ice and the ice lost al., 2001). Data from GISP-2 (Figure at outlet glaciers. Accurate results are 3) are interpreted to show a particularly Advancing Ice hampered by the form of Greenland’s cold period in the mid 1300s (Fagan, Eyewitness accounts from the 1700s tell coast (Figure 2). The feet of glaciers are 2000). Diatom evidence from cores in of rapid expansion of Greenland outlet easier to observe and have been studied Austrbygd (Figure 2) indicates an overall glaciers. Fast advances were also ob- for the past couple of centuries, though cooling from the Medieval Warm Period served in the late 1800s, both in inland with greater scientific rigor in recent to the Little Ice Age and significant cool- ice and outlet glaciers, with temperature decades. Studies show that Greenland’s ing after 1350 (Jensen et al., 2004). The as the main control (Grove, 1988). We glaciers advanced contemporary with Little Ice Age peaked (as defined by ice are not aware of any eyewitness account Little Ice Age advances in Europe, but extent) around 1750, but a second peak of farms actually being overrun by gla- unlike Europe Greenland’s glaciers have in Greenland occurred around 1880 ciers, and they are usually destructive of been slow to retreat or even advanced (Grove, 1988). This was true for both archaeological material. An exception through the 1970s (Gordon, 1981). Mass the inland ice margin and outlet glaciers, is Gården under Sandet in Vesterbygd, balance studies for the ice sheet indicate east coast and west. which was preserved under glacioflu- slightly negative to slightly positive over- vial sediments. Ingstad (1959) presents all mass balance, but with significant evidence that the caribou/reindeer herd differences between regions (Dietrich et The Little Ice Age of northeastern Greenland died out be- al., 2005; Simpson et al., 2011; Tarasov Evidence for the Little Ice Age in cause their habitat was covered by snow and Peltier, 2002). Greenland corresponds with climatic and ice during the Little Ice Age. Much study has been directed to ice change elsewhere in our study area. cores and their proxies over the past few “But the climate continued to be mild decades to reconstruct paleoclimates. from about 1000 until the middle of the Disappearance of A summary of the problems with the 1100’s, during the time the country was Norse Greenlanders assumptions and methods behind settled, and later it vacillated between The disappearance of the Norse Green- these reconstructions was presented by milder and colder periods until the landers remains a mystery. Many of the Oard (2005). Recent studies emphasize middle of the 1440’s, when it became theories are climate related, but it is computer modeling to infer ice cover significantly colder”(Krag, 1994, pp. impossible to prove their disappearance changes for Greenland and other re- 42–43). was caused by climate change (Appen- gions, much of which is based on ice dix A). Migration of the Inuit (Thule core interpretations (Tarasov and Peltier, people) south during the Little Ice 2002). These are now focused on recent Permafrost at Hvalsnes Age may have been due to population centuries to interpret data from isostasy Bodies disinterred from the cemetery growth, depletion of game, reduction in with greater temporal precision, as will at Herjolfsnes indicate the ground was game due to climatic deterioration, or be described later in this paper. Volume 50, Winter 2014 181

Altered Currents? an increase in the Greenland Ice Sheet for ice core research. Proxy data indicate The countries in our study area are during the Little Ice Age is clearly indi- declining temperatures in later medieval dependent on the transport of heat via cated (Bennike, 2002; Weidick, 1996; times, and advances in inland ice and ocean currents to moderate their high- Weidick et al., 2004). Many believe coastal glaciers in Greenland coincided latitude climates. As shown in Figure the present ice margin represents an with the growth of glaciers in Iceland 2, the Irminger Current moderates advance of 25 to 80 km (15 to 48 miles) and Norway (Grove, 1988; Klevberg and the climate of Iceland, while the East beyond the minimal margin preceding Oard, 2012a, 2012b). Greenland Current causes the arctic the Medieval Warm Period (Bennike, The NAO or oscillatory weather pat- landscape of Figure 5 at the same lati- 2002; Dietrich et al., 2005; Simpson terns do not explain growth of the ice tude that barley and fruit trees grow in et al., 2011; Sparrenbom et al., 2006; sheet inferred from isostatic data or the Norway. Thor Heyerdahl posited that Wahr et al., 2001). Greenland shows an advance of the ice margin during recent Gunnbjørnskjær was not the frigid isostatic pattern opposite to that of Scan- centuries. Retreat of glacial fronts dur- coast shown in Figure 5 but rather an dinavia: it appears to have risen most at ing recent decades has not equalled the island (skjær can be translated as bank, the coasts and actually subsided near advance of the Greenland ice margin reef, skerry, or island). He hypothesized the ice margin, indicating a thickening during the Little Ice Age, nor has that that this was a volcanic island reported ice sheet and rebounding coasts (Wahr margin melted back to its Medieval to have erupted in 1332 and “burned et al., 2001; Weidick, 1972; Weidick et Warm Period position. As pointed out up completely” in 1456 (Heyerdahl al., 1990). Isostatic adjustments have in previous papers of this series (Klev- and Lillieström, 1999, p. 350). The last significant implications, as summarized berg and Oard, 2011b, 2012a, 2012b), eruption, he said, was in 1783. Without in Appendix B. temperature is but one climatic variable, the impediment of the island, sea ice and Weidick (1972) attributes much of moved more freely and abundantly the observed change in the Greenland south with the East Greenland Current. Regional or Global? Ice Sheet to changes in precipitation and To our knowledge, no research has been The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) storm tracks. This fits well with contem- pursued to confirm or deny Heyerdahl’s is a major meteorologic phenomenon porary observations for the Little Ice Age hypothesis. in the North Atlantic region and can in Iceland and Norway (Klevberg and explain many observed weather patterns. Oard, 2012a, 2012b). Typical winter lows over Iceland and Isostasy highs over the Azores channel westerly Dramatic isostatic changes in Green- winds to Europe. Reversing this pattern Summary land may have contributed to the disap- weakens the winter storm track. Figure The Greenland Ice Sheet is the world’s pearance of Norse society. The beach 7 illustrates the “Greenland above ef- second largest, forming a huge heat at Brattahlið in Austrbygd (Figures 2 fect,” with high barometric pressure sink that modulates climate on a global and 6) is now 3–4 m (10–13 ft.) below over Greenland. This results in warmer scale. Both historical and proxy data sea level (Sparrenbom et al., 2006), winter temperatures in Greenland and indicate that Greenland in AD 1000 and the prominent church at Sandnes colder temperatures in Norway and was warmer than at present, and that in Vestrbygd has seen a rise in sea level usually most of the rest of Europe. The it cooled significantly during the Little or drop in land elevation of 6 m (19 “Greenland below effect” is the opposite Ice Age. Recent warming has been ft.) in the several centuries since it was situation. uneven, with a general cooling trend in built (Weidick, 1996). Recently, global The NAO can explain asynchronic- southwestern Greenland over the past positioning system (GPS) and satellite ity in winter temperatures between few decades. The Little Ice Age cooling data have been tapped to determine Greenland and Europe; it cannot cannot be attributed to the NAO; only rates of vertical motion. These data explain growth of ice in Greenland decadal differences between Europe have been combined with data from contemporary with growth of ice masses and Greenland can be explained by the radiocarbon-dated elevated shorelines elsewhere. The NAO is, however, linked NAO. In general, the timing of glacial to refine glacial models. While many of with weather patterns in the North advance coincides with Iceland and the assumptions made by researchers are Pacific (Van Loon and Rogers, 1978; Norway, though recession has been later questionable and the models are sensi- Rogers and Van Loon, 1979). The and to a lesser scale in Greenland. It is tive to assumptions of earth structure Little Ice Age appears to have been at difficult to quantify climatic changes (Bennike et al., 2002; Fleming and Lam- least hemispheric based on Greenland in Greenland from changes in equilib- beck, 2004; Tarasov and Peltier, 2002), evidence, which is part of the motivation rium line altitude (ELA), since data are 182 Creation Research Society Quarterly

that the Little Ice Age had a profound impact on Greenland.

Acknowledgments We thank David Sunwall and Arve Mis- und for help in acquiring scientific pa- pers and graphics. Reviewers’ comments made this a more concise paper. We are grateful for the assistance of Al Gore and the Nobel Peace Prize committee in generating widespread interest in our research. Deum laudamus (Acts 17:26).

Glossary Hanseatic League (Hansa) – A trading monopoly based in northern Ger- man cities that controlled much of northern European trade and exerted great political influence during medieval times. hövðingar – Norse aristocracy, consist- ing mostly of local chieftains, feu- dal lords, or clan leaders, though hövðingar, especially of higher rank, typically ruled over people unrelated to them, in addition to slaves and servants. isostasy – gravitational equilibrium be- tween lighter continents and denser oceanic crust and mantle; loading of the surface by ice causes depression of the earth’s surface, and unloading causes the surface to rebound and rise (isostatic adjustment). landnám – Norse word for settling a country that was previously unin- Figure 7. The North Atlantic Oscillation. The N.A.O. is shown in “positive” or habited. normal mode; a “negative” N.A.O. index would have high barometric pressure over Iceland and low over the Azores. The “Greenland above” effect is illustrated, with high pressure over Greenland and warmer-than-average temperatures in References Greenland coinciding with lower-than-average temperatures in Scandinavia. The CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quarterly “Greenland below” effect is the opposite. Andreasen, C. 2003. Paleoeskimo dwellings in Greenland: a survey. Etúdes Inuit 27:283–306. Arneborg, J. 2001. Kirke, kristendom og stor- bønder i Grønland–et nyt forskningspros- often imprecise and the ELA is low to cores, is therefore necessary in studying jekt [in Danish]. In Bisgaard, L., and R.S. begin with. More reliance on somewhat paleoclimatology in Greenland. How- Christensen (editors), Kristningen av problematic proxy data, particularly ice ever, recent work on isostasy indicates norden–et 1000-års jubilæum. pp. 8–25. Volume 50, Winter 2014 183

