Religious as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World ” Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter by H. L. Richard

his paper focuses on syncretism in Western as seen in the paradigm of “” that is assumed in both popular thought and in missiological scholarship. Syncretism is a complex topicT with various usages and nuances, yet in Christian circles the term is most often used as a pejorative against developments in non-Western churches that do not neatly align with Western Christianity. But, alternatively, this Christi- anity of the West is itself syncretistic, and never more so than when employing the distinctly Western construct of “.”

My intention is to survey different definitions of syncretism in order to provoke discussion of the meaning of “religion” and of the concept of “world religions.” I will then introduce current scholarship that demonstrates the Enlightenment origins of this established perspective on “religion,” calling for a fundamental shift in intellectual paradigm. Traditional Christian thought is indicted as syncretistic due to the infusion of this Enlightenment world- view, yet this analysis also opens stimulating perspectives on issues of crucial concern for missiology. I will conclude with some practical suggestions for beginning to move beyond the syncretistic “world religions” paradigm. Thinking about Syncretism

Perusing standard reference works on religion and missions reveals defini- tions of syncretism with subtle differences of meaning. Mark Mullins in the Dictionary of Asian Christianity points out a difference between standard usages in the social sciences and in missiology. Syncretism is usually understood as a combination of elements from two or more H. L. Richard has been involved in religious traditions, ideologies, or value systems. In the social sciences, this is a neu- ministry in the Hindu world for three tral and objective term that is used to describe the mixing of religions as a result of decades and is one of the founders of contact. In theological and missiological circles, however, it is generally used the Rethinking Forum. He fomerly as a pejorative term to designate movements that are regarded as heretical or sub- directed the Institute of Hindu Stud- ies and has published numerous books Christian….The legitimate cultural reshaping of Christianity is referred to as the “in- and articles on the Christian encoun- culturation” or “contextualization” of the Gospel, though most social scientists would ter with . also include these cultural adaptations as examples of syncretism. (Mullins 2001:809)

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S. R. Imbach in the Evangelical Dic- turn the pejorative back on the West- Moreau avoided “religion” talk, referring tionary of is clearly in accord ern churches that all too often casually rather to “idea, practice, or attitude.” with this, but note the centrality of the see a sawdust speck of syncretism in Syncretism. Blending of one idea, concept of “religion” in this definition. the non-Western churches while miss- practice, or attitude with another. Syncretism. The process by which ele- ing the plank that is in their own eye. Traditionally among Christians it has ments of one religion are assimilated been used of the replacement or di- D. A. Hughes in InterVarsity’s New into another religion resulting in a lution of the essential truths of the change in the fundamental tenets or Dictionary of Theology points out a gospel through the incorporation of nature of those religions. It is the major problem with the broad use non-Christian elements….Syncretism union of two or more opposite beliefs, of syncretism as including a positive of some form has been seen every- so that the synthesized form is a new sense of borrowing from other reli- where the church has existed. We are thing. It is not always a total fusion, gious traditions. naïve to think that eliminating the but may be a combination of separate [Syncretism] is also used in a broader negatives of syncretism is easily ac- segments that remain identifiable sense to describe the process of bor- complished. (Moreau 2000:924) compartments. (Imbach 1984:1062) rowing elements by one religion from another in such a way as not Moreau, by avoiding talk related to es- It is tempting to base this entire paper to change the basic character of the sences of religions, was able to acknowl- on this definition, as the assumptions receiving religion. It is questionable, edge both positive and negative syn- about “religions” and their “fundamen- however, whether such a broad defi- cretism in every church, and his further tal tenets or nature” goes to the very nition is helpful, since it makes every discussion of those points in the article heart of what this paper is addressing. referenced is highly recommended. It is certainly ironic that some West- ern Christian definitions of syncretism The Concept of “World are demonstrably syncretistic in their Religions” use of the category “religion.”1 Before laying out the case for this observation