About the Organisations

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is an independent ‘Mountain Learning and Knowledge Centre’ serving the eight countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas – Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Bhutan , China , India , Myanmar , Nepal , and Pakistan – and the global mountain community. Founded in 1983, ICIMOD is based in Kathmandu, Nepal, and brings together a partnership of regional member countries, partner institutions, and donors with a commitment for development action to secure a better future for the people and environment of the extended Himalayan region. ICIMOD’s activities are supported by its core programme donors: the governments of Austria, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, and its regional member countries, along with over thirty project co–fi nancing donors. The primary objective of the Centre is to promote the development of an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem and to improve the living standards of mountain populations.

European Commission Humanitarian Aid (ECHO) The European Union as a whole (i.e., the Member States and the Commission) is one of the world’s largest humanitarian aid donors; the Humanitarian Aid department (ECHO) is the service of the European Commission responsible for this activity. ECHO funds relief operations for victims of natural disasters and confl icts outside the European Union. Aid is channelled impartially, straight to victims, regardless of their race, religion and political beliefs.

DIPECHO stands for disaster preparedness in ECHO. It supports projects aimed at increasing the resilience of communities at risk of natural disasters by funding training, capacity building, awareness raising, early warning systems, and advocacy activities in the fi eld of disaster risk reduction.

2 T Local KnowledgeonDisasterPreparednessinChitralDistrict,P h H e e

Int L r ernational Centref d o s e t r

or Int s M K Julie Dek athmandu, Nepal egrat

April 200 o ed MountainDe e f ens 7 s

C s v elopment (ICIMOD) e h n i t g r a e l r : akistan s

?

i L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Copyright © 2007 International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) All rights reserved Published by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development G.P.O. Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal

ISBN 978 92 9115 026 7

Photos Front cover, page 14: Large boulder deposited during a major fl ash fl ood in Reshun Gole, Upper Dhitral – Mats Eriksson Page 2: View from Brep showing boulders deposited in a line by a fl ash fl oods – Mats Eriksson Page 22: View of the Tirich Mir (7,708m) from Chitral town – Mats Eriksson Page 60: Herders with goats in Upper Chitral – Mats Eriksson Back cover: The old and the new generation, Reshun Gole, Upper Chitral – Mats Eriksson

Editorial team Printed and bound in Nepal by Mats Eriksson (Series Coordinator) Hill Side Press (P) Ltd. Greta M. Rana (Consultant Editor) Kathmandu A. Beatrice Murray (Senior Editor) Dharma R. Maharjan (Technical Support and Layout Design)

Reproduction This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profi t purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. ICIMOD would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from ICIMOD.

Note The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the author. They are not attributable to ICIMOD and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product. ii

P P P P Pref F Contents ore a a a a R Summar Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Did Y ace r r r r w e t t t t o f 4:Conclusion 3:TheCaseStudy 2:K 1:Introduction erences r d ou Kno

er 5: er 7 er 6: er 4: er 3: er 2: er 1:

y oftheK e :

y StepsinDat Adapting t

Discussion Communicating AboutNaturalHazards Anticipating FlashFloods Obser Collecting Data

Back w? gr ving andExperiencingFlashFloods e ound y Findings o FlashFloodsandOtherHazards a CollectionandAnaly vi iv A Some K ckno wledgements e y T erms sis 69 15 64 29 49 23 6 3 viii 3 1 5 7 x

iii L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Foreword

Inhabitants in the Himalayan region are exposed to many natural hazards. The mountain ranges are young with an unstable This publication is one of a series produced under the project geology, steep slopes, and a climate that is diffi cult to predict. ‘Living with risk – sharing knowledge on disaster preparedness As a result, the region is highly susceptible to natural hazards in the Himalayan region’, implemented by ICIMOD during a such as fl oods and fl ash fl oods, landslides, and earthquakes. In 15-month period in 2006 and 2007. The project was funded populated areas, these can lead to disaster. Vulnerable groups by the European Commission through their Humanitarian Aid – the poor, women, and children – are often hit hardest. department (DG ECHO) as part of the Disaster Preparedness ECHO programme (DIPECHO) in South Asia, and by ICIMOD. Since its establishment in 1983, the International Centre for Through this project, ICIMOD has endeavoured to encourage Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has dedicated knowledge sharing and to strengthen capacity among key much of its work to examining ways to reduce the risk of practitioners in the fi eld of disaster preparedness and disasters from natural hazards, thereby working towards the management. This has been done through training courses, decreased physical vulnerability of the people in the Hindu workshops, knowledge compilation and dissemination, and Kush-Himalayas. This work has encompassed training courses, the establishment of a website (www.disasterpreparedness. hazard mapping, landslide mitigation and control, mountain icimod.org). risk engineering, watershed management, vulnerability assessment, and much more. ICIMOD has also fostered regional The publications resulting from this project include baseline and transboundary dialogue for improved management of both assessments of the disaster preparedness status in the four the resources provided and the risks threatened by the big target countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan); rivers in the Himalayan region; sharing of hydro-meteorological case studies and a framework on local knowledge for disaster data and information among the countries in the region is of preparedness; and gender and vulnerability aspects in particular importance for mitigating the risk of riverine and disaster risk reduction. The publications, training sessions, fl ash fl oods in the major river basins. iv acceptable The and capacitybuildinginthefi reduction under regional F and rame w long-t tak o w rkshops o organisations rk e status; erm and f le or v el mission publish A w ction and ere of disast under under

should 2005-20 baseline t o

bring er tak tak

eld ofdisast risk pr en e 1 omo resear assessments the 5’ in has the which t Himala e

ch, sharing only cont er riskreduction. training, recommends y e just an xt of of of region disast inf begun. the education, ormation; ‘Hy er t o that The

ogo risk an w will im commitment, casualties, in countries e pr arecommitt the help o v ed. w im orld in It pr and is o the in har v e ICIMOD’s ed t im t disast d erms region pact w o ser ork, er on of v are and e hope risk . number national among joint reduction that ef economies. and our f the o r ts in collectiv se Dr ICIMOD Direct most can the v . AndreasSchild erity mountain this or disast Only e General of situation endea disast b er y

str region pr v our one er ong be s, s v L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Preface

The cost of disregarding local “We told them twice!”, said the leader of a nearby village. “We knew that the retaining walls were too small to channel the knowledge water during the rainy season and that they should have been raised.” “External agencies, including government offi cials and technical people, never listen to local advice!” The villagers had learned from previous experience: they could Workshop participant, Chitral town, October 2006 remember how two people died in the same place about 40 years ago in a major fl ash fl ood. Unfortunately, the engineering company, interested in settling in an easily accessible and Flash fl oods are frequent events in the Chitral District of cheap area, neglected local advice. Pakistan. Most of the time, villagers manage to save their lives. They know how to interpret local environmental signals and In remote mountainous places like Chitral District, as elsewhere, where hazardous places are. But on July 14th 2006, a foreign road construction is associated with development – and engineer lost his life at a tunnel construction site. That day, short-term employment for the locals. However, it can also be an intense rainstorm occurred between 4:00 and 5:30 pm. associated with increased vulnerability to natural hazards. In The extreme rainfall event triggered a fl ash fl ood, which rapidly Shainigar, a village in Lower Chitral, greater fl ood impacts have washed away the engineering company’s equipment and been experienced since road construction started. The river residential quarters on the fringe of the river bed. This tragic bed, which used to form a deep channel, has now been fi lled event, which took the life of one person and damaged a million up to construct a cross-way for a road. The new road has altered rupees of equipment, was not a surprise to the locals. the natural channel of the stream and when a fl ood occurs now,

vi as agencies natural that o Man houses whenitrainshea result build int ther o w y as the local a par st people the bridge. hazar ories nearb ts at kno case of bo ds, lik living y wledge, the th Unf e fi on

elds. in these national or Himala July par ne tunat xt The ticular in 30 can vily f t o ely y th general,

villager and an the

2006, , be or f , their is region. riv int f ear ofbeingw ound normally er s ernational the req ask and in The uest in w this ed a local Chitral t y er ignored the w village illustrat q as le u ashed a Go kno v ickly els. ignored. District v ernment b wledge lea e y o A

v e the gencies v w erfl x e a t

ernal as y their

As o . f act ws on t in a o

visible, andbeincludedindecision-makingpr t t hazar the disast Local deal t end erm. o

im time, por of t ds What er people o

which s,

tant f in a locals but v our their local human are the is scientifi are

localities. people no y the are t a and in w fi

also

are r c st tune kno

economic and t of o the Ignoring w

suf with the should specialised fi

r f

s er nature t local t costs, fr o their

om respond be cont collect and Julie the kno especially kno e wledge hist direct xts ocesses. Dek t wledge; o ed,

them. or and ens made y im in of ma realities. pacts the a Most natural y great more lead long of of vii L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Acknowledgements

This study is part of a 15-month project (April 2006 – June (AKRSP Chitral); Dilshad Pari (AKRSP Booni, social organiser/ 2007) entitled, Living with risk – sharing knowledge on gender); a climate change specialist, Arun B. Shrestha (ICIMOD); disaster preparedness in the Himalayan region, supported and two local translators. by the European Commission through its Humanitarian Aid Department (DIPECHO). Local Partners: The study was made possible with the help and collaboration of many people among whom were I am grateful to all those who guided the project through its the villagers of Ashret, Baradam, Birir, Brep, Drosh, Gurin, various phases: the project manager Mats Eriksson; the Harchin, Isfangol, Jao Guru, Krakal, Mastuj, and Reshun. network offi cer Vijay Khadgi; the steering committee members Organisations and personnel contributing to this study were at ICIMOD: Madhav Karki, Jianchu Xu, Michael Kollmair, the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) – especially Zbigniew Mikolajuk and Beatrice Murray; as well as the Sardar Ayub (Regional Programme Manager, Chitral), Sherzad programme offi cers at ECHO Indira Kulenovic and Jyoti Sharma Ali Hyder (Manager, Resource Development Section, Chitral), in New Delhi, and Béatrice Miège in Brussels. and Qazi Ahmad Saeed (Institutional Development Offi cer); Focus Humanitarian Assistance, Pakistan – Syed Harir Rapid Assessment Team: The team members during the Shah (Programme Manager for community-based disaster fi eld trip included a geographer and geomorphologist/ risk reduction, Chitral); Government Degree College, Chitral water specialist, Mats Eriksson (ICIMOD); a social scientist/ – Inayatullah Faizi; and IUCN-Pakistan, Chitral Unit – Aziz Ali institutional specialist, Julie Dekens (ICIMOD); Ali Sher Khan (District Manager).

viii and AshaK fi la Editor and ArunB.Shrestha(ICIMOD). (ICIMOD), Assistance, Degree Univ Gar R

nalised, e y out vie dner er w s sity per e College, and r Greta s: (Pr sons of Muhammad aji Thak Pakistan), Thanks Production of Manit essor Rana, f or Chitral), oba, their u. f Emeritus, or Beatrice Canada), F Ismail dedicat arid T useful Sy eam ed Ahmad : Murra Harir (ICIMOD), I ed comments Ina am Natural w y Shah y grat o a , (ICIMOD), rk

tullah Dharma eful t Xu o (F R

esour get ocus are F Jianchu t aizi, o Ratna

this the Mats due ces Humanitarian (Go edit publication Maharjan v (ICIMOD), t Institut o Eriksson ernment or

James s and e,

ix L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Some Key Terms

Capacity – A combination of all the strengths and resources Mitigation – Structural and non-structural measures available within a community, society, or organisation that can undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. environmental degradation and technological hazards.

Disaster – A serious disruption of the functioning of a community Preparedness – Activities and measures taken in advance to or a society causing widespread human, material, economic, or ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the community or society to cope using its own resources. temporary evacuation of people and property from threatened locations. Disaster risk reduction (disaster reduction) – The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to Resilience/resilient – The capacity of a system, community minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of of functioning and structure. It is determined by the degree sustainable development. to which the social system is capable of organising itself to increase its capacity for learning from past disasters for better Hazard – A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or future protection and to improve risk reduction measures. human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

x t conditions of the also the vulnerable int activity losses Risk o reducethepo eractions the no ph

include – risk tation ysical The disrupt (deaths, pr of conditions. pr ocess. betw vulnerability aspects Risk the obability ed t ential negativ een concept = or injuries, It Hazar en results of natural of

vir vulnerability Con and harmful onmental ds of pr v fr e x insuffi entionally or om oper e conseq xposure V ulnerability human-induced the conseq ty

cient . , damaged) combination A liv t uences ofrisk o disast risk capacity elihoods,

uences, ref . Some er is er resulting par e is hazar xpressed or or of ticularly disciplines a measures economic e hazar . function xpect ds fr and om ds, ed b t o y

hazar increase economic, V and theen pose and the Risk ulnerability nature e a assessment ds. v aluating po the t ential vir and and

onment onwhichthe – susceptibility The e e threat en xisting x t or vir ent conditions onmental analysis or of conditions harm risk of

a b – det t y o f community

A act

y depend. analysing people, ermined methodology of A or dapt s vulnerability ed fr or pr b oper pr po om UN/ISDR(2004) y t

o ocesses, ph t

ential the ty ysical, t o ,

liv that det im elihoods hazar pact ermine social, which could ds of xi L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N xii Int r oduct P a r t 1 ion

1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N 2 C Did Y and especially belongings st Households them andt – Major t and fl signals e people settlement are A Part I–Introduction

ell o xperience ugust. oring w once about , damaged unusual households int destructiv f v region h die associat ensity ood, or alle Pr i t r people at a oper o twice with and fr t l ys. infl , o adopt night, presence om sa

because t of and identify h

ou Know? ving ty uence theirdecisionsaboutwheret cultiv relativ e ed Flash e fl , glaciat also f

per

fl ash orgetting

n agricultural a and ash freq with administrativ o f ation r e generation t es adopt fl and w and h

the fl fl uency running ed oods

- , oods oods them: w

or sim e mountain t arid, mo s o int neighbour prior t

long-t ple e because activ ma of erpret v r occur changes ements n land, t v o m shor e y rainf e e

– higher xperiences e r o no erm paper tical s f alluvial or t t ranges en t-t

all, s, regularly and tak the a of erm adjustment vir villager r mo landscape in s e gr e and wildlif y onmental a and ound. irrigation cloud place ving

ha f strat ans. o and with f unusual v

o s e e. P t ther fr

o egies t a of Communities deep, learned Ho colour om o

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of t ash i o en strat remember s w signs im settle. t t channels er e a en June such v enough por n sounds , narr st fl e places ,

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houses and houses Chitral local mat t aspects Long-t degradation, Man regulat natural Exam natural an fr This im landholdings, F o or om

pact y houses instance, coping y giv cla natural ples people erm e District of es y made resour hazar built lik erials t grazing fl are

people of ash e b mechanisms. strat hazar y building especially long-t belie

ds in building belie of and ce fl r is

ockf oods o egies this a also preparedness, pr and management. some d v erm sophisticat v dif e e alls, o ed

among v t fl grain w pr f ect settlementsand

ents def ash erent houses also a def strat one t fl y o

and e orestation Man

are xibility more fl be orestation st

oods their t egies include sour o ores, traditional ed

y ear ear in disappearing strat q In but ph combination ces and saf are uickly thq thq also t Chitral, erraces ysical egies e thr contribut uak t uak caused of and helps echnical areas, include than ough income e es. retaining and o are fi v resistant.

some t elds fr them ergrazing o the Locally because b ha economic

cust e of pre no y adjustments

y and ving t en t o t w w o v communities bounce omar

om w designed ood, ent ould

vir it w , spread traditional alls disper structural indirectly onmental Ho b damage there y y without st a assets.

w goats. t rules. ones, using e back e r sed v . the

f e or in is r . ,

3 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N not enough wood and new trends favour separate rooms and warning systems and new ones, leaving most communities in larger windows. an institutional vacuum. The early warning system as of 2006 mainly relied on new, centralised technologies, and these do Folklore, songs, proverbs, and traditional ceremonies are not reach many isolated communities. Overall, many changes repositories of collective and family memories of past events. are occurring in the district: a combination of factors (historical, Again, they may not be entirely about hazard preparedness but environmental, socioeconomic, demographic, institutional, may incorporate elements of it. Local religious and other key and political) infl uences community knowledge and practice of leaders, elders (both men and women), and other social actors natural hazard preparedness in a complex way. Some factors are often the key knowledge-carriers about past hazards and have helped to reduce people’s vulnerability to natural hazards the ones who make sense of imminent hazards. Traditional (e.g., better access to water by developing irrigation channels early warning systems for fl ash fl oods include a diversity of with the help of non-government organisations); others have decentralised strategies used on an ad hoc basis. However, the increased their vulnerability (e.g., population growth forcing district is now in a period of transition between traditional early people to settle in more vulnerable areas).