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Wake, G.A. Milne, and gion, part IV: Norway. CRSQ 49:43–55. Center for Grønlandsforskning, Copen- P. Huybrechts. 2011. The influence Krag, C. 1994. Vikingtid og rikssamling 800 hagen, Denmark. of decadal- to millenial-scale ice mass - 1130. (Volume 2 of Aschehougs norges Raahauge, K., P. Høegh-Knudsen, H.C. changes on present-day vertical land mo- historie) [in Norwegian]. Aschehoug & Gulløv, J. Møhl, C. Krause, and N.A. tion in Greenland: implications for the Co. (W. Nygaard), Oslo, Norway. Møller. 2003. Tidlig Thulekultur i interpretation of GPS observations. Jour- McGovern, T.H. 1991. Climate, correlation, Sydgrønland: rapport om undersøgel- nal of Geophysical Research 116:B02406 and causation in Norse Greenland. Arc- serne i Nanortalik Kommune, som- (doi: 10.1029/2010JB007776). tic Anthropology 28:77–100. meren 2002 [in Danish]. Feltrapport 9, Sparrenbom, C.J., O. Bennike, S. Björck, Mikkelsen, N., A. Kuijpers, and J. Arneborg. Sila - Nationalmuseets Center for Grøn- and K. Lambeck. 2006. Holocene rela- 2008. The Norse in Greenland and late landsforskning, Copenhagen, Denmark. tive sea-level changes in the Qaqortoq Holocene sea-level change. Polar Record Raahauge, K., E.L. Jensen, B. Grønnow, area, Southern Greenland. Boreas 44:45–50. and H.C. Gulløv. 2005. Bopladser 35:171–187. Motyka, R.J., 2003. Little Ice Age subsidence langs konebådsruten mellem Vest- og Sørensen, M., and K.B. Pedersen. 2004. Kil- and post Little Ice Age uplift at Juneau, Østgrønland, rapport om besigtigelser fra liaq kilder og palæo-eskimoer: arkæolo- Alaska, inferred from dendrochronol- Pamialuk til Aluk, sommeren 2004 [in gisk rekognoscering af nordkysten af ogy and geomorphology. Quaternary Danish]. Feltrapport 19, Sila - National- Nuussuaq, fra Serfat til Qaarsut, Uum- Research 59:300–309. museets Center for Grønlandsforskning, mannaq Kommune [in Danish]. Feltrap- Møller, N.A., and C.K. Madsen. 2006. Copenhagen, Denmark. port 17, Sila - Nationalmuseets Center Nordboerne i Vatnahverfi: rapport Rian, Ø. 1994. Den nye begynnelsen 1520– for Grønlandsforskning, Copenhagen, om rekognoscering og opmåling af 1660. (Volume 5 of Aschehougs norges Denmark. nordboruiner i Vatnahverfi, sommeren historie) [in Norwegian]. Aschehoug & Tarasov, L., and W.R. Peltier. 2002. Green- 2005 [in Danish]. Feltrapport 24. Sila- Co. (W. Nygaard), Oslo, Norway. land glacial history and local geodynamic Nationalmuseets Center for Grønlands- Rieck, F., J. Dencker, H. Kapel, and K. consequences. Geophysical Journal forskning, Copenhagen, Denmark. Raahauge. 2002. Skib, naust og mari- International 150:198–229. Møller, N.A., L. Lund Johansen, C.K. Mad- time aktiviteter i det norrøne Grønland: Thomson, A.M., I.A. Simpson, and J.L. Volume 50, Winter 2014 185

Brown. 2005. Sustainable rangeland and Appendix A: Annihilation by Inuit grazing in Norse Faroe. Human Ecology The Mystery Ivar Barðarsson, who led the expedition 33:737–761. of the Disappearance from Austrbygd in the 1300s to rescue Van Loon, H., and J.C. Rogers. 1978. The of the Greenlanders Vestrbygd, believed the Norse there had seesaw in winter temperatures between been attacked by Inuit. Ingstad (1959) Greenland and Northern Europe. Part For centuries, a few thousand Norse provides evidence that the possibility I: general description. Monthly Weather Greenlanders occupied hundreds of of this is remote. While there were ac- Review 106:296–310. remote farms and hunting camps in counts of Inuit attacks on Norse, these Vardiman, L. 1997. Rapid changes in oxygen southwestern Greenland and traded were very rare, and relations appeared to isotope content of ice cores caused by with European voyagers at Herjolfnes have been nearly always friendly. Inuit fractionation and trajectory dispersion and other locations. The population were known to form friendships with near the edge of an ice shelf. Creation of Vestrbygd vanished about 1350, but Norse and even to have rescued some Ex Nihilo Technical Journal (now Journal the larger Austrbygd community was in time of calamity. of Creation) 11(1): 52–61. still populous in the early 1400s, and Vebæk, C.L. 1991. Hunting on land and still in existence to at least 1540. It, too, Assimilation by Inuit at sea and fishing in medieval Norse was gone without a trace by 1721, when Fridtjof Nansen, the famous explorer Greenland. Acta Borealis 8:5–14. Hans Egede Saabye came to bring the who skied across Greenland, was a “uni- Wahr, J., T. Van Dam, K. Larson, and gospel of Jesus Christ to them. Finding formitarian” who disputed the existence O. Francis. 2001. Geodetic measure- Inuit rather than the Norse he had ex- of the Little Ice Age prior to its end. He ments in Greenland and their implica- pected, he learned their language and thus did not adhere to a climate-related tions. Journal of Geophysical Research ministered to them. Why the Norse theory but instead believed the Norse 106:16,567–16,581. Greenlanders disappeared remains a had simply assimilated into Inuit culture. Weidick, A. 1972. Holocene shore-lines mystery. As shown in Table III, more However, evidence indicates that the and glaciated stages in Greenland–an than a dozen theories have been devised genetic contribution of Europeans to the attempt at correlation. Grønlands Gbe- to explain this disappearance, either present Greenlandic people stems from olgiske Undersøgelse Rapport Nr. 41. alone or in combination. the much smaller group of Danes and Weidick, A., H. Oerter, N. Reeh, H.H. Norwegians who settled in Greenland Thomsen, and L. Thorning. 1990. The after 1750 and married Inuit women. recession of the inland ice margin during Was the Little Ice Age the Holocene climatic optimum in the the Cause? Overrun by Ice Jakobshavn Isfjord area of West Green- No clear evidence exists that the Little Advancing ice did threaten, if not destroy, land. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Ice Age affected Greenland strongly Norse farms (Grove, 1988) and probably Paleoecology 82:389–399. enough to bury most Norse farms and overran many of the more inland sites Weidick, A. 1996. Late holocene and his- put an end to their civilization. Alterna- (Weidick, 1972, 1996). That the ice con- torical changes of glacier cover and tive ideas include some that involve tinued to advance into the eighteenth related relative sea level in Greenland. climate change and some that do not. century and beyond is attested to by Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Gla- The likelihood or unlikelihood of these records of interviews with Inuit hunt- zialgeologie 32:217–224. theories helps to provide some degree of ers (Grove, 1988). As noted above, the Weidick, A., M. Kelly, and O. Bennike. 2004. insight into the effects of the Little Ice inland ice appears to have advanced up Late Quaternary development of the Age on Greenland. to 80 km (48 miles) from its post-Great- southern sector of the Greenland Ice Ice-Age minimum. However, many sites Sheet, with particular reference to the did not suffer from glacial advance, and Qassimiut lobe. Boreas 33:284–299. Theories for the the growth of glaciers could not have Disappearance of constituted a sufficient condition for the the Norse Greenlanders disappearance of the Norse Greenland- Of the theories shown in Table III, ers, though it may have contributed to only two are blatantly climatic. Eight the demise of their society. Advancing are primarily political or cultural, and ice, increasing permafrost, and glacial four could be called “natural” without erosion would all have challenged the necessarily being directly climate Norse Greenlanders. Ice advance is related. certainly a climatically governed factor. 186 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Table III. Summary of Theories for Demise of Norse Greenlanders Notable Climate Contributing Theory Promoters Related? Likelihood Factor? Annhilation by Inuit Barxarsson No Remote No Assimilated by Inuit Nansen Possibly Low No Overrun by Ice Weidick Yes Localized Probably Insect Plague Ingstad* No Low Possibly Isostatic Depression Ingstad* Probably High Possibly Soil Erosion & Deforestation Popular** Possibly Low Possibly Colder water, shorter growing Fagan* Yes High Probably season, lack of driftwood Loss of Trade Fagan* No High Very likely Pride and Starvation Popular** Yes Remote Probably not Disease Possibly Low Probably not Inbreeding & Lack of Vitality Norlund Possibly Low Probably not Ecclesiastical Greed Ingstad* No High Probably Pirates Ingstad*, Heyerdahl No High Probably Outmigration Ingstad*, Heyerdahl Probably High Very likely

*Provided as suggested contributing factor but not adequate explanation in itself. **Most popular Establishment explanations, so promoters are common (e.g. McGovern, 1991; Diamond, 2005).

