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First Published by Notion Press 2018 Copyright © A.S. Bhalla 2018 All Rights Reserved.

ISBN 978-1-64429-198-6

This book has been published with all efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the author. However, the author and the publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.

No part of this book may be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Contents

Preface ix

Acknowledgements xiii

List of Illustrations xv

Ancient, Pre-Mughal and Mughal India

1. Ancient Empires 3

2. Delhi and Deccan Sultanates 7

3. Splendour of Mughal Forts and Palaces 18

4. Mughal Mausoleums and Mosques 34

Princely India

5. Maharajas and Palaces 47

British India

6. The Raj and Segregation 69

7. Symbols of British Pomp and Power 75

8. Palaces of the Raj 84

9. Indian Railways 104

vii viii | Contents

10. Esplanades, Malls and Markets 113

11. People, Customs and Costumes 120

12. English Theatre and Actors 133

13. Metropolitan Centre and the Periphery 141

Appendix: History of Vintage Postcards 149

Illustration Credits 153

Bibliography 155

About the Author 161 Ancient, Pre-Mughal and Mughal India 1 Ancient Empires

he history of imperial India dates back more than 2000 years when emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty ruled India in the 3rd century BC. The Mauryanand Gupta empires are the only two empires Tof ancient times. They are so ancient that it is almost impossible to write a pictorial history about them. Most structures are in ruins or have completely disappeared. That is not surprising because most buildings and palaces were made of wood rather than stone. However, it is believed that Ashoka was the first emperor in the Mauryan dynasty to have used stone for construction work.

Pataliputra (near Patna) was the capital of Ashoka’s Mauryan Empire where he had built a large palace of wood and stone. Megasthenes, the Graeco-Seleucid ambassador to the Mauryan court who lived in Pataliputra described it as one of the largest and most prosperous cities at that time with a population of from 150,000 to 300,000. It is alleged that the palace had a pillared hall that resembled the Hall of a Hundred Columns in Persepolis in Achaemenid Persia. The design of the pillar capitals also showed Persian and Greek influences. Some observers believe that the pillars may have belonged to a large hall built for a Buddist Council. The third Buddhist council was held in Pataliputra during Ashoka’s reign. David Spinner of the Archaeological Department of India excavated the Hall in 1913 which he found to be ‘in an almost incredible state of preservation, the logs which formed it being as smooth and perfect as the day they were laid more than two thousand yeasrs ago’ (cited in Nehru,1946:103). Later in the 1950s, K.P. Jayaswal of the Architectural Research Institute of Patna discovered the remains of eight additional pillars at the excavation site.

Persian and Greek influences on the palace pillars and other Ashoka pillars, such as the one in Sarnath, are not surprising. Ashoka had kept close contacts with these regions. It is also quite possible that the pillars were actually sculpted by Persian artisans and sculptors who were imported from Persia. At that time Indian artisans were not known for such sophisticated sculpture.

Fa Hsien, a Chinese visitor to India in the 5th century claims to have seen the palace. He describes it as being made of stone, located in the centre of the city, with fine carvings and in-laid stone sculpture, ‘all in a way which no human hand of this world could accomplish’ (cited in Eraly, 2005:342). Hsuan Tsang, another Chinese pilgrim who visited Pataliputra in the 7th century, found the city, including the palace, in ruins.

3 4 | Imperial India

The only structures that have survived from Ashoka’s reign are the stone pillars and rock edicts. He also built Hindu temples and later Buddhist temples after he became converted to Buddhism. To cite a few examples:

• The cave temple of Karna Kauphar. • The Vishnu temple of Sudama in the Barabar caves near Gaya in Bihar. • Buddhist stupas, such as those in Sarnath and Sanchi, to house Buddhist relics. • The Sarnath pillar with its capital of four lions which forms the official emblem of the Republic of India. According to Marshall (1931) the pillar sculptures ‘are masterpieces in point of both style and technique, the finest carving, indeed, that India has yet produced, and unsurpassed by… anything of their kind in the ancient world.’ • The Ashoka pillar in Firoz Shah Kotla (see Chapter 2, Figure 6). • Other Ashoka pillars were discovered in Lumbini in Nepal and in Vaishali, Sarnath and Sanchi in India.

