Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 55 IRMO

KEY WORDS: prevention, physical reconstruction, conflict economic , post-conflict sensitivity, Tigers. Tamil development, LTTE, now practices more conflict sensitivity in its planning and execution of physical reconstruction and planning and execution of physical reconstructionnow practices more conflict sensitivity in its and economic development projects without external pressure. economic development, especially after 2009, demonstrate their positive capacity as well as their demonstrate their positive capacity as well as their economic development, especially after 2009, Although the Sri Lankan government initially had to be forced by international conflict sensitivity. more recently this has changed. The government donors to include conflict sensitivity in its projects, provide “demilitarization”, which actually increased militarization on both sides, and “political increased militarization on both sides, and “political provide “demilitarization”, which actually Effortspower sharing” that was never honestly executed. in post-conflict physical reconstruction and physical reconstruction and economic development as measures of conflict prevention and post- conflict reconstruction. During the years of conflict, the Sri Lankan government performed some attempt to as the such counter effects, them caused most of measures, but conflict prevention This article gives an overview of the 26 year long ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and examines articleThis an overview gives examines and Lanka Sri conflict in ethnic long year the 26 of ABSTRACT Boženko Đevoic Prevention Factors Prevention Economic Development as Conflict Development as Economic Sri Lanka: Physical Reconstruction and Reconstruction Physical Sri Lanka: ISSN 1848-5782 ISSN (548.7) UDC 323.1:316.48:338.2 DOI 10.2478/cirr-2014-0003 CIRR XIX (69) 2013, 55-75 XIX (69) 2013, CIRR on 19 on 1 The Liberation Tigers of (LTTE), known also as Tamil Tigers, were founded in 1976 as one of the newly theof one as 1976 in newly founded were Tigers, Tamil as also known (LTTE), Eelam Tamil of Tigers Liberation The formed youth Tamil movements that believed in militancy and separation from Sri Lanka as the only way to protect protect to as the way only Sri Lanka from in militancy and separation that believed movements Tamil youth formed minority. of the Tamil the interests 1 Nevertheless, these organizations did not achieve much in any aspect of The international community (especially UN agencies), the World Bank, funds and many states have been development or investment different involved in conflict resolution since the beginning of the conflict in 1983. ensuring long lasting peace (Höglund and Orjuela, 2011). ensuring long lasting peace (Höglund conflict prevention measure physical – reconstructiondevelopment – was exercised with and economic more success than failure, and after the end of the conflict became the government’s primary pillar for “justice and reconciliation” never had any significant success and even manages to engage the government today, after the defeat of the LTTE, fourth The process. reconciliation non-transparent and in a narrow only which finally led to the overall failure and limited political engagement third measure, . The and the government the Sri Lankan between “political power sharing”, was never honestly or effectively executed by Additionally, the Tamils had an unrealistic the Sri Lankan government. political representatives not have strong independence strategy and did has been used to scale of violence. The second measure, higher which caused a much counter increased militarization on both sides, During the 26 years of conflict, the of some while outcomes, mixed with Sri measures prevention conflict several Lankan government performed “demilitarization” measure, first The effects. counter produced even them terrorists”, LTTE (Weaver and Chamberlain, 2012). and Chamberlain, 2012). terrorists”, LTTE (Weaver infrastructure, and included many violations and included many violations rights carried out of human infrastructure, supported time that of community international the Even sides. by both a military conclusion to the Sri Lankan conflict against the “declared May 2009, which initiated a celebration throughout Sri Lanka. Nobody Lanka. Sri throughout celebration initiated a May 2009, which mentioned the fact that the “final solution” to caused devastation of casualties, thousands bloody and included to the Tamil conflict was Sri Lankan president declared the end of the long the of end the Rajapaksa declared Mahinda president Lankan Sri (LTTE) of Tamil Eelam Tigers Liberation against the lasting war Introduction

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 56 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 57 forced by international donors, but there are many examples today of the Sri Lankan government’s sensitivity for reconstruction without external pressure. physical reconstruction and economic development projects (Höglund projects development economic and physical reconstruction were in its approach changes these beginning, the and Orjuela, 2011). In Although in most cases the Sri Lankan government initially include the Sri Lankan government did not in most cases Although conflict sensitivity in its projects, more recently that has changed and it now practices more conflict sensitivity in the planning and execution of (Brabant, 2010, p.1). to create positive impacts on the conflict dynamics. Conflict sensitivity negative inadvertent the of concerns of out promoted be to has started effects of interventions, projects, efforts that remained ‘conflict blind’ Conflict sensitive actions and programming seek to consciously avoid or minimize negative impacts (‘do no harm’) and