Insect Plague relative to sea level. This has amounted is evident. As noted above, a significant It may seem strange that an insect plague to 5–6 m (15–20 ft) since the settle- amount of the relative sea-level rise (i.e., could erupt in the chilly climate of ment of Greenland and appears to be isostatic depression) appears related to Greenland, but infestations of cater- isostatic depression, since sea-level rise the Little Ice Age and actually appears pillars have been observed in recent was apparently not more than 40–50 to be overprinted on isostatic rebound decades that resulted in denudation of cm (16–20 in) during the Little Ice Age from ice melting after the Great Ice Age. large areas of vegetation (Ingstad, 1959). (Fagan, 2000), and Norway continued Such has been suggested for the reason to rise out of the sea during this same Soil Erosion and Deforestation Vestrbygd was abandoned, as one win- period. While isostatic depression would As mentioned in part III of this series, ter without hay would mean death for not have been catastrophic nor adequate Iceland experienced damaging soil man and beast, whether cold weather cause for abandoning their homes, the erosion during the Little Ice Age, the or insects were responsible. However, Norse would have lost considerable effects of which are still visible. Demand this does not explain why livestock were real estate, some of their best land, and for fuel increased at the same time the roaming free when Ivar Barðarsson and probably some hard-earned buildings growing seasons were shortened, and company arrived from Austrbygd, nor to the sea (Mikkelsen et al., 2008). deforestation and soil erosion went does it explain the disappearance of the Isostatic depression would therefore hand in hand. Starving people tend considerably larger Austrbygd commu- have been a contributing factor, not a to think little of the long-term effects nity a couple of centuries later. sufficient condition, for the demise of of overgrazing and deforestation. This Norse Greenland. Isostatic depression has been suggested as a major factor in Isostatic Depression could be the result of significant ice the demise of Norse Greenland (Fagan, Ingstad (1959) provides considerable build-up during the Little Ice Age or 2000; Sandgren and Fredskild, 1991), documentation of the drop in land dramatic crustal cooling; no other cause though many data appear to indicate Volume 50, Winter 2014 187 that climatic deterioration at least played apparently for this purpose (Ingstad, ern, 1991). They looked down on the na- a role in erosion (Arneborg, 2008) and 1959). A shorter growing season would tives, calling them skrælingar (“wimps”) that Greenlandic farmers, like many have affected caribou (reindeer) just as and starved to death rather than stoop other Norse, were actually good and it did domestic livestock, with less game to the skræling way of life. This cultural skilled stewards of their land (Ingstad, meat for the larder. Loss of driftwood suicide may have been speeded along 1959; Møller and Madsen, 2006; Thom- meant less fuel to heat with during through bad farming practices and other son et al., 2005; Ross, 1997). Harsher increasing long and cold winters, and unsustainable resource development or climatic conditions and advance of ice while blubber could substitute for some perhaps by deteriorating climate, though during the Little Ice Age would have of that, lack of good driftwood for boat some dispute the role of climate at all contributed to soil erosion, however, building or constructing houses could (McGovern, 1991). Target species and and less availability of driftwood would have been devastating. On the other hunting equipment of the Inuit, which have increased the pressure on the hand, right up to the time of its disap- some think could have saved Norse so- limited dwarf birch woodland. Thus, pearance, the Vestrbygd community ob- ciety, do not seem to have been adopted while probably not a major factor, to tained wood from Labrador (Ingstad and by the Norse Greenlanders (McGovern, the extent that soil erosion and defores- Ingstad, 1996). Their boats were smaller 1991; Vebæk, 1991). Fagan (2000) pro- tation increased pressure on the Norse and grossly inferior to the famous oak vides a detailed description of archaeo- community, they would have served to Viking ships of Norway in which the logical evidence for this position based contribute to its demise. first settlers arrived, and these later on Nipaatsoq, a small farm near Sandnes Greenlandic boats were held together in Vestrbygd, which shows evidence of Colder Water, Shorter Growing by wooden pegs and sinews as fuel for squalor and starvation. Season, Lack of Driftwood smelting iron became scarce (Ingstad, Fagan’s description notwithstanding, Fagan (2000) notes that only a slightly 1959). Yet one of these 18-man boats this argument carries little if any weight. colder seawater temperature than at was blown off course from Markland Not only were livestock roaming about present would have driven cod from (Labrador) and ended up in Iceland in Vestrbygd when Barðarsson and his men Greenland’s southwest coast. While 1347, right about the time the Vestrbygd arrived, they slaughtered and hauled some claim the early medieval Norse community probably disappeared. So back as many as they could. Arguments Greenlanders had an aversion to fish while these climate-induced factors similar to Fagan’s continue to be made, (Diamond, 2005), this assertion indi- would have complicated life, they would but evidence from the nearby Gården cates ignorance of Norse practices with not have been sufficient conditions for Under Sandet (GUS), which was exca- fish byproducts and flies in the face of the end of the Norse settlements. vated in recent years, appears more typi- historic evidence that fish always formed cal of Vestrbygd and differs significantly a fundamental part of the Greenlanders Loss of Trade from Nipaatsoq (Brasen, 2001; Ross, diet (Ingstad, 1959). In 1770, E. Þórhal- Trade meant much to support a popula- 1997). Refined methods utilized at GUS lesen discovered a fish-drying place that tion of thousands in such a challenging are providing a fuller and perhaps more remained from the Norse community landscape. Trade helped lift their stan- complicated picture (Hebsgaard et al., (Ingstad, 1959). Loss of this resource dard of living and brought them valuable 2009; Panagiotakopulu et al., 2007). A would have hit the community hard. items such as sewing needles and iron for single farm in Vestrbygd such as Nipaat- Climatic deterioration would have made tool making (Christensen, 2002; Rieck soq could also have been inhabited by an life more difficult for livestock, another et al., 2002). The loss of trade would utlægr (banished outlaw) and may not be fundamental source of sustenance for not in itself make life impossible, but indicative of the community as a whole. the Norse. Demand for driftwood for it would have made it more difficult. Much remains shrouded in mystery, and fuel and lumber exceeded replenish- Loss of trade was not solely the result of the prevailing view is simplistic at best. ment. As the Little Ice Age commenced, climatic deterioration, but climate did It is true that the Norse called the this demand would have increased at play a role. natives they encountered in Vinland the same time that Greenlanders would skrælingar and provoked some con- have had to go farther and farther in Pride and Starvation frontations with them. However, they search of it. This also made smelting Today, the most popular theory for the had remarkably peaceful relations with of iron difficult and expensive. Coal demise of Norse Greenland is that they the Thule people (Ingstad, 1959). The was even imported to Vestrbygd from were cultural holdovers who insisted on Thule people had their own skræling- present-day Rhode Island (based on being European and refused to adopt like word, and true to their traditions, chemical and mineralogical analysis), Inuit lifestyles (Diamond, 2005; McGov- made up tall tales of how they chased 188 Creation Research Society Quarterly

out “giants” when they came to Green- land. This lends credence to belief that Dorset II culture was present in northern Greenland in medieval times, as the Dorset were noticeably larger than the diminutive Thule people yet ran away when confronted (Ingstad, 1959). The “pride and starvation” argu- ment reveals considerable academic ignorance, if not revisionist arrogance. As pointed out long ago (Ingstad, 1959), Norse culture involved making use of virtually all of the same resources that the Inuit did, with hunting a major source of food and materials from the very beginning. In addition, the Norse had livestock; they had a more diverse and secure base than did the Inuit. To this day, a combination of fishing, hunting, and farming is traditional in Norway (Figure 8). The Greenland- ers dug pits in the permafrost to act as freezers for meat and other foodstuffs (Ingstad, 1959). Yet toward the end of Norse Greenlandic society, they were described as barbarians who wore furs and ate raw meat, with a standard of living that differed little from the Inuit (Heyerdahl and Lillieström, 1999; Ing- stad, 1959). It is ironic that in the early 1900s, the Inuit had so decimated the wild game population that they had to adopt sheep raising to avoid starvation (Ingstad, 1959). Figure 8. Fishing on Storfjord, Sunnmøre, Norway. Klevberg’s farmer friend Harald Haugen sets nets from a boat built from timber harvested from his small dairy farm Disease at Viset. Farms too small to be otherwise viable have been the norm in Norway An intuitive idea for the disappearance of for centuries; fishing and hunting have always been combined with farming. This the Norse in Greenland is the bubonic kind of multifacted economy prevailed in Norse Greenland. The naust (a type of plague. It killed at least two-thirds of boathouse built above high-tide line) in the middle right photograph is a typical Norway’s population and about that Norwegian wooden structure; in medieval Greenland, a naust would have been in Iceland. Might it not have done built of turf and stone with minimal wood. Greenlandic boats were built with the same in Greenland? The Black spruce from Labrador fastened with sinews (Ingstad, 1959). Winter fishing and fish Death harried Norway at the same time preservation methods practiced for millenia in Norway were taken with the Norse Vestrbygd was abandoned, so it cannot to Greenland and provided vital nutritional support for the Norse Greenlanders. be the cause of that community’s disap- The large fish shown here (middle left photograph) is a cod, the staple Nordic pearance, since it could not have spread fish. The Little Ice Age resulted in disappearance of cod from Greenlandic waters there by that time. The Black Death hit (Fagan, 2000). Most of photographs by Harald Haugen. Iceland hardest about 1400, so it could have spread to Austrbygd from Iceland thereafter. However, evidence of mass deaths has not been uncovered in either Volume 50, Winter 2014 189

to trade with the Norse (Ingstad, 1959; Seaver, 2010). Inuit preserved stories of pirates who attacked Austrbygd, were repulsed with difficulty, but returned the next year to burn Austrbygd (Ingstad, 1959), at least the churches (Arneborg, 2001). Many of Austrbygd’s inhabitants were taken as slaves, but some eventually made their way back home (Heyerdahl and Lillieström, 1999). Whether enough of them escaped or returned to recreate a functioning society is another ques- tion. One Inuit account tells of Inuit rescuing a Norse woman and children. They returned months later to find the area destroyed and uninhabited, so those rescued were adopted by the Inuit (Ings- tad, 1959). It seems that pirate raids had Figure 9. The church ruin on Hvalsey, southwestern Greenland (Austrbygd), is little to do with climate change, except the best preserved church ruin in the country (Can Stock Photo). that the ice must not have increased enough to block access to the south- western fjords.

Outmigration Vestrbygd or Austrbygd (cf. the various 2000; Møller et al., 2007—cf. Figure As is widely known, the Norse built a archaeological reports in the bibliog- 9). The bishop held the hunting rights settlement in Newfoundland in AD raphy of this paper). Some researchers for the best caribou (reindeer) hunting 1000. Their explorations and settlement speculate that depopulation of Europe sites and regulated the harvest. Could over wide portions of eastern Canada by the Black Death tempted Greenland- loss of land ownership and increasingly have been confirmed by Canadian ers to emigrate (Ingstad, 1959). onerous taxes have contributed to the archaeologists and others (Ingstad and abandonment of Austrbygd? This would Ingstad, 1996). Why, then, is there such Inbreeding and Lack of Vitality have been particularly difficult during a opposition to this evidence among aca- The early archaeologist Nørlund popu- time of climatic deterioration. demics (Seaver, 2010)? Why does the larized the idea that inbreeding and lack Establishment seek to limit the Norse of vitality led to the slow death of the Pirates presence to L’Anse Aux Meadows and Norse civilization in Greenland. The Pirates in the ice-infested waters off the briefest period possible? Why are evidence he proffered from Herjolfsnes Greenland? You have got to be kidding! they so opposed to evidence for wide- has since been refuted (Ingstad, 1959). That was the lead author’s reaction spread communication between peoples The Norse population of 3,000 to 9,000 when first coming across this theory. in ancient times elsewhere in the world (probably 4,000 to 5,000) was adequate Heyerdahl (Heyerdahl and Lillieström, (Heyerdahl, 2000; Heyerdahl and Lil- to avoid any significant inbreeding is- 1999) had become too radical this time, lieström, 1999)? sues (Ingstad, 1959); also, the church’s and the academics were justified in dis- The scope of this paper does not al- teaching prohibiting marriage between missing him. But not so: we have docu- low a thorough evaluation of Establish- relatives was strict (Rian, 1994). mentation that Algerian pirates raided ment bias or the evidence for the Norse Torshavn in the Færoes and Heimaey presence in North America. Most cre- Ecclesiastical Greed in Iceland, and English pirates burned ationists are probably aware of this bias, A century before the Reformation, the the homes of impoverished farmers in whether it be against design in nature Roman Catholic Church owned up Iceland in the early 1400s (Fell, 1999; or for biblical history rather than the to two-thirds of Austrbygd, and it was Ingstad, 1959). Basque and English gradual “cultural evolution” of isolated the best land (Ingstad, 1959) with the fishermen had ventured to Greenland groups of “primitive” people. One’s view best buildings (Arneborg, 2001; Fagan, and Newfoundland and even stopped of history—natural or cultural—has a 190 Creation Research Society Quarterly great deal of relevance to many scientific Significance of Norse Mystery core data, interpretations that are debates, including the topic of climate to Little Ice Age seriously flawed (Oard, 2005). change. Vestrbygd, the northern community, may • Unique solutions are not possible The first Norse to settle in North have been prompted to leave due to with glacial models, as these models America got themselves into trouble climate change. If a year or two without are dependent on input assumptions with the natives through their “shoot fodder occurred, a major crisis would regarding the structure of the earth. first, ask questions later” policy. The have resulted. This does not appear to This is one of the areas of greatest American Indian cultures were not the have been the case for Austrbygd. If life ignorance hampering models (Flem- same as the Nordic cultures they were became difficult due to a combination ing and Lambeck, 2004). used to. To what extent the different of factors—loss of private ownership of • Relative sea-level curves are derived peoples were able to later understand land, increasing taxes, worsening cli- from limited deposits that are acces- each other, we do not know. We have mate, attacks by pirates—then people sible and amenable to dating. Prob- little historiography to work from in would be inclined to leave a family or lems with radiocarbon dating have evaluating medieval Norse immigra- two at a time. This may have been the been extensively covered by creation- tion to North America. Yet it is clear case. We will probably never know with ists (e.g., Klevberg and Oard, 2011a). that in the 1100s and the 1300s, Norse certainty why this society disappeared, Even with correction for the marine were in North America, and as condi- but the most likely theories are linked reservoir effect (Weidick, 1972) and tions worsened in Greenland, it would to the Little Ice Age. Thus, while there variations over time (Fleming and have been only reasonable to consider is no unequivocal evidence for climate Lambeck, 2004), errors are certainly moving to the other side of the Davis as “the cause” for the disappearance of introduced into the modeling pro- Strait. the Norse Greenlanders, it very likely cess, especially the farther back in The Greenlanders’ 18-man boats played an important role. time dates are inferred. would not have been large enough to As speculation of future climate transport much for the dangerous, three- change has encouraged efforts to refine day voyage over the Davis Strait, so if models and test them against historical the inhabitants of Vestrbygd moved en data, considerable improvement in masse to North America, they would Appendix B: modeling has occurred. One of the have had to leave the majority of their Implications of Isostasy results has been downward revision of livestock behind. There would have some of the assumed values for viscosity been no reason to harm the animals, The remarkable rate of isostatic rebound of the mantle based on rapid isostatic and they would have been left roaming in some regions (Klevberg and Oard, adjustment from the ice growth and loose, just as Ivar Barðarsson found them. 2012b) and isostatic depression in others recession over the course of the Little This seems the most likely explanation (as described in this paper) has wide- Ice Age, not only in Greenland, but also for the disappearance of the Vestrbygd ranging implications for earth science in Hudson Bay and Alaska (Bégin et al., community. research, implications far beyond the 1993; Motyka, 2003), as well as the rest Austrbygd continued another two scope of this series of papers. While of the North Atlantic area that is the hundred years after the disappearance various glacial models have been refer- focus of this series. The time required of Vestrbygd. While the inhabitants enced in this paper, we caution readers for isostatic adjustment may thus be of Vestrbygd seem to have vanished, to be aware of the following pitfalls in less than previously thought, and the Austrbygd seems to have withered away. these models. Great Ice Age could have occurred There is, however, evidence not only • Glacial models are natural history much more recently than is commonly of people kidnapped from Austrbygd scenarios, not scientific fact. They believed. Results of these recent isostasy but also of some who willingly left for incorporate into them assumptions studies could challenge many presently England (Ingstad, 1959) and what is about Earth history, including “deep held beliefs among both creationists now the New England states (Heyer- time,” which are refuted by biblical and evolutionists, and those researchers dahl and Lillieström, 1999). Various chronology and often by more recent interested in glaciation and deglaciation, means of outmigration were avail- historical accounts. plate tectonics, and the structure of the able to the final Norse Greenlanders • Glacial models are commonly based earth may find these recent results the (Seaver, 2010). on standard interpretations of ice basis of very fruitful research. Volume 50, Winter 2014 191