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 4 ho the kno and preparedness documenting described under man practices begun In Who shouldreadthisrepor T Back Chapter 1 be identifi under Part I–Introduction w thethemesarerelat theor used wledge analytical y de non-go of he standing standing

im ed t v o y eloping plementing general ,

relat in

in ackno im since here about relation disast plementing v ernment local frame ed in of w of, gr wledge and the t purpose as o disast the v er

kno disast arious local w carried 1 t organisations t o o management v esting 980s, ound

wledge rk alue disast organisations) er the er ed t is kno of organisations preparedness villages t preparedness. of out o e this im an o, andin wledge, er

xist la and local plementing y preparedness with analytical repor ence out practices pr (1) kno activities the the one fl t practices,

of uence, eacho is do in, wledge aim (Figure k t local o (go e Ho t no frame o

and y organisations secure

relat themes . of w v t

natural ernments, so The e ha kno f identifying v or t? 1). im w e ed and that v r o e the wledge , pr the case

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po mistak concerned, local fr fr does is a an whereb bias Suffi the local pr based relat really idea and om om tw oject/organisational, the w e

er!). o-w scope x sustainability ce ed of local t kno outsider kno pre no ernal means confusion en on y what a it t o t More communication y v wledge wledge

t ails biases im it. pr assum o people. of

organisation mainly ocess. sa ply local This s, and/or this im y e v but here, lack and betw por still ptions, en and discrepancy kno of Ano publication One because tantly simultaneously their lacks within practices een wledge ho of constraints ther f or community of w is is and kno , pr education e restrict the reason t the t legitimacy xam o ojects; eaching wledge.

community of relat identify po betw t reasons lack being o ple, their w

ed describe ed e er f , and or een xisting , of household) that ‘a t outsider t and o o relations Communities o the o and as

legitimacy wn community’)

v a (2) disast f theor erlook -based or one-w t kno f t oo ar eaching at lack do this collect them of s y as wledge: all er no ed. a and t can ‘t (kno of en y preparedness that organisations t outsider le eaching

pr attribut all ha It v inf kno bias a els ocess practice also inst wledge can is v in ormation e t result illit eaching wledge,

be (donor a ead is detail. eracy s ed learn learn clear bias’ y (i.e., that ond are of t in is is o ,

5 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Local knowledge on disaster preparedness is based on the following

(1) Observe (2) Anticipate (3) Adjust (4) Communicate

People’s experience of the local People’s identification and People’s access to assets People’s ability to transfer surroundings monitoring of environmental knowledge among themselves and indicators between generations

Early warning signals Human assets Oral & written communication History of natural hazards Examples: interpretational knowledge Examples: specific skills such as Examples: local songs, poems, Examples: knowledge on the location, of changes in animal behaviour, traditional carpenters and masons proverbs which help the younger time, duration, frequency, intensity, vegetation patterns; knowledge of local generation and outsiders to learn about predictability of previous hazards weather forecasts Sociocultural assets previous hazards; stories of previous Examples: knowledge of different social hazards encoded in the names of groups depending on occupational, specific places physical ability, ethnicity, gender, caste, Time thresholds Nature of natural hazards class, and age characteristics Examples: knowledge of when it is time Early warning systems Examples: knowledge on the onset, to buy and store food in advance, leave Examples: use of visual signals such origin, and velocity of water flow; Institutional assets the house, move the cattle, and remove as mirrors, fire or audio signals like knowledge of different types of rain important belongings Examples: knowledge generated by local institutions and cross-scale drums; having dreams of natural linkages hazards in advance

Escape routes and safe places for Evolution of social and physical Financial assets Other practices humans and cattle vulnerabilities to natural hazards Examples: micro-finance arrangements Examples: taboos which prevent Examples: knowledge of the safest and Example: life stories explaining the such as credits and savings people from going to certain hazard- fastest routes impoverishment processes of prone areas; ceremonies, local art households following recurrent natural Natural assets which helps the community to hazards and other stresses Examples: natural resource understand and remember past natural management strategies such as hazards, and relieve the anxiety related Key actors and skills intercropping and agroforestry that to the threat of future hazards Examples: knowledge of who knows conserve biodiversity and protect soil what, who does what and when, who erosion and can contribute to reducing stays behind, who goes first the impacts of natural hazards

Physical assets Examples: infrastructural safety arrangements such as boats, housing, embankments

Figure 1: The four pillars of local knowledge on disaster preparedness

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 6 le can dif on a t accounting acceptance, help and can kno and int under underlying local b This Wh within local can beuseful. organisations) be Part I–Introduction o y v

social

cost-ef ernational f el. erent the pr con wledge help im f hence t acilitat case o and o y standing kno Building viding as

plementation vinced im assum im point scales. f wledge ectiv it pr indigenous ou shouldreadthisrepor assum int study plementing f im e o is o v organisations r o o methodological identifi e pr , ption fr eness

of (ma wner of that consideration upon and om pr o Under v local ption vie can oject int e ybe without ship, respecting the

that their w o cation of in local . kno help

communities standing organisations behind y disast the per b disast Fir y ha people

wledge disast stly and f go long-t : kno ormance v em of practitioner communities e v er in er ,

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pr bo . ho build th their scale things is non-go omo a activities. Under that th w a can activities. that that pr and fi and national

t T planning oblem nancial t o aking con ed es some are contribut

im is, v bett standing, practices int ernment cont need when at t fi pr pr

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activities; andunlessy and under incorporat such at agencies marginalised inf sour the in communities: met in t organisations of t t cont Specifi the mutual kno aid. is o o o

t ormation? the a tailor translat rele en local needs wledge eor locals? cont e ce w community’s Secondly xts as stand

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ermediar inf messages identi a of is going decrease the s ormation int accounting social , go local it e release o (or Ho o wner common of and v enough? the fi locals

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can ship organisations rise communication v or the dependency elopment credible. ormation?). e that wledge, do resear v hazar f fi communication y en or

What b kno ou ciaries’ f and le of under – y wledge? ollo the

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7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Figure 2: Major roads and place names in Chitral District, Pakistan

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 8 Figure 3:W t disast only f go relativ case collect (Figure Chitral primar The Ho Part I–Introduction ormulating o

v disast ernment inf w thisrepor one study er ely ed y ormation District 2). er data preparedness unkno non-go in omen’s groupdiscussion, Chenarvillage,Upper Chitral area preparedness

a offi the The disast collect

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in ernment eld. repor Pakistan phenomenon a this er combination The ed The preparedness t since repor during is local has t w District organisation supplement in t go 1 been as compiled 999. Oct is a v among ernment of of based t ober en-da reasons. poorly Chitral Local plan/strat ed has the and y t o of document b fi

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general w eld y a been Chitral Flash

No as secondar great wledge egy v sur select ember f , fl ocusing

is v public and oods e e ed currently x y ed t relat ent y in in so 2006 are data as and this the f on on ed ar a a Julie Dekens go fi Pr organised The in thet [IUCN-Pakistan], Suppor go com (pictures w gr collect and preparedness Int southernmost with Semi-structured hazar hazar District F of region f

u eld. alks oup ogramme v v r er the ther ernment ernment, plement during vie elder villages The ds, ds andcommunities. ed in discussions o , t ws or acombinationofreasons;viz.,theph place pr wn ofChitral. due Pr and especially w thr o s, and in ogramme o vides the and f rkshop ed ough w ocused and t collaboration organisations, o w ar and ere strat fl up

b ere ood f ound its video). and ollo y int a non-go

one carried int t with o egies er uniq o e w fl select wing season ther

xtreme F er ash as vie [AKRSP], the on ocus the on vie ue att v villager ws The ernment discussions during fl political ws nor ed one out

villages; bo ended oods, laborat Humanitarian with and in ph th with thernmost non-go inf f in par semi-structured ollo ysical the s; gr ormation the the community 1 and b ticular k direct or institutions wing oup 1 and y e and W

y y 38 v villages rain A with orld en ernment the inf f ga or discussions, sociocultural par vir . visual ormants a obser y par Qualitativ Assistance-Pakistan) Khan the k int Conser onment, season, e ticipants one-da w y ts eraction as locat inf and study (A v documentation of ation; int ysical isolation R ga ormants organisations, v v ural in er ed y erifi ation the e Khan in the household academic, vie of fr data especially w fr

betw om barrier transect ed general, o Suppor district. ws om natural rkshop Chitral Union in R w local ural and and een ere the the s. t

9 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N and community members. The objectives of the workshop voice. Additional comments are given to put people’s voices were (1) to present the goal and context of the fi eld work, (2) to into context and to refl ect their contradictions, repetitions, improve understanding of local contexts, especially in relation and complexity. Examples of key questions that implementing to natural hazards, and (3) to identify key informants, study organisations should use to improve their understanding and sites for, and stories on local knowledge related to disaster to integrate local knowledge into their disaster preparedness preparedness. During the workshop, four group discussions projects are also provided (Box – ‘Did you ask?’). took place with participants from different sectors. Each group was asked to relate stories about local knowledge on disaster The lessons learned from the study are discussed in the preparedness and to give presentations. These presentations concluding section, which also provides a summary of the key and a brainstorming discussion enabled us to identify study fi ndings in tabular form and a bibliography. sites and collect some stories. Generally, it also established a common understanding and raised awareness about local The case study itself by defi nition is not and cannot be knowledge related to disaster preparedness. complete (i.e., integrating all aspects of local knowledge related to disaster preparedness). The topic is complex and each case is context specifi c. However, as mentioned already, How to use this report the case study is organised around an analytical framework The report is in four parts: this introduction followed by the that can be used anywhere (Figure 1: the four pillars of local methods, the fi ndings of the case study and a conclusion. knowledge on disaster preparedness). Most importantly, this The methods section explains the four major steps one has to case study can help implementing organisations to use and follow in order to collect and analyse data on local knowledge develop the analytical framework to their own requirements. related to disaster preparedness. These four steps can be Understanding the process of data collection and the type of used as a checklist by implementing organisations. information collected in this report is even more important than the outcomes per se, as it helps similar exercises documenting The third part of the report, the case study itself, provides local knowledge to be carried out in other contexts. As such, implementing organisations with a concrete example of what the intention is that this should be a learning case study: it is local knowledge on disaster preparedness is and how it can be designed to raise questions and stimulate practitioners to fi nd documented. The case study is based on people’s anecdotes their own answers (Hussain-Kaliq 2004). The report can be most and stories. The report uses citations to give local people a useful in the project development and implementation stages,

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 10 specifi whether The under curriculum). int local ho What sur especially Part I–Introduction w egrat v e assumption t kno ys), andduringthedesignofpr o standing is

c

e use not project, wledge the it during

int co y the The o are v about ered y relat analysis here our inf present cannot rele ormation local in o ed wn is v this ant t that o of kno activities and

case disast repor or local wledge local collect not should study cont t? er in kno (e.g., This preparedness ed oject activities. on e a xts not wledge aims disast specifi – repor street (e.g., that be only er t

c ignored. socioeconomic and does is preparedness. drama, conte ho t and o practices,

w no f acilitat xt t ho t school o Local c f

o w or use v er t a e o

pr activities practices preparedness; ho and practices case Theref local account. kno o w viding policyrecommendations). wledge f or it kno study ore, can which wledge (i.e., Ho y can the ou – be w and objectiv includes: e cont can ne and v help combined e and xt r practices , e

suppor and xtualising within im t practices es; o por

assessing im im ho tant t por which pr with w within o alw local t v tantly o st e are

int o a ep cont y ther ys our which practices egrat appr y , – our it need e which kno xt does disast opriat e timeframe; local local it wledge int to and is no er e o kno kno no be t or y preparedness mean disast our t sustainable. wledge wledge on t par a f activities; k or disast en t er that of whom s into and and and this all er 1 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N 12 Co l Key l ect StepsinData ion and P a r t 2 Analy sis 1 3 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N 14 liv betw and the pr under local do What specifi obser “ of localkno S C Collecting Dat Chapter 2 Part 2–KeySteps inDataCollectionand Analysis Local oduced, elihoods, andpo t and ep 1:Under f (4) our een kno people v

standing c gr ation kno under disast ollecting do under wledge pillar local oup ofpeople. wledge used, no kno and standing er t s standing kno do, ho of one preparedness w transmitt inf e w ref local is wledge, v and xperience ormation e has infl wledge local er r ty reduction.