The Ashoka pillars and rock edicts found all over India are unlikely to be symbols of an emperor’s power. Instead, they were intended to propagate the emperor’s concept of dharma and to send out royal proclamations to the public.

Ashoka was known to be a great builder who may have imported skilled crasftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments. This conjecture is reinforced by the fact that the quality of Indian craftsmanship in stone sculptures declined a great deal soon after the fall of his Mauryan empire.

There is little evidence to suggest that Ashoka indulged in lavish spending on magnificent palaces and temples. Neither does one find any examples of his vanity and vainglory as an emperor. However, Eraly (2005:328) observes that ‘Asoka too sought fame and glory, but in a field outside the normal concerns of kings. Most of Ashoka’s edicts speak of his major concern for his people’s welfare. For example, in one edict he notes: ‘His Sacred Majesty does not regard that fame and glory bring much profit, unless my people immediately hearken to dharma and conform to its precepts now and in the future.’

The Sungas (185–72 BC) took over after the fall of the Mauryan empire. They continued with the Maurya tradition of building stupas. It is believed that the Sanchi stupa was first built by Ashoka as a simple earthen structure in the third century BC. This structure may have been destroyed sometime in the second century BC presumably for acquiring building materials. The Great Sanchi stupa (Figure1) was rebuilt on the same site by a Sunga king (Sungas had also built the Bharhut stupa which is completely destroyed). The Sunga king may have added balustrades, staircases and harmika on the top (see Bhalla, 2014). The Great Stupa is one of the oldest stone structures to be found in India. Its four gateways with intricate carvings (one is shown on the right in Figure 1) were added later during the reign of the Andhras (72–25 BC). A monastery (no. 18) and a temple (no.17) are associated with the Guptas. Thus, Buddhist art in Sanchi spans four dynasties, namely, Mauryas, Sungas, Andhras and Guptas. Ancient Empires | 5

The Gupta Hindu Empire, which lasted from the fourth to the sixth century, made equally important contributions to Indian art, architecture and sculpture. Besides building wooden and sandstone temples (for example, Temple 17 in Sanchi) and iron pillars (see Chapter 2, Figure 5) the Guptas built stone sculptures of Buddha which were discovered in Mathura and Sarnath. The Gupta empire is often heralded as the Golden or Classical Age of ancient India. But this was true mainly of north India. A high-level civilization reached the south only in the post – Gupta period, with the rise of the Pallava (7th to 9th century), Chalukya (7th to 12th century) and Chola (10th to 12th century) kingdoms. These dynasties ushered in a golden age of art and architecture in the south. They built magnificent complexes of Hindu temples and temple towns. Pallava kings of the first great Tamil dynasty built temples such as those at Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram, and Madurai (Marathé, 1998; Stierlin, 2002). Chalukyas were responsible for such temples as Durga Temple and the Ladh Khan Temple in Aihole in the 7th century. They also built several mounuments in Badami and Pattadakal. The Chola kingdom had Thanjavur (formerly Tanjore) as its capital where a great temple was built by its king, Rajraja 1, who ruled from 985 to 1014.

Fig.1. Great Stupa, Sanchi (author’s private collection of photographs)

The Andhra and Vakataka rulers of the South were responsible for the unique cave temples (Hindu and Buddhist) of Ajanta and Ellora (near Aurangabad in Maharashtra), most of which were built in the 5th to 8th century (see Figure 2 and Bhalla, 2014). The two earliest of these (caves 9 and 10) date back to the first and second centuries BC. The cave temples and monasteries of Ajanta (all are Buddhist) were excavated primarily for the accommodation of monks during the rainy season when the valley was often flooded. Apart from Buddhist sculptures, the temple walls and ceilings have beautiful paintings which are the only ones to have survived from those times. The paintings dating back to the 1st to 8th century BC, depict the wor-ship of the Bodhi tree and jataka stories of love, compassion and non-violence preached by Buddhists. Some paintings of the ceilings show flowers, birds and animals. Some show scenes of palaces and courts, and ornaments and musical instruments. The Ellora 6 | Imperial India caves have Buddhist, Hindu and Jain temples which have no mural paintings, only sculptures of Buddha and Hindu gods.

