To Mid-Holocene Palaeoenvironmental Changes on Neolithic Settlement at Nea Nikomideia, Thessaloniki Plain, Greece

Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61

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The impact of rapid early- to mid-Holocene palaeoenvironmental changes on Neolithic settlement at Nea Nikomideia, Thessaloniki Plain, Greece

Matthieu Ghilardi a,*, David Psomiadis b, Stéphane Cordier c, Doriane Delanghe-Sabatier a, François Demory a, Fatiha Hamidi d, Theodoros Paraschou e, Elissavet Dotsika b, Eric Fouache f a Centre Européen de Recherches et d’enseignement des Géosciences de l’Environnement (CEREGE, UMR 6635 CNRS), Europôle méditerranéen de l’Arbois, BP 80, 13545 Aix-en- Provence CEDEX 04, France b Institute of Materials Science, N.C.S.R. “Demokritos”, 153 10 Agia Paraskevi, Attikis, Athens, Greece c University of Paris-Est Créteil, UMR 8591 Laboratoire de Géographie physique, 61 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94010 Créteil CEDEX, France d University of Paris 4 Sorbonne, 191 Rue Saint Jacques, 75005 Paris, France e Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Geology, Greece f University of Paris-Ouest-Nanterre-La Défense, EA 375 GECKO and UMR 8591 Laboratoire de Géographie physique, 200 Avenue de la République, 92001 Nanterre CEDEX, France article info abstract

Article history: The site of Nea Nikomideia is one of the oldest and most important Neolithic settlements in Northern Available online 23 December 2010 Greece and the wider Balkan Peninsula, having been first occupied by early farmers at around 6500 cal. BC. Important archaeological excavations conducted in the 1960s suggested that the settlement was located close to an ancient coastline during the Neolithic. However, palaeoenvironmental change and landscape evolution in the vicinity of the site have seldom been considered in detail. Six cores from the western and central parts of the Thessaloniki Plain were therefore drilled in 2008 and subjected to palaeoenvironmental analyses, including sedimentology (LASER grain size and magnetic susceptibility measurements), chemical analysis (loss on ignition and carbonate content), stable isotopes analysis coupled with X-Ray diffraction measurements, molluscan faunal analysis and radiocarbon dating. The recognition of several important facies representing freshwater (lacustrine and fluvial) and brackish (lagoonal and marine-influenced) conditions have shed light on the environmental and landscape evolution of the western part of the Thessaloniki Plain and associated impacts on human occupation during the last 10,000 years. The general sequence proved in the cores indicates the predominance of lacustrine conditions during the early Holocene, with the occurrence of a marine transgression at c. 6000/5800 cal. B.C. This major palaeoenvironmental change corresponds with the 8.2 Ka event and is a likely cause for the desertion of Nea Nikomideia at that time. Subsequent regression of the shoreline to the east saw that the area around Nea Nikomideia returns to predominantly terrestrial conditions and the deposition of lacustrine and fluvial deposits. Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction apparently monotonous surface, the Thessaloniki Plain has under- gone significant landscape evolution during the Holocene. These The Thessaloniki Plain has been an important area for human changes have recently been well-documented for the central and occupation since its earliest occupation during the Neolithic, eastern parts of the Plain (Ghilardi, 2007; Ghilardi et al., 2008a; around the middle of the seventh millennium BC (Demoule and Fouache et al., 2008), while the evolution of the western part Perlès, 1993; Grammenos, 1997; Perlès, 2001; Grammenos, 2003). (including the area of Nea Nikomideia) lacks a precise chro- The settlement of Nea Nikomideia, located in the western part of nostratigraphical framework. Such a chronological framework is the Plain (Fig. 1), is therefore considered as one of the most essential, as important studies conducted over the last decade have important Neolithic farming villages in Greece. Despite its flat and established links between Rapid Climate Change (RCC) and the Prehistoric settlement history of Western Europe, especially in Greece (Weninger et al., 2006, 2009). One of the most significant RCC events is dated to c. 8.2 ka BP (Alley et al., 1997) and corre- * Corresponding author. sponds with the collapse of some Neolithic societies and a period of E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Ghilardi).

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area. Elevations were derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) dataset and bathymetry was inferred using results from the METROMED project (Lykousis et al., 2005). These data have been included in a Geographic Information System. The palaeo-shoreline (25 000 BP) reconstruction is after Lykousis et al. (2005).

arid climate (Berger and Guilaine, 2009). The impact of such 2. The Neolithic settlement of Nea Nikomideia: location and climatic changes on the landscape can be observed in the sedi- previous archaeological research mentary and archaeological records in the Mediterranean region, from the Neolithic to the modern period. The majority of studies Archaeological investigations in the Thessaloniki Plain were indicate that rapid morphological evolution of the shoreline is primarily conducted during the First World War (Casson, 1917; Rey, responsible for the desertion of sites. However, few have attempted 1917), although the first inventory of the Neolithic settlements in to establish direct relationships between RCC, landscape changes Central Macedonia (Greece) was only performed during the 1960s and human occupation. (French, 1967). A significant synthesis, focusing on the Neolithic This paper presents recent geoarchaeological research in Nea and Bronze Age settlement history in Northern Greece was more Nikomideia and its surroundings and aims to reconstruct recently undertaken by Andreou et al. (1996) and by Perlès (2001), Holocene landscape evolution in the western part of the The- enabling good reconstructions of the distribution patterns of ssaloniki Plain, highlighting links between climatic oscillations, archaeological sites. From these results, it appears that the modern landscape change and the record of human occupation in this Thessaloniki Plain (and more generally Central Macedonia) has area. been settled by numerous Neolithic populations. Despite many of M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61 49 these having been minimally researched, some have been well 1964; Hammond, 1972; Bintliff, 1976; Pyke and Youni, 1996), studied (Chrysostomou, 1994, 1997; Ghilardi, 2007), such as Arch- although this age was not convincingly proven due to a lack of data ontikon, located a few kilometres away from the city of Giannitsa (Weninger et al., 2009). The two levels of occupation are separated (Syrides et al., 2009), Angelochorion (Bintliff, 1976; Ghilardi, 2007), by a layer of humus (Bintliff, 1976), which might represent a period and especially Nea Nikomideia, which is considered to be the oldest of desertion between approximately 6000/5900e4500 cal. BC. farming village in Greece (Bintliff, 1976). It is likely that this apparent desertion is associated with palae- The Neolithic settlement at Nea Nikomideia (the name corre- oenvironmental changes, although no significant geomorphological sponds with that of a modern village located 2 km to the SW) is investigations aimed at understanding the processes which influ- located 34 km from the present shoreline, at an elevation of c. 10 m enced human occupation of the site have been undertaken during or above the mean sea level, at the transition between the foothills of since the excavation of the site. Recent research has been able to the Vermion range and the modern Thessaloniki Plain (Bintliff, demonstrate that the area was not inundated by the sea during the 1976; Figs. 1 and 2). It was excavated in the early 1960s by a joint post-glacial period (Ghilardi, 2007; Ghilardi et al., 2008a); never- archaeological CambridgeeHarvard team and important data were theless, the landscape changes during the early and mid-Holocene, published (Rodden, 1962, 1964; Shackleton, 1970; Rodden and as well as the location of the site in the landscape during its Wardle, 1996). The earliest period of human occupation was Neolithic occupation remain unclear. Although archaeological based on the dating of two charcoal samples which provided ages remains indicate the presence of a shoreline in the vicinity of Nea of 7348/6088 cal. BC and 7529/6750 cal. BC (Table 1; Rodden, 1962; Nikomideia (Shackleton, 1970), there is no published evidence for Rodden and Wardle, 1996). This age was later criticized (Bintliff, either a lake or a seashore. On a wider scale, there are no recon- 1976; Perlès, 2001; Weninger et al., 2006, 2009), as further radio- structions of landscape evolution focussed on the Prehistoric/ carbon dates (Table 1; Godwin and Willis, 1962; Stuckenrath, 1967) Neolithic period for the western part of the modern Thessaloniki showed that these early ages were unreliable. In order to establish Plain, in contrast to other parts of the Plain where geomorphological the occupation period of the site, a series of 13 radiocarbon dates evolution has been well described. were recently performed on charcoal samples, bones and seeds (Pyke and Youni, 1996; Table 1). The results clearly indicate that the 3. Geomorphological evolution of the Thermaic Gulf during first Early Neolithic occupation is likely to have occurred at c. 6400- the last 25,000 years: rapid shoreline change 5900 cal. BC (Hammond, 1972; Rodden and Wardle, 1996; Perlès, 2001). Stratigraphical evidence indicates a second occupation The geomorphological evolution of the Thermaic Gulf, where the phase during the Late Neolithic at c. 4500e3500 cal. BC (Rodden, modern city of Thessaloniki is now located, provides evidence for

