VIOLEN CE AGAINST WOMEN

Recommendations for Action

Chioma Uzo-Udegbunam Violence Against Women; Recommendations for Action

Copyright © 2018 by Chioma Uzo-Udegbunam All rights reserved.

No part of this publication maybe reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means. Electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Published by: VERITY NIGER DIMENSION Garki, Abuja-Nigeria, West Africa. Twitter: @tonyumeano e-mail: [email protected] Tel: 07065936843, 08038795317 www.facebook.com/tonyumeano

Violence Against Women; Recommendations for Action

DEDICATION

Dedicated to women afflicted with various forms of violence and all the ‘He for She’ advocates of non violence against women. Violence Against Women; Recommendations for Action

CONTENTS

Forward i List of Abbreviations ii Introduction v

CHAPTER ONE Overview of Violence against Women 1

CHAPTER TWO The History of Violence against Women 7

CHAPTER THREE Forms of Violence against Women 21 a) Rape 23 i. Violence against victims 37 ii. Rape Stories 38 b) Marital rape 48 Violence Against Women; Recommendations for Action

c) Domestic violence 50 i. Diagnosis planning 68 ii. Honor killings 70 iii. Dowry violence 71 iv. Substance attack 71 v. Forced marriage 73

vi. Force-feeding 74

d) Mob violence 74

e) Stalking 74

f) Sexual harassment 76

g) Human trafficking 77

h) Forced Prostitution 94

h) Mistreatment of widows 95

i) Accusation of witchcraft 97

j) State violence

i. War rape/slavery 97

ii. Forced sterilization/abortion 101

iii. Government officials 101

iv. Stoning and flogging 102 Violence Against Women; Recommendations for Action

k) Female Genital Mutilation 103

i. Interventionist approaches 104

ii. As a public health issue 105

iii. As a human rights issue 106

iv. Debates on best approaches 107

l) Breast ironing 109

m) Obstetric violence 109

i. Humane and respectful birth 111 ii. Legal action 113 n) Sport-related Violence 114 o) Online Violence against Women. 115

CHAPTER FOUR Activism 119

CHAPTER FIVE Access to Justice for Victims 134

CHAPTER SIX Recommendations for Actions 144

REFERENCES 155 Violence Against Women; i Recommendations for Action

FORWARD Violence Against Women; ii Recommendations for Action

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BPA — Beijing Platform for Action CEDAW —Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women CSW — Commission on the Status of Women EU — European Union FGM — Female Genital Mutilation GIRE — Group for Information on Planned Reproduction ICESCR — International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICRC — International Committee of the Red Cross ICW — International Council of Women IACHR — Inter-American Commission on Human Rights ILO — International Labour Organization IOM — International Organisation for Migration IPV — intimate partner violence

IDPs — Internally Displaced Persons

ISIL — Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Violence Against Women; iii Recommendations for Action

NAPTIP — National Agency for the Prohibition of

Trafficking in Persons

NCWS — National Council for Women's Societies

NEMA — National Emergency Agency

NGO — Non- Governmental Organisation

NGP — National Gender Policy

NHRC — National Human Rights Commission

OAS — Organization of American States

PTSD — Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

SGBV — Sexual and Gender-based Violence

SAARC — South Asian Agreement on Regional Cooperation

STI — Sexually Transmitted Infection

TFN — Transnational Feminist Networks UN — United Nations UNCSW — United Nations Committee on the Status of Women

UNICEF — United Nations International Children Fund

UNDHR — United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Violence Against Women; iv Recommendations for Action

UNIFEM — United Nations Development Fund For

Women

UNDP — United Nations Development Programme

UNEGEEW — United Nations Entity for Gender and the

Equality Empowerment of Women

VAW — Violence Against Women

VAWA — Violence Against Women Act

WHA — World Health Assembly

WHO — World Health Organization Violence Against Women; v Recommendations for Action

INTRODUCTION

iolence against women and girls is a problem of pandemic proportions. A lot of women around the Vworld have been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in their lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to them. Many women and girls in Nigeria may have gone through the ordeal of Violence. The worst forms of them include: rape, battering, trafficking, female genital mutilation and homicide. A lot of Nigerian women suffer domestic violence in their life time. Domestic violence is one of the major issues in Nigeria homes where women are often battered. The battered women suffer lots of traumas which are both mental, emotional and physical. This has serious destructive social consequences including psychological disorders. It has been proved that women with little or no resources who live below poverty line are very vulnerable and are at greater risk of domestic violence and life time abuse. Children are also affected by domestic violence even if they do not witness it directly. Though Nigeria's Constitution vows to eliminate discriminations and Violence Against Women; vi Recommendations for Action

violence against women and promises to promote the ideas of freedom, equality and justice, yet Nigeria women's' rights are often violated with impunity. Violence against Women in Nigeria is a problem as it is in many parts of Africa, Asia, Europe and America. In Nigeria there is a deep cultural belief that is socially acceptable. That is to hit a woman hard to discipline her hence the battering. Since 2015, the Federal Government of Nigeria has enacted several Laws to serve as preventive and punitive measures to alleviate the menace of violence against women. Such Laws include: Administration of Criminal Justice Act 2015, Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015 and Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc) Act, 2015.