The “trickiness” of Numerous books and academic some further comments on syncretism courses introduce the major religions will be noted. syncretism of the world with varying levels of sophistication.2 In missiological circles In a major work on syncretism and needs to be kept it is also common to speak about dialogue, Andre Droogers laid out a constantly in mind. the world religions as if that was a basic definition that is again rooted in meaningful term, even though world assumptions about religion and which religions textbooks often challenge brings together elements of the two that traditional language.3 This alone previously cited definitions. is a massive problem that needs to Syncretism is a tricky term. Its main be addressed, but as the roots of this religion syncretistic to some extent. difficulty is that it is used with both imprecision or distortion are traced (Hughes 1988:670) an objective and a subjective mean- out below, it will be seen that what is ing. The basic objective meaning at play here is syncretism. refers neutrally and descriptively to The positive sense of syncretism cer- the mixing of religions. The subjec- tainly “makes every religion syncretis- Current academic work has challenged tive meaning includes an evaluation tic to some extent,” but one could also the commonly understood sense of such intermingling from the point argue that every religion is syncretistic of “religion,” although without the of view of one of the religions in- even in the negative sense. The issue, of development of an acceptable alter- volved. As a rule, the mixing of reli- course, is what one means by “religion.” nate paradigm. Richard King traced gions is condemned in this evaluation The lack of discussion of that term in the concept of religion to the Greco- as violating the essence of the these various definitions is troubling at Roman world, where the meaning system. Yet, as will be shown, a posi- best and perhaps empties their points focused on “tradition” with a recog- tive subjective definition also belongs of any clear meaning. Scrutiny of para- nition of the plurality of traditions to the possibilities. (Droogers 1989:7) digms for religion and world religions (1999:35f.) With the rise of Christian- are the focal point of this paper. The “trickiness” of syncretism needs to ity the term was redefined as “a matter be kept constantly in mind. This paper Finally, for this initial discussion of of adherence to particular doctrines is dealing with a very slippery concept syncretism, Scott Moreau presented or beliefs rather than allegiance to an- that is “generally used as a pejorative a carefully nuanced definition in the cient practices” (King 1999:37). term” (Mullins above), and seeks to Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions. This meaning was then exported

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 211 and underlies the present concept of “world religions,” but this interpreta- he inapplicability of Western notions­ of religion tion involves a “Christian” reading of to the traditions of Asia has led to the creation different sets of data that really do not fit the paradigm. Fritz Staal powerfully T of so-called religions. (Staal) made this point. things. In pamphlet after pamphlet, “religion” in its modern form is a The inapplicability of Western no- treatise after treatise, decade after secular idea. is an ideol- tions of religion to the traditions of decade the notion was driven home ogy, and “religion” is one of its basic Asia has not only led to piecemeal that a religion is something that one categories....It sees the universe, and errors of labeling, identification and or does not believe, some- human nature, as essentially secular, classification, to conceptual confu- thing whose propositions are true or and sees “the religions” as addenda sion and to some name-calling. It is are not true, something whose locus that human beings have tacked on also responsible for something more is in the realm of the intelligible, is up here and there in various shapes and extraordinary: the creation of so- for inspection before the speculative for various interesting, powerful or called religions. (1989:393, quoted mind. (W. C. Smith 1962:40) fatuous reasons. It sees law, econom- from King 1999:144) ics, philosophy (things we got from Smith adamantly objected to the Greece and ) as distinct from In light of these realities King suggests intellectualizing and reification of religion.4 (W.C. Smith 1992:16) that religion, seeing personal as the …it is important to realize that the vital reality which was obscured by this More recently this point has been “world religions” as they are usually idealistic construct. “There is nothing powerfully outlined by Timothy portrayed are idealized and largely in heaven or on earth that can legiti- Fitzgerald, who traced in detail the theoretical constructs that bear some mately be called the Christian faith,” transition from a medieval focus on relationship to, but are by no means he asserted. “There have been and are religion as Christian