Flight identification of European raptors Stem Christensen, Bent Pors Nielsen, R. F. Porter and Ian Willis

PART 8. KESTRELS, AND BLACK-WINGED KITE In this, the final part of the series, we deal with the two remaining , the three Acripiter hawks and the Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus. These six species are divided into two groups—the kestrels and Black-winged Kite, and the Accipiters. Of the three species in the first group, the Kestrel Falco tinnunculus is widespread and fairly common throughout much of Europe, the Lesser Kestrel F. naumanni is locally fairly common in many parts of southern Europe, while the Black-winged Kite, though widespread in Africa and Asia, is found in Europe only in Portugal and occa­ sionally parts of southern Spain. The females of the two kestrels can be easily confused, though there should be no difficulty in the identi­ fication of adult males. The Black-winged Kite is unmistakable. The Accipiters can be quite tricky. Small male Goshawks A. gentilis are not infrequently mistaken for large female Sparrowhawks A. nisus, and the latter can look similar to immature and female Levant Sparrowhawks A. brevipes. All three are generally fast-moving species on the wing and are prone to hunting in woodland rides, along hedgerows and among scattered trees; thus views of them are often brief. The Goshawk and Sparrowhawk are fairly widely distributed in Europe, though commoner in northern parts; both are partially migratory. The Levant Sparrowhawk, found only from south-east Europe and Turkey east to , is a true migrant, somewhat elusive in its breeding areas but common on migration at the Bos- phorus in Turkey and in various parts of the 'raptor route' down through the Middle East to Africa. The Goshawk and Sparrowhawk are usually seen singly on migration, but the pale-plumaged Levant travels in flocks sometimes 500 or more strong. Head-on profiles are shown below in fig. 70. Figs 71 and 77 on pages 474 and 484 compare the undersides of the six species; details of each are summarised in the facing texts, which also briefly outline the areas of Europe, the Middle East and north Africa where they may be found. Figs 72-76 and 78-80, supported by plates 65-71, illustrate further plumages.

472 Flight identification of European raptors 473

Now that this series is complete, we would again like to request that readers let us have their comments and criticisms promptly so that they may be incorporated in the corrigenda to be published in this journal early in 1974. The entire series of papers is being brought together in a book, to be published in summer 1974 by T. & A. D. Poyser Limited, 281 High Street, Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire HP4 IAJ.

Fig. 70. Head-on profiles of Black-winged Kite Elanus catruleus (A) gliding and (B) soaring, and (c) typical position of Kestrel Fako tinnunculus, Lesser Kestrel F. naumanni and hawks when gliding

A. Kestrel Fako tinnunculus (pages 476-478, plates 65-660). ADULT FEMALE SHOWN. Small to medium-sized , with rather long and pointed wings and long tail. Habitual hovering is ready aid to identification. Male easily identified by black- spotted chestnut upperparts coupled with blue-grey head and tail, latter with black subterminal band. Buff underparts are spotted black, and there is an ill-defined black moustachial stripe. Female dull chestnut-brown above, barred with black, and buff below, streaked black; very similar to female Lesser Kestrel and great care should be taken in identifying the two. Fairly common in wide range of habitats (even cities) throughout Europe (except arctic Russia), north Africa, Turkey and Middle East, but some southwards migration in winter, and summer visitor only to most of Fenno-Scandia and Russia

B. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni (pages 479-481, plates 66C-67C). ADULT FEMALE SHOWN. Similar in structure to Kestrel, though slightly daintier build and often more wedge-shaped tail. Male easily identified by unspotted chestnut upper- parts, blue-grey greater coverts, and pale blue-grey head (lacking moustachial stripe) and tail, latter with black subterminal band. Underparts white, tinged rufous on body, with sparse darker spotting on coverts, and dark wing-tips. Female similar to female Kestrel, but paler below with slightly darker wing-tips; spotting on underwing-coverts usually confined to greater coverts, and flight- feathers less clearly barred. Breeds colonially on buildings and cliffs in southern Portugal, Spain (except extreme north), Mediterranean France, Sardinia, Sicily, most of Italy, south-east Austria, Romania, Balkans and south Russia, also Cyprus, Turkey, Middle East and extreme north-west Africa. Migratory, April and August-September, wintering in Africa south of Sahara. In summer occasionally wanders north of breeding range in Europe 474 Flight identification of European raptors