equally consciously try outcomes are mixed, but mostly successful and with elements of conflict sensitivity. This article examines physical reconstruction and economic development economic and reconstruction physical examines article This as measures of conflict prevention and reconstruction after the conflict The of the Sri Lankan President. in Sri Lanka and following the promises Chamberlain, 2012). Chamberlain, 2012). Tamil people from the cruel grip of the LTTE. We all must now live as equals as live now must all We LTTE. the of grip cruel the from people Tamil in this free country. We must find a homegrown solution to this conflict. and (Weaver communities” the all to acceptable be should solution That his speech to the Sri Lankan parliament on 19 May 2009, Sri Lankan parliament speaking in the his speech to the to save the was “Our intention when he stated: native Tamil language, to 2005. So, the question is: will this “final solution” provide enough time president Rajapaksa seems Sri Lankan The lasting reconstruction? long for to support a “yes” answer to this question. He demonstrated this intent in development activities started, but did not last long. The longest period of period longest The last long. not but did activities started, development 2002 years from three lasted and development reconstruction meaningful development, because this was this because development, government. Sri Lankan to the of interest and the Sri Lankan government when the of occasions, On a number and reconstruction violence decreased, or a truce achieved LTTE conflict prevention, except for the physical reconstruction and economic economic and reconstruction physical the for except prevention, conflict The latest conflict in Sri Lanka became widely knownin in the order 1880s, but to explain the real reasons for the conflict it is necessary to there are other ethnic groups with diversities ethnic groups with diversities or language are other in religion there centuries. island for the main rivals on the have been two groups these (Indian and Sri Lankan) are the largest minority ethnic group estimated group (Indian and Sri Lankan) are the largest minority ethnic between 14%-18% due to differences in officialAlthough 2013). dataLanka, Sri Factbook, World (The languages of use the on ethnicand groups The largest ethnic group are the Sinhalese (predominantly Buddhists) that Buddhists) (predominantly Sinhalese the are group ethnic largest The make up 74% of the more than 21 million of Sri Lanka’s citizens. The Tamils The Origins of Ethnic Conflict and the Eelam Wars and the Eelam The Origins of Ethnic Conflict Sri Lanka (“The World Factbook, Sri Lanka”, 2013)

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 58 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 59 movement in the Tamil populated area, especially in the North of Sri in the Tamil populated area, especially movement in the North and effect, opposite the had Act this conflict, preventing of Instead Lanka. example, in 1979 Sri Lanka’s Parliament with a Sinhalese majority passed separatist emerging the to as a reaction Act Terrorism of Prevention the Sinhalese majority answered with violent riots against the Tamil population Sinhalese majority answered with violent riots against the Tamil population political actions/ and with forces allowed by government were that documents that just reinforced tensions (Ranasinghe, 2009, pp.12-13). For place over other religions (Manage, 2012, p.14). Although the reactions the 2012, p.14). Although (Manage, religions other place over only mild and manifested as peaceful political Tamil politicians were of the time the of most 1981), and 1979, 1977, 1974, 1961, 1958, (1956, protests and the constitutional reforms of 1972, which recognized Sinhala as the primary a having as Buddhism declared and Lanka Sri of language official authors, the decisive points in the escalation of the Buddhist conflict Committee of were: Inquiry the and its effects on the elections use; official from language Tamil the banned which Act, of Only Sinhala The 1956; into a large scale conflict. Thus, the Sinhalese majority began to shape of number a to According its preferences. to according state new the disenfranchisement from the state administration, especially from courts especially from administration, state the from disenfranchisement the between frictions the of beginning was the That police forces. and that later escalated and developed Sinhalese and Tamil ethnic groups independence. The following few decades strong Sinhalese were political mobilization, characterized and the parallel with process of Tamil century, the Sinhalese discontent led to a movement that demanded that a movement led to Sinhalese discontent the century, negotiations, peaceful after 1948, In Crown. British the from independence Sri Lanka was granted independence just a few months after ’s colonies by favoring minority ethnic groups, and therefore the majority of the majority therefore minority ethnic groups, and colonies by favoring English language schools were opened in Tamil areas. Later, Tamils filled early twentieth the In service positions. security and main administration in 1802 Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) became a British colony (The World World (The colony British a became Ceylon) called (then Lanka Sri 1802 in Factbook, Sri Lanka, 2013). The British Crown applied the system of ruling 2013). Later, after periods when the coastal areas the were Dutch controlled (16th by century) and the Portuguese (17th century), the British occupied the island at the end of the 18th century and a few years after island before the Sinhalese arrived, also have statehood roots through roots also have statehood arrived, Sinhalese the island before the Tamil’s kingdom of the 14th century (The World Factbook, Sri Lanka, among among these two ethnics. The first Sinhalese arrived B.C. in and the later 6th century on established a kingdom that with some breaks existed until the 13th century A.D. The Tamils, who claim to have been on the look back and understand the long lasting animosities and differences and differences animosities long lasting the understand back and look . During . 