s what uenced the the kno t s ” (Berk here o

ed, t under kno disast wider wledge anding thenature nature people t and on of wledge o es 1 in b

kno stand y er v the , local cont olv adapt and on 999) management, wledge of belie es local e and is infl disast xt, kno local ed; f o being

v uences, account ur e that wledge generat en

a (3) in. er major vir kno is under T preparedness; (or onment o the

what wledge; sustainable under f ed or no relat st standing people’s link eps: t thr people being) ed stand ough ages b y (1) (2)

t a o

Fir uniq “ ‘Indigenous the t are practices, br beliefs. v such instance, e and specifi local kno because is ends local arious xist oadest of s wledge. closely tly sense ue t so t en (e.g.,

as kno methods , c t o with on. In w o local

associat agiv be agr sense a wledge and local it this ys that int ecological, A kno T of more dditionally is respect echnical errelat of mat beliefs repor en orestr ecological wledge’ it the t kno of o held ed culture orsocie is erials

include holistic t, ed. wing construction, highly y with most (Berk to w b local and , y social, e As is

f man kno indigenous

or use as local par es kno such, each than embedded visible/concret poly kno houses, wledge y much 1 t the wledge 999) and of o wledge t culture ther echnical the o dimension: ty ‘local t ther erm ” (Berk use as hist because people, nature types types retaining pr ‘local in people’s f kno orical includes, orms which o and vides people’s kno es 1

e wledge’: – of of or

kno these kno Local wledge aspect of kno local combination 999). local local w can local wledge’ practices alls, wledge kno f wledge). or dimensions liv kno kno kno kno it contribut wledge instance, elihoods. ref methods t pr of erraces, wledge wledge wledge wledge obably er types, in local s and the F t or of in o, e 1 5 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N to conservation of ecological diversity. Local non-technical kind of assets (i.e., natural, sociocultural, economic, political) knowledge is often not easily identifi able by outsiders because at what time and under what circumstances. At the local level, it is closely embedded in people’s livelihoods and worldviews. various types of institutions exist. For instance, institutions can Local knowledge is scattered and institutionally dispersed: it is be classifi ed in terms of social, religious, political, judicial, and located at the individual/household level as well as collectively economic institutions (Appiah-Opoku and Hyma 1999) or in through community stewards and other key social actors (e.g., terms of familial, communal, social, and collective institutions shamans, elders). One can also make a distinction between (Bingen 2001). Examples of local institutions are: the family, everyday knowledge about the environment and specialist the household, marriage, the caste system, kinship exchange knowledge retained by a few individuals or local experts. Local networks, traditional rural reciprocity networks, schools, and knowledge also tends to derive more from memory, intuition, so on. Institutions shape every aspect of a livelihood system1 and the senses than from the intellect. Finally, another from the type and amount of assets individuals, households, distinction can be made between experiential knowledge and organisations can build upon, together with the creation, (i.e., knowledge gained through experience) and transmitted transformation of, access to, returns from, and accumulation or knowledge (i.e., knowledge gained through transmission from reduction of assets (Bingen 2001), to their livelihood strategies stories, poems, songs, and religious practices, for example). (e.g., whether people manage to diversify, innovate, intensify), Obviously local knowledge is always a mixture of the two. their livelihood outcomes (e.g., whether people manage to However, transmitted knowledge does not meet with the increase social services or promote a certain type of rights), same problems of legitimacy in the community as experiential and the ‘vulnerability context’ (e.g., crisis, shocks, trends) that knowledge (personal communication, Dr. James Gardner). people face. Ostrom (1992) identifi es several reasons why institutions matter. First, “institutions shape the patterns of Secondly, with respect to local practices, institutions, and human interactions and the results that individuals achieve” skills – In the literature, local practices are also referred to as through monitoring, sanctioning, and confl ict resolution ‘risk-spreading strategies’, ‘preventive measures’, ‘adaptation mechanisms for instance (Ostrom 1992). Second, institutions strategies’, ‘coping strategies’, ‘adjustment strategies’, ‘safety can increase and/or decrease the benefi ts from a fi xed set of nets’, and so on. Local practices are mediated by local institutions inputs. Third, “institutions shape human behaviour through and associated power relations. Local institutions constitute a their impact on incentives” (Ostrom 1992). Incentives are rules, set of formal and informal rules, norms, values, organisations, 1 A livelihood system refers to a combination of modes of livelihood at one time - e.g., and patterns of behaviour that defi ne who is allowed to use what farming, migrant labour, and informal activities (Murray 2001). Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 16 Thirdly them t with preparedness. making preparedness; Some viable wheno deepened or o within concluded relat Sinclair be f only instance, Practices Local fl norms, syst Part 2–KeySteps inDataCollectionand Analysis

ound o ther ws, andtheref an dif ems ed be natural s y practices f o at erent the , mixture are t practices bepreparedandt v f a o with ound and alues are

the living) household some ma when village. that, specifi hazar fr under y ther community/village respect Ham at om o Finally and that of be ther but ore liv it “no the local

s areinplace.” ds c Some one v is ma st institutions dif ariables. (2000) s contr t ma t ood household recognised liv o , in ma y all f some

elihood decisionsandstrat to erent disast social elihoods y socioeconomic the y be strat contribut strat here ol local be o adaptinthelongt shor mat document practices er designed […] directly fr egies egies gr as encom om belief erial, oup le in t preparedness that le This the v t e erm; the el v one ma el. indirectly are t while pass o some combination energy ma picture ed designed sys W

f y F or ano status, while viable u le est be y r tems o v adaptiv v ther help ther o el ther arious ern strat village-wide, ther , t o and of t erm. o , o f ther . Himala purposes w practices age, or people – practices

egies s F com a

ano f egies. e dimensions. or ma or Local r each inf of s ds strat ma instance, or ormation ther y ple people’s disast are disast y only t as o y cast xity gr belief egies while .

(e.g., deal help ma ma only and oup F be er er or e, is y y (Diamond 2005). en are individual and As of theirpositionvis-à-visdominantresour refl (2003) associat eq hazar f under o int what cont sense, one per response syst (e.g., (i.e., beliefs atalism ther vir uiv erpret

such ects ceptions, ems sustainable e insight onmental alent w psy xt ds respect, w the standing a “with (e.g., o put the no ys ed what r ed of as chological y ds, shape t choice t sa y the of o t in the it, resignation with int o sociocultural,

under some sa y” and

is man natural

o recipr per the degradation rural y the “the ‘will (Berk per wh or things passivity people’s ceiving and v y standing gr outcome w alues rele y ceiv w per ocity poor of est coping oups, people a es po ys hazar v God’ ed ceiv – ern and ant. , 1 w unless in is author] the sharing, 999) religious as e and ho ed and under the the r conno crucial passivity per ds. canno do . Some response

w f A atalism w po t people pr apath Himala things orld),

because the se. y the Under w ou ocess ma standing, tation t erlessness humility), v belief F theref collapse be alues under y or same y but is v . be the y sa

standing instance, alues/moral

as f is As under or par y of a the more ce relationships”. syst ore more stand ha things in w time Hutt realistic t f people a per of and v atalism, accepting of y ems), outcome because e st among the

entire im on im a ood led ceptions, the no the local [and ethics. sociocultural por por y and t w t per do. cont sim o who all principles per orldvie tant tant

societies the which massiv in ception it beliefs, natural can beliefs In ply Haq ceiv e which Belief giv xt. than than poor lack that and

ws ue be ed as es In is e 1 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Step 2: Understanding the knowledge with other types (Nonaka 1991). For the purpose of this report, two important points need to be highlighted. First, processes surrounding local the internalisation of practices means that, “local people often knowledge have diffi culties identifying specifi c practices or institutions as specifi cally oriented toward coping with hazards, even though All three dimensions of local knowledge (knowledge types, those same practices do play a role in reducing risk. This practices, and beliefs) are interrelated and infl uence one makes sense given that most of these practices have been another constantly. Local knowledge and knowledge in general developed over centuries of trial and error. Also, some of the emerges from a dynamic process of knowledge creation, use, very practices that do reduce risk can be remarkably oppressive management, and transmission. In fact, local knowledge is in other ways. In some cases […], for example, the need to disappearing and being created all the time (Berkes 1999). create social obligations outside of the community (that can Before trying to build upon local knowledge and practices, protect households in the event of disaster) leave little options one needs to understand the processes involved. How is local for women when it comes to choosing a marriage partner. They knowledge disappearing and being created? How is local have virtually no voice in the matter, but their enforced silence knowledge used in a specifi c context and by whom? How is helps to ensure the security of their natal household (and the local knowledge being transmitted within the community and household they are married into)” (personal communication, between generations and who is transmitting it? How is local Dr. Ken MacDonald). knowledge managed at the household and community levels? What are the key local institutions that infl uence knowledge Sometimes, prior experience of a natural hazard is forgotten management? Who has access to local knowledge, how, and because the event does not happen frequently enough for under which conditions? people to remember and internalise it. The combination of local knowledge with external knowledge is not new. Communities The process of knowledge creation itself is complex and includes totally isolated from outside infl uence are rare. Local knowledge aspects of internalisation, socialisation, and externalisation is not isolated: it has always been connected to other places of knowledge, as well as the combination of one type of and other types of knowledge.

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 18 Secondly Rahmat 1 as obser surr natural disast Fir anticipation, adjustment,andcommunication. relat im and can f The disas pillar S imminent indicat of disast Part 2–KeySteps inDataCollectionand Analysis our t plementation. s natural a ep 3:Under oundings. tly be es frame pillar tak decision-making v er er , or ation used t hazar with o e s s oflocalkno preparedness , preparedness ter preparedness

996). s hazar w f with such our int hazar o of of as rk ds respect o F local the major a respect ds or in as consideration thr ds Local checklist mo Figure as ough early instance, thr kno dimensions v w to t ough ement ool kno ell also to s relat wledge w their obser t 1 of arning anticipation as f wledge anding thef or can es identifying the relat in time of daily f v arming during ation on wledge on t the k be o the es and e of

y on thresholds, people’s disast e em sun charact kno xperiences t

Chitral o en – disast

activities pr plo – and people’s wledge: vir and Local oject Local er y onmental ed eristics er preparedness. monit the obser District, t escape kno planning kno preparedness o our of (Akbat

obser star anticipation identify oring wledge v wledge their t ations o s signs

identify careful v ser r ation, out Khan local local and v the on on es es of of It pr t kno transf hazar sharing and strat on F no e pre political, human, assets ha natural people strat disast Thirdly and ther and o x our

ocesses. t v t alladjustmentstrat ernal pa viously disast e wledge saf egies egies betw thly

f y ds. erred er aced. , (or att e hazar cope, with of , institutions oles the ph In preparedness er een places with sociocultural, ention people’s about – thr inf traditional ysical, on orally Their preparedness is ds ough ormation respect adapt, generations. mediat respect disast and f y pla natural , or t capacity o and but strengths,

trial humans and inf ho e y withinthecommunity er ed rural xperiment, to no ormal natural w egies aresustainableinthelongt to relat and also global hazar b preparedness the t adjus institutional, y communication t e also

o Here communities, local x ed y

err adjust clusiv and education relat learn or ds aspects) f tments or t act relat o capital institutions communication among . cattle,

and es past ely or It fr is es s om includes based t so. and

o inno – endo t

and which theref o and fi pre and community people’s

nancial, kno

Local Under

the trends. v – vious a . and on imminent wments k wledge t Local int ore e e – aspects communication

y their ernal kno standing in as infl skills, ref hazar Im req adjustment the

mentioned kno wledge economic, uenced er member por access is including uires learning s natural f ds wledge usually of act ace t tantly o erm. local the

ho or the on us b of t s, w o s y y ,

1 9 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Step 4: Understanding the wider and, more generally, the dominance of a sectoral approach to disaster management. Did we forget that disaster risk reduction context: the relationship of local is also poverty reduction? The issue of local knowledge on knowledge, disaster preparedness, disaster preparedness needs to be understood and integrated into the wider issues of sustainable livelihoods and poverty and livelihoods to poverty reduction. Ultimately, improving implementing agencies’ understanding of the linkages between local knowledge and reduction disaster preparedness can help implementing organisations Local knowledge is infl uenced by the type, frequency, and to promote livelihood security and build resilient communities. intensity of past and present natural hazards, as well as by Local knowledge can be used as a key entry point for this. other shocks and global trends and factors — for instance, the impacts of climate change, globalisation, road construction, The four steps outlined above can be used as a checklist and national policies on natural resources. Indeed, in many to verify that you have incorporated the key aspects of local cases, natural hazards, although constituting an important knowledge on disaster preparedness into your project. The stress, are not the major stressor faced by communities. From next part of the report presents the information collected in a local knowledge perspective, as suggested by Battista and the Chitral District on local knowledge related to fl ash fl oods Baas (2004), it is more interesting to, “look at shocks that and earthquake preparedness. The case study is organised are recurrent and chronic and that contribute to gradually according to the framework in Figure 1. Chapter 1 focuses on increasing the vulnerability of the community instead of local knowledge related to the observation and experience of exceptional natural events which require emergency operations fl ash fl oods. Chapter 2 focuses on local knowledge related to from outside”. the anticipation of fl ash fl oods. Chapter 3 focuses on adjusting strategies. Finally, Chapter 4 focuses on how local people The lack of an explicit connection between local knowledge communicate and share information about past and imminent and disaster management in the literature refl ects the lack of hazards. linkages between poverty reduction and disaster management,

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 20 T he CaseSt P a r t 3 udy 2 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N 22 vulnerability t fl t of en obser nature The fl “It Cloud andglacieroutbur Nature L Obser Chapter 3 no in Chitral Part 3–TheCase Study

o ash oods, adjustmentstrat

vir t int their w raining as people onment erpret fl v

obser District ocal oods. ation 4 of en pm vir kno fl

here v their ash of The ation onment of and f o on of or wledge fl Chitral

y their oods haschangedo Pakistan sur in landscape July fl

can oods and ving andExperiencingFlashFloods the viv his 1 thr also local e on ha 4 al, village. xperience egies, andcommunicationstrat th in ough v 2006 disast includes and tor e describe their

and surr kno generations. an It y er wledge when oundings, the w o of accumulat of s wn preparedness as aspects t fl and ph v

s ash er time. only the locality fl ysical

about e ash fl

xplain fl oods, raining

close ood relat The ed indicat based the y under s ed anticipation fl ho tar ha in

ties higher oods w hist t v or the t o ed. e their

standing s people’s

on or t learned o of egies. Chitral It

y up daily their past o w and wn as of in because houses. s houses s till during des c “ (Chenar village,Nor when “ Gurin Gole,ShishiK Jan, v continued and the The W alle tar tar hannel e July tr t t mountains. it y ed ed Rashidullah, w o w .” eight y became ere a ed. (Narrat that 9 t t t w o o In on er th

it

ere co build 1 until ready the The da slo 9 w June v period 78. er as ys des wly ed village, a 9 main the […] up of big no t W b 1 pm. tr o Khan s y 4 discontinuous e

o tar in

t land th ofMastuj,UpperChitral) t The Islamuddin, tak oh v th y

o lak shif ed.

raining

Some fl the 2005. t

people e a o e e d Zarin alle fl w and t

nearb our and On ood ed

main t o came y

big fl , our […] people

July Lo goats bef o des bloc and w w y s cour ondered Aziz w

ore animals t On village. continuously during ones tr hea er Chitral) 9 k Ghulam o ed th up y se Urahman, had July

the ed e vy the v are and t en rain o a the t 9 ho On

o fl and

the w th riv ood.

s run more Jaf

w a till t at f o er July night t ell it er

ar family higher spill Gul o s 9 a f had v tuc , fr But or w mill. er pm Gurin houses om 7 a Muhammad of k 1 th y o the

, happened 0 v inside fr people member the The June er

pas July the om minut . s village, tream Some w tures fl w their riv

9 a 30 ood ere the t th es er er in ”. th s

23 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N the high pasture had seen a huge hole/cave formed in the and fl ash fl oods, and these often destroy the little agricultural soil beneath the glacier from which the water came.” (Group land there is. discussion, Resettlement area close to Brep, Upper Chitral) Local communities have a lot of experience of where fl oods Spring snow melt occur and which areas are fl ood prone (experiential knowledge). Local stories highlight the different types of fl ash fl oods in the “It was a very nice and sunny day around June/July in the high region. Some fl ash fl oods are triggered by cloud outbursts; mountain. I was herding some goats. The weather was very others by glacial outburst or the snow melting in spring. Flash hot. I was staying close to a stream and I started to see the fl ow fl oods in Chitral have become part of people’s lives: “When growing more and more. No glacier or lake is up there. I was the rainy season comes, people are mentally prepared.” too high to give any signal that a fl ood was coming.” (Narrated (Workshop participant, Chitral Town, October 2006); “it’s a by Zerbali Khan, an old herder, Harchin, Upper Chitral) continuous process” (Qazi Said Ahmad, Ashret village), and The deep narrow valleys and glaciated mountain ranges of Chitral District were surely the most effi cient ramparts against invaders. But today the associated dynamic geomorphological and climatic processes are probably the major enemies for the growing population. Shrubs mostly with very few trees grow in this arid and steep landscape. Barely 3.5% of the Chitral area is suitable for farming (Khattak 1999). Cultivation is almost entirely limited to active alluvial fans which are transformed into oases when people construct irrigation channels. These rainfed, irrigated lands are very fertile because of the constant deposition of eroded sediment. Farmers grow cereals, fruit trees, and some vegetables mainly for subsistence purposes,

using buffaloes to plough the land. However, the oases are Mats Eriksson often temporary. Any intense and prolonged rainfall, especially Figure 4: Irrigated land (left) with clear demarcation of the vegetation due to the irrigation channels (centre left), and non-irrigated land during the months from June to August, induces debris fl ow (right) in Morilasht region, Upper Chitral.