Fig. 71. Typical undersides of female kestrels and adult Black-winged Kite Flight identification of European raptors 475 A. Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (pages 476-478, plates 6s-66b). ADULT FEMALE SHOWN. Small to medium-sized falcon, with rather long and pointed wings and long tail. Habitual hovering is ready aid to identification. Male easily identified by black- spotted chestnut upperparts coupled with blue-grey head and tail, latter with black subterminal band. Buff underparts are spotted black, and there is an ill-defined black moustachial stripe. Female dull chestnut-brown above, barred with black, and buff below, streaked black; very similar to female Lesser Kestrel and great care should be taken in identifying the two. Fairly common in wide range of habitats (even cities) throughout Europe (except arctic Russia), north Africa, Turkey and Middle East, but some southwards migration in winter, and summer visitor only to most of Fenno-Scandia and Russia

B. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni (pages 479-481, plates 66C-67C). ADULT FEMALE SHOWN. Similar in structure to Kestrel, though slightly daintier build and often more wedge-shaped tail. Male easily identified by unspotted chestnut upper- parts, blue-grey greater coverts, and pale blue-grey head (lacking moustachial stripe) and tail, latter with black subterminal band. Underparts white, tinged rufous on body, with sparse darker spotting on coverts, and dark wing-tips. Female similar to female Kestrel, but paler below with slightly darker wing-tips; spotting on underwing-coverts usually confined to greater coverts, and flight- feathers less clearly barred. Breeds colonially on buildings and cliffs in southern Portugal, Spain (except extreme north), Mediterranean France, Sardinia, Sicily, most of Italy, south-east Austria, Romania, Balkans and south Russia, also Cyprus, Turkey, Middle East and extreme north-west Africa. Migratory, April and August-September, wintering in Africa south of Sahara. In summer occasionally wanders north of breeding range in Europe

C. Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus (pages 482-483, plates 67d-68). ADULT SHOWN. Very slightly larger than Kestrel and somewhat similar in shape, except for longer arm, more protruding, owl-like head and shorter, very faintly forked tail which is square-cut when spread. Frequently hovers; glides with wings raised in almost harrier-like manner. Plumage unmistakable: basically blue-grey and white, with black primaries below and black shoulder patches on upperwing. In Europe breeds in open country with scattered trees or woodland only in Portugal, where rare. Nests also north-west Africa and Egypt, and widespread in tropical Africa, southern Asia and East Indies. Non-migratory, though wandering recorded regularly in southern Spain, occasionally elsewhere in southern Europe and rarely north to France, Netherlands and Germany 476 European raptors: Kestrel Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (pages 476-478, plates 65-66!)) Silhouette Small to medium-sized falcon with long, pointed wings and long tail. Heavier in build than closely related Lesser Kestrel (pages 479-481), with slightly broader wings, and with less slender tail rounded at tip rather than wedge-shaped as in many Lessers (compare plates 65b-66b with 66c, d). Female slightly larger than male, but size difference obvious usually only when the two seen together.

Flight Open flight is series of fast, shallow wing-beats irregularly interspersed with glides and occasional twists and tumbles. Most frequently seen hovering over open country in search of prey, when wings outspread and beating rapidly but shallowly, and tail fanned (plate 65b, c). Depending on weather conditions, wings may be held quite motionless as floats in up-current. Angle at which body held while bird hovering varies from almost level to about 45°. Occasionally soars, with tips of wings slightly spread and tail fully fanned, when may resemble Sparrowhawk (pages 489-490).

Identification Most similar species to Kestrel, in both shape and plumage, is Lesser Kestrel. Male (72A, 73A) easily told from male Lesser (74A, 75A) by its black-spotted chestnut upperparts, chestnut (instead of blue-grey) greater coverts, more noticeably barred flight-feathers, black moustachial stripe, buffish underparts more heavily streaked and spotted, and absence of black underwing-tips; compare especially plate 66a, b with 66c, d. Females more difficult: points to look for in Kestrel (72B, 73B) are heavier build, less wedge-shaped tail (but see Lesser Kestrel), more heavily streaked underparts (particularly underwing-coverts, which are almost totally streaked) and clearly more barring on flight-feathers below. Kestrel usually seen singly or in pairs, whereas Lesser Kestrel generally colonial, though caution necessary as Kestrels prone to breed in loose groups of two or three pairs (occasionally more) in southern Europe. Kestrel and Black-winged Kite (pages 482-483) only habitual hoverers among smaller European birds of prey. Lesser Kestrel also hovers, though less frequently than Kestrel, as does Red-footed Falcon F. vespertinus (part 7), but latter quite different in plumage and has slimmer build and shorter tail. In silhouette both kestrels easily told from Black-winged Kite by smaller, less noticeable head (which is owl-like and protrudes to an unusual extent in Black- winged Kite) and much longer tail. European raptors: Kestrel 477