Truth that cov- identical with, the actual religious the of individual Christians...” ered all of life to the modern sense of expression of humankind, especially dichotomized and compartmentalized in the pre-modern era. One should (Smith 1962:191; italics original). This religion that stands in contrast with also note that such “universal” faiths certainly seems to be an over-reaction, are simultaneously the homogeniz- as there are clearly confessional com- the secular. ing and imperialistic ideologies of a munities and not merely individual One thing which has presumably religious world. In effect by focus- faith expressions; but Smith’s critique always been clear, even to scholars ing upon the brahmanical strands of of religion as an inadequate (or erro- in who tend to at- tribute to every culture “a religion,” Indian religion, the theological trea- neous) Enlightenment construct has tises of Catholicism, or the scholarly or even several: the English-language been reaffirmed by later scholarship. Qu’ranic commentaries of , one category religion has for almost all inevitably marginalizes a significant This intellectualizing of religion also its history been inseparable from the proportion of human religious experi- began the compartmentalizing and Christian incarnation and Christian ence and expression. (1999:67-68) trivializing of it. Jonathan Z. Smith theology, and required a process of abstraction and modern fetishism pointed out that and before it was ready The Enlightenment Roots of the religion was domesticated....the to incarnate in different manifesta- Concept of “World Religions” Enlightenment impulse was one of tions in different cultural contexts. tolerance and, as a necessary con- In 1962 Wilfred Cantwell Smith But when this contested term is pro- comitant, one which refused to leave jected onto other peoples, who think wrote The Meaning and End of Reli- any human datum, including religion, in entirely different languages, there gion, a seminal work critiquing the beyond the pale of understanding, is always ambiguity about whether very concept of religion. He traced beyond the realm of reason. (J. Z. the projector is imagining “religion” the roots of the modern usage of the Smith 1982:104) to encompass all institutions on anal- term to the Enlightenment, where the ogy with medieval and early modern centrality of the intellect indicated W. C. Smith returned to his theme ideas, therefore seeing it as indis- that truth and doctrine were most of Enlightenment distortions thirty tinguishable from holistic culture; important in religion. years later and had an even more harsh or whether “religion” is imagined This is the view of the Enlightenment, conclusion. in the Calvinistic mode as radically evinced not only in the religious realm When I wrote The Meaning and End separated from the profane world; but as a comprehensive world out- I knew that “religion” was a Western or whether “religion” is more simply look which stressed an intellectualist and a modern notion. I had not yet a projection of the Western religion- and impersonalist schematization of seen, but now do see clearly, that secular dichotomy whereby religious

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practices are assumed to be different the diverse and civilizations into a theological construct has hin- in kind from political, economic and dered the church from incorporating of the world. If King is right, radical technical/instrumental ones. (Fitzger- that insight into methodol- ald 2007:104-105) change of missiological paradigms and ogy. (Conn 1979:214) terminologies is required. Since King Thomas Idinopulos likewise docu- speaks for a considerable consensus in The example of this Western syncre- mented the compartmentalization and the academic world, if he is wrong the tism with Enlightenment thought on trivialization of religion when secular- missiological world must enter the fray religion is by no means singular. An- ism became dominant. and, at the very least, defend whatever drew Walls implicated the entire nine- The word, religion, acquired its own it is that it might think to be the true teenth century missionary movement distinct meaning when the forces of understanding of “world religions.” as fundamentally syncretistic, although became so dominant he did not use that pejorative label. in that religious be- Missiology, the Enlightenment …nineteenth century missions were lief and practice became distinctly hu- and World Religions part of an Enlightenment project, man acts. For once secularity became stamped by Enlightenment ideals; fully evident in society it was possible I have attempted a brief summary of the the evangelical Christianity that un- to speak by contrast of the religious case that a “world religions” paradigm derlay them had made its peace with way of life. (Idinopulos 2002:10) developed out of the Enlightenment the European Enlightenment and compartmentalization of religion within operated in its categories. (2002:244) Idinopulos objected to this develop- a dominantly secular world. This