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 24 large areasofagriculturallandinJuly2006Brep,Upper Chitral. what Figure 5:Aglaciallyderiv district, f accumulat there precise the village). of pre f le sho lak Part 3–TheCase Study or act v els, e y instance, w or e ha outbur ho s vious fl are v change er v in dat the w e Inf

im the happens witnessed. local e; e ormants st st

por and oods onliv a v or locality a in release v r tant kno e y ying w r time of y a

wledge dr t “lif dif the er ha , fr y Of when location ed debrisfl e om f le t v area erences elihoods and pr ook t e last v en, goes

els, v a pr e a locat about the f fl r o

e y types ood fl vides

w

on” of ood good y

in o da ed can pre w

indicat the des (Muna three occurred. ys of insight in vious memories recall fl t time

tro the o ash oper

a es y w w ed 1 nor fl eeks. f ar

fl int tak e ty oods,

spontaneously ho ood w St . o 06 housesand thern Khan, w en hour ories pre of and a Local f and or slo vious the s. par sho triggering a Baradam w In im fl t

st e glacial ood w of w pacts v Brep, ories ents that a the the t er t o

Arun B. Shrestha village, ShishiK V a man att path’ bac (‘sho based no One “In Inter Figure 6:Des Julie Dekens alle w t ention a k 1 t y o y y of tar

9 in , (ogh

all o build Garachashma, ChitralDistrict) 6 on ther the 1, 1 bokhtu’) preting thelandscape the 905. t the o than m

a village truction ofcultiv the people. y houses house

argument oh V father The zhagho elder’s because alle elder old on In y decided with , Lo July sugges that sa no that s w ying came the able landb rakhc er Chitral,inJuly2006. it.” 1 par 9 the

78, Begusht tion. t (Amir is o ticular hur).

sit t

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and o tion w no village. Lo t so o

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o tk t w him ook pa c did oh its as ks y

25 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N “The ruler took our land in Buni [local town, Upper Chitral] of past fl ash fl oods in the landscape and can interpret these and gave us this land. When we moved here, the villagers of signs from their knowledge and previous experience of fl ash Chenar told my husband about the fl ood that had occurred in fl oods. Large rocks are a major indicator of past fl ash fl oods. the village 100 years ago. Big rocks were deposited. In 1978, Some people can recognise the location of past water stream/ the stream took a new path. The whole village was destroyed fl oods by interpreting the shape, location, and nature of slopes, but nobody died.” (Chenar Village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral) rocks, geology, and morphology.

Not only do past hazards leave psychological traces in people’s memories, often also they leave traces on the physical Life histories landscape. As such, the landscape becomes a precious source of Forgotten experiences information of what happened in the past; a physical repository “We didn’t know the fl ood was coming because it was our fi rst of past events. Some people understand environmental signs experience!” But one man remembers: “Such a fl ood happened during our grandparents’ time but we never expected such an event.” (Group discussion, Brep, Upper Chitral)

“After that major fl ood in 1978 we began to run out of our houses as soon as it was raining but now we have stopped doing that.” (Chenar village, Upper Chitral)

Most people have scant knowledge of fl oods they learn about second hand, especially if they happened before they were born, if oral tradition is weak, and if knowledge is not transmitted frequently enough. Stories demonstrate how, in some cases, prior fl ash fl oods have been forgotten because fl ash fl oods of great magnitude do not occur frequently enough Mats Eriksson Figure 7: Man sitting on rocks deposited by a fl ash fl ood on the in one place (i.e., more than once in a generation) for villagers road from Chitral towards the Lawari Pass, Lower Chitral. Notice the to remember them (from one generation to another) and for wooden log also deposited by the fl ood (centre).

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 26 their fl side t who adv ha s built people “Initially Ev This this fl w t t great-grandfather “Some Buni) Mohammed is pr capacity Part 3–TheCase Study

o o oda tar

oods, e

oods the v be

e antage could t olution obably more‘por y t ed

suf sho of w land. o built an o ‘Oshul

a ther because people infl had the t t f ws er o er t our o adv

houses easily uence

occup So remember because c fr side. riv ho hannels access om antage and Deh’ village er t w oda here , the y freq w Ho seek of the their s on Sar a this y and t w dug t those er ha in f uency because w o ous’ thane on bo ormer e dar mos vulnerabilities hazar

as v wint v refuge decision-making area shor drinking divided e th e the irrigation r

, t Azam, land locat

sides a people er vulnerable of ds tages local o f as e ther people fl w in on and

ed on ash the w of xperiential kno w families case village ell. ruler a are the are side belo bo c the ho t land hannels er fl

oods th Since living w able more o a riv w there. t of of transmitt o ther sides regar fl betw only among

er;

the Chitral landslides ash the infl t close then, o vulnerable.” and side in

ha een ding Then uences shif riv glacier of fl

wledge. ood what v er to ed them. this the e t t t mos ook o of

Mastuj land settlement. and t

kno the the e happened and riv m is fl the is because people’s t some

porarily a er! wledge It ash people people on glacier British called

(Dost great used riv fl

and one ash Our er of . 2006 whic Figure 8:W vulnerability political illustrat people’s and A R no our N Mats Eriksson eshun, UpperChitral) o combination t w our h des relativ ada infl

e uencing ys, o f vulnerability tro act wn ho oman livinginaresettlementareaaf es. y the or ed 1 w t house o s W of

en land fl ha e 06 housesintheoriginalvillageBrepJuly and

e ash

vir x can v t e ernal an onmental,

re-enf is pla t fl o

ymore.” s oods.

being fl till y

ash f ed act or fall a cing or fl Land

more oods. major s bac

demographic, (Panan (acting each k scar F and r on or ole o city instance, simultaneously Deh ther) our more in ter the changing and relativ and of and divided t en w some fl Osheel

a ash es t in hist er people’s fl but

fl , uences

among access st ood orical/ or ories Deh, it no is t, 2 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N often compel people to stay close to the streams and glaciers resettlement during the times of former local rulers, or currently (environmental factors). With the growing population, land following construction of infrastructure (e.g., hydropower fragmentation reduces people’s options and their fl exibility to stations), are common in the region. Life stories can provide choose safe locations and to resettle during the rainy season useful information about local perceptions about fl oods and (demographic factors). In some cases, people used to live in changes in people’s physical and social vulnerability to fl oods. safe places but the local rulers confi scated their land.2 They This information can help to identify vulnerable groups and were resettled in a vulnerable place and/or they simply lost individuals that might otherwise be ‘invisible’. part of the land upon which they used to fall back during the 2 Land confiscation happened for various reasons (inefficiency of services at the household rainy season (historical and political factors). Stories about land level, intrigues with the neighbours, politics, intrigues with the court, religious factors) – Prof. Faizi, Chitral College

Box 1: Did you ask? Observation and experience of flash floods

History of fl oods – What do people know about the history Evolution of physical and social vulnerabilities – What is of floods in their locality – e.g., when and where did the people’s understanding of their own vulnerability (e.g., in last flood occur? What was the water level of the last flood? pre-disaster situations) and of the factors that influence How many people died? What damage was caused by it? Are they living in a more vulnerable house now than the flood? How do people understand and interpret the before? Why? What happened? Do people have different situation or the landscape using their knowledge and/or priorities than they had before and how does this influence previous experience of floods? their vulnerability to natural hazards? To what extent are people able to identify the problems and to what extent are Nature of fl oods – What do people know about the nature they able to solve them on their own initiative? How does of floods in their locality – e.g., onset, origin, velocity, types disaster change, increase, and/or create new vulnerable of rain, etc? groups (i.e., emerging vulnerability or vulnerable groups)? Interpreting the landscape – How do people understand What other natural hazards and stresses do the community and interpret the situation and the landscape from their face and how does this influence local knowledge on knowledge and/or previous experience of flash floods? disaster preparedness?

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 28 advice andsuppor kno f and no the the w in their af and the “ f F P Anticipating FlashFloods Chapter 4 Part 3–TheCase Study or The or fl o t orecas tc connection er rk mo wledge mo rain hills hes t the . daily o people long Experience

ving v

The int eople identify y ements ash in s and season. erpreting tar liv y obser out of the es. s. of manage also the t andearlyw with saf time The […] fl and Chitral clif of

v e In ation, oods enabled ra manage t withinthecommunity as f The the settlement s w ys pace a higher thresholds

tr arning t ha mountainous o onomical ha of cultiv sun’s

anticipat v pr e v the of

e o people been up,

vided t ation signals a o the journe

sun smatt mak areas f or f bodies e or mo closely fl visual of t coming

instance. o ash y e sa countr v

ering in […] dif arning signals receiv ements and ving basic the fl lik f

erent has oods obser guidance . e of fr y k out e , the local om e

the emergency also P kno guidance y of b eople cr v belongings y earlier sun, ed whom

ops obser sun these wledge been en and t vir o the and also rises

onment. ving them thr mark t e bodies, o moon, marks v about

plans o en ough seek ha o ther and and v ed v er in in e

seasons as hisab’, of farmw made Gurin village, Gurin Gole,Shishik Muhammad come w unusual the “F Gurin Gole,Shishik Jan, a […] and abo “ 1 W w 996, Rahmatisaneminentlocalpoet) as or tr a e v onomical a y W ty going w Rashidullah, e

v sa t e

alanc e y t o do us o

ear

w

‘the under hear

saf apparition will wn recor o in blac rk accor s t o e he, the ago, be

t t d peasants’ Jan, happen y o s bodies, d .” k

the t a dr mountains. the ood the

clouds, a mountain (Islamuddin, y Rashidullah, Khan ding t sno noise or oh v of villages.” adv that w because wildlif predictions w e alle ance Zarin account. t o a of a lightning, are thesecalculationsiscalled‘dehqan v alanc y Some big goat boulder e , Lo also of and (Islamuddin, ga Aziz mountain Khan fl w

a v he w ood oh v er Chitral) e dus made.” F ent season. Ghulam about

r Urahman, us af s om and w t alle Zarin f falling do ect a w as as signal these wn y huge ed whe goats (Akbar , coming Lo […] Jaf also Aziz and t our and o w ther ar Gul

the The that er Chitral) mo thunder normally , s Urahman, village. Ghulam Khan tar Gurin r olling Muhammad and v village. the sc ements some ting heduling Rahmat coming w village, s Bef t do t e o Jaf don’t orms thing

This rise wn. ran Gul ore ar of ,

29 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N “The whole valley started shaking like it does during an number of men working outside the village is increasing (see earthquake before the fl ood came.” (Islamuddin, Aziz Urahman, Chapter 6, section on local early warning systems in 2006). Gul Muhammad Jan, Rashidullah, Khan Zarin and Ghulam Jafar, Gurin village, Gurin Gole, Shishi koh valley, Lower Chitral) Time thresholds and emergency “People know when it will rain. They look at the direction of the measures wind.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, Ashret village, Lower Chitral) “Since this event, when it rains heavily we know we have to get ready to run away with our luggage. Most of us have a bag “We also knew that the fl ood was coming because of the typical prepared with clothes and shoes. We have already shifted smell.” (Old lady, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral) all our important documents to safer places” (i.e., relatives’ places). (Abdullah Khan Shakir, Shainigar village, Drosh) People can identify and monitor natural phenomena related to fl ash fl oods such as the colour of the clouds, intensity of “Now every time it rains we move out of our houses!” (Imam of rainfall, unusual sounds, and changes in water fl ow. As such, the village, Isfangol village, Upper Chitral) they have some level of hydrological and meteorological knowledge. Some people are able to identify the unusual “When it rains heavily we climb higher up because we know movements and appearance of wildlife (ants, birds, rats and that a fl ood will occur.” (Elder, Panan Deh, Reshun Gole, Upper mice). Long observation of the sun, the moon, and the stars Chitral) used to help people make decisions about farming activities (Rahmat 1996). Overall, few people die in fl ash fl oods because “If it is raining heavily at night we stay awake.” (Shapir Khan they have learned from experience to identify and interpret and Muhammad Yousaf, Panan Deh, Reshun, Upper Chitral) environmental warning signs and signals of fl ash fl oods. However property, agricultural fi elds and irrigation channels, “After that event, we began to sleep with our shoes on during are damaged often. (“The danger from fl ash fl oods is not so the rainy season.” (Old lady, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper much to life as it is to livelihoods”; “Protecting the land, more Chitral) than life itself, is the big issue.” Workshop participants, Chitral Town, November 2006) Today, this ability to observe and Flash fl oods are very challenging because they occur, by monitor environmental signals is weakening partly because the defi nition, very rapidly and do not leave much time for

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 30 s W “ Saf sleeping especially relativ sa bef crucial. en preparedness. Chitral) a F rationality that sense’ mos practices f common when than the Her her seeing Part 3–TheCase Study W t or w ones e ving vir a e

ore don’t fl y v instance,

husband t onmental tak ood;

eil. a people e placesf fr of the es the administrativ risk or om man ma e Households She these with or sense build seeing tw ‘univ w or instance. y at . rain the is a y with This o t fall w er people shoes night, lik a ha limited things houses y signals er Use as simple house depending es star man season neighbour her v st sal do e then or

t of wn.” o e ts on, running return bounded kno adopt y

on int int belie the and paper to in illustrat as rising or buildinghouses s trapped o

and star er trategies wledge’, the the (Elder their account time a vie the v s, on t a e o s fl ts ha street, w

might

higher mo w ash f get that religious e es and occurrence a , or ed betw ving rationality; w o y in ving Krak wn it of the during sim it fl described the

might when o as the ood no fl een a decided is ther

up inf oods ph al point ple ‘go-bag’ a t impor v and house, alw pr ormation eil ysically w and village, the hea w belongings shor a o seem of and e sa s t a that cultural ection

that ys obser vy t fl build coming t sta v

ho ant o oods t-t ed ready but in

be rainf t go w erm ‘running ying lik K o places his to

alash is, v and f accept saf his our e act did ation back is beliefs all . recognise strat ‘common with a Although wif but er theref people’s or wif w houses. such no belief ak e places V where rather t of ed a e egies t o then, alle fr their w e

and die. ran k ore om get a as as e or s. y’ y y ,

“Houses village, Lo par “Our Chenar village,Chitral) what “I some “ Ghulam Jaf Urahman, y houses major place the “ Humanitarian Assistance,Chitral) Manager riv with no the “In The T ear w don’t er t the ticipant) enty village. allo location the homes the whole bed where else.” can because Par fl

w higher f ood, y increase eel fl ear ed in

due w w san ood are Gul A ar er Chitral) e area Community ne t s saf t

, Gurinvillage,Shishik of o that do? access ago V t

v Muhammad did up o build e alle er no se built

is lac here. (Shainigarvillage,Dr time, in W on ge a ttlements no fl y w

e , k major ood population, t

a

people se t the t don’t w of t o er in des our -based ashed A ttlements

pr w land.” mountain fl w

a tr fl one, ood houses the

as ood ha t Jan, o used er in y a v

a Disast an e e w im (Sy but hazar w v people

v wr Rashidullah, a ailable ano ent a y t pr close y!” o w ed shed ong houses.”

it slope oh V ha o ere ther er (Qazi v dous might is Harir ed v osh, Lo e are Risk locat v alle a t higher

e o places!” s w in place and r

trict Said y a the places. y living Shah,

happen y saf , cos ed R (Islamuddin, Lo

all Khan w eduction, rules w riv er Ahmad, in er Chitral) t tly w up. o the e

closer er Chitral) er a

places. Pr liv t rebuilt (W vulnerable The . o t Af Zarin again houses ogramme e.” o

But buy orkshop

t pre er y Ashret F (Lady t o w ocus no land v This that

Aziz and our but ere ent the w in , ,

3 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Mats Eriksson Figure 9: The physical geography of Chitral District does not, in general, provide many safe places to live. The mountain slopes often consist of steep, barren land unsuitable for settlement. The river plains are exposed to recurrent fl oods making them equally unsuitable for settlement. The only land left is on the numerous alluvial fans occurring at the mouths of stream gorges, or valleys, descending from the high mountains. Often, living on these alluvial fans is connected with a high level of risk, since they are exposed to recurrent fl ash fl oods and debris fl ows. In fact, alluvial fans are formed from such events. Hence, people are often in a situation in which they have to fi nd the least vulnerable spot within the alluvial fans. In general, such places are at the sides or at the very edges of the fan.