Fig. 7a. Adult male and female Kestrels Falco tinnuncvlus from below. The adult male (72A) is buff below, varying in tone and lightly spotted with black on the breast and flanks, with a few spots on the belly. The underwing-coverts are bufHsh-white spotted with black, the largest spots being on the greater coverts. The primaries and secondaries are whitish barred with grey and the wing-tips are darker. The tail is pale grey, with a fairly broad black subterminal band, a narrow white terminal band and very indistinct barring on the rest, which is rarely seen in flight. The adult female (72B) is buffish-cream below, streaked blackish on the body (more heavily than the male) and spotted on the underwing-coverts. The flight-feathers are clearly barred, and the barred tail has a pale tip and a broad blackish-brown subterminal band. The immature (not shown) is like the adult female below, but with broader and generally paler streaking. All birds have yellow legs and feet 478 European raptors: Kestrel

Fig. 73. Adult male and female Kestrels Falco tinnunculus from above. The adult male (73A) has a blue-grey crown, nape and hind neck, with fine black streaks and an ill-defined black moustachial streak. The back and upperwing-coverts are chestnut, spotted black, and the primaries and primary-coverts blackish-brown. The outer secondaries are the same colour as the primaries, but towards the body they progressively become chestnut with black flecking. The lower back, rump and tail are blue-grey, with a broad black subterminal band and white tip to the tail. The adult female (73B) is dull chestnut-brown above, heavily barred blackish- brown on the wing-coverts and spotted on the upper back. The upperhead is chestnut-brown, streaked black, and sometimes has a bluish tinge. The primaries and secondaries are blackish, gradually becoming rufous, barred black, on the inner secondaries. The lower back, rump and tail are buffish-brown (often with a bluish hue), barred blackish-brown; the tail, which from a distance appears slightly paler than the back, has a broader subterminal band. The immature (not shown) is like the adult female above, but with the barred rump and tail-coverts paler and more chestnut, seldom tinged grey; the uppertail is rufous, greyer in males, barred brownish-black. All birds have dark brown eyes and yellow cere and orbital ring European raptors: Lesser Kestrel 479 Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni (pages 479-481, plates 660-670) Silhouette Similar to Kestrel (pages 476-478) but slimmer, with slightly more pointed, narrower wings and more slender tail. Latter frequently wedge-shaped, caused by central pair of tail-feathers being more elongated than rest (plate 66c, d), a feature usually more apparent in males than in females.

Flight Also similar to Kestrel, but tendency for wing-beats to appear lighter and shallower, particularly in male, giving 'winnowing' effect. Hovers (plate 67a), but less so than Kestrel.

Identification Male (74A, 75A) resembles male Kestrel (which see) but should be readily identified from below by cleaner, whiter underparts, with white underwings, contrasting with creamy-buff body, and black wing-tips (plates 66d, 67b); from above, lack of black spotting on chestnut back and coverts, and blue-grey greater coverts, diagnostic (plate 66c). Male Lesser Kestrel also lacks moustachial stripe. Distinguishing between the two females can be very difficult, but important features of Lesser (74B, 75B) are tail often more wedge-shaped, and underparts and underwing paler, with spotting on coverts normally confined just to greater coverts. Although Lesser Kestrel colonial both in breeding season and on migration, Kestrels, particularly in southern parts of their Euro­ pean range, occasionally nest in small groups. So dangerous to assume that single kestrels and isolated pairs are tinnunculus and colonies or flocks are naumanni, Male Levant Sparrowhawk (pages 491-493) may superficially resemble male Lesser Kestrel, but former much whiter below and lacks pale grey tail and conspicuous black subterminal band of Lesser Kestrel. 480 European raptors: Lesser Kestrel

