481

CULTURE CHANGE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS AMONG THE

J.W. Berry, R.M. Wintrob, P.S. Sindel! and T. Mawhinney Queen's University at Kingston, and Gamma, Montreal, Canada and University of Connecticut, U.S.A.

For some people, northern Canada is a home· relationships. land, while for others it is a frontier (2). In In the case of the James Bay Cree people, general, the native peoples of the North view the proposal of the hydroelectric project stimu­ it as their homeland, while many Eurocanadians lated a collective reaction, which included political in the South 11iew it as their frontier. Contact organization and court proceedings to halt the in­ between these two sets of peoples has taken place trusion. Following the granting of an injunction for centuries, but only recently has there been against its construction (later lifted, however) a major oonflict over the appropriate role of the negotiated settlement was achieved which prov­ North in the de11elopment of Canada (7). vided for a Cree Regional Governml!nt, a Cree This study is concerned with one specific School Board, a Cree Health and Social Services contact arena, that of the Cree people of northern Board, and a set of economic measures (e.g., land . It is interdisciplinary in character (in­ claims settlement, guaranteed income from trap­ volving psychology, psychiatry and anthropology). ping, and royalties on resources). Within a period and longitudinal in design (following-up the of five years , the political andinstitutionalstruc­ earlier projects of Chance ( 11) and Berry ( 4) ture of Cree society was radically transformed, in among these same peoples)_ a way which transferred institutional control to A general process of culture change has taken the Cree people them selves. place among thf! native peoples in northern Canada At the individual level, many persons became for centuries. Recently, though, an event of great involved in these new structures, or reaffirmed speed and m~nitude has occurred in northern their land use activities. It is at this level where Quebec: the unheralded announcement and almost most of our results will be reported. immediate construction of a massive hydroelectric project on the hunting and trapping territory of The concept of adaptation the Cree people of the region. This report oon­ Adaptation is a useful concept in the study of ceptualizes the nature of this technological intru­ acculturation (4, 5, 17). If adaptation is viewed sion, and its actompanying acculturation and then as the reduction of conflict, then the9roup and in­ turns to a consideration of the major psychological dividual options taken to lessen acculturative adaptations made by the Cree people. conflict may be used to examine possible varia­ Studies of how people cope with culture tions in collective and individual behaviour. One change abound in the literature , although few way to approach this issue is by qi'.ling dichoto­ have had the advantage of being longitudinal as mour »yes» or >mo» answers to two questions of this study is. The basic questions usually addres­ crucial importance to all groups and individuals sed are how people, both collectively and indi­ undergoing acculturation: »Is my cultural vidually, view and deal with culture change, and identity of value to be retained?», and »Are what the con~uences are for their present and positive relations with the large (dominant) so­ future life. A common theme is that there is resis­ ciety to be sought?» In this manner, the four tance to change and (perhaps a result) a host of ne­ distinct varities of acculturation in Fig. 1 may gative effects in terms of socio-cultural disorgani­ be identified: assimilation, integration, rejection zation and personal disintegration. However, a and marginality. close reading <:>f the literature reveals that such re­ By answering hyeS» to the question, »Are posi­ sults are not inevitable, the nature of the adapta­ tive relations with the dominant society to be tion depends upon specific features of the two sought?», we have two varieties of acculturation cultures in contact, and upon the quality of their which are distinquished by the contrasting value 482

QUESTION I

ho61llonol culhne. ond \dt.f\11,, 11· c,f ,..olu•, ond to be rcto1ned' "YES" "No" 1. QUESTION 2 i INTEGRATION ASSIMILATION Ar• po11l1ve r•loltont ""' wltf'I th• ..lorg•r domlnonl~-> 1.oc111y to be aoughl" _ • N0 11 ----1- REJECTION MARGINALITY (Wlthdrcwol or (Oeculrurol•on} Ruohlanet)

Fig. 1. Adaptive options available to non-dominant groups during acculturation.