Fig. 2. Locations of the six cores (NN1, NN2, NN3, NN4, NN5 and NN6) drilled in the westernmost part of the Thessaloniki Plain. The topographical background corresponds to the SRTM data used for Fig. 1. 50 M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61

Table 1 Radiocarbon dating results from Nea Nikomideia settlement (after Pyke and Youni, 1996 and Perlès, 2001).

Laboratory code 14C age (BP) Material Species General period Cal age (cal BC) 2s Reference OxA4280 6920 120 Seed Triticum dicoccum Early Neolithic 6019/5623 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA1603 7050 80 Seed Triticum dicoccum Early Neolithic 6057/5754 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA4281 7100 90 Seed Triticum dicoccum Early Neolithic 6059/5890 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA4283 7260 90 Seed Lens culinaris Early Neolithic 6221/6053 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA3875 7280 90 Bone Sus Early Neolithic 6229/6059 Pyke and Youni, 1996 P-1203 7281 90 Charcoal Charcoal Early Neolithic 6229/6059 Stuckenrath, 1967 OxA3873 7300 80 Bone Ovis Early Neolithic 6230/6072 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA1604 7340 90 Seed Triticum dicoccum Early Neolithic 6397/6046 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA3874 7370 80 Bone Capra Early Neolithic 6403/6069 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA3876 7370 90 Bone Bos Early Neolithic 6416/6064 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA1605 7400 90 Seed Hordeum vulgare Early Neolithic 6429/6079 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA1606 7400 100 Seed Lens culinaris Early Neolithic 6437/6069 Pyke and Youni, 1996 OxA4282 7400 90 Seed Hordeum vulgare Early Neolithic 6429/6079 Pyke and Youni, 1996 P-1202 7557 91 Charcoal Charcoal Early Neolithic 6574/6236 Stuckenrath, 1967 GX-679 7780 270 n.d e Early Neolithic 7348/6088 Pyke and Youni, 1996 Q-655 8180 150 Charcoal Charcoal Early Neolithic 7529/6750 Godwin and Willis, 1962

a rapid marine incursion linked to sea-level rise during the Late further geoarchaeological research at Nea Nikomideia and its Glacial period; indeed, 25,000 years ago the shoreline was located surroundings. This new work, which combines archaeological and 90 km to the south and 120 m below its present day position original palaeoenvironmental data, aims to reconstruct the land- (Lykousis et al., 2005; Fig. 1). Recent work based on a palae- scape evolution of this area since the early Holocene (9000 cal B.C.) oenvironmental approach (Ghilardi, 2007; Fouache et al., 2008; and to link changes in the local environment with climate oscilla- Ghilardi et al., 2008a, 2008b), has made it possible to reconstruct tions and with the different phases of human occupation/desertion the palaeogeography of the Thessaloniki Plain for the last 6000 years. during the Neolithic. Information concerning the Early Holocene is still missing; however, during the Mid-Holocene the present Thessaloniki Plain was a wide 4. Methods marine embayment which was gradually filled by fluvial sediments deposited by various rivers (Ghilardi, 2007; Ghilardi et al., 2008a), Six 40 mm diameter vibracores were drilled in the vicinity of Nea against a background of slow sea-level rise (Lambeck and Purcell, Nikomideia and in the western part of the Thessaloniki Plain, up to 2005; Pirazzoli, 2005; Vouvalidis et al., 2005). The coalescence of a maximum depth of 9.35 m. All are situated outside of the formal the main alluvial fans of the rivers Axios and Aliakmon in particular archaeological area (see Fig. 2 for the exact location) and were led to the formation of the largest deltaic complex in Greece, span- 2 authorized by the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration ning an area of approximately 2200 km along the Thermaic Gulf (I.G.M.E.). Each borehole was precisely located and subsequently shoreline (Fig.1). The contribution of the different drainage-basins is levelled with Differential Global Positioning System (D.G.P.S.) well described in Ghilardi et al. (2008b), which also describes the measurements (Table 2). The permissions provided by the I.G.M.E. typical landscape evolution associated with the eastward regression allowed samples to be taken to France for laboratory analyses. of the shoreline; the retreat of the sea first gave rise to a lagoon environment with a brackish water table, which progressively fi became a freshwater lacustrine environment before fluvial sedi- 4.1. Mollusc identi cation and AMS dating mentation allowed the development of a terrestrial landscape. These four palaeoenvironments (marine, lagoonal, lacustrine and fluvial) All the samples were wet-sieved through a wire screen (0.40 may also be stratigraphically separated by organic sediments which mm mesh) and air dried at room temperature. The residue was fi sometimes form peat deposits. examined under a binocular microscope and all identi able shells This generalized sequence corresponds with the main facies that and characteristic fragments were picked and curated in separate have been observed in a series of cores drilled through the sediments plastic tubes. Palaeontological determinations were made to fi of the Thessaloniki Plain. The first significant boreholes, drilled for a generic and speci c level. geotechnical purposes, were performed forty years ago in the area The chronostratigraphy of the cores was determined using between Pella and the Thermaic Gulf (NEDECO,1970). More recently, a series of 13 AMS radiocarbon determinations derived from in situ several cores within which the above-mentioned facies were shells and peat samples (Table 3). These analyses were performed observed have allowed the palaeoenvironmental evolution of the at the Laboratoire de Mesure du Carbone 14 (C.E.A., Saclay, France) central and eastern parts of the Plain to be reconstructed (Ghilardi, and in Poznan (Poland). Marine samples were corrected for the 2007; Syrides et al., 2009). On a larger scale, the site of Arch- marine reservoir effect according to Siani et al. (2000) and Reimer ontikon, located in the northern part of the Plain close to ancient