2 During the 1990s and 2000s the Tamil Diaspora raised and supplied 200 - 300 million USD annually to the LTTE the to - 300 million USD annually and supplied 200 LTTE raised Diaspora During the 1990s and 2000s the Tamil and other separatist Tamil groups (O’Balance, 1990, p.22). groups Tamil and other separatist 2 support the government (e.g. Tamil Eelam (TELO), support the government Liberation Organisation Tamil Eelam of and Peoples Liberation Tamil National Alliance (TNA), (PLOT)). military dominance over all other Tamil separatist movements in Sri Lanka, military dominance over all other them to forcing their key personnel, sometimes by ruthlessly eliminating leave the island, or exerting strong pressure that many crossed over to of the Diaspora, led to long lasting and bloody armed conflict in suceeded finally and tactics violent on carried LTTE the 90s, and 80s the the voices calling for a more militant approach to the formation of a Tamil of formation the to militant approach a more voices calling for the within Tamil youth peaceful ones the than louder (Eelam) became State organisations, which together with a large financialand political support a side effect the Tamil Diaspora came to accept and support the LTTE’s However, Lanka. Sri Tamils in the protect way to right as the response armed Canada and the UK (De Votta, 2004). This trend developed a strong Tamil strong a developed trend This 2004). Votta, (De UK the and Canada 60 million) directly than Indian Tamils (more with together Diaspora that but as atrocities, violence and the for government Sri Lankan blamed the India, Australia, the United States and some Western European countries. Additionally, especially of Tamils can be found in large communities started, the number of Tamil refugees began to increase and that trend increase and to began of Tamil refugees number the started, ended just recently. They were first placed in refugee camps, but later such as than 40 countries, to more many of them emigrated abroad that ended with hundreds of dead Tamils (Fair, 2005). Furthermore, there forces security Lankan Sri the of members that published reports many are violence as 1983 Since killings. and atrocities these in participated actively mobs to the death of 13 Sri Lankan soldiers in conflict with LTTE was the burning of Tamil homes and businesses,destruction and well as as killings only way to protect Tamils“ (Manage, 2012, p.15). The most important and 2012, most important Tamils“ (Manage, p.15). The protect only way to probably the main trigger in the 26 year long ethnic riots which occurred conflictin July 1983. At that werepoint, the response of Sinhalese the and to the creation of several “small but tight-knit youth movements that movements youth tight-knit but several “small of creation the to and as the state, the from separation and militancy, of convinced became killings“ killings“ 2012, them (Manage, against violence to in response Thus, p.15). caused a Lankan ethnic friction in managing Sri approach an “unusual“ violent ones more into protests civil and peaceful Tamil of transformation alowed alowed the security forces additional authorities, such as “extra-judicial

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 60 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 61 : 3 Lankan government and LTTE in February 2002 and negotiations on a political solution continued. Meanwhile, LTTE achieved new military power on land, air, and sea, as well as collecting enormous from and regions controlled in taxation through money of amounts Sri Lankan Army. Among others, the most significant attackswere when LTTE bombed Sri Lanka’s holiest attack on Buddhist president site, Kumaratunga when the he was bomb wounded, and the devastating suicide attack on ’s international airport. A new Norwegian-mediated ceasefire was signed by the Sri and executed many suicide attacks, as well as launched numerous launched as well as attacks, suicide many executed and Sri Lankan Army. of the air missiles aircrafts and helicopters on So, during that time severe armed conflict across the North and to succeeded 2001. LTTE of islandend until the the lasted East of by the which were previously controlled capture some regions, in 1993 President Premadasa was killed by LTTE, the second Eelam War ended when the 1994. opened peace talks with LTTE in newly elected president Kumaratunga Eelam War III began in 1995 after LTTE sank governmental craft. naval During the next few years, LTTE developed their capabilities Eelam War II started in 1990 after IPKF left of of LTTE failed. LTTE got control the attempt to prevent violence the country because the North and East areas of the island and armed conflicts with Sri Although as LTTE became stronger. Lankan armed forces escalated ended in 1987 after the signing of the India-Sri Lanka peace accord peace Lanka India-Sri the of signing the after 1987 in ended Sri Lanka to peacekeepers several thousand and India deploying degree a offered Accord The IPKF). - Force Keeping Peace (Indian and East, but not North areas in the Tamil majority for of autonomy independence. started with of bloody 1983 riots and continued during with the four the controled even point one at that groups by Tamil militant “Black years July“ of guerrilla-like warfare Vadamarachchi area on the North of the island. Eelam war I ● ● ● ● ● ● The following overviews of the Eelam Wars I-IV compiled from Manage (2012, p.20-24), “Sri Lanka Profile, Profile, Manage (2012, p.20-24), “Sri Lanka I-IV compiled from of the Eelam Wars overviews The following Timeline”, and Lunn, Taylor and Townsend (2009). and Townsend Taylor and Lunn, Timeline”, 3 periods, periods, the Eelam wars I – IV, which were marked by several agreements cease-fire different The decades of the civil war in Sri Lanka can be described through four through described be can Lanka Sri in civil war the of decades The against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). rights and the international humanitarian law from both sides inrights and the international humanitarian conflict. Concurrently, as the Sri Lankan security forces advanced in their final operation against LTTE they rejected international calls to Sri 2009 May 19 on finally and ceasefire, new a for or civilians protect Lankan president Mahinda Rajapaksa declared the end of the war 2006 with the most important player in the peace negotiations, the2006 with the most important player European Union. Reinforced with these decisions and after Karuna’s Eastern regions crossed over toLTTE fraction that controlled the widestarted forces security Lankan Sri the government, the support followingThe island. the of region Northern the on focused operations human of violations of reports growing by accompanied were fights for several of the attacks and assassinations rather than the LTTE, the and assassinations rather than attacks for several of the its attitude and leaned towardsinternational community changed resulted with wide internationalsupporting the government side. That organization, terrorist a declared be should LTTE that calls for support first done by the U.S., UK and India, and followed in the summer of that they were supporters of Colonel Karuna’s fraction of LTTE. These Sri Lankan counterwell as their bomb attacks and LTTE activities as activities in the north, east and around Colombo’s new internally displaced persons.with hundreds of thousands of area resulted the government security forcesAlthough some observers suspected shadowed in 2006 due to the cold attitude toward peace due to the cold attitude shadowed in 2006 president andthe newly elected Sri Lankan negotiations of on the Sri Lankan several bloody attacks of LTTE government, and in the North region on the Navy). Also, LTTE security forces (especially under suspicion and murdered numerous Tamils arrested, tortured, Karuna divided LTTE with 6000 soldiers and supporters because of So, Prabhakaran. supreme commander of the LTTE unfair treatment in tsunami the with reinforced LTTE of fractions two between conflict power. military LTTE the of part great a losing in resulted finally 2004, Eelam War IV began after the peace negotiation process was their diaspora. One of the most important and decisive and decisive in points important of the most One diaspora. their Colonel commander regions East LTTE when was war Lankan Sri the ● ● squeezed into a narrowing stretch of land in north-eastern Sri Lanka - At least 7000 people are estimated to have been killed during the last the been killed during have least 7000 people are estimated to At were few months when the LTTE and Tamil civilians under their control

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 62 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 63 . DDR started immediately after the final 4 DDR in Sri Lanka supported (but not led) by: India, Norway, the Netherlands, Japan, AusAID, USAID, World Bank, supported the Netherlands, India, Norway, by: World led) (but not DDR in Sri Lanka Japan, AusAID, USAID, IOM, European Commission, UN CERF, UNDP. UNDP. Commission, UN CERF, IOM, European 4 (TMVP) militia and 8500 released suspected LTTE, but not including the Sri personnel forces Lanka Armed First, the process of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) reintegration and demobilization disarmament, of process the First, Puligal Vidudal Makkal Thamil toward unilaterally, only executed been had implemented a number of post-conflict reconstruction measures, however measures, reconstruction post-conflict of number a implemented effects. most of them ended with little positive violations of human rights, the May 2009 to violations of human rights, the May victory was an opportunity international limited Under conflict. the caused that problems the on focus government Lankan Sri the years, last few the in etc.) UN, EU, (U.S., pressure especially in the final operations on both sides, the Sinhalese domination and numerous in its reform interest lack of the political system, in the Since an end to a war does not guarantee a sustainable peace, the risk of peace, the a sustainable guarantee does not a war to Since an end and comprehensive years requests urgent post-war new violence in the conflict prevention measures. Because of the brutality of Sri Lanka’s war, Sri Lanka Historical Timeline (Höglund and Orjuela, 2011, p.19). 2011, Orjuela, and (Höglund making making the Sri Lankan conflict one of themajor conflicts in recent years