Minutes of the 2013 Creation Research Society Board of Directors Meeting

The fiftieth annual Creation Research Recording secretary Gary Locklair Kansas City was selected as the site Society (CRS) Board of Directors asked for corrections or additions to the of the 2014 board of directors meeting. meeting was held 13–15 June 2013, at 2012 meeting minutes as published in Don DeYoung was recognized for the Doubletree Inn and ICR facilities the Winter 2013 CRSQ. The minutes his years of service to the CRS, and es- in Dallas, Texas. The following board stood approved as printed. Gary reported pecially his leadership as CRS president. members were present: Mark Armitage, the results of the 2013 board elections. The first session of the full board Gene Chaffin, Don DeYoung, Danny With 195 ballots received, the following meeting adjourned at 20:50. Faulkner, Robert Hill, Russ Humphreys, were elected to three-year terms: Don Friday, 14 June 2013, was devoted Jean Lightner, Gary Locklair, Michael DeYoung, D. Russell Humphreys, Gary to committee meetings. The Internet, Oard, Ron Samec, and Glen Wolfrom. Locklair, and Ron Samec. A list of future membership, periodicals, publication, John Reed was unable to attend due to candidates suggested by the membership constitution, finance, lab, and research health issues. was presented. The recording secretary committees all met and conducted President Don DeYoung called the was asked if any member has suggested business. first session of the general board meet- electronic voting or expressed concern Mark Armitage presented informa- ing to order at 19:00 on Thursday, 13 over the use of postcards; the answer tion on the iDino project during lunch. June 2013, and noted a milestone in the was no. The triceratops horn that was uncov- history of the CRS: our fiftieth regular Financial secretary Mark Armitage ered contains long sheets of soft tissue. board meeting. reported that our income is up slightly Within the soft tissue are osteocytes— Dr. Henry Morris III, CEO of the and we will end the year spending less amazing cells that build and maintain Institute for Creation Research (ICR), than our expense budget. He reported bones. This unexpected finding provides graciously provided conference facilities that investment income showed a mod- evidence that dinosaurs are not millions for the board meeting and welcomed est increase. Mark reported that we used of years old. the board to Dallas. Dr. Morris invited $10,000 of our endowment for expenses. Friday evening Dr. Morris hosted board members to his home for dinner He encouraged the board to reduce the board members, along with ICR staff on Friday. At that time he introduced us expense budget for next year by 5%. Is- and members of AMS, at a dinner in to members of AMS who are producing sues related to finances were discussed his home. a series of videos for ICR. by the entire board. The second part of the general board President DeYoung overviewed the The International Conference on meeting was called to order at 08:30 on logistics of our meeting. The first part of Creationism will be held in August, and 15 June 2013 by President DeYoung. He the general board meeting was Thursday CRS will have a reception room for at- reviewed the agenda for the morning. evening. Friday was dedicated to com- tendees. Danny Faulkner reported that Vice president Gene Chaffin led mittee meetings. The second half of the the next local CRS conference is sched- the devotion based on the God Particle. general board meeting was on Saturday. uled for the second weekend in August The laws of nature must have existed Don shared several letters to the board 2014 at Answers in Genesis (AIG). before time began in order to have a from George Howe and Annette Miller, Don DeYoung shared information beginning. There is no power in the among others. After a number of his- from the lab committee meeting earlier laws of nature; they need to be carried torical documents were reviewed, board in the afternoon. The Chino Valley out by God. He spoke and the universe members expressed their thanks for both campus is in good shape, and the drive- came into existence. Natural laws are current and past members of the CRS. way was resurfaced recently. The iDino not bigger than God; the laws are how We are especially grateful to the found- project is under the direction of the lab God normally operates. However, God ers of the Creation Research Society for committee. Kevin Anderson, lab direc- is not constrained by natural law. Gene their vision and perseverance. tor, continues work on a part-time basis. provided an original poem in closing. 192 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Internet committee chairman Gary Locklair reported on matters relating to the CRS website, CRSnet, and the CRS Facebook page. The fine work of its vol- unteer webmaster, Fred Williams, and his assistant, Tony Massey, was noted. The CRS online presence continued its steady growth. Gene Chaffin, periodicals commit- tee chairman, announced that Danny CRS Board of Directors. Members shown (l–r) Kevin Anderson (Director, Faulkner has agreed to serve as CRSQ VACRC), Diane Anderson (Administrative Assistant), Jean Lightner, Don De­ editor, subject to approval by Danny’s em- Young, Danny Faulkner, Mark Armitage, Mike Oard, Glen Wolfrom, Robert Hill, ployer. Outgoing editor Kevin Anderson Ron Samec, Eugene Chaffin, Russell Humphreys, Gary Locklair. was thanked for his 10 years of fine ser- vice. The editor will be allocated $1,000 per year to pay for invited papers on select anniversary years of service to the CRS. bership – $12,500; Publications – topics. The board approved a measure to Gene Chaffin, research committee $25,000; Periodicals – $40,000; Research make all CRSQ publications older than chairman, reviewed the list of active – $19,000; Internet – $500; Constitution 3 years available on our website. Glen research projects, including proposals – $0; Finance – $0. Wolfrom, along with assistants Bob Hill dealing with helium escape, carbon-14, An expense budget of $244,635 was and Jean Lightner, were thanked for their microscopic botany, pyranoids, Flood approved for fiscal 2013–2014. It was work on Creation Matters. geology, and astrochronology. The com- moved and approved to authorize Diane Publication committee chairman mittee is investigating ways to encourage to make a withdrawal from the endow- Mike Oard reported that book sales students to become involved in creation- ment funds of up to $10K in order to continue to generate a profit. A con- ary research. cover expenses. cern is the cost of postage, especially Constitution committee chairman The constitution requires 12–18 the dramatic increase in international Gary Locklair reported on ideas for board members for the CRS. The postage rates. Two eBooks were recently long-range planning and various issues board submitted the names of Danny published, thanks to the efforts of Glen related to the bylaws. Faulkner, D. Russell Humphreys, Mike Wolfrom and Gary Locklair. Mike is Treasurer Danny Faulkner presented Oard, and Rob Carter as candidates for looking for a publisher for our “coffee information about fiscal year 2012–2013. the 2014 board of directors election. table” book (Creation Illustrated—Sci- Danny provided estimates of $214,700 There are four openings to be filled. If entists Speak). The publication opera- for net income (down $13,000 from last all are elected, our board would stand tion remains robust. year) versus $218,500 of expenses for at 13 members. The board discussed Glen Wolfrom, membership com- the fiscal year. Our expenses will be far several other candidates to be submitted mittee chairman, overviewed member- less than the approved expense budget for consideration next year. ship trends for the past 10 years. The first of $269,550 for fiscal year 2012–2013. Election of board officers was held. 5 years of review showed growth, while Kevin Anderson reported we are in Don DeYoung was elected president, the last 5 years have shown a decline the process of moving our incorporation Gene Chaffin was elected vice-pres- in membership. The CRS currently from Michigan to Arizona. ident, and Gary Locklair was elected supports 1551 members and subscrib- Financial secretary Mark Armitage recording secretary. The following ers. Two special membership offers will reported on the Society’s financial hold- were confirmed for the second year of be provided this summer, one at the ings. Mark listed the current value of their three-year term: Glen Wolfrom CUS Society of Creation conference CRS investments (endowments), which as membership secretary, Mark Armit- in July and the other at ICC in August. had gained $26,000 during the past year. age as financial secretary, and Danny The board discussed a number of is- Treasurer Faulkner and Financial Faulkner as treasurer. sues related to membership including Secretary Armitage led the discussion re- The meeting was adjourned at 11:55. a member survey and contacting those garding the 2013–2014 budget. The fol- who did not renew. lowing committee budget requests were Respectfully submitted, Gene Chaffin, Gary Locklair, and approved: VACRC (lab) – $133,385; Gary Locklair Glen Wolfrom were recognized for their Executive/Treasurer – $14,250; Mem- CRS Recording Secretary Volume 50, Winter 2014 193