Fig. 74. Adult male and female Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni from below. The underparts of the adult male (74A) are creamy-buff, tinged with rufous on the flanks and breast and sparsely spotted with black on the sides of the lower breast, but otherwise appearing almost uniform in colour. The underwing is almost white, with darker ends to all the flight-feathers, particularly the wing-tips. The underwing-coverts may be unmarked but are frequently lightly spotted with black, the greatest density being on the greater coverts and on those closest to the body. The tail is very pale blue-grey, with a broad black subterminal band which appears triangular in shape when the tail is closed. The narrow terminal band is white and sometimes fairly prominent when the tail is fanned. The adult female (74B) is creamy-buff below, lightly streaked with black, particularly on the breast. The underwing-coverts are buffish-white, spotted with black on the greater coverts and sometimes very sparsely on the median or lesser coverts as well. The primaries and secondaries are indistinctly barred with grey, and the wing-tips are darker. The tail is buffish-white, indistinctly barred with grey and with a black subterminal band. The immature (not shown) is very like the adult female below. The bare parts are as in the Kestrel European raptors: Lesser Kestrel 481

Fig- 75- Adult male and female Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni from above. The adult male (75A) has a rich soft chestnut back, lesser and median wing-coverts, brownish-black primaries, primary coverts and secondaries, and blue-grey greater coverts (the Kestrel's are chestnut) which extend well over the secondaries, particularly the innermost. The crown, ear-coverts and hind neck are pale blue- grey, as is the tail which is subterminally banded black, with a white terminal band which varies in conspicuousness. There is no moustachial stripe. The adult female (75B), which has an indistinct moustachial stripe, is chestnut-brown above, streaked blackish on the crown and nape and narrowly barred black on the back and upperwing-coverts, The lower back and rump may occasionally be greyish. The tail is chestnut-buff, sometimes tinged grey; it is narrowly barred black and there is a black subterminal band. The primaries and primary coverts are blackish- brown and the secondaries dark grey lightly barred chestnut-buff. The immature (not shown) resembles the adult female, though young males often have a greyer head and a blue-grey tail, tinged rufous, with only a few fine blackish bars apart from the broad subterminal band 482 European raptors: Black-winged Kite Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus (pages 482-483, plates 67CI-68) Silhouette Long-winged and, not least, long-armed , somewhat larger than Kestrel (pages 476-478). Head protrudes very noticeably and is broad and owl-like (plate 68c-e). Tail fairly short and narrow, with hardly noticeable fork when closed but almost square-cut when open. Tail length a little less than width of wing.

Flight Owl-like, with soft, fast wing-beats. Hovers very frequently and persistently, often in same spot for minutes on end, when wings well outstretched and wing-beats shallow and fast (plate 68a-c). When gliding, wings raised like harrier Circus sp (part 4), but head more level, thus recalling miniature Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus (part 1); wings clearly angled, with carpal joints protruding as much as head, and hands angled backwards (plate 68e, and fig. 70A on page 473). Soars on wings held forward with lightly curved leading edges (hand), trailing edges straighter but not at right angles to body, and wings clearly raised, though hands held level (plate 68d and fig. 70B).