There have been other laws which need to be reviewed to strengthen the punitive measures on violence against women. Such laws include: Criminal Code, Penal Code, Criminal Laws of Lagos and Child Rights Acts. Violence Against Women; 1 Recommendations for Action

Chapter One

OVERVIEW OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

iolence against Women (VAW) is collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively Vcommitted against women. Which is sometimes considered as hate crime. This type of violence targets a specific group with a victim's gender as a primary motive. HATE CRIME VIOLENCE This type of violence is gender-based. It means that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. The United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states that: "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women" and that "violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men." Violence Against Women; 2 Recommendations for Action

Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, declared in a 2006 report posted on the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) website that: “Violence against women and girls is a problem of pandemic proportions. At least one out of every three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her”.

Violence against women can fit into several broad categories. These include violence carried out by "individuals" as well as "states". Some of the forms of violence perpetrated by individuals are rape; domestic violence; sexual harassment; coercive use of contraceptives; female infanticide; prenatal sex selection.

Other forms of Violence against women include: obstetric violence and mob violence; as well as harmful customary or traditional practices such as honor killings, dowry violence, female genital mutilation, marriage by abduction and forced marriage. Some forms of violence are perpetrated or condoned by the state such as war rape; sexual violence and sexual slavery during conflict; forced sterilization; forced abortion; stoning, flogging, violence by the police and authorised personnel. Violence Against Women; 3 Recommendations for Action

Many forms of VAW, such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks. The World Health Organization (WHO), in its research on VAW, categorized it as occurring through five stages of the life cycle: a) pre-birth, b) infancy, c) girlhood, d) adolescence and adulthood and e) elderly. In recent years, there has been a trend of approaching VAW at an international level, through instruments such as conventions; or, in the European Union, through directives, such as the directive against sexual harassment, and the directive against human trafficking. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, provides the following facts on the violence against women: “violence against women” is understood as a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women and shall mean all acts of gender-based violence that result in, or are likely to result in, physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life”. Violence Against Women; 4 Recommendations for Action

Although the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) includes VAW in its General Recommendations 12 and 19, and the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action mentions VAW in paragraph 18, it was the 1993 United Nations General Assembly resolution on the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women which became the first international instrument to explicitly define VAW and elaborate on the subject. Other definitions of VAW are provided by the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women and by the 2003 Maputo Protocol. In addition, the term gender-based violence refers to "any acts or threats of acts intended to hurt or make women suffer physically, sexually or psychologically, and which affect women because they are women or affect women disproportionately." The definition of gender-based violence is most often "used interchangeably with violence against women". Some articles on VAW reiterate these conceptions by suggesting that men are the main perpetrators of this violence. Moreover, the definition stated by the 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women also supported the notion that violence is rooted in the inequality between men and women when the term violence is used together with the term 'gender-based. Violence Against Women; 5 Recommendations for Action

In Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of women against violence, the Council of Europe stipulated that VAW "includes, but is not limited to, the following": a) violence occurring in the family or domestic unit, including, inter alia, physical and mental aggression, emotional and psychological abuse, rape and sexual abuse, incest, rape between spouses, regular or occasional partners and cohabitants, crimes committed in the name of honour, female genital and sexual mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, such as forced marriages;

b) violence occurring within the general community, including, inter alia, rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in institutions or elsewhere trafficking in women for the purposes of sexual and economic exploitations and sex tourism;

c) violence perpetrated or condoned by the Government or its officials;

d) violation of the human rights of women in situations of armed conflict, in particular the taking of hostages, forced displacement, systematic rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, and trafficking for Violence Against Women; 6 Recommendations for Action

the purposes of sexual exploitation and economic exploitation.

These facts of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory and problematic. These facts are conceptualized in an understanding of society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women. Opponents of such facts argue that the it disregard violence against men and that the term gender, as used in gender based violence, only refers to women. Other critics argue that employing the term gender in this particular way may introduce notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity. There is no widely accepted current definition that covers all the dimensions of gender based violence rather than the one for women that tends to reproduce the concept of binary oppositions: masculinity versus femininity. Violence Against Women; 7 Recommendations for Action