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 32 a regions The of Generally fl centre alluvial pressure. risky) settlements suitable access) slopes built is saf coming f possible. minimise be f irrigation the Settlement Part 3–TheCase Study

or ans o w f ws arereduced. a ormed f er

settlement, act y riv borne

fi that in than

alluvial fr r er or st as om (but f fr clust ans is no s: land channel om , risks channels Some b the st ha Houses on b the t y f including debris or y options ep

pr are v only still

er the are more the f e chance ans f ogressiv b s people

location or and t been y houses saf o mountains.

and choosing relativ also locals. t w tak agriculture. o due locat fl recent a er ha

saf o this be r es ds ws, en of slightly pr v than e t locat t e e o ed ely o ogressiv of saf vir up fl

are stream in

In

disast t fr oods lack fl o locat alluvial

v onmental houses om the ash e at

those most the olv close ed be In built fr high the of es less Ho om fl e such and er built

on whole fl oods ely er

a oods, their cases, w additional f locat on t v bo osion. ans preparedness fl o e depends up hazar ailable activ the

cut oods

v cases, t tt o (a e the relativ are om v

because r on ed houses v mak , v alle and

of e oiding elocity people dous man Other riv on but f f e and (and e land y settlements x e b ely w . er ca costs sno

on y the Most . y the

also places In v a settlements on ne beds of ancient areas in a and a a w theref can t t major deep man op land ed w w in combination saf the that a of t , a o

v population and only t disper alanches. whene

mountain mountain e f er/debris the y sa pr or ore sides channel suitable ha places, places, ma alluvial stream one v in w e tr time, v

v a y e y sed are the the e v t

be er er of t t t r o o o y

location Int codes of population), and getting landfr (e.g., build irrigation fl Figure 1 Mats Eriksson

ash er pre vie on land fl vious

their oods – 0: Buildingslocatedontopofanalluvialfan,UpperChitral ws one’s of or w fragmentation houses a re fl houses

t and lack oods), institutional er; v om relativ eal, f ather’s eq choosing of!), has ually f political or close and im instance, land), , es, willingnesst lack because pr (e.g., areas t o o (e.g., hist v

ed of demographic the orical cust w o with land that v of a riv er t omar er division er time (e.g., access regulation in of o liv bed), t y en cer because e closet rules, (e.g., land among f tain o t o socioeconomic r ces

drinking and req no increase places o w people the relativ uisition). a memor building t er sons, and has the es of t o y

33 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N been made available in safer areas and people have learned previously?)3. Schools are built by the government but the land from previous experience of a fl ood (e.g., Gurin village, Shishi is generally donated by the local communities so the worst land koh Valley). Elsewhere households newly affected by fl oods and is often provided because of the pressure on land and lack of with prior experience of them are rebuilding their houses in the suitable areas for cultivation and settlement. Members of local same area or very close to the damaged area because of lack on-government organisations are convinced that “communities of assets/options and because of people’s desire to remain need to be made aware of natural hazards again”. close to their relatives – and this trend is common in the region (e.g., Chenar village, Mastuj area). Critical actors and skills An apparent contradiction transpires from the last two quotations Religious leaders and elders in terms of whether or not houses are built in safe places. This “Local religious leaders and other pious people used to predict apparent contradiction refl ects the current changes that are disasters and in many places it was true.” (Group discussion, happening in the district. “We have lost the local knowledge. workshop on local knowledge, Chitral Town, October 2006) Houses are now being built in vulnerable places”, comments Professor Faizi of Chitral College. Some settlements, including “In ancient times, we used to get advice on where to build newly-constructed public schools, are even located at the new houses from two or three elders in the village, but now hydrographic apex of active alluvial fans, the most vulnerable we make decisions at the household level.” (Elder, Panan Deh, area. The district currently lacks statistical data and analysis Reshun Gole, Upper Chitral) to validate fi eld observations and community perceptions on this topic properly. Different forces are also interacting at the “In the past the ladies were the custodians of local knowledge. same time, and this makes the situation quite complex. On The women used to memorise all the traditional things the one hand, the increasing population means that access because they were stuck at home and because they were to safe places is decreasing. On the other, access to drinking also the direct target of natural hazards. They had to be at the and irrigation water has also probably increased, especially forefront of natural hazards because they were sometimes on following interventions by non-government organisations in the 80s. New land has been cleared for new houses and people 3 According to Prof. Faizi, Chitral College, the Methar system (the last ruling dynasty of have been able to settle down in new places (maybe safer than Chitral as an independent state until 1892, Ali and Khawaja 2004) was more efficient than the current one, for example it had a better way of constructing water channels.

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 34 witnessed of “ and skills K their gr villager the seasons obser h w da se cr “My (Pr the are t A Risk R Shah, Part 3–TheCase Study o The ydr ged a oup discussion,Chenarvillage, Mastuj,UpperChitral)

op e v y natural the of t erity e - y leader traditional t more ological ones grandpapa essor F r o-da pr ladies o shed v w eduction, F wn village ation, o Pr s omen , t and ection, y ogramme ho philosoph and kno responsible the disas af e w aizi, ChitralCollege) w tc. as the f fair ere at orecas pre wledgeable are t s, ar the kno o tr t w w

e the He s, application ological vious plan ocus HumanitarianAssistance,Chitral) no r a y as k wledge s t y e had . im er t Manager time tisans, othersocialactor kne y ts, In w ready of por management, inf ell their fl f the

or ood t w f o w ormants or belief tance – a

he than o fi w cr ho

case t a rking nd – o ins ne are of op used

w f con lea ores f s, xt traditional w or tance, the t of about management a of o and v vinced y ys e t f

Community t t ear‘s o or o w e

mak ref their w ge

r t the eather inf , o obser omen

local ores ther whose

regar the cope orm e us f har o houses wisdom me , r tation, t har v thcoming kno o f the ding v because ations risk orecas with

lea e t grandfather -based eor s v and wledge t e family v .” s e.” but reduction ological the pes ting w and (Sy of ere ts har (W the season‘s ts. hazar pre the ed Disast old season, and omen’s s relat among use v e y vious Solar head Harir men s had and are ts.” the ds. ed er of in 4 R lik “N (Dur size ones.” their in unem ser direction. The ir training “In Chenar village,Mastuj,UpperChitral) a because “Men Chitral) “N

on, eshun e A hor and sometimestogive signalsaboutimminentdanger obody o little the v t the e dana Khan,anoldretiredher this

and education e ances

w plo n madeoutofayakorlocalgoathor v kno no (NWFPandIUCN-Pakistan 1 families er ood, bit traditional who in y one, shape in the ybody purpose. ed w It tral dif the more pr s y and y t kno oduces ories outh but tra f erent pr of can of village, policy v skin w of el horns than there traditional The . ins essions of ” socie mak more

skills. (Elder people t fl w

ead that kno result oods bef e ere are and ty and than ws ore.” , of of without Chitrali replaced one the Panan y that with craf is ou skilled use ho Chitral, ns usedbyher w that main need w omen. (W or tsmen/w cer happened der a 999) t omen’s o ‘ being tw Deh, handicraf our booq’. tifi , Har

people. build the o t .

source y o cat But oungs

local ders asacommunicationtool socie kno R chin village) able omen es old eshun 4 a

w gr Y w in traditional Ne and o omen ts carpent ty t oup ho u sys of e nearb t o w r has need of s are

w degrees subsis adop t

Gole, generations em w discussion, t w tra o ere pr y giving ool,

er whis the v villages oduced t has s el t house Upper be ence. giv fr right cla no that tle.” tt om up no en er w y ,

35 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Different people in the same community have different types are trusted by the community and their advice is followed. of knowledge. People’s status within the community also This means that people manage to anticipate fl oods because gives their knowledge different values and meaning. Some of their trust in local advice and predictions (e.g., elders, local people are more knowledgeable about natural hazards than religious leaders, and other pious people). However, changes others because of their profession, their age, their status, in the education system and the fact that the decision-making their family history, their skills, and/or specifi c gifts etc. Some process is now based mostly at the individual and household people, because of their specifi c skills and ability to ‘read’ the levels result in the weakening of traditional knowledge and landscape, the sky, and other elements of the environment skills.

Box 2: Did you ask? Anticipating fl ash fl oods

Early warning signals – How can local people manage to about to happen? Where will people go? Why are people anticipate and identify environmental warning signals of building houses in vulnerable places? Is it because of a flash floods? What do people observe, hear, and sense lack of knowledge and/or a lack of options? What main before a flash flood happens? Do people have traditional/ obstacles are people facing in trying to build their houses local weather forecast systems? How do people know that in safe places? it is time to leave their house? Critical actors and skills – Who is doing what within the Time thresholds and emergency measures – When do community? Who holds or owns the relevant knowledge people know that it is time to leave their houses and move about floods? Who has specific skills that can directly or on to higher ground? What should they take with them? indirectly contribute to improved disaster preparedness? How can these skills be nurtured? Escape routes and safe house locations – How are communities and households preparing for a flood that is

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 36 V Figure 1 st S Hazar Adapting toFlashFloodsandOther Chapter 5 Part 3–TheCase Study alle ores, y , Lo T v trat t 1: W echnical erraces arious w er Chitral egies ooden f t f o t or strat echnical

ood s ds reduce adapting egies t ore intheK damage include and t o

fl

ash alash villageofJaoGuru,Birir t non-structural o

the houses fl

oods construction fr in om Chitral f alling measures. of include r ocks, f ood

Mats Eriksson and economicresilience. per cope non-structural is the Indeed, against ask pre resour and risk on resistant retaining especially str y vious ed se. of economic become with ong directly ce natural Ne o natural mistak v management w structures. man v f er amily alls e r true time theless, par what y hazar strat f div or es kinds hazar and t f people or er fl and of

the ood egies sifi ds long-t social people’s all Non-structural of ds, y

cation community regulations, among are pr stress adjustment t ha end o erm no t doing ection, netw v t e t mechanisms,

man adjustments. o and culture dif been

int orks, t f o erent initiativ ernalise y no

and im and mechanisms elements established strat t pr the and only traditional the o assets v egies es. e ability da fl their ability their

traditional In ood When y - f t come thr act o-da especially practices; preparedness preparedness t f o t add ough or ear o

most spread

people learn y people thq t lif t o o natural spatial e.

social of mind. uak fr This and rely are the the om t e- o

3 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Technical and structural strategies never happened before!” (Narrated by Aziz Urahman, Gurin village, Gurin Gole, Shishi Koh valley, Lower Chitral) Food stores, terraces, and retaining walls “The fl ood took place on July 14th 2006 from 4 pm to 9 pm. “Through our work with communities here in Chitral we have […] It destroyed all our fi elds but our houses were safe and so seen cases in which people built terraces at the back of their were our grain stores kept inside the houses. We can store up housing plots to reduce damage from rock fall on their houses.” to two to three months of grain but the quantity depends on (Syed Harir Shah, Programme Manager for Community-based how much land each person has and on the time of the year. Disaster Risk Reduction, Focus Humanitarian Assistance, We also have houses in the pastures with food stores (butter Chitral) especially) but the fl ood washed away three of those. It had “Before, the community used to construct protection walls but now it is too costly so we rely on the government.” (Abdullah Khan Shakir, Drosh, Lower Chitral)

“In the old days there was no system of preparedness in place to ensure food supplies for the inhabitants during the 6-month winter period. The people themselves ensured they had enough essential commodities for the block period. Even today, local people, the business community, and the local government arrange essential commodities and wheat for six months in summer in preparation for winter, and the business community as well as the households stock their daily needs for a four to fi ve month period to overcome the season’s harshness. People still use indigenous wisdom to harvest seasonal crops Mats Eriksson Figure 12: Retaining walls along a stream in Birir village (Kalash) according to the changing climatic situation, and they know fi nanced by an external organisation using local materials. Traditional how to protect their crops, plants, and livestock from the harsh fl ood-protection walls are made out of stone and wood. But nowadays, in many places, wood is becoming very expensive, or is weather conditions. A very famous saying is: “if you are not even unavailable because of excessive deforestation. caring for yourself, who will care for you” (Thansoro key khiyal

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 38 Lo Figure 1 houses “ – K (K “If T Humanitarian Assistance,Chitral) Manager no Part 3–TheCase Study There raditional ear w alash an alash areanethnicminorityinLo er Chitral.Thefl arr o are ear .” (R 3: T w elder , f or thq raditional K man k eshun, UpperChitral) a Community

, uak ta Krak y ric

e khiyal at roofalsoser h al s thquak people alash houses,Krakalvillage,Bumburet V tar village, ts, -based k o y w ).” here e e-resis

Bumburet (Sy v Disast alw es asanoutdoor livingspace. but ed a ys the w er Harir er Chitral) t run y ant houses Risk don’t V alle Shah, int R y eduction, o build ,

Lo our Pr w traditional ogramme er houses!” Chitral F alle ocus y ,

Mats Eriksson openings/windo modern including trends e of an 20 def access because w The of in smok la 5 w single of are Chitral about ear Most

xpensiv ooden alls y The fivewoodenpillarsarefoundinmost traditionalChitralihousesandhaveaspecial F meaning intheIsmailireligion.Eachpillar symbolisesapr ymore light the e st w orestation. atima, Asan,andHussain. (Gr thq r big ear ood, K one, s. e K alash along uak o them. r and an alash out Due thq oom and t ther trees. o e. pillar these trends and ymore

the st mud, es w uak Rich of the ones, ood t air elder houses the without o and T elder s social the inst

raditional e A 5 structures Nor The the

apar households and ws, either resistant suppor f is traditional r a man ead central oadside and repor s v th cold becoming our poorest ha status and t are cla W windo y ha fr – v cla est small y om oup discussion,Brep resettlementarea,UpperChitral) t e ts houses v climat made houses f

fi corrugat or with a e do y witnessed

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39 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N style provides a healthier environment because it has better of controversy regarding the roots of the problem and how to ventilation than the traditional style and the materials used are tackle it. Some people perceive traditional (wooden) houses as less prone to fi re, but the structure is not as energy effi cient not being ‘environmentally friendly’ because they take a lot of and earthquake resistant as the traditional structure. The wood to construct. Others perceive that the forest policy is not decreasing use of traditional houses is also related to the adequate and does not allow people to manage the forests in lack of labour due to the increasing number of men seeking a sustainable manner – this is discussed below in the section jobs outside their villages. Building traditional houses is on ‘natural resource management’. extremely labour intensive and requires specifi c skills. Overall the changes in house construction raise an interesting point Non-structural strategies Social capital “We help each other. We are people descended from one ancestor here. We are one people. It’s natural to help each other.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, village leader, Ashret village, Chitral)

“The villagers from higher up used to warn us and we used to spend nights outside in this other village. The people of this village used to help us to save our belongings. They help us a lot!” (Aged woman, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral)