Identification If view obtained where plumage details can be clearly observed, there should be no problem in identifying this species. Its falcon-size and basically grey and white plumage, with black upperwing patches and black under-primaries, are characteristic. At distance, if size cannot be judged, care must be taken not to confuse it with any of the pale grey and white male harriers, parti­ cularly Pallid Harrier C. macrourus, as gliding or soaring Black- winged Kite holds wings in similar position to gliding or soaring harrier. If seen only in silhouette, much-protruding owl-like head, giving impression of wings set too far back on body, should readily dis­ tinguish species from any of the falcons, particularly Kestrel which also has similar habit of hovering in search of prey. PLATE 65. Kestrels Falco tinnunculus [photos: Robin Williams, J. B. and S. Bottomley, Derek Washington). Long, pointed wings and typical falcon flight distinguish both kestrels from small Accipiter hawks (plates 70-71): the species shown here is one of the commonest and most widely distributed European raptors, habi• tually hovering with rapid, shallow wing-beats and fanned tail (pages 476-478) PLATE 66. Above, male Kestrels Falco tinnunculus (photos: Arthur Christiansen, Barry Angell); below, male Lesser Kestrels F. naumanni (photos: Pierre Petit, J. F. Ormond). Lesser is slimmer, with slightly more slender wings and with frequently wedge-shaped tail, creamy-buff body, white underwings and black wing-tips, unspotted chestnut back and upperwing-coverts, and contrasting blue- grey greater coverts; Kestrel's moustachial stripes are lacking (pages 476-481) r PLATE 67, Above, male Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni hovering and banking, Spain and Turkey (photos: Paul Geroudet, M. J. Helps); right, adult female, France (photo: P. S. Hansen): female may be very difficult to separate from female Kestrel on plumage, but has paler underparts, with spotting on coverts normally confined to greater coverts. Below, Black-winged Kites Elanus caeruleus, Rhodesia and Gambia (photos: Peter Steyn, Bent Pars Nielsen)—a mainly tropical species with an outpost in Portugal (pages 482-483) PLATE 68. More shots of Black-winged Kites Elanus caeruleus: three above, juvenile hovering, Kenya {photos: J. F. Reynolds); left, soaring, also Kenya (photo: Arthur Christiansen); below, gliding, Portugal (photo: D. Wooldridge). Long-winged and somewhat larger than Kestrel, with noticeably protruding owl-like head and fairly short tail; persistently hovers, soars with wings held forward and arms raised, glides on raised and angled wings; plumage basically grey and white, with black upperwing patches and under-primaries PLATE 69. Goshawks Accipiter gentilis: above, immature, Czechoslovakia (photo: Kovdf Karel); below, adults, Sweden (photos: Arne Schmitz)- Great size difference between sexes, and smallest males may be little larger than some female Sparrow- hawks (plate 71). Immature heavily chequered below, adult barred; latter's dark crown and ear-coverts may give it a hooded appearance (pages 486-489) PLATE 70. Levant Sparrowhawks Accipiter brevipes, Turkey: above, immatures {photos: Claus F. Pedersen, Peder Weibull); below, adult male and immature (photos: M. J. Helps). Similar in outline to Sparrowhawk (see opposite), but silhouette more falcon-like; adult male unmarked white below, suffused buffish and with black wing-tips, but identification of female needs care (see text); immature has lines of drop-like spots on pure whitish underbody, unlike ragged barring on young Sparrowhawk. Frequently seen in large flocks on migration (pages 491-493) PLATE 71. Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus: top photograph and below, Sweden {photos: Arthur Christiansen); above left, also Sweden {photo: Arne Schmitz); above right, Turkey {photo: M. J. Helps). This and Kestrel are most numerous and wide• spread small European raptors. Relatively shorter-winged than Levant Sparrow- hawk and Goshawk; much larger female may approach small male Goshawk in size, though more compact, with square-ended tail. In hunting flight, series of several rapid wing-beats alternate with stiff, short glides (pages 489-490) European raptors: Black-winged Kite 483

Fig. 76. Adult and (lower right) first-autumn Black-winged Kites Elanus caeruleus. The adult (76A, 76B) is white below, with a very slight greyish wash on the sides of the breast and with light greyish secondaries and black primaries. From above it is a soft blue-grey, the white tail having pale grey central feathers; the most conspicuous markings are the black lesser and median coverts, and a small black crescent on the tips of the primary coverts. The forehead and a narrow area above the eye are white. The bright red eye is set in a black eye-rim which extends into a fine black streak behind the eye. The cere, legs and feet are yellow. The juvenile (76c) has a chestnut wash on the breast and sides of neck, the crown feathers are streaked with white, and the eyes are dark brown. The upperparts are brownish, and the wings dark brownish-grey with white or rufous feather edges. The black shoulder patch is less distinct and clear-cut than in the adult and is frequently flecked with white. This plumage lasts only about three months before the moult into adult plumage commences; the latter lasts about twelve months, though by six months the brown feathers on the upperparts have already been replaced by the blue-grey of the adult, and the eyes have become red 484 Flight identification of European raptors

