Status of Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine Park and Reserve and Mtwapa Creek. A KWS Report.
Item Type Report
Publisher Kenya Wildlife Service
Download date 23/09/2021 11:37:37
Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/7247 Stat" of M rine Pollution in Mombasa Marine Marine ational Park Marine Reserve and Mtwap Mtwap Creek, Kenya. Kenya.
Kenya M2rine and Fisheries Government Chemist Department Kenya Wildlife Service Resean:h Institute (KMFRl) (GCD) (KWS)
Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya This work was a collaborative effort between Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRl), Government Chemist Department (GCD), Mombasa and Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS).
Scientific team: Stephen Mwangi I, David Kirugara I, Melckzedeck Osore I, Joyce Njoya 2, Abdalla Yobe 1 and Thomas Dzeha 1
Technical team: Shadrack Tunje 1, Mzigo Nyawa 1, Alex Kimathi 1, James Emuria I, Joseph Kilonzi 1, Gideon Onyoni 2 and James Mariara I
Edited by: Stephen Mwangi 1and David Kirugara I
1Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute, Mombasa, Kenya. 2Government Chemist Department, Mombasa, Kenya.
TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT II
FUNDING II
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11
INTRODUCTION 1
MATERIALS AND METHODS 2
RESULTS 2 2 Lagoon water circulation 2 2 Creek water circulation 3 3 Rainfall and salinity 3 3 Nutrients, chloropbyll-a and biological oxygen demand (BOD) 3 3 Bacterial contamination 5 5 Plankton and productivity 7 7
CONCLUSION 8
RECOMMENDATIONS 8
REFERENCES 10
Citation: This report may be cited as: Mwangi, S. et. al. (2001). Status of Marine Pollution in in Mombasa Marine Park and Reserve and Mtwapa Creek. A KWS Report; Coast regional regional headquarters Mombasa, Kenya. Kenya.
Cover illustration: Recreational activities in the study area. Tourist and fishing boats used in the Mombasa Mombasa National Marine Park and reserve respectively can be seen in the background. background.
Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to thank the KWSlNetherlands Wetlands Conservation and Training Programme for funding this project through the government of the Netherlands.
Dr. Nyawira Muthiga and Dr. Paul Erftemier are acknowledged for their keen interest, support and editorial comments.
We appreciate the support from the then warden of Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve, Mr. Benjamin Kavu (now Assistant Director, KWS, Coast), and his KWS team. Dr. Johnson Kazungu (now Director KMFRl) Mr. Daniel Munga and Mr. Saeed Mwanguni are acknowledged for their contribution.
For their efficient and enthusiastic support we acknowledge efforts of Simon Maganga, Francis Kenga, Bambanya Kalama and Abudi Madi.
Lastly, the cooperation and support received from KMFRl, GCD and KWS as well as the teamwork and enthusiasm from the scientific and technical team involved in the project are highly appreciated.
FUNDING The KWSlNetherlands Wetlands Conservation and Training Programme through the Netherlands government.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report summarizes the main fmdings of a two-year pollution assessment study conducted in the Nyali Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon and Mtwapa creek from August 1995 to July 1997. The Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve, one of Kenya's most popular marine protected areas (MPAs) is situated in this lagoon. The aim of the project was to assess the levels of contamination of the lagoon waters (hence the MPA) and Mtwapa Creek by monitoring the spatial and temporal variability of hydrographic variables, inorganic nutrients, chlorophyll-a, organic loading, plankton and microbiological indicator organisms.
Results from this study indicate that the lagoon is well flushed with 60-80% of its waters exchanged with oceanic waters during each tidal cycle during spring and neap tides respectively. As a consequence of the hydrodynamic forcing, spatial and temporal concentration of nutrients and chlorophyll-a do not reach levels classified as eutrophic. Organic loading (measured as biological oxygen demand-BOD) was also low. Similarly, bacteriological contamination was low and within European Economic Commission (EEC) recommended guidelines for recreational waters.
The structure, abundance and diversities of planktonic communities were characteristic of stable conditions prevailing in the lagoon throughout the year. However, higher concentration of nutrients, biologically oxidizable material and faecal contamination were observed around Nyali and Shanzu especially during the wet season. This resulted from increased surface runoff, stormwater and localized hydrodynamic influence from the adjacent Tudor and Mtwapa creek systems.