is a ment, suggesting that in both “archaic” In a lecture Walls later applied this peoples and in modern life there is evi- perspective to current Western mis- dence of “the interweaving of religion siological thought. with everything else in life” (2002:10). One of the things we have to get be- yond in the next stage of Christianity Richard King provides a good sum- is the Enlightenment. We can’t give mary statement for this discussion. it up ourselves because it is part of As a number of scholars have pointed This perspective is at our identity. But we have to realize it out, both our modern understanding is not part of everyone’s background. of “religion” as a “system of beliefs odds with the holism of (Walls 2011) and practices” and the academic field biblical faith. of religious studies are a product of The supposition of syncretism among the European Enlightenment….As Western Christians is not new.5 The such its [the term “religion”] contin- process of rooting out Enlightenment- ued unreflective use cross-culturally, related syncretism will be so complex while opening up interesting debates that it may never be fully achievable, and interactions over the past few as Walls noted. But as Western mis- centuries (and creating things called perspective at odds with the holism of sionaries call other peoples to battle “” and “the world biblical faith, yet Western Christians, against syncretism, they must engage religions”), has also closed down ave- many of whom boast of a biblical world- nues of exploration and other poten- battle with their own hearts and minds view, seem to have embraced terms and tial cultural and intellectual interac- regarding their own homegrown vari- ideas from this alien worldview. tions. (King 2011:39; italics original) eties of syncretism. It is not as if missiology has com- This paper barely introduces the This line of analysis leads to King’s pletely failed to notice the significance complex issue of “world religions” as conclusion that of these discussions. Over thirty years an example of Enlightenment-rooted The continued unreflective use of the ago Harvie Conn objected to the di- syncretism in missiological and popular category of “religion,” however, does chotomization of religion and culture, thought.6 A thorough analysis of “Hin- not carry us forward in our attempt calling for a biblical missiology which to understand better the diverse cul- duism” and “” and “Chris- puts all of life under the Lordship of tures and civilizations of the world. tianity” as empty reifications should (King 2011:43) Christ, not merely “religious” life. be presented here, but space and time Cultural anthropology has increasingly forbid.7 But be forewarned that many This is not a conclusion that can be refuted the bifurcation of religious practitioners of these traditions will merely observed by a missiological from cultural life, of the sacred from likely object to this deconstruction of world which purports to wrestle with the secular in the world’s ethne. But the their reified paradigms. The resistance understanding and communicating into Pietist mythologization of individualism experienced in inter-religious encounter

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 213 often forces mission practitioners to grip even tighter their own syncretistic issiology all too easily employs the binary paradigm. Thus, the vital question, who language of “religion” and “culture” without speaks for any of these traditions? Who any recognition of the problems involved. has the right to speak for Hinduism, or M for Christianity? Which of the many Three steps can be taken to begin ex- major “religious” traditions has “confes- Hinduisms is the truly valid expression; tricating our understanding of Chris- sional” groupings that can be meaning- which type of Christianity is the legiti- tian faith from syncretistic bonding to fully spoken about (many of these claim mate one, when each seems to claim Enlightenment-rooted paradigms and to be the true spokespersons for their that for itself? terminologies related to religion. These “world religion.”) Careful thought is steps are just a beginning towards long needed to speak meaningfully in terms Missiology all too easily employs term solutions that might root out the of these sub-groupings, avoiding the the binary language of “religion” and depths of this syncretism based on broad (and usually demonstrably false) “culture” without any recognition of the deep reflection and interaction with generalizations often used for world problems involved, let alone a serious ongoing discussions of these matters religions in the singular. grappling with numerous profound 8 in the secular . implications. When syncretism is dis- Third, the change of religion terminology cussed and defined in terms of religions One first step towards transcending needs to be abandoned as a meaningful and their intermixing, particularly the inadequate paradigm of “world way to speak of someone becoming a dis- when “cultural” elements are considered religions” as it is expressed in both