Pella, was studied for palaeoenvironmental purposes by a joint Table 2 French/Greek team (Syrides et al., 2009). Location of cores. These results provide a general overview of the landscape Core id Absolute elevation Latitude (DM0S00/ Longitude (DM0S00 Length evolution of the Thessaloniki Plain. However, due to the size of the (m; 10 cm) WGS84 e NUTM34) /WGS84 e NUTM34) (m) area, they should not be considered precise enough to understand NN1 þ5.50 4037000.800 2216022.100 4.40 the evolution of the western part of the Plain and in particular of NN2 þ5.30 4037017.100 2216009.200 4.40 the site of Nea Nikomideia. NN3 þ0.50 4042045.200 2222058.000 7.15 The timing of marine transgressions in the western Thessaloniki NN4 þ3.30 4038004.600 2216043.000 6.60 þ 0 00 0 00 Plain during the Early and Middle Holocene, as well as environ- NN5 1.60 40 41 23.9 22 24 03.7 9.35 NN6 þ1.90 4039023.800 2219019.100 8.25 mental changes during this period, remain unclear, justifying M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61 51

Table 3 Radiocarbon dating results.

Core id Sample type Depth below Depth about Dating method Laboratory reference Age (14C BP) Cal. BC/AD surface (m) sea-level (m) NN1 Shell (Unio crassus) 2,70 þ2,80 AMS Poz33515 7820 50 6820/6500 BC NN1 Peat/Organic sediment 3,20 þ2,30 AMS Poz33514 8840 70 8250/7700 BC NN2 Peat/Organic sediment 3,05 þ2,25 AMS Poz33767 8740 60 8000/7550 BC NN3 Peat 3,80 3,30 AMS Poz16759 3605 35 2039/1883 BC NN3 Shell (Cyclope neritea) 5,50 5,00 AMS Poz14362 4735 35 2993/2677 BC NN3 Shell (Cerastoderma edule) 6,05 5,55 AMS Poz14363 4995 35 3294/3113 BC NN4 Charcoal 5,70 2,20 AMS Poz34965 6750 40 5724/5575 BC NN5 Peat 7,35 5,75 AMS SacA 11513 3400 30 1742/1666 BC NN5 Peat 7,82 6,22 AMS SacA 11514 3645 30 2036/1956 BC NN5 Shell (Bittium reticulatum) 8,93 7,33 AMS SacA 11516 5705 30 4105/3946 BC NN6 Peat 5,29 3,39 AMS SacA 11511 3270 30 1622/1492 BC NN6 Peat 5,86 3,96 AMS SacA 11512 4385 30 3023/2927 BC NN6 Shell (Cerastoderma edule) 8,20 6,30 AMS SacA 11515 7350 60 5826/5659 BC