Mtwapa creek however is relatively eutrophic and has high bacterial contamination. All chemical and biological indicators showed evidence of water contamination with strong seasonal signals. The seasonal river discharge, surface water runoff and point sources of raw sewage disposal especially in the vicinity of Shimo la Tewa government prison were responsible for the poor water quality.
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Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya INTRODUCTION restructuring with the possibility of Marine protected areas are important for irreversibility. The major disturbances to coral conservation of biodiversity, sustainable fisheries reef ecosystems include overexploitation,oYerexploitation, direct and conservation of critical economic resources. physical destruction, poor land LIse and pollution. The K nya government through Kenya Wildlife Natural disturbance. include storms, climate Service (KWS) has created several marine parks change and bleaching. and reserves in Mombasa, Malindi, Watamu, Kisite, Mpunguti and Kiunga. These protected areas benefit the country not only by conserving biodiversity but also through tourism development, protection of beach from erosion, recreational activities and support for fisheries.
Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve is one of these marine protected areas (MPAs). It was established and formally gazetted as a protected Plate 1. Jomo Kenyatta public beach. the only area in 1986 and covers an area of approximately public beach for recreational activities in the 2 Bamburi-Shanzu area. 200 Km . [L hosts seagrass and coral reef cosystems that are very productive, diversified and complex. The coral reef attracts such as In Kenya, sewage disposal oil pollution and dredge cru taceans, molluscs, coelenterates, sponges and spoil dumping have been report d as the major reef fishes. The seagrass beds are preferred nursery human disturbances responsible for the declining grounds and grazing areas for turtles, dugongs and water quality along the coast (Kenya -reAM, 1996). some reef fish s. The rich biodiversity within the These potential threats to marine protected areas coral reef ecosystem coupled with white sandy justifY the need for water quality (pollution) beaches and tropical sun throughout the year are the assessment and moni oring. m jar attractions for tourists visiting the Kenyan coast. Mombasa Marine Park and res I'verye located in Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon (Figure I) was
While a good percentage of the coastal chosen for pollution assessment studies due t ::- population depend directly and indirectly on • • the potential danger of contamination coral reefs for their livelihood in monetary terms of the lago waters with domestic and job opportunities, the ecosystems are sewage and was .ewater due to the extremely fragile and only thrive within narrow proxim ity to dense human population, limits of tolerance to external disturbances. If numerOllS beach hotel and other exceeded, coral reef ecosystem can suffer major developmental activitiactiYiti s.
Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya regularly visited once a month and sampled for • • lack of baseline data on the status of physical, chemical and biological parameters from pollution in the marine park and August 1995 to June 1997. Parameters of interest reserve yet there is need to equip included hydrodynamic conditions of the area, conservation managers and other water temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved stakeholders with information for oxygen, dissolved inorganic nutrients, chlorophyll effective management for the a, biological oxygen demand, bacterial indicators sustainable planning, use, protection of pollution, phytoplankton and zooplankton. and conservation of the marine Standard methods were used for sampling and environment. analysis of these variables (see final technical The study specifically focussed on water quality report for details on methods). indicators in the protected area (park) enjoying controlled (restricted) human disturbance. Two RESULTS other different sites, the marine reserve (partially Lagoon water circulation restricted) and the creek (unrestricted) were Results from this study and other previous work included due to their close proximity to the marine (Kirugara et al. 1998) show that Nyali - Bamburi park. Shanzu is a shallow lagoon and well flushed The parameters used as indicators of pollution during one to two tidal cycles by a mechanism were:were:- that is predominantly the overtopping of waves at • • Concentration