“Now we are building a new house here [on the fringe of the last debris fl ow]. We don’t have any other options. We are Mats Eriksson Figure 14: Kalash girl in front of a traditional Kalash house, Bumburet not going to the resettlement area because our relatives live Valley, Lower Chitral. Traditional houses are stronger because they here and we still have a small plot of land. Whether or not the are made out of a sophisticated combination of wood, stones, and clay. But nowadays, access to wood is becoming more and more resettlement area is safer from fl oods, our relatives are here diffi cult due to deforestation – especially for the poorest households so it is more convenient for us to live close to them. We can’t who cannot afford to buy it. leave this place because it is our family land. No one can leave their ancestral land!” (Woman, Brep, Upper Chitral) Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 40 Gole, UpperChitral) af future contribut Moreo the of of suppor Households go insurance R Chenar village,Mastuj,UpperChitral) three household “Ev Div t land could “ area t Part 3–TheCase Study o W elativ

f liv ect helplessness. e threat er back villages er e los and ybody ed o months I v hazar with es w t maintain,andstillbenefi sifi e t ould r netw b es se I , t

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tation o t the rk is

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ple, w village, village, Panan Shishi t o could w o ation land rk Jan, w

and It ood the the the as as in is 4 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N system of growing maize, barley, millet, and pulses was diversifi cation) allowing people to take advantage of the abandoned. As a result an amount of 60 million is annually ecological niches, depending on seasonal climatic changes spent on food subsidies for the district from the national by moving livestock between different grazing lands (using exchequer”. (NWFP and IUCN-Pakistan 1999) the fast-growing and nutritious higher altitude plants, while the sites at lower elevation rest or are used for cropping and Pastures, agricultural land, and houses – three (gendered) vice versa). However, generally, this resource optimisation habited worlds wherein herders/nomads, men, and women are strategy also increases some risks. In the transfer of livestock, at the heart of a complex agropastoral system, a combination the herds and fl ocks and herders are at risk from avalanches, of irrigated cultivation and animal husbandry. Livelihood storms, blizzards, landslides, and so on – more so than they diversifi cation has been a key coping mechanism for facing the would have been had they stayed put. In fact, blizzards in late harsh environmental conditions (including physical isolation spring and early fall have probably caused more deaths and and natural hazards) and economic hardship. Chitral remains damage to transhumance fl ocks and livestock than any other closed to the rest of Pakistan for about six months of the year natural hazard (Personal conversation, Dr. James Gardner). during the winter because of snow, which can be several metres’ This means that transhumance might be a useful strategy for deep (and temperatures can reach minus 15 degrees Celsius). spreading the risk of possible death of livestock in fl ash fl oods Certain strategies spread the risks of fl ash fl oods among but on an ad hoc basis only. people’s physical and economic assets, allowing the system to maintain a level of fl exibility and to bounce back in the face In some areas, the animal sheds are located away from the of change in general (and natural hazards in particular). Long- houses (horizontal spatial diversifi cation). Indirectly this can term strategies include vertical transhumance and economic contribute to spreading the risk of physical damage from fl ash diversifi cation, but also the separation of houses from animal fl oods over a geographical area. However, the practice is very sheds, and landholdings dispersed over a wide area. All four context-specifi c and varies from place to place depending, for aspects may contribute towards disaster preparedness in instance, on political/religious, economic (labour effi ciency), certain contexts and indirectly only: apart from transhumance, institutional (access to user rights), and climatic factors and they are not common practices in the region. illustrating the complexity of the system. For instance, in some places, it is a new trend infl uenced by religious, political factors. Transhumance can be described as a resource optimisation The religious leader of the Ismaili Muslims recommended to its strategy between the lowland and the pastures (vertical spatial followers, mainly located in Upper Chitral, that they separate

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 42 especially atnight.(P sheds conditions his f congest the whereas f Chitral, their Figure 1 Chitral Dis Part 3–TheCase Study or or his shed doing sheds sheds cattle. close 5: Y separating ed outside sheds trict so oung herderbringingafl villages, during can fr t v A om o a

r villager are easily their y of . their wint In sheds the built specifi some houses er be er houses with village. sonal communication,F , close

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ocess locat jobs disper natural reason subsist disper are sour that of places are bef risks ha ed jobs of ces one outside sense, the includes sed v sed ore appr t because ence e some en wh hazar

disper fi and is with

agr of landholdings eld, in y landholdings. int opriat are t ma agriculture, spatial people where o opast ds er the income

the leads the the the rely y sed twined. of div is e also Himala lando or oral the village. er else. f sale and q ormer on landholdings. do t uit sifying sustainable. o depend

lack (economic e disper increased syst economic no Ob as liv wner Ho of y In cont as, est t viously ruler a w T em w of lea oda most e their ood. risk ock, can sed e v the job on e xt- v s. is y r e - , ,

43 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Natural resource management lack of education are big problems.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, village Access to landownership leader, Ashret village, Lower Chitral)

“We are not homeless. Everybody has a piece of land. We “The government destroyed the forest higher up and to hide inherited our land from our ancestors.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, the degradation they set the forest on fi re. This is why we had village leader, Ashret village, Lower Chitral) this big fl ood recently.” (Villagers, Lower Chitral)

“One hundred and three households lost some land and 57 “The community ban cutting down trees and pulling shrubs to households lost everything due to the fl ood. Eighteen families reduce the fl oods. If we do cut trees and pull out shrubs we are are now living in the resettlement area [land provided by the fi ned. I know many people who have been fi ned. People report government]. The others are living on their relatives’ land. Now whenever they see somebody cutting down trees. Now we have we don’t want anything from the government. We only want the to buy fi rewood from lower down in Chitral.” (Dost Mohammed land that is around our houses and drinking water.” (The land and Sardar Azam, village between Mastuj and Buni, Upper around the resettlement area is owned by the Government.) Chitral) (Group discussion, Brep, Upper Chitral) “In Garumsheshma [local place] the community imposed a “Our land is more fertile now! Most of the damaged fi elds from ban on cutting down trees at a specifi c time of the year.” (Syed the last 1978 fl ood are now cultivable and very fertile.” (Aged Harir Shah, Programme Manager in Community-based Disaster women, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral) Risk Reduction, Focus Humanitarian Assistance, Chitral)

Community regulations on grazing and deforestation “In order to prevent furrows (small gullies) being formed, “People here have too many goats! To stop the fl oods people need communities used to ban the practice of dragging wood to stop the goats from grazing and to start forest regeneration. down the slopes. Gullies may aggravate fl ash fl oods in case of I have witnessed lots of changes in the forest cover over time extreme rainfall events. This type of ban reduced the impact and many timber mafi as are working here. Rich people hire of fl oods but had a big impact on people’s livelihoods because contractors to cut down trees for sale in Chitral. People are they were left with no alternatives. Now this practice is being overgrazing their herds and cutting down trees because they revived in some places due to deforestation problems.” (Aziz do not have other means of livelihood. Unemployment and Ali, District Manager, IUCN-Pakistan Chitral Unit)

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 44 f ha as v as Most IUCN-P of gullyingalongthetrac practice hasbeenbannedinordertoreducesoilerosionas aresult the hillsidesaf period. Onesuc of undesirableactivitiesonapar as bansoncuttingw v Chitral to Figure 1 Part 3–TheCase Study orests. erbal codeofconduct(‘das v agriculture e e

str r people y akis f 6: T ong No wn. T e w jobsaret t rac w an 1999) rules ada raditional f in ter the ks causedb is h activityisthepracticeofdragginglogsdo Chitral still ys, t o ood inacer y ha these

their secure o bef ks f ores District v e y most beencutinhighaltitudef draggingw toor’) la inf ormed b t resourcemanagementincludeda ound outside.Communities usedt the ormal t ticular rangelandf ain localityorbansonanumber im o sustainable wn ying do por y thedraggedlogs.(NWFPand community land. ood ondenudedhillsaround tant wn v means This arious principlessuc use is rules or apar of of v ores e pastures subsist r y allo

ts. This im ticular wn wing por ence, tant and f or h o

Arun B. Shrestha in or the it jus ins “Some discussion, resettlementarea,Brep,UpperChitral) it “N e Community initiativ Lo s go should slopes. “ Learning frompre Other Pakistan 1 are nationalisation the W t xternal help ore t a w v o o case e t tance social w ernment w fl

sustainable er Chitral) also rent

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tt ernment ything thinking oods building er er but came ed. (NWFP could repair w s places.” y our because ards is village, Our some should This damaged what and houses s, of req a contribut and v common aluables and man a

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had oup ting are the f on b or in e y

45 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N doing to prepare ourselves because we are expecting fl oods started to organise themselves at the community level; for every year.” (Abdullah Khan Shakir, Shainigar village, Drosh) instance, to request external help from the government and “Before, people were solely dependent on their own resources. non-government organisations. Some attitudes seem to But now their mindset is different. People are becoming indicate an increasing dependence on external help. The last dependent on the government.” (Prof. Faizi, Chitral College) quote illustrates how political and religious factors can come into play in infl uencing people’s vulnerability to fl oods. The “We managed to arrange four million Pakistani rupees from villagers’ complaint reveals that local political and religious the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme to construct retention powers can inhibit community initiatives and institutional cross- walls against recurrent fl oods, but the local mullahs (religious scale linkages. This example also reveals how religious beliefs, and political leaders) prevented us from having any kind of and in this case the division between the Ismaili Muslims in arrangement with Aga Khan Rrural Support Programme. Lower Chitral and the Sunni Muslims in Upper Chitral, can We received threats that we were engaging in anti-Pakistani infl uence local practices in disaster preparedness. The Ismaili actions and we fear that whenever we make a request for Muslims believe that the Aga Khan, the founder of the Aga Khan action we may be arrested.” (Villagers group discussion, Lower Foundation, is their religious leader. Therefore, some religious/ Chitral) political Sunni Muslim leaders refuse any intervention from the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, which is linked to the Aga Other general attitudes towards fl ash fl oods reveal that some Khan Foundation as a way of denying or opposing the Ismaili people manage to learn from previous mistakes and have Muslims.

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 46 Part 3–TheCase Study T food food? When season? are villagers bestusethemfor disasterpreparedness? (e.g., relatives households’ their T doing Social adopting earthquak changes and on forces, not houses sustainable? intensive)? reduce resistant elements learned e raditional c local hnical building communities land) store? family relatives F do at including the or capit and from knowledge Do located? in that than how and the they sustainability policies , How which ear T al social, the traditional they erraces social traditional Which

mak community s many thquak and – start new tructural policies can natural and have What What ones e professional, e-safe practices? influencing and traditional their network ones? and storing days households traditional e-resis households specific houses are networks practices? housing of resource are support s ret neighbours trategies or such not? level Bo What aining t ant food? months people’s look x 3:Didy buildings anymore? local Why buildings food structures political) structures? to are policies, are or houses are How preparing w lik Where? – alls are control prevent storage people practices? e? can building lik F the relationships ood are : ou ask?S those : e? more Where what How and (e.g., they have be what elements current What What s embedded What the for people t techniques? how households made orage earthquak do ver rely are traditional an How are the external stream? can y can kind does are impact trategies ofadapt people (forest on labour : more rainy from their with how that can the the the be of in a e Other equitable? floods? ownership and business? What activities? in (physical, spread management Div local knowledgeandpractices ondisasterpreparedness? Islamic not practices time Do practices do in background class, the people attitudes disaster different er people Sunni been context ation tonaturalhazards entrepreneurial sifi (e.g., background attitudes caste,

have the What cation belief towards in in living the economic, Muslims who Do preparedness? disputes impacts Do influence learned locations? disaster disaster

(e.g., – physical are Kalash) system How they

have to they in the s flash w trategies and the historical, ards do of have from also arise local been preparedness preparedness attitudes social)? local have have ability flash floods? communities influence, region mindset Do fl

previous rely ash different adjustment F settled from knowledge or different they , floods micro

and fl sociocultural example, Do for on What

and or oods do loss have promote, for so cash-income they -finance ethnicity] backgrounds? flood among people knowledge than than

are knowledge and – long? of a natural strategies? about different ver What have in the events? land Ismaili households people y this have their indicators How and/or arrangements long [age, and and landholdings are due

case about about activities? How resources regarding Muslims? livelihood who resources practices period does religious people’s Do Are to gender hinder study tr flash does have land they that and and y the to of , ,

4 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N 48 e assimilation. G Communicating A Chapter 6 means andt and The turn and e songs, ecosyst transf 2002; studies generations) ser w collectiv Part 3–TheCase Study v v o ents, ents r v shipping e con theref y abstract

ounger ormation as Berk but and em kno is enerating including vincing in e a memor under ore anthr management. also es wledge w pr “Kno activities, o a generation consideritpossible inthefuture. e and o 1 In it y v v 9 manner of help opology st ents is of erbs 99) y wledge generationinitselfwillno fl man ood,

kno thr ood diffi social communicating in generation them ha ough int no

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something only sho st t f o o or or r

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In w t w night liv or that ould 2005, that in e than s, elder y whene sa the in tiv three bef be ys some ar Khan,Brepvillage,UpperChitral) e capacityinsocial-ecologicalsys the s Brep pas a Jan, t ore that ories w v fl er

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ood sa ar v b e y y ,

49 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N “One hundred years ago a similar fl ood event to the one in Proverbs, songs, and traditions 1978 took place. Our grandparents used to tell us about it! Everybody knows about it in the village. After what happened “The fl ood comes the way it has come in the past.” (Local in 1978, we have told our kids that whenever there is heavy proverb narrated by Dr. Inyatullah Faizi, Chitral College) rain they have to escape.” (Woman, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral – the 1978 fl ood is very much alive in every day “A river always remembers its way.” (Local proverb narrated by discussions. Dr. Inyatullah Faizi, Chitral College)

“We used to have a song related to the fl ood that took place 100 years ago. It described how the fl ood destroyed the beautiful land of the village. Nobody remembers it now.” (Elder, Panan Deh, Reshun gole, Upper Chitral)

“Folk songs and stories are less documented here than in the rest of Pakistan because of the lack of political backing and the diversity of local languages.” (Prof. Faizi, Chitral College)

“‘Lavak natek’ is part of an important Kalash festival held in December called ‘chitermas’. Men and boys go down the mountains shouting and making a noise. If they see a fox, it is a sign of a good year. During that time, women watch the Mats Eriksson Figure 17: Elder wearing traditional Chitrali cap, Reshun village, scene from the village.” (Kalash elder, Birir village, Birir Valley, Upper Chitral. Asking people, and especially elders, to tell stories Lower Chitral) about what happened during major natural hazards they experienced or that they heard of from other people who witnessed hazards is an effi cient way of collecting information related to local knowledge on “When it rains a lot or when it does not rain at all, Kalash men, disaster preparedness – especially in cross-cultural contexts. In many including young boys, go up to the mountain to sacrifi ce a cases, it takes time for people to tell stories. It is therefore more goat.” (Kalash elder, Birir village, Birir Valley, Lower Chitral) effi cient to visit people more than once to gain their confi dence and revive their memories.

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 50 people’s dailypracticesandbelief kno the sameproblemsoflegitimacy inacommunityase witnessed generations, includingthey kno as s kno (kno Local kno Figure 1 Part 3–TheCase Study wledge, becauseithasof wledge allo wledge (kno t wledge gainedthroughone’se ories, poems,songs,andreligiouspractices).T 8: K wledge isalw fl

ood hazards.T alash elderandc ws f wledge gainedthroughtransmissioninsuc or thetransf a ys amixturebetw ransmitted kno ounges ten beendeeplyinternalisedinto hild, BumburetV er ofkno s o xperience) andtransmitted t generationwhoma v er generations. wledge betw wledge doesnotsuf een e alle xperiential kno y , Lo ransmitted een dif xperiential w er Chitral. y notha h things f

erent Mats Eriksson f er wledge v e

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o n and and real a t f last e v olk i n as b t er t r s) y d d o e e s y , .