Pine Needles, Limes, and Other Simple Solutions

If a problem is serious—even drastic— of the proteins in the human body. Lind used controlled experiments1 to might there be a simple solution? Some- Miserably, bodies break down if collagen discern whether scurvy could be stopped times the answer is yes. Medical history production is ruined. by applying medicines or adjusting di- documents a horrible disease cured by Thankfully, Cartier’s crew received ets. The etiology (causation process) of a solution so simple that the cure was a simple, life-saving solution. scurvy was traced to the availability and dismissed for many generations. That Jacques Cartier’s men did not die. habitual consumption of fresh fruits and dreaded disease was scurvy, once the The natives offered a homemade vegetables, foods not typically available greatest threat (and killer) of the British remedy: drink a tea of pine needles to British sailors assigned to long-term navy, during generations when “the sun soaked in water. Despite the simple sea duty. (Sailors routinely ate lots of never set on the British Empire.” Yet nature of the solution, the sailors tried salt pork and hardtack biscuits.) Because the cure for this malignant malady was it. The Indian’s [vitamin C-rich] tea refrigeration was unavailable then, food oh-so-simple: Vitamin C—just eat food brought them back to good health! aboard British navy ships was preserved that contains vitamin C. (Tiner, 2006, p. 108) from spoiling by smoking, salting, and/ But how could such a deadly disease or air drying; but these preservation be solved by such a simple solution? methods destroyed whatever vitamin C This question’s answer, as noted below, may have originally been inside those matches a similar “problem” in creation food items. apologetics. One of Dr. Lind’s experiments Sometimes the answer is so simple included providing two scurvy patients that it is doubted and disbelieved. with two oranges and one lemon, daily. Both quickly recovered! Captain James The Scourge of Scurvy Cook, a Royal Navy navigator known for During the 1530s a French explorer many global accomplishments, learned named Jacques Cartier confronted a of Lind’s successes. Captain Cook con- crisis: more than 100 of his sailors were sulted with Dr. Lind about the value of afflicted with the death-threatening Tragically, this medical break- citric fruit as preventive medicine against disease of scurvy. Was there any cure for through was ignored by most of Cartier’s scurvy. They designed a problem-solving this slow-motion death sentence? non-French contemporaries. So the hygiene and nutrition plan. The plan’s The word scurvy means “scaly skin.” widespread widow-maker, scurvy, raged components of fresh drinking water, This disease causes its victims to on, despite its easy curability. fresh air ventilation, and citric fruit (lem- lose weight and grow weak. Gums During the 1700s, some 200 years ons, limes, and oranges) became a multi- bleed and teeth loosen. Sores do after the French began drinking pine- year experiment for Captain Cook’s next not heal. Connective fibers weaken needle tea, more British navy men died that [should] hold the body together. of scurvy than died in combat on the Victims of scurvy die as if they have high seas. In fact, the mortality total for 1 Controlled experiments involve observ- come apart. (Tiner, 2006, p. 108) British sailors was even higher for scurvy ing (and recording) comparative test results Sounds horrible. It was. than it was for combat, shipwrecks, and for a “control” group and an “experimental” Vitamin C (i.e., ascorbic acid) is other diseases combined (Tiner, 2006, group, similar to the approach used in Daniel needed for manufacturing collagen, a p. 109)! chapter 1. See James William Treece, “Dan- group of proteins that are the dominant A Scottish physician, Dr. James Lind, iel and the Classic Experimental Design,” connective tissue in vertebrates, com- decided to defeat the death-dealing Acts & Facts 1990 19 (3), http://www.icr.org/ prising about one-fourth to one-third disease. At an Edinburgh hospital, Dr. article/daniel-classic-experimental-design/ . 194 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Pacific Ocean expedition. And, as simple ing Genesis history, i.e., exchanging the ages and evolutionary progress. For as that, scurvy was prevented during literal-history meaning of Genesis for those fundamentalists who insisted Captain Cook’s long-term voyages at sea some kind of nonliteral (deconstructed) that the creation week required a lit- (Tiner, 2006, pp. 110–112). interpretation of the Mosaic account of eral interpretation, the “gap theory” But could such a huge problem be earth’s origins? ostensibly permitted them to do solved so simply, as an orange a day (or a What stimulated the bandwagon so merely by inserting the [deists’] lemon or lime) keeping the scurvy away? rush during the late 1700s and early geologic ages in an imaginary gap The British bureaucracy remained dubi- 1800s for “old-earth” interpretations of between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, thus ous of the dietary quick fix. A decade of the Genesis record? When leaders in ignoring their evolutionary implica- more scurvy aboard other Royal Navy Christian education circles began, before tions. (Morris, 1980, pp. 148–149)2 ships dragged on. Darwin, to fly the flags of uniformitarian So what was the real problem with Providentially, Dr. Lind’s successes “geologic time”—“day-age” creation, the Genesis text? Was it some kind of led to his eventual promotion to King the “gap theory,” the “local flood” theory, complicated geoscience or theological George II’s personal physician. Finally, and uniformitarian “tranquil flood” conundrum? No. The simple problem in 1795, Dr. Lind’s citric fruit remedy theory—what motivation drove the etiol- was accommodation—accommodating was officially recognized (and imple- ogy of this theological upheaval (in how the deists’ popular “science falsely so- mented) as the simple solution for the to read the book of Genesis)? called” (1 Timothy 6:20). Like scurvy, Royal Navy’s worst widow maker. Brit- Long before Darwin published sometimes the cause of Bible misinfor- ish ships were supplied with limes, and in 1859, many Christian leaders had mation is so simple that the answer is British sailors were ordered to drink lime already begun what became a veritable doubted and disbelieved. But the history juice. (Limes have a longer shelf life “stampede” toward the perceived gold provided in Genesis really is true and than other citric fruits, such as oranges, mines of “old-earth” interpretations of relevant, whether anyone chooses to tangerines, lemons, and grapefruits.) earth’s origins. Why? There is a simple, believe it or not. This new marine diet policy produced one-word answer: accommodation. a nickname for British sailors, limeys Christian education leaders wanted References (Tiner, 2006, p. 112). Problem solved. to accommodate the supposedly “au- Tiner, J.H. 2006. Exploring the History of In solving the scurvy scourge cen- thoritative science” theories of the Medicine: From the Ancient Physicians of turies ago, Dr. Lind illustrated how—at closed-Bible deists, such as the unifor- Pharaoh to Genetic Engineering. Master least in some cases—drastic problems mitarian interpretation of earth history Books, Green Forest, AR. can be remedied by a simple solution. promoted by influential deists like James Morris, Henry M. 1980. The King of Cre- In fact, the same applies to the purported Hutton and Charles Lyell. ation. CLP Publishers, San Diego, CA. “credibility problem” that many mod- Evolution obviously required aeons erns claim when it comes to trusting of geologic time and the scientific James J. S. Johnson the authoritative truth and relevance community, including the great Isaac Institute for Creation Research of Genesis. Newton himself, was committed to the [Bishop James] Ussher chronol- ogy, with its recent special creation and worldwide Flood. Therefore, it was necessary, first of all, that the Flood be displaced as the framework of geologic interpretation, so that earth history could … be expanded into great reaches and cycles of time over endless ages…. Pockets of scientific resistance in the religious Simple Solution to Genesis community were quickly neutralized Apologetics “Problems” by key clerical endorsements of the Here is a major problem in Genesis apol- “day-age theory,” which seemingly 2 See also, in general, Terry Mortenson, ogetics: Why have so many otherwise permitted Christians to hang on to The Great Turning Point: The Church’s Bible-respecting Christians (and others) Genesis while at the same time rid- Catastrophic Mistake before Darwin (Green jumped onto the bandwagon of distrust- ing the popular [tidal] wave of long Forest, AR: Master Books, 2004). Volume 50, Winter 2014 195

The policy of the editorial staff of CRSQ is to allow letters to the editor to express a variety of views. As such, the content of all letters is solely the opinion of the author, and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of theCRSQ editorial staff or the Creation Research Society.

The Fate of the Universe and Psalm 148

I would like to commend Danny I would view verse 6 as similar to a be moved.” The point of the verse is Faulkner and Robert Hill for their number of other passages that emphasize that neither men nor angels can uncre- article “Creation and the Fate of the that no one can undo what God does in ate or change what God created. God’s Universe” (Creation Research Society His creation. Example passages would sovereign purpose cannot be thwarted. Quarterly 50:32–35). I agree with their include Psalm 119:89–91 and Jeremiah Thus, the NIV has translated Psalm view that the universe is not intended 33:25. If God created it, there is no 93:1, “The world is firmly established; to be eternal but will “pass away” and being that can uncreate it. So I think it cannot be moved.” Why is the world, will be replaced with a new heaven the way to understand this is that God the earth, firm and secure? Because God and earth. Psalm 148:6 is important to created the heavens and earth to remain created it to be inhabited, as Isaiah 45:18 deal with regarding the question of the indefinitely, until He changes them. No says, and God makes it secure. When fate of the universe, since on first read- created being can undo or destroy what Psalm 148:6 says “never pass away,” the ing, it would seem to imply something God created to last. But God can issue “never” applies more to human beings contrary to the above view. In the NIV, a new decree that makes the universe and to angels. It’s an assurance that cre- Psalm 148:5–6 states, pass away and make a new universe to ated beings will never destroy the earth Let them praise the name of the put in its place. because it must fulfill God’s purpose for LORD, for he commanded and they I would argue this is the same way to it. So “never” in this context does not were created. He set them in place view passages such as Psalm 93:1, which mean “never” to God. for ever and ever; he gave a decree in the King James Bible says, “The that will never pass away. world also is stablished, that it cannot Wayne Spencer Irving, TX 196 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Google-based Fossil Tool Proposal