ciple of . This seems to be increas- acceptable for adaptation but “religious” academic and popular discourse ingly the trend, even as the meaning elements are viewed as tainted, this is would be to insist on always speaking of Christian is deeply distorted even in itself an expression of the syncretism in the plural and never in the singular. the Christian world, let alone among within Enlightenment constructs. “Buddhism” gives a false impression of Muslims or . This represents a unity; speaking of “Buddhist tradi- significant departure in missiological Paradigms or terminologies that sug- tions” avoids the suggestion of unity parlance, as a “convert” from Hindu- gest that there is an essence of Hindu- and takes a significant step away from ism or Buddhism to Christianity is ism or Islam are likewise syncretistic, the false reification of the “world just the normal way to think and speak reflecting the Enlightenment reifica- religions” paradigm. Similarly, Chris- about many people historically and in tion of masses of disparate and even tianity should not be referred to in the the present. Yet this traditional termi- contradictory ideas and practices into singular; there is too much diversity nology has been questioned by many the neat package of “world religions.” present for the usage in the singular to outside the , with an Paradigms or terminologies that define carry any substantial meaning. increasing exploration and embracing syncretism based on religious concerns of “multiple religious belonging” and without recognition of the presup- Second, rather than being content with of “insider movements” that reject the positions involved in Western use of the lazy use of these broadly general “change of religion” paradigm.9 religious phraseology are also syncre- terms (even in plural forms), it is decid- edly preferable that contextually specific A recent statement from leaders of Ro- tistic. These lines of thought can lead man Catholic, Protestant and Evangeli- one towards despair, because Western- terms be employed. “Hinduism” does not consider the world to be an illusion, cal thought on witness and dialogue il- ers are deeply, even subconsciously, lustrates the assumption that Christians implicated in Enlightenment thought, and it would be simply erroneous to af- firm this about “Hindu traditions.” The expect people of other faiths to “change as pointed out by Andrew Walls. Advaita Vedanta tradition, one school religion,” without reflecting on the roots or implications of this terminology. A Way Forward? among the Hindu traditions, has often suggested that the world is an illusion, Christians are to acknowledge that Is there a way forward for missiol- with contested understandings of not changing one’s religion is a decisive step that must be accompanied by ogy and missiologists (not to mention only that term but also of how truly sufficient time for adequate reflec- popular parlance and lay Christians)? representative it is of Advaitic thought. tion and preparation, through a pro- Scott Moreau is certainly right that, Similarly, one can speak quite meaning- cess ensuring full personal freedom.10 “We are naïve to think that eliminat- fully about even such a broad category (WCC 2011:5; emphasis mine) ing the negatives of syncretism is easily as American Evangelical Christian- accomplished” (Moreau 2000:924), ity, although more meaningfully about The intent of this impressive inter- and this is most definitely true in rela- American Evangelical Anglicans/ confessional statement is clearly tion to our own . Presbyterians/, etc. Each of the to reduce inter-religious tensions

31:4 Winter 2014 214 Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept and to call Christians to high ethi- warfare” against their own basic structure. 10. The language of religious freedom, cal standards. Yet, by yoking itself to “One clear-headed approach is to wage a development and universal human rights are the “change of religion” terminology steady program of guerilla warfare against all rooted in Enlightenment constructs; see the hapless [world religions] textbook— Dallmayr 1998:247ff. for discussion of this. Christian bondage to Enlightenment perhaps even against the stated subject mat- categories is perpetuated. If the argu- ter of the course itself ” (Hawley 2006:118). References 3. ment of this paper is valid, this entire Note Friedhelm Hardy’s comment in Bosch, David J. “change of religion” paradigm also rep- The World’s Religions as an example of this. 1991 Transforming Mission: Paradigm resents a syncretistic concession (albeit “The conventional labels of ‘Buddhism,’ Shifts in Theology of Mission. Ameri- subconscious) to an Enlightenment ‘’ or ‘’ neither exhaust the (very can Society of Missiology Series no. worldview. Certainly great respect large) range of the traditions we can identify 16. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. needs to be shown to individuals who outside the most unhelpful title of ‘Hinduism,’ Conn, Harvie nor do they, for the most part, even define 1979 “Conversion and Culture: A Theo- under the current paradigm want to proper ‘religious systems.’” (1988:573-574) logical Perspective with Reference change religions and religious labels, 4. This focus on the Enlightenment’s to Korea.” In Gospel and Culture, whether into or out of Christianity, contribution to a reductionist understand- edited by John Stott and Robert T. Coote, 195–239. Pasadena, CA: but this should no longer be seen as ing of “religion” is not meant to suggest that William Carey Library. normative when the basic paradigm in there were no positive results from the En- Cornille, Catherine, ed. lightenment, even in the area of “religion,” play has been exposed as syncretistic. 2002 Many Mansions? Multiple Re- particularly . ligious Belonging and Christian The challenge of “religion” and of 5. For example, see Hesselgrave 2006: Identity. Faith Meets Faith Series. transcending the Enlightenment 79ff., Jennings 2006, and other studies in Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. worldview that dominates the Western Van Rheenen 2006. Dallmayr, Fred 6. world (and that increasingly influences David Bosch painted a devastating 1998 Alternative Visions: Paths in the all the world through modernization picture of Enlightenment influences on Global Village. Lanham, MD: and ) is a complex matter Christian missions, but did not focus on the Rowman and Littlefield. “world religions” paradigm (1991:262-345; that defies easy solution. The discipline Droogers, Andre cf. 477-483). This paper could be considered 1989 “Syncretism: The Problem of of missiology should be in the fore- a further application of Bosch’s principles to Definition, the Definition of the front of confessional Christian efforts an area not yet clearly seen when he wrote. Problem.” In Dialogue and Syncre- to grapple with these constructs. Yet 7. The power that these reified catego- tism: An Interdisciplinary Approach, it hardly seems to be on the agenda, ries manifest is a point not overlooked in edited by Jerald D. Gort, Hendrik M. Vroom, Rein Fernhout and scholarly analysis, and qualifies the “empti- as Enlightenment-speak about “world Anton Wessels, 7–25. Grand Rap- religions” and “changing religions” is ness” of the reifications. See, for an example ids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. in cross-cultural contexts, Arvind-Pal ubiquitous, suggesting that missiology Fitzgerald, Timothy Mandair’s reference to “someone for whom 2007 Discourse on Civility and Barbar- as a discipline has not yet adequately the concept of religion may not have existed engaged discussions and controversies ity: A Critical in their language(s) prior to their accession and Related Categories. Oxford: in the field of religious studies. to the dominant symbolic order imposed by Oxford University Press. the colonizer/hegemon, but for whom this Hardy, Friedhelm May those who interact with this pa- now exists as if it had been an indigenous per embrace the three suggested steps 1988 “The Classical Religions of .” concept all along….[necessitating] distanc- In The World’s Religions, edited by and contribute to deeper and abler de- ing oneself from the concept of religion Peter Clarke, Friedhelm Hardy, velopments towards better paradigms while fully acknowledging that the vestiges Leslie Houlden and Stewart and terminologies for the future. IJFM of ‘religion’ continue to haunt their very Sutherland, 569–659. London: existence and the possibilities of cultural Routledge. Endnotes formation” (Mandair 2009:434). Hawley, John Stratton 8. Is there sufficient representation from 2006 “ for 1. Larry Posten, in an appeal for the missiological field in the discipline of Undergraduates: What’s Next?” contextualization without syncretism, is religious studies? Is there even adequate in- In Comparing Religions: Possibili- more deeply implicated in syncretism by teraction with ideas generated from within ties and Perils?, edited by Thomas A. Idinopulos, Brian C. Wilson his strong emphasis on the centrality of that discipline? and James Constantine Hanges, religion. “First, we must determine to the 9. On multiple religious belonging, see 115–142. Leiden: Brill. best of our ability what are the actual religious Cornille 2002 and Tan 2010, 2012. On insider Hesselgrave, David J. practices and religious objects of a particular movements see the papers collected in Winter 2006 “Syncretism: Mission and Mis- culture that are purely religious in nature” 2007 and Travis and Talman (forthcoming). I sionary Induced?” In Contextual- (2006: 252; italics original). have a forthcoming paper (Richard) on “New ization and Syncretism: Navigat- 2. Some books and courses, in line with Paradigms for Religion, Multiple Religious ing Cultural Currents, edited by the approach of this paper, now present Belonging and Insider Movements” that Gailyn Van Rheenen, 71–98. what John Stratton Hawley calls a “guerilla further explores these matters. Evangelical Missiological Society

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 215

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