placed on the retention of cultural identity: assi · ion of the political power to control the choices milation and intergration. In the case of assimi­ made by non-dominant groups and individuals. lation, relinquishing cultural identity and moving This issue is centrally important to our study be­ into the larger society is the option taken. Integra­ cause at the present time two political elements tion, however, implies the maintenance of cultural have oombined to give the Cree some degree of integrity as well as the movement to become an control over culture change. One is general to all intergral part of a larger societal framework. Canadians in the form of the multiculturalism Therefore, in the case of integration, the option policty of the federal government. In principle, taken is to retain cultural identity and to move to groups and individuals have the right to choose join the dominant society. which acculturation options they wish to follow; The two other options are characterised by put in more direct terms, the usual pressures to their oomrnon negative response to the question assimilate or to beoome marginalized have been regarding relations with the dominant group, lessened. Recent research suggests that this policy but are distinguished by their differential retention is generally acceptable to Canadians and has a of traditional culture and identity. From the point good chance of working (9). The second factor. of view of the non-dominant group the rejection is provided for in the James Bay Agreements option, as we have seen, can take the form either concerning Cree autonomy and institutional of withdrawal (moving away from contact or in­ control. Thus the options sometimes found in fluence), or of resistance of either the passive or less tolerant societies, such as forced assimi la­ active variety, such as refusal to participate in the t ion, segregation and ethnocide, do not form a life of the larger society or open rebellious action. theoretical or empirical element in our present The situation of marginality does not really research framework. represent an option in the sense that non-domi­ nant groups rarely opt for it, rather it happens to Relationships between acculturation and them by a combination of cultural loss (decultu­ adaptation. ration) and exclusion from major participation in These various conceptual distinctions have set the dom·1nant soc·1ety. lt ·1s often characterized by the stage for a consideration of what kinds of oollective and individual confusion and anxiety, by phenomena may actually be observed during feelings of alienation, loss of identity and by what acculturation. Earlier work (4, 6, 31) pointed has been termed acculturative stress resulting frorn clearly to two kinds of phenomena: those which being »posed in psychological uncertainty» be­ are simply changes in previous ways of living tween two cultures (27). (referred to variously as »shifts» in behaviour, From the point of view of the dominant group, or »Synthesis» in identity or life styles), and to the rejection opion represents the classical segre­ those phenomena which are stressful both at the gation which occurs when the dominant society cultural and individual levels. controls and decides the situation of the non­ The first group of phenomena is based upon dorninant group; this brings to the fore the quest- learning new fife styles (151, but doing so selecti- 483 vely (30) or sometimes in novel ways (13). These been identified: the general discontinuity between >>Shifts» are likely to predominate in the assimi­ cultures in lifestyle (specially in values, beliefs and lation and integration modes of adaptation, in norms) as illustrated, for example in the Cree which attidues toward the larger society are posi­ child's experience of »bush» and Eurocanadian life tive. They are relatively smooth transitions be­ in boarding school (24, 25, 31 ). tween a traditional life style to one more like that Another factor which has been implicated in of the other (in this case, Eurocanadian) society. the psychological response of individuals to cul­ The second kind of phenomena we are likely ture change has been treated broadly under the to encounter are those which are disruptive for title »cognitive». For example in the work of the group and stressful to the individual; these Spindler (26), the concept of cognitive control has have been referred to generally as »acculturative been employed to refer to »the maintenance of stress» (8), and include such phenomena as the organization» of an individual's »unique way of »psychopathology», »identity conflict» and »iden­ viewing, sorting and synthesizing the things and tity confusion» (31), feelings of »marginality» (3), events believed to exist in the world» (p. 338). »personal discomfort» ( 10), or a lack of »perso­ During culture change, an individual's cognitive nality adjustment» (12) or of »psychosocial adjust­ control is particularly challenged, and attempts ment» (1) by those who have lost »cognitive are made to maintain it or to develop a new and control» (25). Such phenomena are more likely to satisfactory organization. To the extent that this is occur in the rejection or marginality modes of not achieved, stress and anxiety are experienced. acculturation, for it is here that conflict is main­ Similarly, some research (in part with the James tained between the groups in contact. However, it Bay Cree) by Berry (5, 8), has implicated the role remains an open question whether those striving of cognitive style in the experience of stress. for cultural reaffirmation or revitalization (29), In those studies, those who were more »COg· who are basically interested 1n the withdrawal nitively differentiated», tended to exhibit less mode, will continue to expereience acculturative acculturative stress. The mechanism which was stress. A likely answer is that it will depend upon postulated was that the more congitively differ­ the attitude and behaviour of the dominant entiated individuals are able to maintain their society, if it is pluralistic in its general outlook own world about them, and to impose their own (9), and is therefore accepting of nativistic or view on the changes around them. revitalization movements, then conflict should be Finally the work of Lazarus (20) and of reduced, and acculturative stress may be minima!. Meichenbaum (22) has brought to the fore the Turning to the basic question of this section, notion of cognitive appraisal. This is basically that of relationships between acculturation and the process of considering and evaluating an adaptation, we may assert that no single or uni­ event with regard to its significance for one's versal relationship is likely to characterize all well-being. Research employing this concept contact situations. We have argued that the has shown that the experience of stress does amount of shift, and the amount of stress, will not depend upon what might be called the ob­ depend among other things upon the adaptive jective situation, but upon the subjective evalua­ mode of acculturation. However, we may also tion of it. assert that these phenomena will also depend In sum, then, we may discern an approach upon the cultural and psychological character­ to understanding the effects of culture change istics of the groups in contact. Some of these which is broadly >>cognitive»; the individual's characteristics have already been considered representation, understanding and feelings about in the research literature. One is the rapidity of a change may be the important factor, rather change, largely discounted by Mead (21 ), another than the actual change itself. If a person feels is incongruence such as that between one's new >~n charge» or »in control>> for a possible variety identity or goals and the possibility of their of reasons, then stress reactions are likely to be attainment ( 12, 29), the inconsistencies between lower than if the person feels at »the mercy» of aspirations and expectations in achieving goals such changes. Of course, the objective political (31) or between the sociopolitical structure power of the group, or the individual's personal of the two societies (5). A third variable has also resources are likely to affect this sense of control 484