of dissolved nutrients the reef coupled with strong tidal forcing. The and chlorophyll-a as indicators of the fringing reef dissipates waves and thus protects the level of eutrophication. beaches from severe erosion. It does not constitute • • Biological oxygen demand (BOD) as any restriction to lagoon-ocean water exchange indicators of the level of organic and ensures a constant and direct supply of loading. relatively clean oceanic water that efficiently • • Faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and removes any land-based pollutants. faecal streptococci as microbiological indicators of faecal contamination and measure of the suitability of lagoonal waters for recreational use • • Plankton as biological indicators of pollution. MATERIALS AND METHODS Six sampling stations were established, four located in the Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon and two in Mtwapa Creek (Figure 1). All the sites were
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Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya 1997) and 14 days (Nguli, 1995) for Table 1. Summary of geomorphologic and and Mtwapa and Tudor respectively. hydrodynamic differences between lagoon and Creek. Lagoon Creeks Rainfall and salinity Geomorphology Geomorphology Shallow and wide Deep and narrow narrow connection to ocean connection to ocean ocean Precipitation within the study area over this Presence of Absence of fringing period conformed to the normal rainfall continuous fringing reef reef Receive riverine pattern with the long and short rains No direct riverine input directly inoutinput occurring in April-June and October Circulation lation Dominantly wave Dominantly tidal induced circulation circulation November respectively. Total rainfall Tidal circulation Weak salinity salinity recorded over the first sampling year was driven driven Residence times Approximately 1-2 3-14 days days 1830mm compared to 1131mm in the days second year. Typical seawater salinity was recorded over the Creek water circulation study period (about 350/00) except during the wet Tidal forcing drives the exchange of waters season when salinities of less than 300/00 were between the creeks and ocean. However, due to recorded in Mtwapa Creek and along the beaches the creeks restricted entrances, the tidal force is as a result of riverine, surface and storm water reduced (damped) as it progresses inward. In both runoffs. This low salinity water did not Tudor and Mtwapa creeks, ebbing tidal currents significantly affect the salinity levels in the coral are stronger than flooding currents. The garden in the Marine National Park. hydrodynamicshydrodynamics at the restricted creek-ocean entrances favours the dispersion of nutrient Nutrients, chlorophyll-a and biological oxygen enriched creek waters into the adjacent lagoon demand (BOD) especially during the wet seasons. The materials Table 2 summarizes the nutrient concentrations in transported with the ebb currents from the creeks both the lagoon and creek waters. The lagoon are dispersed northward by the near shore coastal nutrient concentrations (ammonia, nitrates+ current once beyond the fringing reef on the nitrites and phosphates) were consistently low; oceanic side. The creek-ocean water exchange 1.1, 1.5 and O.30IlM respectively and with no rates are low in comparison to lagoon waters and marked seasonal signal. These low nutrient levels have been estimated to be 3 to 12 days (Magori, are characteristic of coral reefs (Bell, 1992),
Table 2. SummaI}' of mean levels of inorganic nutrients, chlorophyll-a and BOD (.:t SO) in Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon and Mtwapa Creek between August 1995 and July 1997(Wet season: Total monthly rainfall was greater than 100mm)
La200n Creek Dry Wet Dry Wet Ammonium (uM-N) + SD 1.3 + 0.9 0.8 ±0.6 2.3 + 1.2 2.5 + 1.7 Nitrate+Nitrite (llM-N) ± SD 1.8 ± 2.7 1.l±1.3 4.8 + 8.3 6.8 ±4.9 Phosphate (uM-P) + SD 0.3 ±0.2 0.4 + 0.3 0.5 ± 0.4 0.8 + 1.2 ChloTOphyll-a (Ug\"l) ± SD 0.5 ± 0.2 0.6±0.3 0.8 ± 1.2 1.8 ± 0.8 BOD (mg02]·I}+SD 0.79+0.64 1.34 ± 1.97 0.92 ± 04 1.22 + 1.56 3
Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya
------~------- indicating that the environment would not limit coral reef development.
Nutrient elevation was however observed at Nyali and Shanzu during the wet seasons. This was mainly attributed to dispersion of nutrient rich waters from Tudor and Mtwapa creeks. Evidence based on a 24 hr sampling showed that any local elevated nutrient concentrations were easily reduced to nonnaJ levels within about two tidal cycles, the flushing times for the lagoon.