The Creation Research Society, includ- it from a million years down to minutes. a map in what Google refers to as an ing its iDINO project, made a significant Nautiloids, entirely missing “era” from Info Window (see below). Data element impact at the Seventh International Grand Canyon layers, and many other fields could include: Conference on Creationism. Thank you examples, also dramatically compress • a brief description for the hard work from Mark Armitage, the alleged supe slow deposition rates. • photos/video other CRS board members, and Kevin Working Name: GEE, for Genesis • latitude/longitude Anderson and Diane Anderson. The Earth Explorer, is a play on the Greek • depth/elevation conference also provided a networking word for Earth, gē (transliterated ge, as • notes opportunity to share my vision of devel- in geology, thougs pronounced gha.). • reference links to journal papers, oping an Internet tool to educate the Structure: GEE would consist of a creation articles, etc. public and to help creationists discover database populated with fossil and for- • interpretive comments new evidence that undermines old-earth mation data. This information could be • identification of its depositional en- claims. explored by manipulating the mapping vironment, e.g., Morrison, Dakota, Dr. Mark Horstemeyer, one of the interface, or it could be accessed by topic Redwall. ICC hosts and founder of the Associa- with the results mapped visually onto a For this last field, if a data element is tion of Christian Graduate Researchers, Google-supported display. The database encased within, or forms, part of a strata expressed interest in seeing this tool includes two classes of information: layer already defined in the database, developed. Dr. Horstemeyer wrote that 1) data elements then filling in this field could be done he was “very impresse” (Horstemeyer, 2) geologic infrastructure. by a simple cross-link to the relevant 2013, personal communication), and The data elements are fossils and pri- portion of GE’’s geologic infrastructure he encouraged me to present this idea marily no-strata features. The geologic (see below). to the CRS as a letter to the Quarterly infrastructure, for the most part, is the Data Entry: The developer or de- as perhaps the next best step toward gen- environmental framework (transcon- velopment team, including perhaps erating comment and gauging interest. tinental rock layers, region wide coal select volunteers, would do the initial The CRS webmaster, Fred Williams, seams, etc.) within which the data ele- data entry. After launch, authorized is my c-host at Real Science Radio. We ments may be found. Over time that in- users comprised of creation scientists have discussed using Google Maps and frastructure could be updated to include and perhaps enthusiasts could perform Google Earth to create presentations of the greater context of the entire conti- data entry with GE’’s manager having the young-earth evidence in fossils and nental and oceanic crust, the trenches, editorial veto. formations. What is the extent, in length and eventually deeper geologic features, Geological Infrastructure: Google and breadth, of some particular layers of including the Mohorovicic discontinu- provides the framework and the base- strata that contain young-earth fossils or ity, the mantel, and the inner and outer line user interface. GEE will overlay features (such as polystrates, a flat gap, core. (This proposed web-based tool crustal features like major sedimentary or a highly purified deposition)? Being of course could be simplified, and this strata and overthrusts, along with those able to show how far and wide such strata preliminary description presents only data elements just described, onto extend can help drive home the strength one possible way of structuring the data.) Google Maps, Google Earth, or both of such evidence. Data Elements: GEE would be (see below). In the initial launch, the Examples: A polystrate tree is a great populated with data elements like fos- database likely would include only a teaching tool, but the lesson gets more sils, pseudotachylytes (PSTs), etc., with small percentage of the Eart’’s geologic powerful when we can show the extent optional data fields for each element. infrastructure, possibly describing fea- of the strata that embed that single fossil These data elements will not include tures of the greatest magnitude, such across a geographic region. In Wiscon- conceptual or theoretical possibilitie, as those that extend over large regional, sin, a fossilized school of jellyfish (e.g., but empirically documented, observable continental, and intercontinental areas. rsr.org/list#jellyfish) taken as a unit terrestrial features, preferably already The initial version also should include forms a polystrate fossil. Realizing that described in the literature. Additionally, showcase examples (classic polystrates, this school of jellyfish was buried as a a settings switch could activate a feature flat boundaries, mixture of marine and unit can compress the possible period that also presents interpretive comments. land fossils, missing alleged eras, etc.) of deposition of the strata that encases GEE will display its data elements over visually demonstrating, as researched Volume 50, Winter 2014 197 from the literature, the extent of their encasing strata. Infrastructure Use: The end user may specifically select and view this infrastructure, including all or any of its constituent layers and features. Fossils and other data elements will populate various locations on this infrastructure. Infrastructure layer(s) can be toggled on or off. Toggled on while viewing a data element, the user will see the extent of the time compression implied by a given polystrate fossil, “missin” stratum, nauti- loid mass kill (rememberthenautiloids. com), etc. That extent (shown in the initial launch version in only two dimen- sions) could be referred to as the do- main, or the sphere of influence (or even the jurisdiction), of any particular data element. For example, by the testimony of the Wisconsin jellyfish, for all the lay- ers containing that polystrate school of fossils, for their entire extent, their total time of deposition is compressed from one million years down to the duration of a single, swift depositional event. Also, authorized users whose accounts enable them to enter data elements (fossils, ancient “reefs,” 14c-rich coal Figure 1. Sample customized map using the Google Maps API (application seam, etc.) could be permitted to enter programming interface) infrastructure details such as smaller regional and local flows, sedimentary layers, etc. Query, Menu, and Map Interface: (rsr.org), Nathan Rambeck, positively Googl’’s tutorials, such as “Annotate The end user could enter a search term reviewed this proposal. (Separately, Mr. Google Eart” (at tiny.cc/AnnoGE), to find information, navigate via the Rambeck has just finished the functional specifically invite no-profit groups (like map interface, or use a menu system. design for a mapping application using CRS or Dr. Horstemeye’’s ACGR), to Examples of search terms include: petri- Google Maps for mass transit projects create custom map presentations and fied trees / nautiloids / Joggins. Menus that includes images, video, links, etc., (at tiny.cc/NarrGET, to create “Narrated would offer view: by region, such a: for each database element, to allow the Google Earth Tours.” Grand Canyon / Hell Creek Formation creation of custom maps to show aspects Interlaced Strata: GEE could in- / Himalayan Plateau; by fossil, such as of a transportation project over a geo- crease both the awareness of time- jellyfish, dinosaur soft tissue; by “era,” graphical area.) Interested programmers constraining artefacts in the geologic “period,” or “epoc;” and by formation may view the Google Maps develope’’s colum, and their persuasive impact. or megasequence. guide, demo gallery, and APIs (applica- As an analogy, consider that biblical Google APIs: This application tion programming interfaces, at tiny.cc/ genealogies argue against insertion of could be developed for Google Maps, API). See there the JavaScript to Add thousands of years, especially where a Google Earth, or both. In 2013 Google an Overlay, for Info Windows, Show/ progenitor interacts with a descendant, released a new version of Google Maps Hide Overlays, Custom Controls, Lay- including, for example, by the naming of that partially integrates Google Earth. ers, Heatmaps, Panoramio, MapTypes, that descendant. GEE could lead to dis- Our Real Science Radio webmaster Image Overlay, and Street View Service. covery of currently unknown examples 198 Creation Research Society Quarterly of interlaced, time-compressed strata. only at its periphery, with an adjacent also might continue to further neighbors. A data element such as a polystrate fos- series of layers. Such interlacing sug- GEE also could help identify examples sil constrains the deposition time for a gests a constraint also for the period of of especially powerful time constraints discrete series, or unit, of layers. That deposition for those neighboring strata. where multiple data elements have series may interlace strongly, or even That compression of neighboring strata overlapping spheres of influence. Promotion: Google has long en- abled special-interest groups to create customized tours. GE’’s authorized user accounts, whether of creation sci- entists, authors, organizations, or select enthusiasts, could enable them to create their own customized tours through the data, highlighting elements and infrastructure of particular interest to their work. Such tours could promote or supplement creationist DVDs, books, models, museums, theories, etc. While various creation and flood models ag- gressively compete for support, as long as the standard for entering the geological infrastructure and data elements is based on empirical observation and documen- tation, this web tool might receive broad support and provide benefit throughout the creation movement. Ownership: At Real Science Radio, we have allocated our own resources elsewhere. Thus, regarding this tool, we merely advocate for its development. We make no claim to any ownership whatsoever. If ever developed, whether by Dr. Horstemeye’’s ACGR or any of the creation groups (CMI, AIG, ICR, Figure 2. USGS map as a sample “Custom overlay” CRS), the team that develops this re- source should maintain control over it, enabling its use for the benefit of all young-earth creationists. GEE might display links to the leading creation min- istries as Fred Williams and I currently do on every page of youngearth.com. If interest, and most importantly, financial support, were generated for this project, then at Real Science Radio, we would commit ourselves to participate, if that would be helpful, perhaps by reviewing the functional specification, with data entry, and in promotion.

Bob Enyart Arvada, CO Figure 3. A customizable “Info window” on Google Map [email protected] Volume 50, Winter 2014 199

by Georgia Purdom, Galápagos General Editor Islands: Master Books, Green Forest, A Different View AR, 2013, 104 pages, $18.99

The book includes help- original iguana kind was created with the ful creationist thinking on genetic information (in the DNA) for the meaning of biblical salt glands. This information was more kinds (Gen. 1). This category is robustly expressed at a later time in an This book joins suggested to be above species and on appropriate (salty) environment” (p. 71). the Master Books series, the rank of family. On another interest- The book includes short testimonies which began with Grand Canyon: A ing topic, many Galapagos animals are from several Galápagos visitors (pp. Different View (Vail, 2003). Galápagos described as having little fear of people 86-91). Georgia Purdom also includes Islands was encouraged by a group tour (pp. 5, 86). This phenomenon is well a clear gospel presentation. Galápagos in which author Purdom participated. known for sea creatures but unusual for Islands does not discuss the region’s so- A visit to the Galápagos is a life goal land dwellers. The topic suggests further cial history or related political tensions for many biologists, whether they hold study in view of the isolation of the Gala- since the emphasis is natural history. creationist or evolutionist worldviews. pagos, concentrated stewardship efforts, Short biographies are given for each Georgia Purdom invited article and the post-Flood description of animal contributing author; however, a subject contributions from 29 fellow creation fear toward mankind (Gen. 9:2). index is lacking. Two concluding pages scientists and friends. Five of the writers Environmental stewardship con- list related creationist books, articles, are current board members of the Cre- cerns are emphasized throughout the and websites. The listed website for the ation Research Society. Included topics book. This is appropriate since the Ga- Creation Research Society is incorrect cover the origin of the islands, geology, lápagos currently hosts 150,000 visitors in the first printing and should be cre- astronomy, climate, flora, and fauna. each year, nearly ten times the islands’ ationresearch.org. The book is filled with clear, colorful population. Rain-shadow effects sup- This attractive book provides a re- photos, many taken by the author. port wide diversity of ecosystems; seven freshing alternative to the vast majority Charles Darwin was greatly influ- zones are described (p. 34) along with of Galápagos studies that promote evolu- enced by his visit to the Galápagos pictures. The health of these zones are tionary interpretations of data. Thanks to Islands in 1835. His previous experience sensitive to visitors, whether tourists or author Georgia Purdom for coordinating with wildlife was limited to examples in invasive species. the writing project. England. In contrast, the South Pacific A further book topic of special inter- islands overwhelmed him with the vari- est is called mediated design (pp. 65, Reference ety of unfamiliar creatures and plants, 71). This is the suggestion that some Vail, Tom. 2003. Grand Canyon: A Different and also the species variation between plants and animals were created with View. Master Books, Green Forest, AR. islands. His observations included the potential for adaptations to new en- finches, tortoises, marine iguanas, and vironments. One possible example is the Don B. DeYoung cacti. This experience, plus an unwar- marine iguana, which dives 50 feet deep [email protected] ranted extrapolation into deep time, led in search of food. This swimmer has ef- Darwin to assume the reality of macro- ficient salt glands for expelling excess salt scopic evolution. ingested from the seawater. Perhaps “the 200 Creation Research Society Quarterly

The Tower of Babel: by Bodie Hodge The Cultural History Master Books, Green Forest, of Our Ancestors AR, 2012, 272 pages, $14.00.