and McCormac (2002), although it has to be emphasized that the undertaken to assess the proportion of carbonate in the sediment. real (palaeo) reservoir effect d still unknown d varies widely in The mathematic formula used to calculate the equivalent CaCO3 different marine environments such as lagoons, coastal swamps or content following LOI of CO2 is: littoral zones (Vött, 2007). 14C ages were subsequently calibrated ð Þ¼ ð Þ= : using the Calib 5.01 Software (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Hughen CaCO3 % CO2 % 2 27 et al., 2004; Reimer et al., 2004). where 2.27 (50/22) is the conversion factor (molecular weight of CaCO3 is 50 and molecular weight of CO2 is 22). 4.2. Magnetic susceptibility measurements 4.4. Grain-size analyses Magnetic susceptibility measurements were performed using the MFK1 magnetic susceptibility meter (Agico) of the CEREGE (Aix en Grain size determinations were conducted in CEREGE. Samples w Provence, France). The sediment cores were sampled (at 5cm were taken at 5 cm intervals. Many displayed significant organic resolution, except in levels including reworked material) yielding matter content (Fig. 3). This latest, when present in significant 3 500 samples in total. These samples were placed in 10 cm plastic amount, aggregates on clays changing the size distribution. Organic fi boxes, dried and weighed. In addition to the low eld magnetic matter is often removed in laser-diffraction particle size studies. susceptibility, usually measured at the 976 Hz frequency, measure- These pre-treatments for grain size analysis frequently use oxidative ments were also performed at the 15616 Hz frequency. The sensi- treatments (Fullen et al.,1996; Buurman et al.,1997; Blott et al., 2004; w 8 tivity of the MFK1 susceptibility meter is of 310 SI at 976 Hz. The Scott-Jackson and Walkington, 2005; Wang et al., 2006). However magnetic susceptibility values were divided by the density of the the addition of such solutions does not completely remove organics fi c dried samples in order to derive speci c susceptibilities ( ). if not following a standardized method and presents bias possibly Magnetic susceptibility is used as an indicator of the concen- affecting mineral phases with for example micas destruction or tration of magnetic particles. This measurement includes the manganese oxides decomposition (Mikutta et al., 2005; Gray et al., contribution of diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic 2010). Tests were therefore performed using hydrogen peroxide fl particles, but high values are mostly a re ection of ferromagnetic and sample heating at 450 C. The results show more instabilities particle concentration. The size of the ferromagnetic particles can with hydrogen peroxide treatments than with the heating proce- fl also in uence magnetic susceptibility values. dure. Sediment heating is another technique used for organic matter The magnetic susceptibility measurements performed at two removal. All samples of this study were then heated at 450 C and fi < m frequencies are used to detect the ultra ne ( 0.03 m) super- mixed with a dispersing agent (0.3% sodium hexametaphosphate) in paramagnetic particles, which are produced by bacteria or chemical order to disperse the clay particles. The grain-size distribution was processes during soil formation (Dearing et al., 1996). measured using a Beckman Coulter LS 13 320 laser granulometer The contribution of superparamagnetic particles is given by the with a range of 0.04e2000 microns, in 132 fractions. The calculation c frequency dependant susceptibility ( fd): model (software version 5.01) uses Fraunhöfer and Mie theory. The calculation model used water as the medium (RI ¼ 1.33 at 20 C), c c lf hf a refractive index in the range of that of kaolinite for the solid phase c ¼ 100 fd c (RI ¼ 1.56), and absorption coefficients of 0.15 for the 780-nm laser lf wave length and 0.2 for the polarized wavelengths (Buurman et al., c c fi where lf and hf are the speci c susceptibilities measured at low 1996). Samples containing fine particles were diluted, so that and high frequencies, respectively. measurement was between 8 and 12% of obscuration and between 45 and 70% PIDS (Polarization Intensity Differential Scattering) 4.3. Loss-on-ignition (LOI) and carbonate (CaCO3) content obscuration. The repeatability of the sampling procedure and the analytical The loss-on-ignition methodology was based on Dean (1974) and uncertainty were tested. Nine samples from core NN5 which were Bengtsson and Enell (1986) and performed at the CEREGE. Sediment found representative of the different facies found all through the samples of approximately 1 g were taken at 10 cm intervals study have been analyzed. Each sediment has been sampled 3 times throughout the sequence. After drying at 105 C to constant weight, and each of these aliquots has been analyzed 4 times. The error on the samples were heated to 550 C for 7 h to estimate organic the reproducibility is estimated from the standard deviation of the content. A second heating phase, to 950 C for a further 7 h, was 3 aliquots sampled from the same sediment and it goes from less Fig. 3. Core profiles of cores NN1, NN2, NN3, NN4, NN5 and NN6. Results for grain-size distribution, mass specific magnetic susceptibility at low frequency (c), percentage of frequency dependant susceptibility (cfd%), organic content and carbonate content are provided. M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61 53 than a 1e5%. This error on the sampling procedure constitutes the þ4eþ5& (Fritz et al., 1987). However, equilibrium with atmo- 13 trivial issue on the error estimate as the mean deviation from the spheric CO2 can be achieved only in stagnant waters. d CofC3 aliquots is generally less than 1%. Considering the aliquots as plants is near 27&, due to root respiration and the decomposition the repetition of the same constitutive sample, the error estimate of terrestrial organic matter in soils (Cerling and Harris, 1999). by the mean pond gives a global error estimate of about 0.5%. Calcite precipitated in equilibrium with the soil-derived carbon should show d13C values of c. 12& (Boutton, 1991). Dense vege- 4.5. Stable isotopes of inorganic carbonates (d13C and d18O) and X- tation within a drainage basin will therefore cause lower d13C ray diffraction identification values. Isotopically light DIC may originate also through oxidation or anaerobic decomposition of organic matter within the water or Stable isotope analysis of inorganic carbonate sediments was sediments and the injection of CH4 (Cerling, 1984) from soils. applied to the carbonate sequences of cores NN1 and NN2. In total, 71 Enrichment of authigenic calcites in 13C occurs due to detrital samples were extracted every 2.5e5 cm. Samples were ground to (mainly marine) carbonates from aquifers (w0&). During relatively powder (<0.063 mm) and 13C/12Ce18O/16O isotopic ratios were arid climatic phases with longer time of watererock interaction measured (vs. Vienna PeeDee Belemnite e VPDB standard) on this isotopically heavy component should be prevalent in the DIC of a Thermo Delta V Plus isotope ratio mass spectrometer equipped ground and surface waters. with a GasBench II device at Stable Isotope Unit (I.M.S., NCSR 13 18 Demokritos, Athens), after addition of H3PO4 for CO2 production at 4.5.3. Relation between d C and d O 72 C. The standards used for calibration were NBS 19 and NBS 18 Covariance and anticovariance relationships between the d13C carbonates and an internal Carrara marble standard. Analytical and d18O isotopes of carbonates represent characteristic environ- reproducibility is better than 0.1& for d13C and d18O. For X-Ray mental conditions. A positive correlation between oxygen and diffraction measurements (XRD), 12 samples from the same carbon isotopic compositions is observed particularly in closed carbonate sequences of cores NN1 and NN2 were selected, according water bodies. Turner et al. (1983) suggested that with longer resi- to the macroscopic characterization of each sub-sequence, in order to dence times (lower lake levels, arid conditions), evaporation causes determine the carbonate mineralogy. Ground samples (<0.063 mm) enrichment of the DIC in 13C and the water in 18O. High precipita- were measured on a Siemens D5005 (Bruker AXS) diffractometer tion rates may be responsible for simultaneous d13C and d18O using CuKa-radiation. depletion of the calcite precipitates due to kinetic effects. d13C In order to interpret the isotopic data of carbonates in terms of depletion may be caused in colder climatic conditions due to low palaeoenvironmental changes, it is necessary to consider isotopic lake productivity (less active uptake of 13C-depleted DIC from water and fractionation effects in water-carbonate precipitates and the to aquatic plants and thus lower d13C of carbonates). Moreover, an factors that influence the isotopic variations of d13C and d18O locally admixture of isotopically heavier detrital calcites may cause (Makhnach et al., 2004). The carbonate precipitation from fresh- covariant changes in d13C and d18O in freshwater carbonates, with water (basically calcites) is mediated by the photosynthesis of increased enrichment of d13C. Finally, anticovariance is a charac- organisms (macrophytes, algae and plankton). Under temperate teristic feature of carbonates from overflowing lakes and of fluvial climatic conditions, freshwater authigenic calcites usually precipi- calcareous sediments (Andrews et al., 1994) and is interpreted as tate during the warmer months of the year and in shallow waters wetter and warmer climatic phases (higher d18O) consistent with (Jones and Marshall, 2002). denser terrestrial vegetation and the more active influx of soil- derived carbon in lakes and rivers (lower d13C). 4.5.1. Oxygen stable isotope (d18O) The oxygen isotopic composition of freshwater carbonates is 4.6. Regional climate change and stable isotope variation dependent on the isotopic composition and the temperature of the source water. The isotopic composition of the water is controlled The study area, part of the wider region of the southern Balkan mainly by mean annual air temperature and evaporation (Dansgaard, Peninsula e Aegean Sea, is considered to be largely isolated from 1964). The temperature coefficient for the d18O fractionation the North Atlantic oceanic circulation. It is also sensitive to high- between carbonate and water is w0.24& (Hays and Grossman, latitude climate change via an intense atmospheric connection 1991). Using the equation proposed by these authors [T C ¼ related to the meridional extent of the atmospheric polar vortex 2 15.7e4.36(dc dw) þ 0.12(dc dw) ], the mean modern temperature (Rohling et al., 2002; Casford et al., 2003; Marino et al., 2009). The for the area (w15.69 C) and the mean d18O of precipitation in the Holocene climate in this area has been mainly modulated by area between 7 and 8.5& VSMOW Vienna Standard Mean Ocean changes to the solar input, which are attributable to changes both Water, (Dotsika et al., 2010), one can conclude that from meteoric in the Earth’s orbital parameters and of solar activity (Rohling and water, the calcite with d18O ¼7to8.5& VPDB should precipitate. Hilgen, 1991; Mayewski et al., 2004; Marino et al., 2009). Long-term Thus, theoretically, modern carbonates from surficial systems in the climatic changes are triggered by the orbitally-driven fluctuations Nea Nikomideia area should show values between 7 and 8.5& in the African monsoon-fuelled river discharge along the North VPDB. This water can be significantly enriched in 18O compared to African margin (Rossignol-Strick et al., 1982; Rohling and Hilgen, meteoric precipitation due to evaporation in closed and shallow 1991; Rohling et al., 2004, 2009). The pronounced environmental water bodies, and calcite precipitates will be isotopically heavier. changes that are imprinted in the isotopic signatures of inorganic Kinetic effects (e.g. due to high precipitation rates) may be respon- carbonates within cores NN1 and NN2 are clearly related to sible for 18O depletion of the calcite precipitates (Fronval et al.,1995). synchronous regional climatic events, also recorded by other palaeoclimatic proxies (deep-sea sediments, speleothems, pollen 4.5.2. Carbon stable isotope (d13C) etc.). The carbon isotopic composition of freshwater carbonates reflects dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Variations in contribu- 5. Sedimentary units tions of several different sources of DIC in the water results in variations in the 13C content in lakes and precipitated calcites. Different types of sedimentary environments can be distin- 13 Atmospheric CO2 has d C value of 7& to 8& and calcite in guished, reflecting terrestrial, freshwater and marine conditions equilibrium with it would show d13C values of approximately (Fig. 3). 54 M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61