5 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Ceremonies, such as the ‘lavak natek’ in the Kalash community, This example demonstrates how local beliefs and practices are a symbolic means of dealing with anxiety. This festival can can have both positive and negative effects in terms of disaster be interpreted as a collective forecasting ceremony; a way of preparedness. helping the community overcome the anxieties associated with future uncertainties (including uncertainties about the weather and natural hazards). The ceremony helps to reduce stress and Traditional early warning systems the psychological distress associated with living with risks and Mirror and traditional fi re systems uncertainties. It is a means of incorporating these times of great (phumbarash) stress and loss into a community’s collective memory in such a “The mirror system was a visual signal system used before way that they are rendered more manageable on an individual the British period. Local people used the refl ection of the sun human scale. Such ceremonies permit the incorporation of on a mirror to convey warnings (including warnings of fl oods) hazards into daily life within the structure of people’s everyday to other people and villages.“ (Workshop participant, Chitral cultural construction of reality, and they can contribute to town, October 2006) the normalisation of natural hazards (Bankoff 2004). At the same time, some beliefs and related practices can also act “A local system of signalling by beacons is organised by the in a negative or dysfunctional way. For instance, the ritual of local inhabitants from the Baroghil Pass to Mastuj and from slaughtering goats to prevent fl oods in the Kalash communities the Dorah Pass to Chitral. They are prepared on war becoming may prevent the community from carrying out some essential imminent or if a serious fl ood is expected. The village nearest to tasks for fl ood preparedness. This ritual also confers on goats the beacon’s site is responsible for its preparation and lighting.” a cultural and symbolic value and function, but might place (British Military Report and Gazetter on Chitral 1928) limitations on having suffi cient food and a means of securing fi nances during and following hazard events. According to a “This system was used before the British period. Until the local saying, “the death of a Kalash is the Kalash destruction”; thirteen century, the fi re system was effi cient and quick. The which refers to the tradition of slaughtering the entire fl ock for system worked well in case of fl oods due to the breaking of ceremonial purposes when a Kalash person dies. Basically in lakes formed by the glacier tongue blocking the river (‘chatiboi’) the Kalash culture, goats are kept for ceremonial purposes but the system was not quick enough for fl ash fl oods triggered and are never sold (no economic value is attached to goats) by heavy rainfall. After the thirteenth century (when Islam (Personal communication, Mr. Aziz Ali).

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 52 communication, Pr code fl the Some itself recipr months c “Eac Herder sys 2006) (P (including the “Mos Call f [see def parallel came grazing places village message Part 3–TheCase Study

harge ash er ence sonal regular right h t belo fl and times ocity sys

t oods clan villages or pra o if in of fr land.

sys (including t the t w] om possible. em) moment had communication, taking o or . fl

within t The

ano ood t the em der daily o and June- region),

This tem (pazhal) communities s intr ha y t ther her her and r t er sys w the o ong v lat pra oduced the e arning).

of. F A w w t spread der

Dif der o ugus a her er arning a liv w

y socioeconomic this y Chitral er communicat mosq f s as , aizi, ChitralT es erent on

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t could a w t o as 895 o wireless er fl

lo An is

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sys c or T on ha or fr w w o during hoose o the t y eac ther om ould arning wn, in em v e pra t t right o the e em r sys s

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y the became No outside danger means er shout (P based t her o a the dif em place ther v neares v er sys sys t ailable ember village oda f der sonal erent rain (i.e., . t t the e em on y at of m of of in . A a y ” t . something These local kno became and people fi “In Shainigar village,Dr shouting “People do Shouting, whis No of w re should ready F t Rh lik f

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53 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N (not systematically) and they are all used indirectly as fl ood Local early warning systems in warning systems. For instance, the mirror and fi re systems were fi rst and foremost traditional ways of defence and the call 2006 for prayers is fi rst and foremost related to religious activities. “The old system is gone and the new system is not working!“ Thus, the traditional warning system was based on a diversity (Workshop participant, Chitral Town, November 2006) of strategies related to military, religious, and pastoral or herding activities. This combination of systems was probably a “The Reshun River in Reshun village is prone to recurrent weakness as well as a strength of the system. One advantage fl oods every year. On one sunny day, the stream started to fl ood is that the diversity of strategies using both visual (mirror high up on to the pasture. No one in the village lower down had and fi re systems) and audio (mosque and herders) means of any idea that a fl ood was coming except one of the villagers communication allows the system to be kept fl exible enough to who had taken the goats for grazing on the high pastures. adapt to a diversity of contexts. He warned the villagers lower down with his cordless phone. People were able to move to safe areas. Nobody died but the Different warning systems are required for different types of fl ood washed away people’s crops and property.” (Narrated by fl ash fl oods and for different types of environments. In some Sher Murad, Reshun village, Upper Chitral) places and contexts, one warning signal will work better than “Technology has taken over but not in Chitral!” (Workshop another according to the nature of the hazard, the distances participant, Chitral Town, November 2006) between the lower and high pastures and between villages, the shape of the valley, the density of the vegetation, the “There are still a few herders on the pastures but they are relationship, location, or distribution of other villages, day time vanishing. People lower down are not listening to them or night time, and so on. For example, many stories report how anymore. Youths go to school and men work at the market.” the herders were too far away from the villages to give the (Mr. Aziz Ali, District Manager, IUCN-Pakistan Chitral Unit IUCN warning and/or the event happened too quickly. The traditional Chitral) warning systems were also very well adapted to and in tune “The traditional early warning system was perfectly fi ne. The with the local sociocultural context ensuring some level of herders used to pass on the message to the communities. They acceptability and trust and cost effectiveness (e.g., use of the used to shout and it was very effi cient.” (Workshop participant, mosque). Chitral Town, November 2006)

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 54 the the assume places, the e no a T sys degradation “ Afghan IUCN-Chitral). t (especially of of 70s, shaping illustrat of per socioeconomic, w in The The Part 3–TheCase Study o The o xam arning

household wn). w education, cash w the t ception an communities em, liv district fi pastures o

ne v ple, Afghan r rk est st aries Pr institutional es w her people refugees it the q syst mone in ock that ogressiv in oppor w u ho der f thr o as act is the some fr t ems current e sys t w basis of om ough o no more due increased F the y or hire nicely

syst u . tunities each the

pastures t w s r ” the em With geo-political, ely ther pr ha and (per village villages, in her t em a replaced go o pastures o individualis , v changes v vided w

her a e a pas , sums acuum. of v der changes. sonal o

as the ernment f transition r v disappeared fr ollo ha o der ergrazing these access tures. om tational s itself t v (per o increase the e wing cheap up contribut

communication, f

the or village been f the in or sonal Most the people tic f a The the t act Com jobs) echnological, a tw the t her period, hazar o grazing 70s and com labour opening present

b o or whole pr mark y der and pared e in t communication, Afghan due

s of ogressiv o men goats. based themselv ple

on d. t come three income o syst the ets, lea

w v syst t It x village. f the o or alle ha a dilemma up manner

contribut ving t r em. o a Pr W on ds, and v months. Goats traditional em this e int

y e with combination ar degradation of. the disappearance land-use,

es loose div o less t man The o f Man (‘so in or F intr type

pla accom er aizi, . the v traditional are in Since 1 alle ed y e incentiv tseri’) sifi situation oduction y y ties 982-83, Aziz xam In villages Chitral. spread people

of Chitral and cation t y o o of . early pan

with

ther and job. ple, the the t F Ali, on en or of of is e y t t are options signals. Chitral reach are of them. fr household among might e the Ho Offi thr t The the willingness resolv common) in associat echnologies elephones, o v om,

er a man w ough

communication y y relyupone ce centralised. only e ybody reduction ne pr v e e all e the Shouting in y scouts o households w all r v Thir ed , vide the has en places post

Lahore the ne early issues. per can ne can with t and dly contribut w o Flood ed and been relativ

ception w villages. in are , tak t benefi echnologies x inf the ha there and def P in w t their t ernal t echnologies based e eople e Ultimat arning ormation mainly v F x the used orestation e and ely replaced div risks: t orecasting ernal

whistling e t fl access is or

Due er fr e Chitral t rapid echnology andhelp. are villages o xibility om a sity on ely

belief t able syst the oda increasing e ban deliv t , xper no ha o them. data of this y

means b ems t y , the o, and and w is v t and . y ma communication adaptability on

o Division e

ts, because is ered Secondly

more

belief t still or release echnological limitations. fr y rapidity goats. The the increased Mastuj which rely om inf tak more b of socioeconomic the y ormation dependent ma

f the early e radar aith of upon

no , communication, post-hazar more Ano most ma y im of areas. central , the the infl t and y in w por e s ther fl fl Fir

v arning ash be scouts’ uence ash Met er and strat scouts’ solutions common risks t stly tantly creativity echnology deliv y The contributing go str on eor village fl fl ,

d egies oods, sat v oods ong although because disparity people’s ernment y ered syst e w ological bene x sirens, do ellit arning sirens t ernal f (and ems that orm and and and and the no no es. b t fi

o y t t t

55 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N to the development of dependency. People are becoming more dependent on the government; they do not fall back on the traditional systems anymore.

With the end of the traditional herder system, vertical communication (and also monitoring) between the high and low pastures and between the pastures and the villages has probably diminished as less information fl ows between them than heretofore. Further, livelihood diversifi cation through seeking employment outside the villages may also infl uence horizontal communication (e.g., possible changes in roles and/ or relationships between and within villages, between and within households, between men and women). On the one hand, men and women may be travelling more and may therefore be more exposed to other (fl ood) stories from which they can learn. On the other hand, men are away and less present to observe and monitor their local surroundings (while women are still mostly working inside the house). Overall, this subject, and especially Arun B. Shrestha Figure 19: Abandoned scout watching post (centre) above the the importance of the fi re system and of the herder system, is village of Drosh, Lower Chitral. The scouts in Pakistan are a different very controversial and no consensus exists among local people institution from the scouts in western countries. In Pakistan, they are about the relevance of the traditional warning systems. The a paramilitary force. Since 2004/5, all scouts’ watching posts have been closed down due to improvements in security in the district. various hypotheses raised here on the impacts of change show Today, the scouts are only based in Chitral and Mastuj (Upper Chitral). the complexity and the diversity of the situation. More research This centralisation of the scouts in the district also means that they is required to test these hypotheses. contribute more to relief aid and less to disaster preparedness.

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 56 Part 3–TheCase Study (i.e., versus among in local knows What their anxietyand/orincreaseaboutfuture hazards? what help Bo the people between x 4:Didy extent songs, are village? about women; community the to do proverbs, these local elders reduce ou ask?Communicatingaboutnaturalhazards How local leaders stories members stories is and ceremonies the and knowledge versus stress youngsters)? in about poems the (between followers) related community? and previous on related beliefs natural different What to future and flood to are Do help between past hazards social natural people experiences? the people natural strategies groups generations transmitted hazards? know to hazards reduce – about Who men that T o

5 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N 58 Conclusion P a r t 4

59 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N 60 1 the f fl practices past daily social, fr The Lessons learned T Discussion Chapter 7 villages. t a casestudyw cont Part 4–Conclusion

o ood om .

document Inter pas e people ollo and preparedness xts obser under and he fl

ash and t wing: general in pret recurrent fl o

ash ideas v relation v stand fl of er psy

ation oods ation local Chitral as under generations. fl

chological oods t purpose o and of

kno fl as of

t im that ash o

ha suc their plementing disast their identify wledge w tak ell v fl are

e oods, h of

en intheChitralDistrictofPakistan im been as local as Local landscape this er par pacts the on local preparedness. the and ticularly repor able surr disast kno pas organisations the economic, of kno oundings, wledge t t t o fl is int location

er wledge, and

ash vivid reduce t ernalisation o preparedness

pr the fl

and in o oods, F vide or en Chitral practices, human e of indicator t xperience o vir this practices

s inspiration help onmental, treams based purpose of include losses some in them s and 1 on on or of of 1

2. 4. 3. Identifi De Ev but cancontribute toit.) whic w of and thelocationofroc fl and sys house (Suc s sleeping withshoeson,orha measures out appearance andmo and

trategies oods eather aluation v tems, fl elopment (or v

sounds, h h ash arious

are s cons b s cation trategies t y predictions a

inf looking fl y) during not

to oods of truction liv ormal and location accommodate of elihood directly time and tec mo the based at range rules monitoring hnical, v thresholds v to e the rain and ement ofwildlif and

div t k ks argeted de f e or y shape y er from inter on v season types belongings eloping the sifi s tructural, their

ving a‘go-bag’ready en cation pret sus traditional of at and concerning vironment of liv suc t ations, disas early a s rain, es inable trong nature s e h trategies or and in as ter and w t the a speci s arning social non-s tec al k use t preparedness of a e when the ying longer

emergency hniques indicator the of fi –

tructural c unusual suppor f mos signals a ores smells slopes to w term ak run t ts, of of e, s, t 6 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N The potential applications of local knowledge for improved raised by the title of this report, if the herders of Chitral are disaster preparedness in Chitral could capitalise particularly the lost messengers of traditional and local knowledge, the on these four key elements. For example, this knowledge herder system of Chitral could well symbolise a lost linkage could help implementing organisations to improve their between the traditional and the new knowledge systems. The understanding of local and regional variability and specifi cities vanishing herder system is a symbol of the current changes associated with natural hazards, and local perceptions of and challenges facing communities in the District of Chitral natural hazards, and therefore people’s response to hazards. – as in many other places in the Himalayas. In Chitral, people’s It could also help implementing organisations to tailor their priorities, which used to revolve mainly around water harvesting, project activities, communication strategies, and policies to hunting, grazing land, and fodder, are changing. The herders local cultural perceptions, values and traditions, and strategies. used to provide early warnings of fl ash fl oods. It was one ad Further, local people can help external organisations to verify hoc, traditional early warning system among others. Nowadays, and improve their own information for hazard mapping and for the district is in a transition period: traditional strategies are the identifi cation of safe locations for construction of buildings, disappearing while new strategies are not yet in place or roads, tunnels, and so on. This kind of knowledge is often bought functional. A combination of factors (historical, environmental, expensively by trained scientists and engineers from outside. socioeconomic, demographic, institutional, technological, and But, as highlighted at the beginning of this report, disregarding political) infl uences communities’ knowledge and practices in local knowledge and advice may lead to important human and relation to natural hazard preparedness in a complex way. Some physical costs for external agencies. factors have contributed to a decrease in people’s vulnerability to natural hazards; others have contributed to an increase in their vulnerability. The vanishing herder system symbolises the Why the herder symbol? weakening of local/traditional knowledge and institutions due There are many challenges to the application of local knowledge to changes happening in the region at large and their impacts to disaster preparedness. One such challenge is the rapid on local knowledge. The vanishing herders, in particular, change occurring at the regional, national, and international mean that changes are occurring in the linkages between levels and infl uencing the relevance and sustainability of local the highlands and lowlands, between pastures and villages, knowledge and practices. In this context, some traditional between old and new generations, and between traditional and local practices are becoming obsolete and irrelevant. and new early warning systems for natural hazards. Can or For instance, and coming back to the original question should the herders try to continue to maintain those linkages?