Nutrient levels in Mtwapa Creek were consistently
higher than in the lagoon with marked distinct Figure 2. Annual variation in nitrate levels in Nyali seasonal signals. This is a clear response to input Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon. of materials from seasonal river and non-point sources especially through surface runoff during the wet seasons and discharge of domestic wastewater. Mean annual nutrients concentrations were about 2.4J.1M, 5.51lM and 0.6 11M for ammonia, nitrite + nitrates and phosphates respectively. However, levels of up to 7.0 11M, 18.0 11M and 4.48 11M for ammonia, nitrite + nitrates and phosphates (respectively) were recorded during the wet season in May 1997.
Figure 3. Annual variation in ammonia levels in Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon.
Figure 4. Annual variation in phosphate levels in Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon.
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Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya Figure 2 shows lower nitrate levels during the the high nutrient concentrations recorded during first year, August 1996-July 1997 than in the the wet season, chlorophyll-a concentrations were second year. Similar trends were observed low probably due to high water turbidity. Higher chlorophyll-a concentrations were observed 10 with ammonia and phosphate concentrations September when water turbidity was low. (Figures 3 and 4). Although there were no . ',. ~ statistical ditteren~es; betv'ieenbeMeen the years, the Biological oxygen demand (BOD) IS used to general trends may be an indication that the assess the organic matter content of the water due water quality of the lagoon is slowly to effluents and it gives an indication of the deteriorating and a monitoring programme quantity of biodegradable material in the water. should be put in place. Particulate matter BOD in the lagoon and Mtwapa Creek was low
1 concentration and chlorophyll-a have been shown (annual mean of about 1.1 mg02 r ). These levels to have ,high negative correlation with coral are comparable to those reported in Diani, Galu '.:... ;, growth rate (Tomascik and Sander, 1985). The and Gazi (Uku, 1995, Mwangi 1994) and mean annual concentration of chlorophyll-a representative oflow organic loading in the lagoon recorded in the lagoon was 0.5 )..lgr l and was and Creek waters. Slightly elevated levels of BOD comparable to the mean monthly values observed (upto 5 mg02 1'1) were however recorded in the in other lagoons along the Kenya coast (Muthiga, lagoon and creek during the wet season (June and 1997). This a,verage is within the critical or July). " " .... :~ eutrophication threshold value of 0.4-0.6 mg/m3 (Bell 1992) Bacterial contamination Faecal coliforms, E. coli and faecal Streptococci are not naturally found in marine 0.9 waters and their occurrence is evidence of 0.1 0.7 either direct discharge andlorand/or seepage of 0.6 0.6 'it 0.5 0.5 domestic wastewater or contaminated ~ o.~ groundwater from point and non-point 0.3 0.2 sources. Faecal colifonns and faecal 0.1 Streptococci enumerated in the lagoon waters Aua Sop au NOT De. Ju FoI> Mar Apr May JDIl JuJ were less than 100/I OOml for more than 90 per Figure 5. Monthly variation of chlorophy/l-a in cent of all samples analysed. This is an Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon. indication that the lagoon waters meet the European Economic Commission (EEC) guide An annual average of about 2.5 )..lg I -1 chlorophyll limit for recreational water (faecal coliforms a was recorded in Mtwapa over the study period and faecal streptococci of 100/1OOml). and ranged between 0.3 and 24.8 )..lg I -1. Despite 5 5
Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya Marine Park Marine Reserve
7% 4%
89%
Marina (Mtwapa Creek)Creek) Shimo la Tewa (Mtwapa Creek)
20% 20%
50% 15%
Nyali-Bamburi-8hanzu lagoon Mtwapa Creek
18% 3% 1% 20%
• Within EECguide Iimit«100/100ml) 96% CI Wllhin EEC Mandatory Iimit(10Q-1999/100ml) • Above EEC mandatory IImit(>200011 DOm!)