5.1. Freshwater lake sequence in the vicinity of the Nea Nikomideia between 100 and 120 10 8 m3/kg and fit well with the fluvial Neolithic settlement sequence (basal unit, see above). However, the mean grain size is lower in the third unit (between 40 and 200 mm). Despite this Cores NN1 and NN2 comprise several sedimentary units, depos- difference in grain size, the third unit represents a second period of ited in a terrestrial environment, with the following succession: fluvial aggradation, attributed to the presence of a small stream In the lower part of core NN1, from 3.80 to 4.40 m, a basal unit flowing into a freshwater lake environment. It is very likely that composed of coarse brown/gray sands (from 150 mm to 320 mm core NN1 is located at the palaeo-mouth of such a river. A lowering mean granulometric index) with high magnetic susceptibility of the lake level due to aridification is proposed to explain this values of between 100 and 130 10 8 m3/kg. This unit, which change: an abrupt change of d13C is observed with the stable preserves little organic matter or carbonates, has been identified as isotope analyses from depth 2.60 m to 3.00 m (3& VPDB to 8& a fluvial deposit. This part of the sequence was recognized only in VPDB respectively). Along with slight variations in the d18O record, core NN1. A 14C age estimate of 8250/7700 cal. BC (Table 3), cor- this suggests a reduction in the amount of DIC sourced from the responding to the early Holocene, was obtained from a peat sample lake. The negative correlation factor between organic matter 13 13 situated above the fluvial layer, at a depth of 3.20 m. Presumably, content and d C(0.88) strengthens the assumption that d CDIC the basal fluvial deposits can be dated to between the Late Glacial to was closely related to productivity levels within the water body. the Last Glacial Maximum. The second unit recorded in core NN1 This phase seems to end at a depth of c. 2.20 m, where the previous occurs between 3.00 and 3.80 m and comprises rich organic situation is re-established. deposits containing coarse carbonate nodules. There is no evidence Above this carbonate-rich sandy layer, from 2.20 to 2.60 m in of lamination. Magnetic susceptibility within this unit is low depth, the fourth unit consists of a carbonate layer (c. 40% of CaCO3 (values ranging between 2 and 15 10 8 m3/kg). An age of 8250/ content) and is composed of Low-Magnesium calcite (LMC, Fig. 4). 7700 cal. BC was obtained for the upper part of the sequence (Table Generally, core NN1 has few layers of inorganic carbonates 3). A third sedimentary unit, found only in core NN1 between 2.60 which are less pure than those preserved in the lower part of core and 3.00 m, consists of a thin layer of well sorted sand mixed with NN2. The transition from the lower strata (mainly composed of carbonates composed by pure calcite (Fig. 4). c signals range a mixture of coarse sands and carbonates, at a depth of 2.60 m