5 For example, some reconciliation posters show three children (Tamil, Muslim, Sinhalese), but at theSinhalese), but Muslim, all of same time (Tamil, children three show posters some reconciliation example, For them show their respect to a Sri Lankan soldier. a Sri Lankan to theirthem respect show 5 weak in the Sri Lankan post-conflict reconstruction process, the improvement in physical reconstruction and economic development is valuable. Finally, although justice and reconciliation, as well as political reforms have been have reforms political as well as reconciliation, and justice although Finally, been “detained” after the initial operations at 21 sites and secured “concentration as camps”, they were later released and around 400.000 have already returned home (many to temporary shelters). the number of IDPs constantly increased, the situation was additionally situation was additionally of IDPs constantly increased, the number the complicated after final operations when300.000) LTTE as hostages/buffer zone. used civilians Although (around these IDPs have recently positive trend, but most of the conflict of positive years the during Although activities UN). (EU, pressure have international under been executed supervision of the Ministry of Defense. Fourth, the repatriation of internally displaced persons (IDPs) has had a failed, the military budget increased, and finally thethe police and intelligence) fell under (coastguard, sector security whole Sri Lankan unprecedented levels of militarization in the years before final operations were expected (40% increase of the security forces). Furthermore, after forces security of demilitarization the hero, a became Army the 2009, May Third, security sector reform (SSR) has not been executed even after society, reconciliation is “conditioned on the recognition of the Sri Lankan of the recognition the on is “conditioned society, reconciliation government as the victor and the Sinhalese armed forces 2011, p.31). (Höglund and Orjuela, as heroes” Sinhalese triumphalism after the great victory. Although the government government the victory. Although great after the Sinhalese triumphalism has portrayed itself as the Tamils’ savior and the state as a multi-ethnic teachers training, and industrial training. teachers training, by overshadowed been have efforts limited reconciliation Second, managers managers (military officers), which were followedpreschool training, handwork training, computer by positive training, agriculture results in without without any transparency or external scrutiny and killings, living and terrible of women, raping of IDPs. conditions torture, with complaints of limitedRecently, DDR education of achieved in the have been results operations, operations, but screening of IDPs for suspected LTTE had been executed

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 64 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 65 if the Sri Lankan government did not apply conflict-sensitivity in 6 In 2004, the EU opened their market through the EU’s Generalized System of Preferences (GSP+) trade agreement agreement (GSP+) trade of Preferences System the EU’s Generalized through In 2004, the EU opened their market with 17 countries devastated by the Tsunami. by with 17 countries devastated 6 the planning and execution of its post-conflict reconstruction activities. Because the GSP+ helped a lot in the country’s economic development not for reconstruction. Nevertheless, positive changes happened when happened positive changes Nevertheless, reconstruction. for not (GSP+, agreement to end the trade the European Union (EU) threatened 2004) without direction. That system was counterproductive and sometimes led and system was counterproductive That direction. without and security forces, of armament further the being used for funds the to development in Sri Lanka, but they do sensitivities. donors after 1990 Similarly, international just many other not pay attention to conflict- proceed to them and left government Sri Lankan the funds to transferred Over the last two decades and several India) have provided Asian assistance in post conflict countries reconstruction and (China, Pakistan, – 2013). The government’s large role in conflict prevention through physical physical through prevention conflict in role large government’s The 2013). – beginning. the case from the and East was not North the of reconstruction What happened and why did the government change its approach? if they engaged fast in rebuilding family houses and local infrastructure, if they engaged fast in rebuilding this would provide a great positive impact for conflict prevention in the 2011 Paper Strategy Country Lanka (Sri area Tamil agricultural traditionally a majority of the physical reconstruction projects both in the past and in the both projects physical reconstruction the a majority of that realization government’s the on based is success overall its and today, and economic activities in the North and East of limited inflow Sri of Sinhalese Lanka returnees, which influenced can further destabilize these traditionally Tamil areas. The state has exercised centralized control over them today are carried out under strong central government control control government carried out under strong central them today are security government Furthermore, authorities. local from influence without provided opportunities for large physical reconstruction and economic and economic large physical for reconstruction provided opportunities East Sri Lanka. Although and development initiatives areas of North in the majority of a were started, projects and international many national to be resettled back, but their home areas are still without basic services, basic still without areas are home resettled back, but their be to public facilities or infrastructure damaged and or destroyed (UN HABITAT Sri Lanka 2013b). So, the end of war more than 350,000 houses are The end of the 26 year war brought about 800,000 internally displaced waiting are people these of Most Lanka. Sri of East and North the in people Physical Reconstruction and Conflict Sensitivity Conflict and Reconstruction Physical An estimate for the total number of damaged houses (all levels) for houses damaged of number total the for estimate An reconstruction is more than 300.000. North East Irrigated Agriculture Project (NEIAP) executed with the World Bank (1999 – systems irrigation 369 2005). rehabilitated Lanka Sri in project This development oldest large reconstruction and North East Housing Reconstruction Program (NEHRP) executed with executed (NEHRP) Program Reconstruction Housing East North the World Bank and the EU (2004 – 2011). During its execution, 97% planed heavily damaged 50.091 reconstructed. of the houses were ● ● ● ● The reconstruction projects that were of the most influence are (OECD, 2008, pp.92-101): reconstruction projects have had great influence on the population and conflict prevention in the North and East of Sri Lanka, especially through displaced of internally persons and poverty reduction. the repatriation majority of the projects have been executed all over Sri Lanka and have included conflict sensitivity, but just a fewphysical large 2009. Several before province North the in donors) ten of them (influenced by top development in Sri Lanka (2003-2008) which was reinforced after and 2004 the devastating Tsunami. Regarding the influence of the EU, a agencies, NGOs and states (Sugiur, 2011). agencies, NGOs and states (Sugiur, This conference influenced a new era of physical reconstruction and conference in 2003, which was attended by the world’s most important banks and private funds, as well as many UN development donors, Bank), the majority of the hundreds of international donor activities began began activities donor international of hundreds the of majority the Bank), after the signed peace agreement in 2002. Japan, as the biggest official donor a organized Lanka, Sri in assistant development and reconstruction Even though some large reconstruction projects started in 1999 (World Bank (WB) has developed a ‘conflict lens’ for its 2009-2013 strategy and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) designed ‘seven pp.102-106). for 2009-2011 (OECD, 2008, sensitivity’ in its strategy rules for conflict participate participate in post-conflict reconstruction and development projects in Sri Lanka introduced conflict-sensitivity clauses. For example, the World government reacted positively positively reacted improvements moderate made and government internally the of treatment the to as related especially rights, human in displaced Tamils. Later on, many other organizations and states which through opening the EU market for Sri Lankan products, the Sri Lankan the Sri Lankan products, Sri Lankan for the EU market opening through

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 66 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 67 than 3 million people. All projects were executed with a budget of $325 million. benefited more than 700,000 people, (2) North East Community Development Project (NECDP) executed through 40,000 and health human services, (3) Conflict (4) people, million 2 than more Affected potentially benefits (CAARP) Project Areas Rehabilitation Tsunami-Affected Areas Rebuilding Project (TAARP) benefits more people benefited. people benefited. Country Assistance Programs (4) in reconstruction of infrastructure, and the restoration North of (1) community livelihoods 2009): executed – with (2002 ADB, Netherlands the and Germany, OPEC, EU, the East Community Restoration and Development Project (NECORD) and formed 1057 new ones, as well as worked on 1294 km of roads roads of km 1294 on as worked as well ones, new 1057 formed and 2.750,000 than more total, In projects. these to related 754 wells and ● ● Norway (32), and Germany (31), (“Aid Statistics, Recipient Aid Charts: Sri Lanka,” 2012). The top ten donors through ODA in Sri Lanka are: Japan (358), World Bank World (358), Japan are: Lanka Sri in ODA through donors ten top The (174), ADB (147), U.S. (63), EU (54), Australia (52), France (37), Korea (34), of significant importance in reconstruction and development with 2-4% of 2-4% with development and reconstruction in importance significant of 1,2% and ODA decreased to changed national GDP, but since 2010 that of GDP (2009-2010 official developmentassistance US$ 1.3 billion, -28%). Official Development Assistance (ODA) during the conflict in Sri Lanka was Lanka Sri in conflict the during (ODA) Assistance Development Official provinces concluded in 2011, the government developed a new strategy provinces concluded in 2011, developed a new the government followed afterwards by other donors, in 2011 and 2012 there were positive were and 2012 there in 2011 donors, followed afterwards by other examples initiated and executed by the Sri Lankan east and north the in reconstruction housing of program NEHRP the After government itself. made the most effort. Although the conflict sensitivity first were initiated (enforced) projects by the European and Union and application of In comparison with physical and regional rights, political SSR) the reconstruction reforms, other conflict-prevention areas has where the Sri Lankan government development is the one area (DDR, human (UN HABITAT Sri Lanka, 2013) International direct assistance programs in Sri Lanka International direct assistance programs

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 68 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 69 . 