Figure 6. 6. Recreational water quality in the Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu lagoon and Mtwapa Creek (based on EEC standards)
Table 3. Summary ofmean bacteriological indicators (SO in brackets) enumerated in both lagoon and creek water. Lagoon Creek Dry Wet Dry Wet Faecal coli forms (no/l00ml) 47(217) 16(30) 330(631 ) 403(610) E. coli (no/lOOml) 41 (217) 9(20) 228(547) 219(468) Faecal streptococci (no/l 00m1) 31 (47) 31 (48) 75(95) 200(210)
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Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya Occasionally however, high faecal colifonns to increased surface runoff and emptying of highly exceeding (100/1 OOml) were enumerated turbid water from seasonal Mtopanga Creek. High especially in Nyali and near the mouth of swimmer density especially over weekends and public holidays sometimes lowers the Mtwapa Creek. This was attributed to the microbiological quality of the water. dispersion of 'dirty' water emanating from Tudor and Mtwapa creeks respectively. There Plankton and productivity were a few occasions when upsurge of Phytoplankton biomass (as indicated by bacteria was observed within the lagoon and abundance) was low in the lagoon (about 4000 although discharge of raw sewage was suspected, cells per litre average) with no reflection of any it was difficult to trace the source. overall colonisation by a dominant species.
Data from this study showed that the water quality The distribution of phytoplankton was also patchy in Mtwapa Creek very often did not meet the EEC and typical of low nutrient waters. Seasonal guide line limit (100 faecal colifoms/lOO ml water) variability was also observed with phytoplankton and occasionally exceeded the mandatory limit of abundance being significantly lower during the NE 2000 faecal coliforms per 100ml. There was monsoon than the SE monsoon. Higher evidence of discharge of raw sewage from Shimo phytoplankton biomass in Mtwapa Creek was la Tewa government prison and probably from observed (upto 26600 cells per litre) and this was
adjacent residential quarters. This means that the attributed to nutrient enrichment. This enrichmen~ creek waters may pose public health risk if the seemed to favour the dominance of some water quality continues to degrade. phytoplankton groups like Chaetocerus and Coscinodiscus that appeared to be opportunistic Water quality in the lagoon and creek, as indicated diatoms flourishing in the creek. In general low by nutrients, chlorophyll-a and bacteria levels was correlation of the overall chlorophyll-a lower between August 1996 to July 97 compared to the same period the previous year despite lower rainfall in this year. This could be an indication of a deterioration of water quality in the area.
Jomo Kenyatta public beach (plate 1) is a very popular recreational area for 'wananchi' and is situated in the study area. Generally, the quality of water around this beach is good. During the wet season however, water around this area is characterised by high turbidity, high nutrient levels and high microbial indicator densities mainly due
Chart 1. Zo::Jplankton tcuu:l chQr'octcarlsttC. Of 9Q<:h sampling .:totlon \n the 7 Mornbaso. meu-incz: park JrCi!Si:rYe and thGl adJacQnt MtVw'ClpO cra:k.
Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya measurements to phytoplankton, turbidity and physico-chemical and biological parameters nutrients may be attributed to patchiness. indicate good lagoon water quality that is favourable for coral reef development. The lagoon Zooplankton studies revealed higher taxon also supports a rich and diverse and zooplankton diversity in the study area compared to the population. adjacent inshore waters of Tudor Creek and the surface offshore waters of Kenya (Okemwa, 1990; However, there is evidence of contamination of Osore, 1994; Osore et at.,al., 1995 and Mwaluma, lagoon water by surface runoff, groundwater and 1995). The highest zooplankton taxa (33±3) was occasional direct discharge of raw sewage as reported in Bamburi area (station 2) and evidenced by occasional high spikes nutrients and corresponded with both a high diversity (6.6) and faecal bacteria. High nutrients, chlorophyll-a and high abundance (126±104 ind.m·3). faecal bacteria levels recorded in Mtwapa Creek indicate anthropogenic impact. A local eddying There was no clear indicator species characteristic effect occurring at the entrance of both Tudor and of each sampling site and species overlapping was Mtwapa during ebb currents tends to disperse common. Nevertheless, copepods dominated all floatables and suspended material into the lagoon the stations in the park and reserve while around Nyali and Shanzu. Due to this effect, there chaetognaths (the arrow worms) and gastropods is need to monitor any anthropogenic discharges tended to dominate creek waters. The presence of from the creeks since continued additional loading gastropods and other molluscs in seawater is may in the future adversely affect the adjacent typically associated with the presence of domestic lagoon and coral reef ecosystem. sewage and increased risk of typhoid, hepatitis, cholera or other illnesses especially when raw It is important to stress that though the situation is contaminated shellfish is consumed. not serious for now, the continuing rise in population and tourist industry may eventually lead In general the study area has a rich and diverse to increased water contamination. This may zooplankton population. This reflects the diversity adversely affect the coral reefs, recreational of the Mombasa Marine ParklReservePark/Reserve beaches and creeks and may result in reduced environment as a whole. biodiversity as well as higher health risk to swimmers and other users. CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATIONS Water exchange between the Nyali - Bamburi 1. 