Sudan, west to contemporary Spain, and Hodge uses geographic names of people north to southern Russia. group names of Old World origin that Japheth’s descendants tended to go are similar to various American Indian north and west into Russia and Europe. tribes. He mentions some language Ham’s offspring settled in Egypt, North similarities between Navajo, Chinese, This book is a very Africa, and Arabia. Shem’s progeny and Tibetan language families. While “reader-friendly” treatment of mostly stayed in the greater Middle East Hodge makes only sparing use of genetic the importance of the confusion of (the Assyrians were Semites, as were the DNA research, he mentions a genetic languages at the Tower of Babel event Chaldeans and Syrians/Aram). Hodge link between Dravidians (India) and and the Table of Nations (Genesis 10). uses place names and nation-group Australian aborigines. The first 16 chapters deal with various name similarities to aid in his research. One of the exciting innovations of questions and possible textual problems For example, Cush, a descendent of this book’s Kindle edition are the numer- concerning the Tower of Babel and pos- Ham, is not only the name for Ethiopia ous hot links in the extensive endnotes sible contradictions between Genesis 10 but also can refer to Hindu Kush in sections to Internet resources that can and 11. Also discussed is the meaning of northeast India. Sineus (a son of Ca- facilitate further investigation. Hodge division during the days of Peleg, Nim- naan) was the ancestor of the Sinites, does take some potential controversial rod’s possible involvement with Babel, some of whom may have left their Sinai positions such as the date for the book the decrease in ages of the post-Flood homeland and resettled in modern of Job. Many commentaries place Job patriarchs, ancestry worship, the origin China. Hodge points out that there was during the time of Abraham or before, of writing, and the original language. much mixing of different people groups. but Hodge leans toward a date nearer the Perhaps the most interesting parts The Maio group in China are the off- period of the Judges and gives detailed of this book are chapters 17 and 18. spring of Japheth, and there are hints arguments for this view. Chapter 17, “Where Did All the People of other Hamitic and Semitic groups Hodge concludes his book by con- Go Initially?” deals with the dispersion in Southeast Asia. The book includes necting the account of the Tower of of the various people groups after the many helpful maps and charts of people Babel and Table of Nations to biblical confusion of languages. Hodge leans al- groups showing possible dispersal routes reliability and authority in the struggle most entirely on secondary sources (the of the various people groups in post- with atheistic humanism and calling exception being the Genesis account Flood times. for a personal commitment to Christ by itself) and counsels the reader to use Chapter 18 deals more in depth the reader. these sources only as a guide. This is the with “What About Asia, the Americas Hodge’s volume is one of the more heart of the book, where Hodge has done and Australia?” Hodge confesses the detailed, yet easy-to-read, books on extensive research concerning the travels difficulty of researching these far-flung biblical ethnology. He answers many and settlements of the descendants of geographical locations (from the Tower questions and is realistic enough to ad- the sons of Noah: Japheth, Shem, and of Babel in present-day Iraq) because of mit there is much more research to do Ham. Many commentators have used the lack of written history. Legends and on these important topics, which may the Table of Nations to identify the vari- oral traditions of ancestors developed challenge some of his readers to take ous tribes and nations of the Middle East later than Babel, and many of these part in furthering that research. around the Mediterranean Sea, extend- people groups either lost or forgot about ing east to Persia, south to present-day their ancestors. Despite these problems, Don Ensign [email protected] Volume 50, Winter 2014 201

by Carl Wieland

World Creation Book Publishers, Winding Down Powder Springs, GA, 96 pages, $10.00.

(Wieland, 2011). Along with a universal essential in both the pre-Fall world and trend toward disorder, the second law is in the future state. Solar energy, friction also expressed by the arrow of time (p. in walking, and the metabolism of food 19), the thermodynamics of heat loss all involve second-law energy processes. (p. 34), an increase in entropy, or dis- Dr. Wieland suggests that negative parts This order (p. 53), loss of information (p. 85), of the second law became dominant, book is a pop- deterioration of the human genome, and unrestrained, or uncompensated under ular-level summary of the second Psalm 102 (p. 72). the Curse (p. 91). law of thermodynamics and its interface The book reminds me of the Henry A short history of the second law is in- with the biblical worldview. Author Carl Morris classic Twilight of Evolution cluded, along with the algebraic formula- Wieland is a medical doctor and man- from five decades ago, which covers the tions of such pioneers as physicist Ludwig aging director of Creation Ministries same topic (Morris, 1963). References Boltzmann (1844–1906). Boltzmann International (CMI, Creation.com). He in the Wieland book are largely limited took his own life during an episode of has the ability to explain technical topics to CMI works, and there is no subject depression, an ultimate expression of clearly and accurately. index. Page 64 expresses parts of the the second law itself. By his request, The first law of thermodynamics well-known, anonymous expression of Boltzmann’s entropy equation appears states that total energy is conserved or the second law in terms of gambling: on his tombstone in Austria: S = k·log W. constant at all times. In our present First, you cannot win. Second, you also The book ends on a high note. The world, not a single calorie of energy can cannot break even. Third, you cannot positive, biblical view of the future is be created or destroyed. The second law quit the game. contrasted with naturalism, which ends also involves energy and describes un- The book emphasizes that macro- in a cold, dark, lifeless universe. The avoidable losses of available energy that scopic evolution does not necessarily final pages of the book present a clear occur in all transfer processes, whether violate the second law. As a building gospel testimony. Thanks are due to Dr. driving a car or digesting food. The two project or growing garden shows, in- Carl Wieland for placing the second thermodynamic laws are the most funda- creased order and complexity do occur, law of thermodynamics on the “bottom mental and basic rules in all of science; albeit at the expense of greater losses of shelf” for our understanding. both laws also have theological implica- order and energy elsewhere. Still, where tions. The first law likely was established evolution fails completely is in the spon- References at the conclusion of the Creation Week, taneous origin of life and matter and also Morris, Henry M. 1963. Twilight of Evolu- when God ceased inputting energy into in the need for an ordering mechanism tion. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, the universe from His infinite supply. or programmed machinery to utilize raw MI. The second law, although not equated energy in a constructive manner (pp. 76, Wieland, Carl. 2011. Beyond the Shadows: precisely with the Curse, or Fall of man- 80). Such mechanisms are available in Making Sense of Personal Tragedy. Cre- kind, is related to that event. DNA instructions, chemical bonding ation Book Publishers, Powder Springs, This book illustrates the second law rules, laws of nature, etc. However, these GA. in several ways, including the author’s intricate, intelligently planned instruc- near-fatal highway accident in 1986. tional blueprints are not explained by a Don DeYoung Included pictures show the mangled self-generated universe. [email protected] vehicle and an x-ray of Carl’s fractured A second major emphasis of the skull. His recovery is a story in itself book is that parts of the second law are 202 Creation Research Society Quarterly

by Paul Gosselin Flight From Samizdat Press, Golden, CO, the Absolute 2012, 411 pages, $34.00.

to many twentieth-century evolutionary Gosselin notes that for many in the biologists. The practical atheistic view Western world (North America and Eu- permeated the science class as modern- rope) the culture is a religion. Films, pop Author Paul Gos- ism, which was confident that science musicians, the entertainment industry, selin opens the door to a bet- was the path to truth and objective truth and high-capacity spectator sports events ter understanding of postmodernism in at that. Atheist Richard Dawkins is an ex- have taken the place of weekly worship this book. He starts with the Christian ample of an old-school philosopher who service attendance for the majority of West from the Reformation to the En- believes that science is the path to truth. those who were once Christian. The in- lightenment, during which substantial Postmodernists today operate under dividual is the last absolute, so whatever scientific advances and discoveries were the assumption that truth is relative, turns one on is proper. achieved by Bacon, Copernicus, Gali- particularly regarding matters unrelated The book references and examples leo, Mendel, Pascal, Pasteur, and others, to science, and is more a psychological are voluminous. In a lengthy section of all of whom assumed the universe was crutch. However, postmodernists un- notes on the text (about 80 pages), Gos- under the providential care of God. hesitatingly believe that evolution is selin covers the extremist nature of the Gosselin traces the path from the absolutely true and a reliable guide for postmodern, twenty-first century with its Enlightenment’s God-fearing scientists how to live our lives. They have very artificial intelligence, posthumanism, (those above) to the deconstruction of dogmatic ideas about what our laws and animal rights. Doing so, he provides the Creation worldview through Charles should be and what freedoms humans Christians and other theists with alterna- Darwin’s theory of evolution. Evolution and animals should have. As a result, tive answers. Gosselin is a skilled writer then became the dogmatic view of many postmodernists support or have sup- and has provided a valuable resource. scientists. Some of these scientiest gave ported eugenics, euthanasia, abortion, some acknowledgement to the Creator, various degrees of extreme animal rights, Theodore J. Siek but even these residues of theistic and and the prohibition of Christian expres- [email protected] deistic religion became unacceptable sion in the public square. Volume 50, Winter 2014 203 Instructions to Authors