Fig. 77. Typical undersides of females of three Accipiter hawks Flight identification of European raptors 485 A. Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (pages 486-489, plate 69). LARGE ADULT FEMALE SHOWN. Largest raptor in this group, though much size difference throughout between females and smaller males, and also variation in size between individuals of same sex. Female Goshawk practically buzzard-sized but with shorter wings, longer tail and more protruding head, at times appearing not unlike Honey Buz­ zard Pernii apivorus. Male often little larger than large female Sparrowhawk. Upperparts of both dark brown, tinged grey; underparts and underwing-coverts whitish, closely barred with brown; female shows conspicuous whitish superciliary stripe. All three raptors in this group nest in woodland or forest. Nominate race resident Britain (very rare) and Fenno-Scandia, south to Mediterranean and across Europe to Turkey; buteoides (larger and paler) breeds extreme north of Sweden, Finland and Russia, wintering farther south in Fenno-Scandia and central Russia and occasionally as far as Netherlands, Germany and Hungary; arrigonii (smaller and darker) resident Corsica and Sardinia

B. Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus (pages 489-490, plate 71). ADULT FEMALE SHOWN. Female only a little smaller than many male Goshawks and care should be taken in separating the two. Sparrowhawk proportionately shorter-winged than Goshawk, however, with square-cut (not rounded) tail. Flight swift—series of rapid wing-beats interspersed with glides on flat wings. Plumage of female very similar to that of Goshawk, though more finely barred. Male Sparrowhawk very small, with short wings, long tail and orange-barred underparts. Nominate race breeds Britain, Ireland, continental Europe south from about 6g°N, Sicily and northern Turkey; both sedentary and migratory, some birds moving south in winter, especially from northern Europe. A similar race (punicus) resident north­ west Africa, and the smaller, darker and more densely barred wolterstorffi resident Corsica and Sardinia

C. Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes (pages 491-493, plate 70). ADULT FEMALE SHOWN. Similar in shape to Sparrowhawk but with slightly narrower, more pointed wings giving falcon-like appearance. Adult male unmistakable, with white underparts suffused vinous-buff on body and underwing-coverts, and with black wing-tips. Upperparts pale blue-grey, appearing dove-like. Female barred below, paler than female Sparrowhawk; black wing-tips and more dark bars on tail than in Sparrowhawk should aid identification. Immature, which also has black-wing-tips, brown above with whitish underbody heavily chequered with drop-like spots. Breeds Balkans (except northern Yugoslavia), eastern Romania, Ukraine and probably western Turkey; migratory, April-May and September, often moving in large flocks 486 European raptors: Goshawk European raptors: Goshawk 487

Fig. 78. Large adult female, adult male and large immature female Goshawks Accipiter gentilis from below, and large adult female and small immature male from above. Apart from difference in size, the sexes are similar from below (78A, 78B). The underparts are whitish, closely barred with dark brown on the body and underwing-coverts. The flight-feathers are broadly barred with dark brown, as is the greyish tail which has four or five dark bands. The undertail-coverts are con­ spicuously white (also apparent sometimes on Sparrowhawks when soaring in good light). The immature (78c), though slightly paler, is more heavily marked: the underparts, including the undertail-coverts, are buff, streaked with dark brown drop-like markings, like large immature Levant Sparrowhawk. From above the adult male (not shown) is brown, tinged grey, with a whitish, rather finely streaked superciliary stripe broadening to a pale whitish nape. The centre of the crown is blackish-brown. The bases of the scapulars and uppertail-coverts are sometimes barred white. The tail is slate-brown, tipped white, with three or four dark brown bands. The larger female from above (78D) is similar, though the superciliary stripe is more noticeable and the plumage lacks the grey cast of the male. The immature (78E) is a paler, browner bird above, often with a buffish tinge, with a blackish crown edged rufous and becoming whitish on the nape. The uppertail is brown with dark bars more obvious than in the adult. The eyes are greenish-grey in immatures, becoming yellow to orange-red in adults; the cere and feet are greenish-yellow. Northern birds of the race buteoides are paler and greyer than nominate gentilis and have a conspicuous white superciliary stripe and heavy barring below. Goshawks in the southern part of their range in Europe are generally darker than the typical examples of the nominate race shown here 488 European raptors: Goshawk Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (pages 486-489, plate 69) Silhouette Male (78B, 78E) resembles large female Sparrowhawk (pages 489-490), though appears to have longer and more pointed wings, and proportionately very slightly shorter and more rounded tail, than that species. Much larger female (78A, 78c, 780), despite broad, rounded wings typical of Accipiters, can be mistaken for buzzard types (particularly Honey Buzzard) or even harriers, due to large size, rather long wings and long tail.