7 Information collected by the military author collected by in interviews School, Information with officers Sri Lankan Postgraduate in Naval Monterey, US, March, 2012. US, March, Monterey, 7 Construction works conducted by Army troops (, 2012) (Barakat and Class of 2011, 2011). island projects, (since May 2009) have carried out different construction at communities (rebuilding bridges, roads, large ones oriented from irrigation systems, wells, de-mining) to small toward families ones oriented employing local Tamil construction companies and engaging the Sri the companies and engaging employing local Tamil construction of the Lankan military situated in the North forces. The Sri Lankan Army the end of the conflict, theprojects these During rebuilding projects. many small local infrastructure government self-financed executed and they used interesting and useful conflict-prevention techniques through as a problem is the necessity to revitalize a local years since three almost the during Moreover, system and the sea ports. public transportation A University of York (UK) public opinion research project carried out in Sri Lanka in 2011 found that the Tamil population is very satisfiedonly item mentioned The of physical reconstruction. dynamic and quantity with the rate was reduced (construction workers are 100% local Tamils), and 100% local Tamils), are workers (construction reduced was rate be revitalized primary business in the North can agriculture as a several points: returnees to the Tamil area were provided the opportunity to the Tamil area were provided several points: returnees to rebuild their houses faster, the local economy was revitalized through companies, the unemployment of private construction the employment reconstruction programs with all related infrastructure. Through these Through all related infrastructure. programs with reconstruction in conflict-prevention supported has government Lankan Sri the programs of damaged houses and temporary housing solutions (WB and EU financial financial EU and (WB solutions housing temporary and houses damaged of support). Furthermore, several allowed (without government non-governmental as a mediator) to execute direct housing organizations are and continued the program through providing cash grants for the repair repair the for cash grants providing through program the continued and

. 8 Information collected by author in interviews with Sri Lankan military author in interviews School, collected by with officersInformation Sri Lankan Postgraduate in Naval Monterey, US, March, 2012. US, March, Monterey, 8 2012). future depends upon the government’s initiative to satisfactorily address the root causes of the conflict” (First Private Equity Fund from Sri Lanka, ‘wonderful opportunities’, claiming that Sri Lanka ’may become the Hong the become ’may Lanka Sri that claiming opportunities’, ‘wonderful Kong of India’, and that Sri Lanka provided a ‘huge opportunity to do a lot’, some investors were also very cautious and commented that “the Although many international investors labeled opportunities in Sri Lanka as Lanka Sri in opportunities labeled investors international many Although Conflict Prevention Through Economic Development Through Conflict Prevention the Tamils; allowing reconstruction to become the main pillar for conflict prevention. Finally, the Sri reconstruction Lankan projects with government conflict has well by success, and is accepted is a great these projects majority of sensitivity (some executed enforced). many The physical to the contractors or local authorities (Höglund and Orjuela, 2011). to the contractors or local authorities ten donors execute their projects almost 100% through government, and only Asian the donors including China, Pakistan, and Sri India Lankan (not in the top 10) execute 60% of their projects through direct payments all international reconstruction efforts and allows for occasional and allows for and efforts reconstruction all international top the of majority the that It is interesting and control. limited oversight casualties control direct under still keeps government Lankan Sri the Nevertheless, occurred in the north of Sri Lanka, regarding the prohibition of celebrating celebrating of prohibition the regarding Lanka, Sri of north the in occurred heavy police without suppressed by were all but holidays, Tamil national information information operations played a great role in against the Sri violence reported no has been 2009 there since May conflict prevention and Lankan Armed forces. Furthermore, in that period, only a few riots have These physical reconstruction projects with strong roots in military in military roots strong with projects reconstruction physical These

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 70 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 71 of the country. Nevertheless, even during the conflict some modest the long lasting conflict in the Northern 2004 local businesses and the Tsunami in December and infrastructure), and Eastern areas (destroyed the East and South destroyed the situation and further which worsened in the Tamil populated areas, which are influenced byincluding: several the factors former state favored investment in the Western area, 23% in 2002, to 15% in 2006, and 15% in improvements of 7.6% in 2010. Even given these Asia) remarkable level (for 2009, and finally reaching the is countrywide, the presence of poverty in rural areas, as well higher as shown a very positive trend. The overall poverty ratio, in spite of conflict, was significantly improved during the last decade and decreased from Regarding poverty as one of the indicators of the country’s economic lower-middle income status and has development, Sri Lanka has reached funds), and (4) real-estate investments (in order to help the real-estate (in order funds), and (4) real-estate investments Strategy Paper 2011 – 2013). market emerge) ( Sri Lanka Country public facilities reconstruction in Tamil areas (being a joint effort with the with effort a joint Tamil areas (being in public facilities reconstruction of main infrastructure led reconstruction (2) government private sector), (in order to support businesses), (3) direct business investments (support with the Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development (ACTED) and housing large (1) pillars: four with 2011-2013 for Strategy a developed to maximize (Sri Lanka Country further Strategy and Paper development 2011 economic – country’s 2013). the In in order inequality to the change stimulate conflict prevention, the Sri Lankan government in cooperation Although the end of the international conflictdonors, many new