The Andhras were known for the patronage of art and architecture as were the Gupta rulers in the north. The Buddhist Cave temple 19 built in the 5th or 6th century shows a chaitya hall with Buddha standing in front. While these and other temples from ancient India have survived, the palaces have not. Yet the literature speaks of kings living in large and sumptuous palaces. A 12th century document notes that kings, regardless of the size of their kingdoms, were expected to live in grand palaces (Bhalla, 2015).

Fig.2. Buddhist cave temple 19, Ajanta (author’s private collection of photographs)

The Gupta rulers of the north attempted to emulate the Mauryas, especially Ashoka, in maintaining imperial ambitions. But the centralized control, so essential for an empire to exercize its power and authority, ‘was not as fully realized in the Gupta government or in its successors as it has been under the Mauryas’ (Thapar, 1990:136).

The decline of the Guptas in the early seventh century gave rise to a new ruler, Harshavardhan. During his 40-year reign, Harsha was also unable to conquer the south.

Harsha was succeeded by Rajputs, who lived mainly in Rajasthan and central India and ruled the north of India in the 9th and 10th centuries. Infighting between different Rajput clans weakened them, which attracted Muslim invaders from abroad. The invaders defeated the Rajputs and established the Delhi Sultanate. 2 Delhi and Deccan Sultanates

here were three phases in the Islamic conquest of India: the Arab invasion of Sind in the early eighth century, Mahmud Ghazni’s raids three centuries later, and Muhammad Ghuri’s invasion and the T establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. The Slave dynasty, founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak (Ghuri’s viceroy in India), was the first Turkish rule in India. There were five dynasties which ruled the Delhi Sultanate, namely, the Slaves, Khaljis, Tughluqs, Sayyids and Lodis. The Slaves ruled for over 80 years and the Khaljis for a little over 30 years. These two dynasties account for the bulk of royal monuments which are located mostly in Mehrauli in New Delhi.

Iltutmish, the third Sultan of the Slave dynasty, was known as a great builder. He promoted art and architecture in India by encouraging refugee artists from Central Asia and Persia to settle in his royal court. He completed the Qutb Minar (Victory Tower) which was started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, built his tomb near the Minar, and expanded the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque started by Aibak next door to the Qutb Minar. He commissioned several more arches for the mosque, some of which are still standing (Figure 5).

The Turkish sultans felt racially superior to the Indian natives, as did the British several centuries later (see Chapter 5). They denied Indians any senior positions (generally appointing Turks and Persians) at the royal court and looked down upon the local population. They did not blend: ‘they were like oil and water in the same pot’ (Eraly, 2014:3). Their alleged racial superiority, combined with the caste-ridden Hindu society, kept the Turkish rulers apart at least in early years. The Indian ruling class did not treat them as aliens or foreigners, but simply as another component in the multi-faceted fabric of Indian society. Delhi Sultanate

Delhi sultans, like their Mughal successors, indulged in building lavish victory towers, palaces and mausoleums as symbols of their absolute power over their subjects and as a rich Islamic architectural and cultural heritage. Most of these monuments are concentrated in the Qutb Minar complex in Mehrauli, for example, Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza, Iltutmish tomb and Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, which date back to the 12th and 13th centuries.

7 8 | Imperial India

Qutb-ud-din Aibak built the Qutb Minar in c.1200 AD to celebrate Muhammad Ghuri’s victory over the Chauhan Rajputs. The victory tower consists of five storeys: only the first was built by him, however. The remaining four storeys were built by his successor and son-in-law, Iltutmish. The two top storeys (made of white marble unlike the others) were damaged by an earthquake but were restored in 1369 by Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351–88). The inscriptions around the lower parts of the tower record that Iltutmish completed its construction. The lower storeys have intricate carvings and inscriptions whereas the top two marble ones are plain.