Fig. 4. Stable isotopes data (d13C and d18O) for cores NN1 and NN2.Percentages are expressed according to depth and age (see Table 3 for 14C dating results). M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61 55 below the surface) is marked by the presence of both aquatic and linked to the general post-glacial sea-level rise in the north Aegean terrestrial gastropods, such as Valvata sp. and Helicidae, along with Sea. Cores NN6 and NN3 have no clear record of a marine or shallow a few freshwater bivalves such as Unio crassus. This fauna suggests marine regime. freshwater environments. A radiocarbon date provided an age of Above these marine sediments, the second sedimentary unit 6820/6700 cal. BC, only a few centuries before the early occupation consists of fine silts and fine sandy sediments with a rich fossil of Nea Nikomideia (see above). The fifth sedimentary unit of core component consisting of numerous complete and fragmented NN1 is found between 2.20 m and the present day land surface. shells, including bivalves (Cerastoderma glaucum, Loripes lactaeus) Alternating organic layers (with rare inclusions of carbonate and gastropods (Cyclope neritea, Nassarius reticulatum). The concretions) and floodplain deposits are clearly recognizable, sug- magnetic susceptibility signal is low and very similar to that of the gesting a very low energy shallow lake/swamp environment with marine sediments (below 15 10 8 m3/kg). This unit is interpreted occasional higher-energy fluvial episodes represented. Carbonate as a lagoon environment; radiocarbon dating performed on core nodules sampled at a depth of 0.78 m consist of calcite with more NN5 provides an age of between 4000 and 2000 cal. BC. Core NN6 is Mg content, but are not High-Magnesium calcites (HMC > 5 mol% the westernmost core within which lagoonal sediments are MgCO3). preserved, located 7.5 km east and northeast of the Neolithic sites In core NN2, two main phases of carbonate precipitation have of Angelochorion and Nea Nikomideia. This lagoon environment is been recognized, one between 3.30 m and the base of the core and older than has been suggested by previous research in the area one from between 0.70 m and 2.00 m (Fig. 4). These layers are (Ghilardi, 2007; Ghilardi et al., 2008a,b), with an age of c. 6000 cal. separated by an organic deposit 1.30 m thick (from 2.0 to 3.30 m BC. This date agrees well with larger scale reconstructions which deep), which includes some inorganic carbonates at 2.80 m. The show a progressive regression of the shoreline towards the East. thicker sequence of carbonates (from 40 to 80% of CaCO3) observed Dates derived from core NN3 also fit well with the above- at the bottom of the core includes HMC, LMC and even Dolomite, i.e. mentioned results: the upper part of the lagoonal sequence indi- carbonates with a high Mg content. Such Magnesian calcites cannot cates an age ranging from 3294/3113 cal. BC to 2993/2677 cal. BC be correlated with direct marine influence in that position and their and the transition to terrestrial environments is dated c. 2039/ presence probably indicates high water influx carrying derived 1883 cal. BC. For core NN4, there is a thin layer (from 6.60 to 6.70 m material from older marine carbonate deposits rich in Mg. These in depth) composed by heavy black clay where small shell frag- layers are interpreted as a freshwater lake environment. An age of ments indicate a brackish environment. There is no substantial 8000/7550 cal. BC was obtained for the upper part of the carbonate evidence for purely lagoonal conditions and so this stratum is layer (3.30 m below the surface), placing this lake in the Late glacial attributed to a brackish environment. The timing of this short or early Holocene. The upper unit of carbonate deposits (from 20 to period cannot exceed a few decades; dating performed on the 60% of CaCO3 content) consists of pure calcite and has a meteoric uppermost part of a peat layer, situated just above the black clay, origin. No age estimate was obtained for this unit, although it is provides an age of 5724/5575 cal. BC. The brackish conditions assumed to have formed during the recent Holocene. therefore occurred slightly earlier than this date, probably at the These two carbonate-rich units of core NN2 represent different beginning of the 6th millennium BC; it is possible that this envi- relationships between d13C and d18O, an anticovariant (depth from ronmental change corresponds with the abandonment of Nea 4.30 to 2.70 m) and a covariant (depth from 2.00 m to 0.70 m). The Nikomideia, dated to c. 5900 cal. BC. bottom section is characterized by anticovariant isotopic values, Above these lagoonal and brackish deposits occurs a thick (c. with a slight positive trend represented by the d18O, indicating 0.70 m) peat layer rich in organic matter (between 20 and 30% of overflowing conditions in the water body due to a high influx rate organic matter content for core NN5) and poor in carbonates (less of surficial waters. A similar pattern exists within the short section than 8% for core NN5). Important values for (cfd) can be explained by at c. 2.80 m. The situation changes significantly across the section the presence of superparamagnetic particles which could be over 2.00 m. The isotopic signature changes to positive covariance explained by the production of magnetite with a diameter of less (correlation factor equal to 0.75) and the oxygen isotopic finger- than 20 nm by micro-organism activity (Lovley et al., 1987). The age print is lower, approximating the theoretical values calculated for of this organic unit seems to decrease towards the east of the plain; modern freshwater calcites. This section therefore probably core NN6 yielded an age estimate of w3000e1500 cal. BC, whereas represents an aridification phase. The possibility of higher precip- cores NN5 and NN3 yielded similar age estimates of itation rates (kinetic effect) is ruled out as the carbonate is thin in w2050e1650 cal. BC and w2050e1900 cal. BC, respectively (Fig. 5). this part of the core and relatively impure (with a relatively low Above the peat deposits a fifth unit, preserved in all the cores, CaCO3 content). consists of fine gray silts to fine grey/light grey sands. It is associated with a poorly-preserved terrestrial mollusc fauna, mainly Helicidae. 5.2. Deltaic environments in the western and central parts of the Magnetic susceptibility records indicate oscillating values, generally modern Thessaloniki Plain ranging from 30 to 70 10 8 m3/kg. The highest peaks, 8 3 c. 90 10 m /kg are only observed for core NN5. CaCO3 content is In contrast with cores NN1 and NN2, cores NN3, NN4, NN5 and generally high and some important peaks can be observed within NN6 record elements of deltaic environments (Fig. 3), including core NN5 (around 30% in a depth of 4.50 m b.s.). Based on the above- seven sedimentary units described below: mentioned analyses, this unit is interpreted as a freshwater lake In the lower part of core NN5, the lowermost unit is composed of environment. fine gray sediments (ranging from clays to silts) with low c values The sixth sedimentary unit is characterized by reddish brown/ 8 3 (below 15 10 m /kg). Microfaunal analyses revealed the pres- yellow sands (fine to coarse particles) and the clf values show ence of gastropods such as Bittium reticulatum which belongs to the strong variations, ranging from 45 up to 150 10 8 m3/kg. There is subtidal sands and hard substrate molluscan assemblage (Marriner a clear relationship between the increase of the magnetic suscep- et al., 2008; Ghilardi et al., 2010). This unit is interpreted as a result tibility signal and the grain size distribution of these sands. A of marine sediment deposition in a calm environment. Radiocarbon detrital origin causes the increasing magnetic susceptibility signal dating indicates that this marine inundation of the central/western for fluvial sands (Ghilardi et al., 2008b). The organic content is part of the modern Plain developed until c. 4000 cal. BC, although generally very low (on average less than 5%). This sixth unit is the exact period of marine incursion in the area remains unclear, clearly indicative of fluvial environments. 56 M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61

Fig. 5. Transect derived from sediment logs from cores NN3, NN5 and NN6. The chronostratigraphic sequences are connected to facilitate spatial interpretation.

The uppermost sedimentary unit is composed of rich organic the burial of the underlying deposits causes these values to decrease, brown/black clays, which varies in thickness between c. 0.30 m (core probably due to the dissolution of magnetite during an early diage- NN5) and c. 1.70 m (core NN4). Organic content is approximately netic process (Demory et al., 2005). Poorly-preserved fossils, con- 10e15% and carbonate content is very low (less than 3%). An sisting of gastropod shell fragments (mainly Valvata sp. and Helicidae) increasing magnetic susceptibility signal (from 5 to 50 10 8 m3/kg) are also present. These data are suggestive of a swamp environment and of (cfd) indicates human interference due to modern land uses. rather than full lacustrine conditions. Annecdotal evidence from Recent research has also highlighted that high values for (cfd%)are visitors to the area during the ﬁrst half of the 19th century described generally located in the most upper part of the sedimentary column; a “huge swampy area” (Cousinéry, 1831; Delacoulonche, 1859). M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61 57

6. Palaeogeographical reconstruction of the area the site of Nea Nikomideia from the Younger Dryas deglaciation until surrounding Nea Nikomideia the early Holocene (8000/7500 cal. BC, Fig. 6). The fluvial sediments rich in carbonates observed in core NN1 also suggest that small The borehole evidence detailed above, especially the stable streams flowing from the Vermion Mountains (Fig. 2) were very isotope data indicating a high influx rate and overflowing water active and flooded into this lake. This interpretation agrees well with levels at the base of core NN2, suggests that a shallow freshwater lake regional climatic reconstructions; the European lake level database occupied the western part of the modern Thessaloniki Plain close to (Harrison et al., 1991) indicates wetter conditions with higher lake