A: coi:T SYSTEM 8: EUROCANADIAN T· :JITIONAL CULTURE ~ SYSTEM WITH ONGOING INTERNAL EXTERNAL SOURCE CHANGES Of CHANGE 1 C: CREE ACCUL TUR AT/ON SOCIOCULTURAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANG ES . 1 ,,.. o: CREE INOfVIOUAL ADAPTATIONS PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH CULTURAL CHANGE

Fig. 2. Framework for studying Cree adaptation to culture change and acculturation.

and should not be neglected as antecedent factors; at the sociocultural level, while the second con­ however the »cognitive» approach emphasizes the tains the adaptations at the individual level, some necessity of also considering subjective facto rs features of which derive directly from the Euro· as well. For all these reasons, variable relationships canadian system. between acculturation and adaptation are likely to In the present study we are concerned with be present in different culture change arenas. Al­ the central features of all four frames. For ex­ though shifts are almost always present, cultural ample, the major cultural, social, economic and breakdown and personal stress do not always ac­ political characteristics of the Cree people prior company acculturation ( 14, 18) , and much of the to major contact, and up until recent times (frame evidence for this assertion derives from work with A) can be described and assessed, along with those northern peoples (1, 8, 12, 16). A basic argument features of the Eurocanadian system which have being advanced here, then, is that the conceptual influenced traditional Cree life (frame 8). These franiwork and empirical coverage of acculturation include the introduction of the market and wage research should be broad enough to capture all economy, of missions and schools, of health and the potential variations in acculturation and in social services, and since 1971, of the James Bay adaptation; to do less would be to prejudge the hydro-electric prject. Cree acculturation (frame C) nature of both, and of the relationships between includes the adoption of trapping and the use of them. money. the change in beliefs and attitudes, the increase in population and the ermergence of ef­ The research framework employed fective political organization. Frame D contains The general outlines of the research framework are a variety of psychological adaptations to accul­ provided in Fig. 2. A few illustrations of each turation; included here are attitudes toward major variable are provided here in oder to give change and toward modes of adaptation (assimi­ some substance to the framework. lation, intergration, rejection and marginality), In frame A and B are the four antecedents estimates of cognitive abilities and of acculturative which were illustrated in Fig. 1. These include the stress and ethnic identity. external sources of change (from Eurocanadian This project has attempted to gather evidence society) at both the sociocultural and individual in all four frames, and to examine relationships levels {frame B), and the traditional cultural and among data within and across the four frames. behavioural characteristics of the Cree (frame A); However, the central concern has been to account these two systems are in oontact, but with the for the varieties of individual adaptation (frame D) strong balance of influence flowing from the as a function of the phenomea in the other three Eurocanadian to the Cree system. The oonse­ frames. quents of this interaction are frames C and D: the first represents acculturation and adaptations 485