Fig.3. Qutb Minar, Mehrauli, New Delhi (printed in Germany by H.A. Mirza & Sons, Delhi)

The Minar underwent several repairs and modifications by Sikander Lodi (1505), Major Smith (1794) and Governor-General Lord Hardinge (1848) over the centuries.

There is some controversy about whether or not the Minar was a tower commemorating victory. Considering that there were similar towers in Afghanistan, namely, the ruined tower at Siya Push near Ghazni and Bahram Shah’s minaret in Ghazni, it probably was a victory tower. Delhi and Deccan Sultanates | 9

The Alai Darwaza (or the Gateway), built by Ala-ud-din Khalji, is one of the finest gateways of the time and which inspired many subsequent buildings such as the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq. The Khaljis, who came from Central Asia but lived in Afghanistan, succeeded the Slaves. Ala-ud-din was considered one of the greatest Khaljis who built the Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza and the city of Siri near the Qutb Complex.

The pointed horseshoe arches are an important feature of the gateways not repeated in any of the subsequent buildings. They suggest a foreign influence, perhaps that of the Seljuk Turkish empire of Asia Minor, which was broken up by the Mongol invasions. It is possible that its architects were forced to flee to Delhi, the Indian capital, and may have been employed by the Khaljis.

Fig.4. Alai Darwaza, Qutb complex, Delhi

On entering the Qutb Minar complex, a visitor sees an Iron Pillar and three arches which are the ruins of the Great Mosque. Aibak built the mosque by using the materials recovered from the Hindu and Jain temples and other Rajput buildings in the vicinity. The pillars are decorated with the original Hindu carvings and intricate floral and other designs such as bells and chains. Local Hindu masons and workers, employed to build Islamic structures (since no Muslim masons were locally available), freely used such symbols.They had no knowledge of the techniques of building Islamic arches and domes. 10 | Imperial India

Fig.5. Great Mosque and Iron pillar, Delhi

Iltutmish decided to enlarge the mosque by building six more arches, three on either side of the original building. These new arches, built by the Afghan and Persian workers, are more refined than the earlier ones. They are decorated with Islamic geometrical forms such as circles and triangles.

Iltutmish built his own tomb next door to the mosque which was completed just before his death. It was the first Islamic tomb in India if one did not count that of his son, Sultan Ghari. It has a square plan and has no dome. Some observers believe that there was indeed a dome which may have collapsed. Delhi and Deccan Sultanates | 11

Hindu craftsmen who built the tomb were not familiar with the Islamic technique of building a dome which may explain a structural defect and its short life span.

The tomb exterior is much simpler than the Alai Darwaza nearby. It is rather austere with a plain sandstone façade. The simple exterior may be explained by the need to use local pillaged building materials from the Hindu temples. In contrast, the tomb interior is intricately carved in red sandstone with inscriptions from the holy Koran referring to such themes as the oneness of God, and eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer. These themes also appear on the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar, which were constructed by Aibak and Iltutmish.

Fig.6. Iltutmish Tomb, Qutb complex (printed in Germany by D. Marcopolo & Co., Calcutta)

The Tughluq sultans who succeeded the Khaljis, especially Firoz Shah, were very fond of building palaces, mosques and mausoleums. In his chronicle, Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, Afif notes: ‘Sultan Firuz excelled all his predecessors on the throne of Delhi in the erection of buildings; indeed no monarch of any country surpassed him [in this]. He built cities, forts, palaces, bunds, mosques, and tombs in great number…’ (cited in Eraly, 2014:187).

The Tughluq monuments were rather heavy and austere. For example, Ghiyas Tughluq’s tomb in Tughluqabad (unlike that of Iltutmish) is more like a fortress and is devoid of any significant decorations. 12 | Imperial India

One cannot help feeling that even in death Ghiyas wanted to be protected by thick walls from the Mongols who frequently invaded Delhi during his reign. Ghiyas founded the new city of Tughluqabad which is in ruins with the exception of his tomb which is in an excellent condition.