Submission Appearance Electronic submissions of all manuscripts and graphics are pre- Manuscripts shall be computer-printed or neatly typed. Lines ferred and should be sent to the editor of the Creation Research should be double-spaced, including figure legends, table Society Quarterly in Word, WordPerfect, or Star-Office/Open footnotes, and references. All pages should be sequentially Office (see the inside front cover for address). Printed copies numbered. Upon acceptance of the manuscript for publica- also are accepted. If submitting a printed copy, an original plus tion, an electronic version is requested (Word, WordPerfect, two copies of each manuscript should be sent to the editor. The or Star-Office/Open Office), with the graphics in separate manuscript and copies will not be returned to authors unless electronic files. However, if submission of an electronic final a stamped, self-addressed envelope accompanies submission. version is not possible for the author, then a cleanly printed If submitting a manuscript electronically, a printed copy is or typed copy is acceptable. not necessary unless specifically requested by the Quarterly Submitted manuscripts should have the following organi- editor. Manuscripts containing more than 35 pages (double- zational format: spaced and including references, tables, and figure legends) 1. Title page. This page should contain the title of the manu- are discouraged. An author who determines that the topic script, the author’s name, and all relevant contact information cannot be adequately covered within this number of pages is (including mailing address, telephone number, fax number, encouraged to submit separate papers that can be serialized. and e-mail address). If the manuscript is submitted by multiple All submitted manuscripts will be reviewed by two or authors, one author should serve as the corresponding author, more technical referees. However, each section editor of the and this should be noted on the title page. Quarterly has final authority regarding the acceptance of a 2. Abstract page. This is page 1 of the manuscript, and should manuscript for publication. While some manuscripts may be contain the article title at the top, followed by the abstract for accepted with little or no modification, typically editors will the article. Abstracts should be between 100 and 250 words seek specific revisions of the manuscript before acceptance. in length and present an overview of the material discussed in Authors will then be asked to submit revisions based upon the article, including all major conclusions. Use of abbrevia- comments made by the referees. In these instances, authors tions and references in the abstract should be avoided. This are encouraged to submit a detailed letter explaining changes page should also contain at least five key words appropriate made in the revision, and, if necessary, give reasons for not for identifying this article via a computer search. incorporating specific changes suggested by the editor or 3. Introduction. The introduction should provide sufficient reviewer. If an author believes the rejection of a manuscript background information to allow the reader to understand the was not justified, an appeal may be made to the Quarterly relevance and significance of the article for creation science. editor (details of appeal process at the Society’s web site, www. 4. Body of the text. Two types of headings are typically used creationresearch.org). by the CRSQ. A major heading consists of a large font bold Authors who are unsure of proper English usage should print that is centered in column, and is used for each major have their manuscripts checked by someone proficient in the change of focus or topic. A minor heading consists of a regular English language. Also, authors should endeavor to make font bold print that is flush to the left margin, and is used fol- certain the manuscript (particularly the references) conforms lowing a major heading and helps to organize points within to the style and format of the Quarterly. Manuscripts may be each major topic. Do not split words with hyphens, or use all rejected on the basis of poor English or lack of conformity to capital letters for any words. Also, do not use bold type, except the proper format. for headings (italics can be occasionally used to draw distinc- The Quarterly is a journal of original writings, and only tion to specific words). Italics should not be used for foreign under unusual circumstances will previously published mate- words in common usage, e.g., “et al.”, “ibid.”, “ca.” and “ad rial be reprinted. Questions regarding this should be submitted infinitum.” Previously published literature should be cited us- to the Editor ([email protected]) prior to ing the author’s last name(s) and the year of publication (ex. submitting any previously published material. In addition, Smith, 2003; Smith and Jones, 2003). If the citation has more manuscripts submitted to the Quarterly should not be concur- than two authors, only the first author’s name should appear rently submitted to another journal. Violation of this will result (ex. Smith et al., 2003). Contributing authors should examine in immediate rejection of the submitted manuscript. Also, if this issue of the CRSQ or consult the Society’s web site for an author uses copyrighted photographs or other material, a specific examples as well as a more detailed explanation of release from the copyright holder should be submitted. manuscript preparation. Frequently-used terms can be abbrevi- 204 Creation Research Society Quarterly ated by placing abbreviations in parentheses following the first a legend that provides sufficient description to enable the usage of the term in the text, for example, polyacrylamide gel reader to understand the basic concepts of the figure without electrophoresis (PAGE) or catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT). needing to refer to the text. Legends should be on a separate Only the abbreviation need be used afterward. If numerous page from the figure. All figures and drawings should be of abbreviations are used, authors should consider providing a high quality (hand-drawn illustrations and lettering should be list of abbreviations. Also, because of the variable usage of professionally done). Images are to be a minimum resolution of the terms “microevolution” and “macroevolution,” authors 300 dpi at 100% size. Patterns, not shading, should be used to should clearly define how they are specifically using these distinguish areas within graphs or other figures. Unacceptable terms. Use of the term “creationism” should be avoided. All illustrations will result in rejection of the manuscript. Authors figures and tables should be cited in the body of the text, and are also strongly encouraged to submit an electronic version be numbered in the sequential order that they appear in the (.cdr, .cpt, .gif, .jpg, and .tif formats) of all figures in individual text (figures and tables are numbered separately with Arabic files that are separate from the electronic file containing the and Roman numerals, respectively). text and tables. 5. Summary. A summary paragraph(s) is often useful for readers. The summary should provide the reader an overview Special Sections of the material just presented, and often helps the reader to Letters to the Editor: summarize the salient points and conclusions the author has Submission of letters regarding topics relevant to the Society made throughout the text. or creation science is encouraged. Submission of letters com- 6. References. Authors should take extra measures to be certain menting upon articles published in the Quarterly will be that all references cited within the text are documented in published two issues after the article’s original publication the reference section. These references should be formatted date. Authors will be given an opportunity for a concurrent in the current CRSQ style. (When the Quarterly appears in response. No further letters referring to a specific Quarterly the references multiple times, then an abbreviation to CRSQ article will be published. Following this period, individuals is acceptable.) The examples below cover the most common who desire to write additional responses/comments (particu- types of references: larly critical comments) regarding a specific Quarterly article Robinson, D.A., and D.P. Cavanaugh. 1998. A quantitative approach are encouraged to submit their own articles to the Quarterly to baraminology with examples from the catarrhine primates. CRSQ 34:196–208. for review and publication. Lipman, E.A., B. Schuler, O. Bakajin, and W.A. Eaton. 2003. Single-molecule measurement of protein folding kinetics. Sci- Editor’s Forum: ence 301:1233–1235. Occasionally, the editor will invite individuals to submit differ- Margulis, L. 1971a. The origin of plant and animal cells. American ing opinions on specific topics relevant to the Quarterly. Each Scientific 59:230–235. author will have opportunity to present a position paper (2000 Margulis, L. 1971b. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. words), and one response (1000 words) to the differing position Hitchcock, A.S. 1971. Manual of Grasses of the United States. Dover paper. In all matters, the editor will have final and complete Publications, New York, NY. editorial control. Topics for these forums will be solely at the Walker, T.B. 1994. A biblical geologic model. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), editor’s discretion, but suggestions of topics are welcome. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Creationism (technical symposium sessions), pp. 581–592. Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. Book Reviews: 7. Tables. All tables cited in the text should be individually All book reviews should be submitted to the book review edi- placed in numerical order following the reference section, and tor, who will determine the acceptability of each submitted not embedded in the text. Each table should have a header review. Book reviews should be limited to 1000 words. Follow- statement that serves as a title for that table (see a current issue ing the style of reviews printed in this issue, all book reviews of the Quarterly for specific examples). Use tabs, rather than should contain the following information: book title, author, multiple spaces, in aligning columns within a table. Tables publisher, publication date, number of pages, and retail cost. should be composed with 14-point type to insure proper ap- Reviews should endeavor to present the salient points of the pearance in the columns of the CRSQ. book that are relevant to the issues of creation/evolution. Typi- 8. Figures. All figures cited in the text should be individually cally, such points are accompanied by the reviewer’s analysis of placed in numerical order, and placed after the tables. Do the book’s content, clarity, and relevance to the creation issue. not embed figures in the text. Each figure should contain Volume 50, Winter 2014 205

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Add 20% for postage (for U.S. orders: min. $6, max. $18; for Canadian orders: min. $10, no max.; for other foreign orders: min. $15, no max.) Total enclosed: $______Make check or money order payable to Creation Research Society. Please do not send cash. For foreign orders, including Canadian, please use a check in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, an international money order, or a credit card. (Please type or print legibly) Name______Address______City______State______Zip______Country______❏ Visa ❏ MasterCard ❏ Discover ❏ American Express Card number______Expiration date (mo/yr)______Signature______Mail to: Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323, USA Creation Research Society History—The Creation Research Society was organized fund for these purposes are tax deductible. As part of its is inspired throughout, all its assertions are historically in 1963, with Dr. Walter E. Lammerts as first president vigorous research and field study programs, the Society and scientifically true in all the original autographs. To and editor of a quarterly publication. Initially started operates The Van Andel Creation Research Center in the student of nature this means that the account of as an informal committee of 10 scientists, it has grown Chino Valley, Arizona. origins in Genesis is a factual presentation of simple rapidly, evidently filling a need for an association devoted Membership—Voting membership is limited to scien- historical truths. to research and publication in the field of scientific tists who have at least an earned graduate degree in a 2. All basic types of living things, including humans, creation, with a current membership of over 600 voting natural or applied science and subscribe to the State- were made by direct creative acts of God during members (graduate degrees in science) and about 1000 ment of Belief. Sustaining membership is available for the Creation Week described in Genesis. Whatever non-voting members. The Creation Research Society those who do not meet the academic criterion for voting biological changes have occurred since Creation Week Quarterly is a peer-reviewed technical journal. It has membership, but do subscribe to the Statement of Belief. have accomplished only changes within the original been gradually enlarged and modified, and is currently Statement of Belief—Members of the Creation created kinds. recognized as one of the outstanding publications in the Research Society, which include research scientists 3. The Great Flood described in Genesis, commonly field. In 1996 the CRSQ was joined by the newsletter representing various fields of scientific inquiry, are com- referred to as the Noachian Flood, was a historical event Creation Matters as a source of information of interest mitted to full belief in the biblical record of creation and worldwide in its extent and effect. to creationists. early history, and thus to a concept of dynamic special 4. We are an organization of Christian men and women Activities—The Society is a research and publication creation (as opposed to evolution) both of the universe of science who accept Jesus Christ as our Lord and Sav- society, and also engages in various meetings and and the earth with its complexity of living forms. We ior. The act of the special creation of Adam and Eve as promotional activities. There is no affiliation with any propose to re-evaluate science from this viewpoint, and one man and woman and their subsequent fall into sin other scientific or religious organizations. Its members since 1964 have published a quarterly of research articles is the basis for our belief in the necessity of a Savior for conduct research on problems related to its purposes, in this field. All members of the Society subscribe to the all people. Therefore, salvation can come only through and a research fund and research center are maintained following statement of belief: accepting Jesus Christ as our Savior. to assist in such projects. Contributions to the research 1. The Bible is the written Word of God, and because it iDINO Investigation of Dinosaur Intact Natural Osteo-tissue A CRS Research Initiative Scientists of the Creation Research Society are conducting a project to investigate the presence of intact tissue in dinosaur bones.

In the past several years, different studies have reported Figure 1. CRS excavation team at a site in Hell Creek evidence of non-fossilized tissue (e.g., compact bone cells) Formation, MT. Dinosaur specimens were obtained that and intact protein remaining inside fossilized dinosaur bones. have revealed the presence of intact tissue. Since these fossils traditionally have been dated at ages great- er than 65 million years, the presence of this non-fossilized tissue is a direct challenge to the entire evolutionary “millions of years” time frame.

As part of the iDINO project, supraorbital horn of a Tric- eratops has been obtained and analyzed. This analysis re- vealed intact osteo-tissue containing osteocyte-like structures

with detailed filipodial-like interconnections and secondary Figure 2. CRS team members excavated a large branching. The intricate detail of these observed cells offers a Triceratops horn at a the Montana site. Analysis of this horn indicates the presence of intact compact bone strong challenge to claims that the tissue is bacterial biofilm cells that have not yet fossilized. or microscopic artifacts. Instead, these results give powerful evidence that dinosaur fossils are really only a few thousand years old.

The Society is seeking funding from interested groups, churches, and individuals. This funding for the iDINO project will enable a more extensive examination of this supraorbital horn as well as other dinosaur specimens.

For more information contact us at (928) 636-1153 or crsvarc@ Figure 3. Confocal microscope picture of a thin section of material from Triceratops horn. The arrow points to what appears to be an intact crsvarc.com. osteocyte cell (a common cell in mature bone). The fluorescence of the cell indicates that it has not yet fossilized. Also visit www.creationresearch.org for project updates and details.