Some hypotheses medical services is also increasing. With an understanding of culture change and At the same time, traditional pursuits are still acculturation among the Cree, and of some estab­ very much in evidence in all three communities. In lished relationships between change phenomena 1979, 159 individuals in and 320 in Mis­ and psychological adaptations, we are now in a tassani were registered for the income security position to state the general hypotheses which programme for hunters and trappers. Oualifi· have guided the present research. They are divided cation for the programme requires a minimum into two kinds, one concerned with between group of 120 days a year spent in the bush. The rela· analyses {that is, the Cree situation in relation to tively low figure for Chisasibi is largely attri­ other culture change arenas in the North, or in the butable to the number of people working on the literature generally), and the other concerned with community relocation project, then scheduled within group analyses {that is, individual or com­ for completion by 1982. munity differences in adaptation in relation to Commercial enterprise is roughly compar­ variation in experience of change). able in the three communities: all have a Hudson 1. On the basis of developing Cree political Bay store and one or more competitive business. control over the major changes affecting There is an active Anglican church in all loca­ them, stress phenomena will be on the decline tions, a Roman Catholic church and school in over the course of the longitudinal study. Chisasibi, and a growing Pentecostal congre­ 2. Those individuals with greater control (both gation in Mistassini. in terms of actual personal resources or a From Table I it should be clear that there sense of cognitive control) will exhibit less are both synchronic and diachroni elements to stress. the design. Synchronically, total samples at time 3. Those individuals with positive attitudes to­ 1 and time 2 can be analysed for age and sex ward the larger society {i.e., in the »inte­ differences, for community differences, and for gration» modes) will exhibit less stress than relationships among sociocultural and psycho­ those rejecting it (in the »rejection» mode} or logical variables. Diachronica\ly, changes and those who are marginalized. similarities between time 1 and time 2 for the follow-up sample can be examined. Samples and design The psychological data were collected by The three communities involved in the study, way of testing and interviewing; a short {bio­ , Chisasibi, and Mistassini, are located data) interview accompanied the test adminis­ in the area governed by the Grand Council of the tration, while an extended {more open-ended) of Quebec: Wemindji and Chisasibi are on interview was given during a separate session. the East coast of James Bay, and Mistassini is Basic biodata include age, western education, 350 km inland, at the southern end of Lake Mis­ wage employment level, ownership of western tassini. Initial field work was carried out in the goods (radio, skidoo etc.), language used, lite­ coastal communities in the summer of 1971, racy in English and frequency of media use and in Mistassini in 1968-69. Repeat field in­ (newspapers and magazines). vestigations were carried out in August and Sep­ Tests included two cognitive tasks {Kohs tember 1978 in Wemindji, from May to October blocks (19) and Ravens matrices (23)), three 1979 in Chisasibi and Mistassini, and in April intergroup relational attitude scales {assimi­ 1980 in Mistassini. lation, integration and rejection). There were All three communities have shown marked two scales of acculturative stress (psychosomatic growth, and all have shown an increase in use stress and marginality}, and a Cree Continuity of commodities previously unavailable {such as and Change Orientation test which provided electricity, running water, telephone, etc.). Since three scores: Continuity (with tradition), change the signing of the James Bay Agreement, Cree (toward Eurocanadian life), and synthesis {of involvement in administration of health and the two). Finally, a Cree picture Vocabulary education services has risen greatly. School cur­ Test was developed to attempt a measure of ver­ riculum development is an area of intense acti· bal ability. vity, and participation in teaching and in supplying The more extended interview was concerned, 486

TABLE I. Samples drawn at time 1 and time 2 in three Cree communities.