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 62 based. local ‘local The c Local kno the f and e scales (i.e., kno kno confl regional study syst changing Pr Part 4–Conclusion x obably hange t ernal wledge wledge, em

goal ace ofthecurrentchanges? under practices. icts kno good illustrat infl Rather that cont wledge f of betw no

cont o uence standing r practices’, this ces t theref on can e because es xt een e , xt; Ho under (e.g., repor and w disast the be wledge asatoolf communities ore, eak w and dif the used practices can need r t f standing en ole and erent it er means y w cont e as might t, local and/or of in preparedness. the t what e no o f orest la xts t

oda under per t pa em ws, kno no and local t and o ying can y’s

phasis t strengthen se policy pr wledge and be stand vice ho o because cont kno w vide att rele w e , so

ention pr wledge la learn w v e e v xt? an ho as ws, ocesses Documenting be r ant on) sa), w no these e local The im strengthened fr xhaustiv an changes t in t om o including plementation, and or on

fl ymore

the Chitral uence on are kno the describing practices dif cont e cont wledge her f in in list erent local case local ho e der the the e xts of in xt w practice ororganisationalsect the o local under im hazar t people been 2006). and can practices, Under traditional com also maintain manage of should o ther

posed natural kno pr ple help int symbolises s kno ds, standing omo standing, made wledge (Visser egrat x, be As of human wledge people t on alw sustainable o and tion hazar used kno dif Hutt

e adapt, a div t f the o erent 2006). y wledge cont of creation,

on s of accounting the ergent ds. as ac t vulnerability changing is change o ‘user local and

hie e an adapt nature still […] or xts cultures W v and liv entr s e no Haq e can cultures W

kno rele elihoods. and

transmission, hope an at e t, e the of y s x and f ue become wledge o t v the t t point ern bene ernal o ant local r accurat perceiv , and creation

that and (2003) a operating le concep and oral le and v fi combination kno po t As

kno el o ciaries’ respecting this can

a e v e, under of such, socie e wledge: can t wledge put of ool r v under and repor int individual ty tualisations els. help ne betw erpre canno f be int it standing ties or w the : ho t s o “Little change. t local local it disseminat will t tanding o .” o w een pr t of is

her

t local assess ojects Secondly and communities dynamic contribut be pr changes kno kno der the of pr ef of unif cont essional respond Fir ocesses f wledge, wledge. o of natural syst (Visser loss r which stly ormly ed t

, ho e and has e em xts an , of t t t w it o o o

63 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Summary of the Key Findings OBSERVATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages History and • Experiential knowledge on different types of fl ash Instrumental • Detailed information related to the nature and history nature of fl ood and triggering factors, location of previous fl ash of fl ash fl oods in people’s localities based on past fl oods fl oods, previous water levels, change in water levels, experience, daily observation, and monitoring of the impact of previous fl ash fl oods on life and property, local surroundings etc. • This kind of knowledge is often bought expensively • Ability to interpret the landscape and indicators by trained scientists from outside. of past fl ash fl oods such as the location of past streams/fl oods by looking at the shape, location, and nature of the slopes, rocks, geology, morphology, etc. Life • Life stories explaining changes in people’s – • Information related to the perceived evolution of histories vulnerability to fl ash fl oods and the perceived factors people’s physical and social vulnerability to fl oods (e.g., environmental, demographic, historical and and the factors related to their vulnerability political) that have infl uenced them Weaknesses, obstacles, constraints Potential applications History and • Prior experience forgotten due to resettlement or • Better understanding of local variability/specifi cities and processes nature of frequency of natural hazards (e.g., important time differences regarding the onset of fl oods from a fl oods few days to a few hours) • Understanding of local perceptions of natural hazards • Ability to provide advice to local people and external people (including engineers) regarding safe locations, construction sites (buildings, roads etc.) • Information can be useful for hazard mapping, survey, and other inventories combined with conventional knowledge • Part of the process of data ‘triangulation’ Life • Complexity: various factors at play and/or acting • Understanding local perceptions of fl oods together with other stresses histories simultaneously or not • Understanding how people’s vulnerability to fl ood hazard is changing over time • Identifi cation of vulnerable groups/individuals

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 64 Part 4–Conclusion fl signals offl Early warning measures and emergency Time thresholds skills Critical actorsand humans andcattle safe placesfor Escape routesand fl signals offl Early warning skills Critical actorsand humans andcattle safe placesfor Escape routesand measures and emergency Time thresholds

oods oods

ash ash x x x x x x x x x x           elders, localreligiousandotherpiousleaders) Ability totrustlocalguides’adviceandpredictions(e.g., fastest escaperoutes,andwheretobuildhouses Knowledge ofwheretorun(orstay),arethesafestand Having ago-bagready belongings, stayawake,orsleepwithshoeson Knowledge ofwhentorun(orstay),movekey of rain,unusualappearanceandmovementswildlifeetc. interpretations/predictions, smells,sounds,locationandtypes fl Ability toidentifyandinterpretearlywarningsignalsof village Less localmonitoringasmoremenareworkingoutsidethe of youngergenerationsdueto changeineducationsystem Loss oftraditionalknowledge and decreasingtrustonthepart pressure) changing factors/increasingpressures (e.g.,demographic Decreasing optionsforsafelocation ofhousesdueto believe nowthattheveilsavedher. coming. Shewastrappedinherhousebutdidnotdie.People go backtoherhousegetveilwhenthefl information andbeliefs.Forinstance,awomandecidedto Bounded rationality:people’srationalityislimitedtotheirown Prior experienceforgotten

ash fl

oods basedonenvironmentalindicators,weather W eaknesses, obstacles,constraints Knowledge, practices,beliefs ANTICIP

ash fl A TION

ood was x x x x Psychological Instrumental Instrumental Instrumental Psychological Instrumental Local functions     in schoolcurriculum Reviving theplaceoftraditional knowledgeandskills rationality’ Understanding andaccountingforpeople’s‘bounded sense’ starts risingforinstanceisnotalways‘common and commonsense:‘runningaway’whenthewater Recognise thedifferencesbetweenlocalknowledge information To combinewithother‘modern’techniquesand Potential applications x x x x x x       Trust, respect mainly affectpeople’sproperty Few peoplediefromfl Ability tosavelife Cost effective Trust Rapid assessment Strengths, opportunities advantages

oods. Floods

65 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N ADAPTATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages Technical • Traditional earthquake resistant Instrumental • Earthquake resistant houses based on experience and structural structures • Use of local material (stones and wood) and local skills adaptations • Food storage • Food security • Terraces to reduce rock fall damage to houses • Retaining walls for fl ood protection Social capital • Ability to fi nd psychological, fi nancial Instrumental • Sense of shared community, cooperation, strong social and technical support from relatives and Psychological support networks/system neighbours Sociological • Reduce sense of people’s helplessness • Sense of place and family ties • Social and psychological assurance Diversifi cation • Transhumance Instrumental • Having assets located at different places (houses, livestock, strategies • Separated house and animal shed landholdings) contributes to spreading the risk of losing locations assets from natural hazards • Dispersed landholdings • Transfer of livestock from lower elevations to higher • Economic diversifi cation elevations allows people to take advantage of different ecological niches, enables the observation and monitoring of the pastures and sometimes avoids livestock being killed by fl oods lower down Natural • Access to land ownership Instrumental • Most people in the Chitral district have access to land resources • Community regulations on grazing and ownership and agriculture still constitutes most livelihoods management deforestation due to lack of jobs outside • Community used to have strong rules related to the sustainable use of the pastures and the forest. Some of them are now being revived in some areas. Attitudes • Learning from previous mistakes Psychological • Reduces sense of people’s helplessness • Community initiatives and attitudes • Helps people to give meaning to things that they cannot towards external help control and/or understand

Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 66 Part 4–Conclusion Adaptation cont...... adaptations T Social capital Attitudes management Natural resources strategies Diversifi echnical

cation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Increase ofindividualismasmenarestartingtoworkoutsidethevillageand ties earn cash Religious beliefscancontributetoinhibitingcommunityinitiatives andinstitutional responsible fordisasters? denying oropposingtheIsmailiMuslims. Support Programme,whichislinkedtothe political SunniMuslimleadersrefuseanyinterventionfrom the of the cross-scale linkages. have beenerodedduetothenationalisationofforestresources in1975 jobs whichleadstoincreaseddeforestation Dependence onexternalfoodsubsidies? Change intrendsofhouseconstruction Lack oflabourduetoincreasingnumbermenseekingjobsoutside Loss oftraditionalskills Labour intensivetechniques Decreasing accesstonatural(forest)andhumanresources Re-settling inavulnerableareadespiteknowledgeofdangerbecausefamily Increasing dependenceonexternal help,abilitytoblameandholdthegovernment Informal communityrulesallowingforthesustainableuseof pasturesandforests Part ofthelivelihooddiversifi Mainly richhouseholdshavedispersedlandholdings Separating housesandanimalshedsisaverycontextspecifi Increased riskofdeathduringtransferlivestockbynaturalhazards Diversifi Aga KhanFoundation,istheirreligiousleader

cation strategiesmightbeusefulonanad-hocbasisonly W The IsmailiMuslimsbelievethatthe eaknesses, obstacles,constraints

cation processincludessellingofwoodduetolack Aga KhanFoundationasawayof . Therefore, somereligious/ Aga Khan,thefounder

c practice Aga KhanRural • • • limitations ofmodernhouses people abouttheweaknesses/ resources confi A Policy implication/accesstoforest Reinforcement ofpeople’ wareness raisingamonglocal

dence Potential applications s self

67 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N COMMUNICATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages Communicating • Stories from local religious leaders, elders and family • Instrumental • Local stories, songs, proverbs enable about past • Proverbs, songs and traditions • Psychological knowledge transfer among people in hazards the community and between different generations. • Ceremonies such as the lavak natek in the Kalash communities is a symbolic means for dealing with anxiety in the face of natural hazards and uncertainties Traditional early • Mirror and traditional fi re systems • Instrumental • Flexible and decentralised system well warning systems • Call for prayer system adapted to the context through use of a • Shepherd system diversity of strategies: different warning • Shouting, whistling, and running downstream systems are required for different types of fl ash fl oods and for different types of environments Weaknesses, obstacles, constraints Potential applications Communicating • Rate of change is increasing so what is communicated by • Better tailor government coping mechanisms and about past older generations may not be relevant in the new contexts communication with local cultural perceptions, values hazards • Beliefs also act in a negative or dysfunctional way. The and traditions and therefore increase trust with external ritual of slaughtering of goats to prevent fl oods in the Kalash organisations communities may prevent the community from carrying out • Better understand and respect and account for local some essential tasks for fl ood preparedness. This ritual also practices and believes confers to goats a cultural/symbolic values and function. This • Try to capitalise on cultural practices and values where might have limitations during and following any hazard event they are strengths and attempt to moderate them where to secure food and fi nancial requirements. they may be obstacles (Bankoff 2004) Traditional early • Systems set up on an ad hoc basis only and used indirectly • Evaluate the strengths of the traditional warning systems warning systems as fl ood warning systems and try to integrate those strengths with the new early • Most traditional early warning systems have now vanished warning system (e.g., fl exibility, adapted to diversity of mainly due to economic changes the physical environment, simple and trusted from the • Traditional early warning systems are becoming obsolete now community) due to the lack of people to carry out the messages because men are working outside the villages Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? 68 Alaudin, Akbar R Bank Appiah-Opuk Ali, Battista, Part 4–Conclusion A K Univ Hinduk E.; of Southeas Seismic Construction and De R P Pas Go Publisher R e of .; a esour alash, educing Khan k v the f, ud-Din.,I. Kha t i erning f er s oralis (no F t G. a .; sity Press e Sun ce ush v n w The elopment Monit u, Construction Baas, , un Rahmat, aja, initial) s t AsianS (2004) t V Management r S.; ulnerability Common Cultural and Communities published document.K Paradise (eds) e of N. Hyma, S. the the (1 n (2004) R. tudies, ‘In (2004) 992) Pr Conf Pleiades F (1 c oceedings B. Grazing of Los o the t r 996) o ces or in God ‘The (1 erence

35(1):9 e The t, R , The 999) Ghana’. 7(3) ecurrent in pp Ey of s ‘An in e in House Ef 1 Areas Bambore Nature R the , 1 f ‘Indigenous of of Chitrali ole ects A pp 9-1 1-1 ccount In the athmandu: ICIMOD Philippines’ the N 33. 2 of I 1 atural 1 on Indigenous of 1 and 7-22 Liv Second t Local T

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(1 studies of esource Management 996) e J. (200 Colding, . London:P 999) Experiences A Applying (2005) O, R In .f 1) W Liv and Sacred ao.org/sd/200 Berk of ural InstitutionsandPar akhan: and pp352-38 ‘Institutions elihoods Italy the J.; Sys Collapse: es, Sus w enguin Publications A , o Ecology: daptiv Berk F t and F ems: rkshop A tainable orum p1 .; Windo 7 Colding, De 1 es, . Lessons, 9-1

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Operationalising int (2002) Sustainable J.; Socie elihoods R 7-1 o ome: F R Central olk esilience . 1 and ticipation Ser ties Consolidat Mar Ecological e, Cambridge ‘Synthesis: in DFID C. Appr recommendations Choose ch a Asia (eds) Socio-Ecological ylor andF Liv 2000, and f oac or Par elihoods’. . ed Islamabad: Kno Com hes: N vice Univ t F ticipat repor a o A Building vigating Cer

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ail er Int URL: t t osa sity xity or er on or In y - .

69 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E PA K I S TA N Government of India (1928) British Military Report and Gazetteer Sinclair, J.; Ham, L. (2000) ‘Household Adaptive Strategies: on Chitral 1928 (2nd Edition) Calcutta: Government of India Shaping Livelihood Security in the Western Himalaya’. In Press Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 11 (1): 89-112 Hussain-Kahliq, S. (2004) Learning Case Studies: Defi nitions and UN/ISDR (2004) Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Applications. London: The Partnering Initiative. Case Study Reduction Initiatives. Geneva: United Nations Inter-Agency Project. [online] http://thepartneringinitiative.org/ Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Hutton, D.; Haque, C.E. (2003) ‘Patterns of Coping and Adaptation (UN/ISDR). Also available at http://www.unisdr.org/eng/ among Erosion-induced Displaces in Bangladesh: Implications about_isdr/basic_docs/LwR2004/ch1_Section1.pdf for Hazards Analysis and Mitigation’. In Natural Hazards, 29: Visser, R. (2006) About the Discourse on Knowledge. Unpublished 405-421 note for ICIMOD, Kathmandu Khattak, G. M. (1999) Agriculture, Chitral Conservation Strategy (CCS), Sector Paper. Karachi (Pakistan): IUCN-Pakistan and * Details of personal communications (in the order in which NWFP [online] http://ccs.iucnp.org/ they appear in the text) Murray, C. (2001) Livelihood Research: Some Conceptual 1. Page 16, Personal communication, Dr. Jim Gardner, Professor and Methodological Issues, Background Paper 5. Emeritus, Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba Manchester, (U.K.): Department of Sociology, Chronic Poverty Research Centre URL: http://www.omrn.ca/eng_ 2. Page 18, Personal communication, Dr. Ken MacDonald, conferencesworkshops.html Professor of Geography at the University of Toronto - Scarborough, Canada Nonaka, I. (1991) ‘The Knowledge Creating Company’. In Harvard Business Review, 69: 96-104 3. Page 43, Personal communication, Mr. Farid Ahmad, Monitoring and Evaluation Offi cer, Policy and Partnership NWFP; IUCN-Pakistan (1999) Indigenous Resource Management Devlopment Programme, ICIMOD in Chitral. Karachi (Pakistan): IUCN-Pakistan and NWFP [online] http://ccs.iucnp.org/ 4. Page 52, Personal communication, Mr. Aziz Ali, District Manager, IUCN-Pakistan Chitral Unit. Ostrom, E. (1992) Crafting Institutions for Self-governing Irrigation Systems. San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies

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