international resultedcompanies and funds find in decreasing activitiesSri Lanka an of excellent place for investments, which the government tries rate was related to the Western part of Sri Lanka, especially areas around around areas especially Lanka, Sri of part Western the to related was rate the capital city of Colombo, which contributes 50% to the national GDP. 3.5%, but then only a year after it rapidly increased to 8.0%. Today, the GDP growth rate looks positive at 8-10%, but if it growth Until 2010 the development so far is unequal. most of economic is examined in detail, to GDP growth rates over the last ten years). During 2009 and to dropped rate growth the forces armed Sri Lankan of operations the final the World economic crisis, over the last two decades Sri which 5.5%, been have rates average growth (GDP) product domestic Lanka’s gross is an excellent result (Sri Lanka has been in the world top 10 according Nevertheless, Nevertheless, despite the latest long conflict, the Tsunami of 2004, and areas, they deserve recognition that this area is a success. making a strong attempt to counter underdevelopment, one of the roots underdevelopment, making a strong attempt to counter reconstruction conflict post other in failure a of spite in and conflict, the of With a new strategy and devoted investments in economic development economic in investments devoted and strategy new a With to maximize conflict prevention, the Sri Lankan government is finally Cooperation, WFP – World Food Program, and UNDP – UN Development for the Future, 2010). Program) (Mahinda Chintana - Vision organizations (IFAD - International Fund for USAID Agricultural – Development, US Agency for International Development, International Development CIDA Agency, JBIC – - Japan Canadian Bank for International in support of the Vision for a total amount of $137 million, which included companies, as the involvement of many private well as international program, (3) development agribusiness (4) National and program, management Post Tsunami recently signed several agreements program. The Sri Lankan government coastal rehabilitation and resource large scale investments in Tamil areas. The Vision explains four economic development programs, (1) Dry zone livelihood support and partnership development entrepreneurship plantations Smallholder (2) program, and private investors, encouraging business building new competition, and private investors, encouraging roads), and seaports, business (airports, for necessary infrastructure the elections in 2010 the elections in president Rajapaksa by called the “Mahinda Chintana - Vision for the Future” (2010-2020). The main ideas include an public the involving economy, Lankan Sri the of building call for open The most significant influence on overall development and government conflict prevention behavior nowadays isa programannounced during There have been many recent changes in the government’s approach development. to regionally eradication and economic oriented poverty executed executed in relationship with Lanka’, 2012). World Bank ‘Sri (OECD, 2008; organizations 46 international and national partner The largest activity was the Project for Rehabilitation through Education Education through Rehabilitation for Project was the activity largest The Development Investment Canadian the by organized (PRET), Training and Agency (CIDA) during 2003-2008, which covered 14 districts and was improvements in poverty reduction have been done in the Tamil areas. areas. Tamil in the been done have reduction in poverty improvements

Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 72 Vol.XVIII,XIX No.(69) 66 - 2013 - 2012 73 sectors as well as on the protection of human rights, . sectors as well as on the protection away for Sri Lanka, especially if the key international players (EU, UN, US, UN, players (EU, international key especially if the Lanka, Sri away for of Sri Lanka, after economic and Japan) would support the government in the judicial, political and security development, to focus on reforms very important Sri Lankan conflict prevention measures. far a sustainable peace. Such peace is not can create show if they The future will Many of these physical reconstruction projects, along with projects for the for along with projects projects, Many of these physical reconstruction decreasing unemployment rates, have become of poverty or reduction hand, today there are many examples of the Sri Lankan government’s external pressure. sensitiveness in reconstruction without special emphasis on the North and East of the islandand East (Tamil areas) had North special emphasis on the significant positive effects. At the beginning, this success was enforced other On the US. the or UN the EU, such as the players by international fast de-mining, new housing programs, the resettlement of hundreds of of hundreds of resettlement the programs, housing fast de-mining, new with projects infrastructure massive of IDPs, and a number of thousands influenced very positively Tamil - Sinhalese effects has achieved limited positive has failed or Lankan government relations. Although the Sri with various conflict prevention measures in the preceding decades, the reforms, reconciliation, and the protection of human rights. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, rights. human of protection the and reconciliation, reforms, post-conflict physical reconstructionactivities and most of the activities related to economic development have been executed well and Generally, Generally, post conflict reconstruction in LankaSri limited is characterized or by nonexistent progress in judicial, political and security sector Conclusion http:// (March (March (November . Vol. 6, No. 1: 19-37. 1: No. 6, Vol. . http://www.acted.

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