Community Sample Wemindji Chisasibi Mistassini Total N

Time 1 Male 31 30 56 117 All old Female 30 30 53 113 Total N 61 60 109 230

II Time 2 Male 21 10 22 53 Repeat Female 16 13 20 49 Total N 37 23 42 102

111Time2 Male 57 19 37 113 All new Female 32 21 33 86 Total N 89 40 70 199 ------with details of educational, occupational and least in Chisasibi) who were not included. There residental background, aspirations and expect· are a number of possible reasons for this, such ations, and with identity and identity conflict. as a youth bias in our repeat sampling, or the unavailability of older persons. RESULTS Turning to our second question, about the The extended interview results are still being nature of the psychological changes over the inter­ analysed (for such variables as identity and aspira­ val, the correlation is close to unity with respect tions), and are thus not included in this report. to age, and the mean differences correspond to The current results are considered in relation to the intervals between testing (7 and 8 years two questions: does the repeat sample adequately respectively in Wemindji and Chisasibi); this represent the original sample and what is the represents an estimate of reliability of reporting. nature of the change over the ten year span. In For education, there was no general change in the next section we will consider the contem­ Wemindji; however, in Chisasibi (where there is porary structure of our data. a secondary school and more opportunity to con­ For our first question, we note that for tinue education) there is a significant general Wemindji the 37 repeat respondents do not differ increase. For employment status, there is no significantly from the 61 original respondents on general increase, but there is a good deal of flux any variables. For Chisasibi, there are only four (indicated by the low correlation) particularly variables where the 23 repeats differed from 60 in Wemindji. Ownership of Eurocanadian goods originals: the repeats were younger (p < .05) and and services increased significantly in both com­ better educated (p < .01 ). For Mistassini, these munities, but some constancy in relative indi­ tests were not part of the original study (only vidual ownership is present. Language use (Cree/ the extended interview was given at time 1 and English} did not change at all, on the average, time 2), and so no judgement can be made ot and this is also the case for individuals. Literacy follow-up representatives at the present time. in English did not change either. Individuals rated In general in Wemindji and Chisasibi, though, themselves similarly in Wemindji, but flux has those participants who would be found ten years been apparent in Chisasibi. With respect to later are reasonably representatives of the ori­ media, the use of newspapers and magazines has ginal sample. Our fear, that those Cree most increased greatly in Chisasibi (relfecting conti­ oriented toward Eurocanadian life would have nuing increase in exposure) but not in Wemindji. »gone south» and not be part of their communities In both communities, there is a moderate degree any longer, was not in fact borne out; indeed, of flux between time 1 and time 2. it appears to be the older, less well educated (at These various estimates of acculturation to 487

Eurocanadian life suggest a continuing, but not TABLE II. Factor analysis of acculturation and dramatic change in the educational, occupational psychological variables !loading above .30). and linguistic life of the Cree people in the two communities (to be checked in greater detail with Variable Factor data from the extended interview). Considering Name II II I the massive political and institutional changes which have taken place at the sociocultural level Age -.78 this low degree of individual acculturation in our Education .91 sample is less that one might expect. True, edu­ Employment (.281 .30 cation, ownership and media use are increased Ownership .39 (especially in Chisasibi), but the change has been Language .76 relatively small, and perhaps no greater than that Literacy .51 which would have occurred during the same period Media .38 without the hydro-electric project. Assimilation .47 (-.28) What, in this light, is the case for the psycho­ Integration .38 logical tests and scales? Looking first at the two Rejection -.59 (.25) cognitive variables (Kohs and Ravens), we find an Continuity .82 improvement in performance in both tests in Synthesis .45 Wemindji, but no change in either test in Chi­ Change -.73 sasibi. The lack of rise in Chisasibi may be due Stress -.56 to the fact that the follow-up sample there had Marginality -.54 higher scores on these tests than the original Kohs .34 sample, leaving less room for score change as Ravens .39 eduction increased. Vocabulary .38 With respect to the two acculturative stress variables, we find a drop in all cases between time 1 and time 2, this drop is signficant in each the larger society, and at the other are highly edu­ case, except for marginality in Wemindii. Longi­ cated and literate persons who favour assimi­ tudinal correlations are moderate, indicating an lation. The second factor suggests a dimension intermediate degree of flux. Among the relational with acceptance of integra tion and synthesis at attitudes, assimilation attitudes remained generally one pole, and with high stress and marginality at unchanged, but with some degree of flux, parti­ the ·other; the three cognitive tests are also present cularly in Wemindji. Changes in attitudes toward at the positive pole. The third factor indicates a intergration and rejection differed between the strong opposition between attitudes toward conti­ two communities: in Chisasibi the former rose (ns) nuity and change, parallelled more weakly by a while the latter dropped (p < .02), while in similar opposition between attitudes toward Wemindji the former declined (p < .02) while rejection and assimilation. the latter rose slightly (ns). Flux was evident in When all five factors are rotated (instead Wemindji (particularly for intergration, where a of just three) the two new factors which appear negative correlation is obtained), but was less are a separate cognitive one (loading Kohs, Ravens so in Chisasibi. The interpretation of these pat­ and vocabulary) and a unique acculturative terns must await an examination of the current stress one( loading stress and marginality). intercorrelations. The choice between the five- and three­ In order to help structure these relationships, factor solution is a difficult one. The five factor we decided to factor analyze the matrix, including structure does have the advantage of distinct all the acculturation and psychological variables cognitive and acculturative stress factors, how­ together (see Table II). ever, the three factor solution brings together The initial analysis suggest that three factors components which speak more directly to some should be rotated. The structure in Table II indi­ of the questions directing the research. cates that one factor loads all of the acculturation variables and two relational attitudes: at one pole DISCUSSION we have older people who reject major ties with Although we still lack the data from the extended 488

interview, and from one psychological test, the stress and marginality are generally negatively picture is f

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