Fig. 6. Palaeogeographical reconstructions of the westernmost part of the Thessaloniki Plain for the last 10,000 years, including the area of Nea Nikomideia. These are derived from the combined results of the palaeoenvironmental analyses. Black and white dashed lines correspond with coastal barriers/spits. The landscape evolution for the period 2000/ 400 cal. BC follows Ghilardi et al. (2008a, 2010). 58 M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61 levels at c. 10 000 cal. BP than at present in southern Europe. Simi- brackish water in the freshwater lake strongly modified the quality larly, it seems that associated vegetation in the region changes from and the salinity of the water at that time. Core NN4 indicates the a glacial landscape to interglacial forests (Lawson et al., 2004). These presence of brackish environments, probably dating from the changes are useful indicators of the extent of thermophilous mois- beginning of the 6th millennium BC. It is likely that the desertion of ture-demanding woodland and therefore as a proxy for warm, moist Nea Nikomideia could be explained by these environmental climatic conditions (Wijmstra, 1969; Tzedakis, 1993; Tzedakis et al., changes (i.e. salt intrusion into the lake) due to the fast landscape 2002). Moreover, Cramp et al. (1988) report the abundance of changes (from a lake to brackish water). The interpretation of cores terrestrial organic detritus in cores off the Thermaikos Plateau. NN5 and NN6 suggests that such a shallow marine/lagoonal stage Casford et al. (2002, 2003) noted that the Aegean area was domi- occupied the western/central parts of the Plain from w5800 cal. BC nated in the early Holocene by the inflow of isotopically light fresher until w4100 cal. BC (Fig. 6). surface waters. Marino et al. (2009) support a view that the latter Subsequently, a second freshwater lake stage occured at around were the result of a southern spread of fresh surface waters due to an 4100 cal. BC, before a main phase of peat accumulation developed intense thermohaline front in the North Aegean preventing south- from c. 2000 cal. BC to 1500 cal. BC, as recorded in cores NN3, NN5 ward extension of the influence of the North Aegean surface waters and NN6 (Figs. 5 and 6). These peat deposits might be linked to (Zervakis et al., 2004). This study finds that wet deglaciating condi- a gradual return to mild climatic conditions more akin to the modern tions in the terrestrial areas of the North Aegean, producing vast environment, with less humid characteristics. Studies of the Medi- amounts of fresh flowing surface waters, coincided with a distinct terranean region indicate a pronounced arid phase occurred at increase in Nile-sourced clay minerals in the Aegean (Ehrmann et al., c. 1600e1400 cal. BC, coinciding with low water-levels in African 2007) linked to the onset of the so-called “greening of the Sahara” lakes and speleothem records (Gasse, 2000; Drysdale et al., 2006; (Ritchie et al., 1985; Gasse, 2000). Zhornyak et al., 2008; Psomiadis et al., 2009). This drier period has Although wetter lacustrine conditions at that time are widely been suggested as a key factor in the collapse of Old World civiliza- attested, the extent of this carbonate-rich lake cannot be precisely tions in the Mediterranean region (Drysdale et al., 2006). Cooling defined, since only two cores indicate lacustrine environments. The over the northeast Mediterranean is related to continental/polar air pretransgressive surface was not reached by cores NN3, NN5 and outbreaks during the winter months (Mayewski et al., 2004). NN6, preventing the recognition of potential lacustrine sediments Weninger et al. (2009) provide an extensive dataset related to the beneath the lagoon/marine deposits (these latter being dated from impact of 1100e1000 cal. BC rapid climatic change (RCC) on settle- max. c. 5800 cal. BC). Additional deep boreholes are required in the ments of southeastern Europe; among other sites they refer to central and the western parts of the modern deltaic Plain in order to northern Greece, where some 30% of central Macedonian sites were obtain a more accurate chronostratigraphy for the Late Glacial either completely abandoned or show at least temporary desertion Period. The existence of the lake can be attributed to several (Hochstetter, 1984). parameters, such as the presence of springs located on large trav- Following this critical lacustrine stage, a fluvial regime can be ertine deposits in the vicinity of the cities of Veria, Edessa and observed in almost all the cores. The onset of fluvial conditions is Naoussa (Faugères, 1978). These carbonate deposits were formed uncertain due to the lack of absolute dating. However, important during the Quaternary and were probably created by local streams studies in Central and Eastern Greece have shown that an impor- flowing over calcareous rocks (Faugères, 1978; Ghilardi, 2007). tant change occurred during the Byzantine period (Fouache, 1999; The phase of cool aridification recorded by the carbonate Ghilardi et al., 2010). This period of fluvial activity might therefore sequence in core NN1 is related to a period of humid, warm condi- have occurred between the 500 cal. AD and 1500 cal. AD, which tions which caused the deposition of S1 sapropel in the Aegean Sea, corresponds to the medieval optimum. as well as in the whole Eastern Mediterranean (9500e6000 cal. BP). Finally a third and final shallow lake phase developed very Deep-sea sediment studies (Rohling et al., 1997; De Rijk et al., 1999; recently, probably during the Little Ice Age (LIA), gradually becoming Geraga et al., 2000; Triantaphyllou et al., 2009) and speleothem an area of shallow swamps during the last two centuries. In the records (Bar-Matthews et al., 1999) indicate that the deposition of S1 1920s, the region was reclaimed for agricultural purposes (Ancel, in the Aegean Sea was halted during a short period of cooling 1930; NEDECO, 1970), which involved the drainage of swampy between 8500 and 7500 cal. BP. This period correlates well with the areas (Cousinéry, 1831; Delacoulonche, 1859). isotopic data from the carbonates in core NN1 (aridification). In the North Atlantic there is a significant short-lived period of cooling, 7. Conclusions the “8.2 ka” event (Alley et al., 1997), which characterized a severe climatic disruption unique among Holocene climatic changes The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction also makes it possible because it occured at a time when extensive ice sheets were still to determine a local explanation for the desertion of Nea Nikomideia. present in the Northern Hemisphere (Mayewski et al., 2004). The Marine-influenced sediments (e.g. deltaic) have been recognized in 8.2 ka event seems to have led to a climatic deterioration in the study the western/central part of the Thessaloniki Plain at a maximum area, also coinciding with another multi-centennial cooling period distance of 4 km from the site. This dataset is in agreement with between 8800 and 7800 cal. BP (Rohling et al., 2002; Mayewski et al., previous research undertaken in the central/eastern part of the 2004; Rohling and Pälike, 2005). The significant ecological impact of Aliakmon/Axios deltas (Ghilardi et al., 2008a,b, 2010) and allows the this cooling period is evident in the pollen record from Tenaghi global evolution of the Thessaloniki Plain from the Early/Mid-Holo- Philippon, North Greece (Pross et al., 2009), where a significant cene until the present day to be understood. For the first time, the reduction in tree-pollen is observed, representing a decline in winter maximum extent of the post-glacial marine incursion in Northern temperatures of more than 4 C. Greece has been dated, to c. 6000/5800 cal. BC and precisely located, During the subsequent Mediterranean marine transgression, the c. 32 km west of the modern shoreline. This timing (the beginning of sea gradually inundated the whole area from the South East to the 6th millennium) coincides with the desertion of Nea Nikomideia, the North West (Ghilardi, 2007; Ghilardi et al., 2008a,b), depositing most likely as a response to local salt intrusions caused by this mid- the shallow marine and lagoonal/brackish sediments dated from c. Holocene sea-level rise which gradually turned the lake into 6000/5800 cal. BC 4 km east of the Nea Nikomideia settlement a brackish water body. (Fig. 6). The maximum extent of the Holocene marine transgression Analysis of the cores from the vicinity of Nea Nikomidiea has is dated to c. 6000e5800 cal. BC. Frequent intrusions of salty/ made it possible to unravel c. 10,000 years of sediment M. Ghilardi et al. / Quaternary International 266 (2012) 47e61 59 accumulation and associated palaeoenvironmental changes. In the Berger, J.