Flight Like heavy, powerful version of Sparrowhawk. Series of wing-beats slower than Sparrowhawk's, interspersed with glides on flat, rather pointed wings with trailing edges each held in pro­ nounced 'S' curve. Often soars, particularly over breeding ground, when tendency for tail to be more fully spread than Sparrowhawk's, but Goshawk not infrequently soars with tail closed. Although capable of great speed, Goshawks, even smaller males, appear much slower and heavier in flight than Sparrowhawks.

Identification Large size of female, with longish wings and tail and protruding head, makes confusion possible with buzzard types (particularly Honey Buzzard) and harriers; however, characteristic flight of Goshawk, with series of rather quick wing-beats followed by glide on flat or very slightly bowed wings, should aid identifica­ tion even at distance. Female Goshawk quite different in shape from harriers and Honey Buzzard, being fatter-bodied, rounder- tailed, and slightly shorter- and proportionately broader-winged. Compared with buzzards, body bulk very similar, though tail longer. Female Goshawk also readily distinguished from all other similar-sized birds of prey by more uniform appearance below, being closely barred on body and underwing-coverts. Very little contrast, if any, in field between colours of coverts and flight- feathers, and certainly no dark carpal patches or pale wing-flashes on under-primaries as in almost all Buteos and Honey Buzzard. Four or five blackish bands on rounded tail usually fairly con­ spicuous, as are dark greyish-brown ear-coverts which often give bird a hooded appearance (78D, plate 69b, c). Smaller male can be confused with large female Sparrowhawk, since smallest males only very slightly larger than latter. Ready aids to identification are Goshawk's longer wings, rounded tail (Sparrow- hawk's is rather square-cut) and more powerful flight. Plumage rather similar to that of female Sparrowhawks, though white undertail-coverts usually more conspicuous and upperparts greyer; male Goshawk's grey ear-coverts often give it a hooded appearance. [continued opposite] European raptors: Sparrowhawk 489 Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus (pages 489-490, plate 71) Silhouette Small hawk, with well-proportioned body, rather short, broad wings and long, square-ended tail. Unlike falcons, wings in open flight and in soaring are blunt-ended (plate 71a, b, d). Female slightly (but usually noticeably) larger than male, which can often resemble long-tailed Merlin F. columbarius (part 7).

Flight Hunting and normal flight is series of very rapid wing-beats interspersed with stiff, short glides. When soaring (plate 71b, d), wings held flat and slightly forward, and tail usually almost fully closed; occasionally, at start of period of soaring, tail is fanned slightly, but it is quickly closed as bird goes into full soar.

Identification Confusion possible with small Goshawk (pages 486- 489), with Levant Sparrowhawk (pages 491-493), and occasionally with Kestrel (pages 476-478) and Merlin. Large female Sparrow- hawks only a little smaller than small male Goshawks, but former have relatively shorter wings (giving longer-tailed appearance) and square-ended tail (not rounded, as in Goshawk); wing-beats also faster and glides between periods of flapping shorter. Sparrow- hawk told from Levant Sparrowhawk at all ages by absence of black wing-tips and different tail barring: Sparrowhawk has four or five tail bars visible in field, Levant five or six. Latter also more delicately built, with slightly narrower, more pointed wings (com­ pare plates 70 and 71). Differentiation between males easy, Levant being almost white below with black wing-tips. On a quick view Kestrels and Merlins can superficially resemble Sparrowhawks and therefore, as with all raptors, hasty identifica­ tion can frequently lead to mistakes.