1. Identification of point and non-point Shanzu lagoon and the Indian Ocean occurs within sources of pollution (hot spots) with a 1 to 2 tidal cycles and the ocean ensures a constant view to mitigation and prevention. and direct supply of relatively clean water that Municipal Council of Mombasa (MCM) efficiently removes any landbased pollutants. All and Government Chemist Department 8 8 Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya (GCD) should take the leading role with Integrated coastal area management support from KMFR!, Kenya Wildlife (ICAM) programme for example, the Service (KWS) and Coast Development coastal management steering committee Authority (CDA). should coordinate and involve institutions 2. Awareness campaigns involving to come up with management plan and community and aU stakeholders. These management strategies for the coastal can take the fonn of seminars, workshops, zone. Develop an integrated coastal and use of posters, organisation of marine and marine management plan to address beach clean-up days and world biodiversity, water resources, tourism, environment days to convey the pollution, human settlement and industrial importance of conservation and development. sustainable use of marine resources. These 6. Establishment of continuous water campaigns should highlight all fonns of quality monitoring programmes. pollution including, sewage disposal, Chlorophyll-a detennination in the water garbage dumping, plastics, oil pollution in the study area can be used to monitor etc. Communication and free flow of nutrient enrichment on a monthly basis. infonnation should be encouraged to Bacteriological water quality should also ensure that stakeholders talk to each other be monitored especially during the wet and not at each other. season, high tourist seasons and school 3. Enhancement of networking and holidays to ensure safety for recreationists. information exchange locally and 7. Initiation of water quality assessment internationally to ensure coordination and monitoring in other marine parks of effort. This should involve local and reserves and few other sites institutions with different mandates, hotel suspected to be at risk. Relatively industry, private companies, non pristine areas such as Kiunga Marine & governmental organizations, community Reserve should also be included in the based organizations, UN bodies and assessment for comparison and generation friendly governments. of baseline data. 4. Put into place mitigating & enforcement 8. Involvement of private individuals, measures in order to reduce the hotel industry and other stakeholders in magnitude of landbased pollutant financing of monitoring programmes discharge into the coastal marine and awareness campaign so that environments. everybody feels appreciated and part of 5. Develop comprehensive policy on a solution than a problem. management and safe disposal of liquid, solid and hazardous wastes. Under the
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Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya REFERENCES REFERENCES Thesis. Gothenburg University, Sweden. Alberta Environment. (1978). Methods Manual 29pp. 29pp. for Chemical Analysis of Water and ~uthiga, A. N. ( 1997). The role of early life life Wastes. Edmonton, Alberta. history strategies on the population population Bell, P. R. F. (1992). Eutrophication and coral dynamics of the sea urchin Echinometra reefs; some examples in the great Barrier Mathaei (de Blainville) on reefs in Kenya. Reeflagoon. Water Res. 26. 553-568. Ph.D Thesis. University of Nairobi. Pp. Crossland, C. J. (1983). Dissolved nutrients in VMwaluma, J. ( 1995 ). Zooplankton species coral reef waters. In:Barnes, D.J. (ed) distribution and abundance during the Perspectives on coral reefs. Brian Clouston monsoon off the Kenyan coast. Publ., AIMS, Townsville, pp. 56-68. ~wangi S. N. ( 1994). The influence of bivalve Kasyi, I. N. ( 1993 ). Relationship between filter feeders on bacteria populations and nutrient levels phytoplankton biomass seston in Gazi Bay and Wadden sea. Msc. zooplankton composition and abundance in Thesis. FAME. Vrije Universiteit the Tudor Creek Mombasa, Kenya. M.Sc. Bruxelles. Brussels. Belgium. 83pp. Thesis. University of Nairobi. 112pp.j'1wangi, S., Kirugara, D., Osore, M., Njoya, 1., Kazungu, J. M. ( 1989). Seasonal fluctuation of Yobe A.and Dzeha, T. 1998. Status of nitrate- nitrogen concentration in Tudor marine pollution in Mombasa marine park, estuary ( Mombasa, Kenya). Kenya J. Sci. reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya. Final Tech. series A, vol. 11. technical report.