-F., Guilaine, J., 2009. The 8200 cal BP abrupt environmental change and westernmost part of the Thessaloniki Plain, within a few hecto- the Neolithic transition: a Mediterranean perspective. Quaternary International 200 (1e3), 31e49. meters of the oldest Greek Neolithic settlement, a full lacustrine Bintliff, J., 1976. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. The Plain of Western sequence is preserved. This suggests that during the second half of Macedonia and the Neolithic Site of Nea Nikomedeia, vol. 42, pp. 241e62. the 7th millennium BC, farmers and shepherds living in huts Blott, S.J., Croft, D.J., Pye, K., Saye, S.E., Wilson, H.E., 2004. Particle size analysis by laser diffraction. In: Pye, K., Croft, D.J. (Eds.), Forensic Geoscience: Principles, (constructed of mud and reeds) close to fertile areas (Rodden and Techniques and Applications, vol. 232. Geological Society, London, Special Wardle, 1996) were located on the margin of a freshwater lake Publications, pp. 63e73. (infilled by rich carbonate content waters), and not at the seashore. Boutton, T.W., 1991. Stable carbon isotope ratios of natural materials: II. Atmo- spheric, terrestrial, marine and freshwater environments. In: Coleman, C., Fry, B. Chronologically, it is very likely that this lake was the result of (Eds.), Carbon Isotope Techniques. Academic Press, New York, pp. 173e486. a huge influx of freshwater at the Late Glacial e Holocene transi- Buurman, P., Pape, T., Muggler, R.C.C., 1996. Laser grain-size determination in soil tion. The desertion of the settlement at the beginning of the 6th genetic studies: Practical problems. Soil Science 162, 211e218. Buurman, P., de Boer, K., Pape, Th., 1997. Laser Diffraction grain-size characteristics millenium BC roughly coincides with the Rapid Climate Change of Andisols in perhumid Costa Rica: the aggregate size of allophane. Geoderma 8.2 ka event. This case study therefore provides another example of 78, 71e91. the strong influence of this arid period (recognized not only in the Casford, J.S.L., Rohling, E.J., Abu-Zied, R.H., Cooke, S., Fontanier, C., Leng, M., Mediterranean and Southern Balkans area but also in the Near- and Lykousis, V., 2002. Circulation changes and nutrient concentrations in the late quaternary Aegean Sea: a nonsteady state concept for sapropel formation. Middle-East, and more widely in the Northern Hemisphere), Paleoceanography 17, 1024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000PA000601. leading to the desertion of many settlements in the region (Berger Casford, J.S.L., Rohling, E.J., Abu-Zied, R.H., Jorissen, F.J., Leng, M., Thomson, J., 2003. and Guilaine, 2009). A dynamic concept for eastern Mediterranean circulation and oxygenation during sapropel formation. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology The desertion of the settlement should therefore be considered 190, 103e119. a consequence of a palaeoenvironmental change driven by the Casson, S., 1917. Note on the ancient sites in the area occupied by the British Sal- onika force during the campaign 1916e1918. Bulletin de Correspondance Hel- 8.2 ka event. This event probably caused a lowering of the lake e fl lénique 40, 293 297. level, increasing the in uence of sea-level rise at the beginning of Cerling, T.E., 1984. The stable isotopic composition of modern soil carbonate and its the 6th millennium. A similar interpretation of the impact of relationship to climate. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 71 (2), 229e240. environmental changes on human occupation has been used to Cerling, T.E., Harris, J.M., 1999. Carbon isotope fractionation between diet and bioapatite in ungulate mammals and implications for ecological and paleoco- partly explain the collapse of Ancient Pella (Ghilardi et al., 2010). A gical studies. Oecologia 120, 347e363. second phase of occupation at Nea Nikomideia was advocated by Chrysostomou, P., 1994. To Archaiologiko Ergo stin Makedonia kai Thraki. Oi Neo- Bintliff (1976) but not substantially proven. It is clear that from lithikes Erevnes Stin Poli Kai Tin Eparchia Giannitson Kata to 1991 (In Greek), vol. 5 111e125. between 6000 and 5500 cal. BC lagoon/brackish environmental Chrysostomou, P., 1997. To Archaiologiko Ergo stin Makedonia kai Thraki. conditions continued to prevail and a reoccupation of the site O Neolithikos Oikismos Giannitson B. Nea Anaskafika Dedomena (1992e1993), remained an impossibility since the land was unsuitable for agri- in Greek, vol. 7 135e146. cultural purposes. Further archaeological investigations are needed Cousinéry, E.M., 1831. Voyage dans la Macédoine, vol. 2. Imprimerie Royale, Paris. Cramp, A., Collins, M.B., West, R., 1988. Late Pleistocene-Holocene sedimentation in in order to verify any reoccupation of the site and the results linked the NW Aegean Sea: a palaeoclimatic paleoceanographic reconstruction. to the palaeonvironmental record (especially with the less intense Paleogeography Paleoclimatology Paleoecology 68, 61e77. e climatic variations at c. 6750 BP and 3200 BP) and with the land- Dansgaard, W., 1964. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16, 436 468. De Rijk, S., Hayes, A., Rohling, E.J., 1999. Eastern Mediterranean sapropel S1 inter- scape evolution of the Thessaloniki Plain. ruption: an expression of the onset of climatic deterioration around 7 ka BP. Marine Geololgy 153, 337e343. Acknowledgements Dean, W.E., 1974. Determination of carbonate and organic matter in calcareous sediments and sedimentary rocks by loss on ignition: comparison with other methods. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 44, 242e248. Thanks to I.G.M.E. for permissions to core in the vicinity of Neo Dearing, J.A., Dann, R.J.L., Hay, K., Lees, J.A., Loveland, P.J., Maher, Barbara A., Nikomideia. We are particularly grateful to Irene Zananiri for her O’Grady, K., 1996. Frequency-dependent susceptibility measurements of envi- e invaluable help and kindness. The authors are grateful to Dr. Anne- ronmental materials. Geophysical Journal International 124 (1), 228 240. ’ Delacoulonche, A., 1859. Mémoire sur le berceau de la puissance macédonienne des Marie Lézine (Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l Environne- bords de l’Haliacmon à ceux de l’Axius, Archives des missions scientifiques et ment, Gif-sur-Yvette, France) for her assistance and to the ARTEMIS littéraires. programme for undertaking 6 radiocarbon dates. Antoine Chabrol, Demory, F., Oberhänsli, H., Nowaczyk, N.R., Gottschalk, M., Wirth, R., Naumann, R., 2005. Detrital input and early diagenesis in sediments from Abdelsalem Genç and Zisis Kozlakidis are also warmly thanked for Lake Baikal revealed by rock magnetism. Global and Planetary Change 46 their assistance while coring in April 2008. Thanks also to Tom (1e4), 145e166. White (University of Cambridge, UK) for editing our text and Demoule, J.P., Perlès, C., 1993. The Greek Neolithic: a new review. Journal of World Prehistory 7 (4), 355e416. substantially improving the English. Finally, the authors would like Dotsika, E., Lykoudis, S., Poutoukis, D., 2010. Spatial distribution of the isotopic to address their deep gratitude to Dr. Andrew Bicket for his fruitful composition of precipitation and spring water in Greece. Global and Planetary remarks. Change 71, 141e149. Drysdale, R., Zanchetta, G., Hellstrom, J., Maas, R., Fallick, A., Pickett, M., Cartwright, I., Piccini, L., 2006. 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