[continued from opposite page] Immature (78c, 78E, plate 69a) heavily chequered below, rather like large immature Levant Sparrowhawk (pages 491-493), and lacks adult's white undertail-coverts and dark ear-coverts. Apart from these features, identification points for adults mentioned above apply also to immatures. Female's longish wings, rather pointed when gliding, coupled with heavy body and rather uniform underparts can cause con­ fusion with Gyrfalcon F. rusticolus (part 6) at distance, but long tail of Goshawk and less pointed, shorter wings help to separate the two. 49Q European raptors: Sparrowkawk

Fig. 79. Adult female and male Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus from below and female from above. The adult male from below (79B) looks very small. The under- parts are white, very closely barred with reddish-orange and at a distance appear­ ing uniformly orange. The chin is white, as are the undertail-coverts, often con­ spicuously so. The underwing-coverts are whitish, closely barred; the flight- feathers have dark spots forming bars. The tail is greyish with four or five blackish- brown bars and a narrow whitish terminal band. The larger female (79A) lacks the orangey underparts of the male but has warm brown barring below with sometimes warmer, orangey barring on the flanks. The immature (not shown) varies a great deal from below, being white or huffish-orange with brownish streaks and blotches, the markings on the underbody forming more ragged bars than in the adult. The upperparts of the adult male are usually dark slate-grey, though there is much variation and some birds appear quite pale blue-grey. The forehead is often tinged rufous. The upperparts of the adult female (79c) are dark brown, often with a slate-grey cast; there is a narrow pale whitish supercilium which the male usually lacks. The immature from above is brown, with rufous edgings to the feathers often giving it a warm orangey-brown appearance at a distance. In all birds the uppertail is broadly barred dark brown, with a pale tip. The colours of the bare parts are similar to those of the Goshawk European raptors: Levant Sparrowhawk 49i Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes (pages 491-493, plate 70) Silhouette More falcon-like than Sparrowhawk (pages 489-490), due to very slightly slenderer and more pointed wings (compare plates 70 and 71). Basic size and structure otherwise similar to Sparrow- hawk.

Flight Also like Sparrowhawk's, but less dashing: much more likely to be seen soaring in thermals on migration, when may occur in large flocks. Small size of individuals and their quick evolutions in thermals make high flocks of migrants appear almost like swarms of midges.

Identification Confusion possible with Sparrowhawk and even with male Lesser Kestrel (pages 479-481). Male Levant (8OB, plate 70c) unmistakable provided good view obtained. White underparts, suffused on body and coverts with buffish, and black wing-tips provide for quick identification, though more pointed-winged appearance than in other Accipiters could cause confusion with male Lesser Kestrel which is also very pale below. Latter, however, always readily identified even at distance by broad black subterminal band on pale tail, apart from smaller size. Female Levant (8OA) can be distinguished from Sparrowhawk by slenderer and more pointed wings, generally paler appearance, and black wing-tips which latter species lacks. Levant has five or six black bands visible on undertail, compared with Sparrowhawk's four or five, a distinction valid for males, females and immature birds. Immature Levant (80c, 8OE, plate 70a, b, d) also shows black wing-tips, but less obviously than in adults; it has chequered underparts, lines of drop-like spots on pure whitish underbody being quite unlike ragged barring on underparts of immature Sparrow- hawk. 492 European raptors: Levant Sparrowhawk European raptors: Levant Sparrowhawk 493

Fig. 80. Adult female, adult male and immature Levant Sparrowhawks Accipiter brevipes from below, and typical adult and immature from above. The adult male (8OB) has white underparts, with a very pale pinkish-buff wash on the body and underwing-coverts; sometimes this is only just discernible and frequently the bird appears white below. The wing-tips are black and the undertail is pale grey with five or six black bars, the subterminal one being the broadest. Young adult males (not shown) have underparts and underwing-coverts barred rufous. The adult female (8OA) has pale whitish underparts narrowly barred brown on the body and less obviously so on the underwing-coverts, and frequently shows a pinkish-buff wash. The wing-tips are again black. The tail is pale grey, barred black as in the male, five or six bands being visible in the field compared with four or five in the Sparrowhawk. The immature (80c) is heavily marked below, being white with heavy dark brown drop-like spots on the underparts, brown-barred underwing-coverts and well-defined barring on the flight-feathers. Only the very tips of the wings are black, and the tail is barred as in adult birds. From above, the adult male (8OD) is a beautiful blue-grey, giving it an almost dove-like appearance. The flight-feathers are darker, nearly black, and the blue-grey tail is barred darker except on the central pair of feathers. The adult female shows a similar pattern, but is dark brownish-grey above with darker flight-feathers. The immature (8OE) is dark brown with some buff edges to the feathers of the upper back; its tail fre­ quently appears paler than the rest of the upperparts. The eyes are brown in immatures, reddish in adults, and the cere and feet are yellow