Kazungu, I.M., Dehairs, F. and 1. Goeyens. ( 1989 ~guli, M. M. ( 1994 ). Water exchange and ). Nutrients distribution patterns in Tudor channel friction related to tidal flow in Estuary (Mombasa, Kenya) during Tudor creek system, Kenya coast. M.Sc. rainy season. Kenya Journal ofScience series Thesis. Gothenburg University, Sweden. (B) 10, 47 - 61. 61. 38pp. Kenya- ICAM: ( 1996). Towards integrated Norconsult A.S. ( 1975). In: Marine management and sustainable development Investigations. Mombasa Water Pollution of Kenya's coast. Findings and and Waste Disposal Study. VI.. Republic recommendations for an action strategy in of Kenya (GOK), Ministry of Local the Nyali - Bamburi - Shanzu area. Government on behalf of Mombasa Kirugara, D., Cederlof, U and 1. Rydberg. 1998. unicipal Council. Wave- induced net circulation in a fringed Ohowa, B.O.; Mwashote B.M.and W.S. Shimbira. reeflagoon- Bamburi, Kenya. Ambio.27: ( 1997). Dissolved Inorganic nutrient fluxes 8. 752-757. 752-757. from two seasonal Rivers into Gazi bay, ~agori, C. ( 1997). Tidal propagation and water Kenya, Estuarine, coastal and shelfscience: exchange in Mtwapa Creek, Kenya M.Sc. 45, 189 - 195.
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Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya j Okemwa, E. N. ( 1990 ). A study ofthe pelagic Ocean Phytoplankton, 1 Mar. Biol. Ass. copepods in a tropical marine creek, India, 16 (2): 371 - 380. Tudor, Mombasa, Kenya with a special Uku, J. N. ( 1995 ). An ecological assessment of reference to their community structure, littoral seagrass communities in Diani and biomass and productivity. Ph.D. Thesis, Galu coastal beaches, Kenya. Msc Thesis. Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 225pp. University ofNairobi. 20Opp. VOsore M. K. W. ( 1994). A study of the UNEPIWHO/IAEA (I985a). The determination zooplankton ofGazi Bay, Kenya and the offaecal coliforms in sea water by the adjacent waters: Community structure and multiple test tube (MPN) method. seasonal variation. MSc thesis (F.A.M.E), Reference methods for marine pollution Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 104pp. studies No. 22 (draft). 23pp. Osore, M. K., Zhu L., Tackx M. L. and M. H. Daro. ( 1995 ). Zooplankton communities UNEPIWHO/IAEA (1985b). The determination offthe Kenyan coast. In Heip C. H. R., M. of Faecal streptococci in sea water by the A. Hemminga & M. J. M. de Bie (eds.) multiple test tube (MPN) method. Monsoon and Coastal Ecosystems in Reference methods for marine pollution Kenya. National Museum ofNatural studies No. 23 (draft) 21pp. History, Leiden. Vol. 5: 109-112. ·)'iser, N. and S. Njuguna. ( 1992). Environmental Stickland, J.D.H. and T.R. Parsons. ( ( 1972). A impacts of tourism on the Kenya coast. practical handbook of sea water analysis. UNEP Industry and Environment, 15 (3 Fish. Res. Ed. Canada. Bull. 167, 2nd ed. 4): 42-52. 310pp. Tomascik, T. and F. Sander. Effects of (See Final Technical Reportfor more references) eutrophication on reef building corals 1. Growth rate ofthe reef building corals Montastrea annularis. Mar. BioI. 87:14387:143- 155. Tomascik, T. and F. Sander. Effects of eutrophication on reef building corals I. Growth rate of the reef building corals Montastrea annularis. Mar. BioI. 87: 143143- 155. Torrington-Smith M. ( 1974). The distribution of abundance, species diversity, and phytohydrographic regions in West Indian
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Marine Pollution in Mombasa Marine National Park Marine Reserve and Mtwapa Creek, Kenya