Fig.7. Tughluqabad and the Ghiyas Tomb (printed in Germany by H.A. Mirza & Sons, Delhi)

Firoz Shah (1351–88) was the third and last of the Tughluq sultans who showed keen interest in his subjects. Known as master builder, he built a new palace and city, Firoz Shah Kotla or Firozabad on the banks of Jamuna River (presumably, to put his own distinct stamp on the Delhi Sultanate) in addition to the three existing ones at Siri, Bijay Mandal and the Qutb.

Fig.8. Firoz Shah Kotla and Ashoka Pillar (printed in Germany by H.A. Mirza & Sons, Delhi) Delhi and Deccan Sultanates | 13

The building (see Figure 8) shows windows of the sultan’s private apartments and an Ashoka pillar on the top which Firoz found while hunting. He decided to transport it to Delhi, keen as he was on collecting pieces of art and architecture. Apparently, the pillar had a small golden dome on the top, which disappeared in the 18th century when Marathas and Jats looted Delhi.

Following the death of Firoz Shah, the Delhi Sultanate entered a chaotic period during which many independent kingdoms emerged. It was the task of Khizr Khan of the Sayyid dynasty, who took over in 1414, to restore some political stability. The Sayyid dynasty lasted till 1451 when Bahlol Lodi, the first sultan of the Lodi dynasty, ascended the Delhi throne.

Unlike the diverse and magnificent architectural contributions of the first three dynasties (Slaves, Khaljis and Tughluqs), the last two, Sayyids and Lodis, did not have much to contribute except a few modest tombs (gumbads) which are scattered around Delhi. Many are located in the Lodi Gardens in New Delhi. The notable ones are the Bara Gumbad with Sikander Mosque attached to it and the Shish Gumbad.

Sikander Lodi’s tomb in the Lodi Gardens is most elaborate of the tombs. It is unlike all other tombs in the Lodi Gardens. Its layout, a veranda around the central hall and a rampart, is a hallmark of grandeur not seen in other earlier tombs. Deccan Sultanates

Khalji and Tughluq sultans had established the Deccan sultanates in the late 13th and 14th centuries respectively. The Khaljis were attracted by the wealth of the Deogiri kingdom of the Yadavas. Ala-ud-din Khalji captured the Deogiri fort in 1296 (originally built by the Yadavas in the 12th century) but he allowed the raja, the fort’s occupant, to continue to rule as a vassal. Tughluqs who succeeded the Khaljis further extended their hold on Deogiri and its fort. Muhammad Tughluq renamed it as ‘Daulatabad’ and moved his capital from Tughluqabad to the Deccan. The entire population and the royal court were camped in the Daulatabad fort for 17 years. Daulatabad was considered a more central location than Delhi for launching southern campaigns. It was also well beyond the reach of the Mongols who were a constant threat to the Delhi sultanate of the north. But the move turned out to be a total failure and the Tughluq sultan returned to Delhi with his subjects.

Ala-ud-din Hasan, a military commander of the Delhi Sultan (Mohammad Tughluq), revolted and established an independent Bahmani kingdom. He built the Chand Minar (Victory Tower) in 1436 to celebrate his capture of the fort which finally fell to the Mughals in 1633. 14 | Imperial India

Fig.9. Daulatabad Fort and Chand Minar

Bahmani kingdom broke up into independent kingdoms, namely, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Golconda. Bijapur contained many attractive palaces, mosques and mausoleums. One was Gagan Mahal (Heavenly Palace) built by Sultan Ali Adil I in 1560. Originally, it was said to have been designed mainly as a residence for the sultan’s immediate family. Surprisingly the palace apartments were situated on the top floor. The ground floor was built as an Assembly Hall for public audience with the sultan.

The Fort is one of the important buildings of Bijapur which also contains mosques and other structures. One such structure is the Mehtar Mahal, presumably built in 1620. Fragments of its perforated parapet show Arabesque flourishes in the Timurid tradition. Its multi-storeyed gateway, built in the Indo – Saracenic style, leads to the Mehtar Masjid, a small three-storey building which has slender minarets such as those on some of the Golconda tombs. The minarets are decorated with lions and geese in the Hindu tradition.