Chapter Two

HISTORY OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

he history of violence against women remains vague in scientific literature. This is in part due to the fact Tthat many kinds of violence against women (specifically rape, sexual assault, and domestic violence) often go unreported or under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject. It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable and continuous data is an obstacle in having a clear picture of violence against women, so a historical picture of violence against women becomes even more difficult to capture. Although the history of violence against women is difficult to track, some claim that violence against women has been accepted, and even condoned and legally sanctioned throughout history. Examples include the fact that Roman law gave men the right to chastise their wives, even to the point of death, the burning of witches, which was Violence Against Women; 8 Recommendations for Action condoned by both the church and the state. The 18th-century English common law allowed a man to punish his wife using a stick "no wider than his thumb." This rule for punishment of wives prevailed in England and America until the late 19th century. Some historians believe that the history of violence against women is tied to the history of women being viewed as property and a gender role assigned to be subservient to men and also other women. Oftentimes, explanations of patriarchy and an overall world system or status quo in which gender inequalities exist and are perpetuated, are cited to explain the scope and history of violence against women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) states also that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men.” In modern day, it is recognized that violence against women exists everywhere, and that "there is no region of the world, no country and no culture in which women's freedom from violence has been secured.” Attention is often drawn to the fact that some forms of violence are particularly more prevalent in some parts of the world, especially in the developing countries or the Third-World. Violence Against Women; 9 Recommendations for Action

For example, the associations of dowry violence and bride burning with countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal; acid throwing also with these countries, as well as some places in Southeast Asia, such as Cambodia.

Also, honor killings with the Middle East and South Asia; female genital mutilation with particular regions in Africa, and to a lesser extent the Middle East and some other parts of Asia; marriage by abduction with Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus; abuse related to payment of bride price (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) to certain parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania. Some regions are no longer associated today with a specific form of violence, but such violence was common until quite recently in those places - this is for instance the case with honor-based crimes in Southern/Mediterranean Europe. For instance, in Italy, before 1981, the Criminal Code provided for mitigating circumstances in case of a killing of a female or her sexual partner due to honor reasons, providing for a reduced sentence for such killings. However, using any explanation based on culture to justify specific forms of violence against women may legitimize such acts. There is also debate and controversy about the ways in which cultural traditions, local customs and social expectations, and various interpretations of religion can interact with certain abusive practices. Specifically, cultural justifications for certain violent acts against women are asserted by some States and by social groups within many countries claiming to defend Violence Against Women; 10 Recommendations for Action cultural tradition (also historical tradition).These justifications are questionable precisely because these defenses are generally voiced by political leaders or traditional authorities, not by those actually affected. But the need for sensitivity and respect of culture is an element which cannot be ignored either, thus a sensitive debate has ensued and is still ongoing. However, there has also been a history of recognizing of the harmful and wrongful effects of this violence, and actions have been taken to classify it as unjust. In the 1870s, courts in the United States stopped recognizing the common-law principle that a husband had the right to "physically chastise an errant wife". In fact, the first state to rescind this right was Alabama in 1871. In the UK the traditional right of a husband to inflict moderate corporal punishment on his wife in order to keep her "within the bounds of duty" was removed in 1891. More recently, in the 20th and 21st centuries, and in particular since the 1990s, there has been a large increase in activity on both the national and international levels to research, raise awareness and advocate for the prevention of all kinds of violence against women. Most often, violence against women has been framed as a health issue, and also as a violation of human rights. As for current information, a study from 2002 estimated that at least one in five women in the world had been physically or sexually abused by a man sometime in their lifetime. Also, "gender-based violence accounts for as much death and ill-health in women aged 15–44 years as cancer, and is a greater cause of ill-health than malaria and traffic accidents combined." Although there are many different Violence Against Women; 11 Recommendations for Action forms, certain characteristics of violence against women have emerged from the research. For example, quite often acts of violence against women are not unique episodes, but are ongoing over time, and that more often than not, the violence is perpetrated by someone the woman knows, not a stranger. INTERNATIONAL STEPS FOR THE ERADICATION OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Researchers have provided some convincing evidences that violence against women is a severe and pervasive problem the world over. It has devastating effects on the health and well-being of women and children. The international community has taken steps to eradicate the violence against women. The largest milestone for the prevention of violence against women include: ·The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which recognizes violence as a part of discrimination against women in recommendations 12 and 19.

·The 1993 World Conference on Human Rights, which recognized violence against women as a human rights violation, and which contributed to the following UN declaration. The 1993 UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women was the first international instrument explicitly defining and addressing violence against women.

This document specifically refers to the historically forever-present nature of gender inequalities in understanding violence against women. This Violence Against Women; 12 Recommendations for Action

Declaration, as well as the World Conference of the same year, is often viewed as a "turning point" at which the consideration of violence against women by the international community began to be taken much more seriously, and after which more countries mobilized around this problem.

·The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development, linking violence against women to reproductive health and rights, and also providing recommendations to governments on how to prevent and respond to violence against women and girls.

·In 1996, the World Health Assembly (WHA) declared violence as major public health issue, and included in the subtypes recognized were intimate partner violence and sexual violence, two kinds of violence which are often perpetrated as violence against women. This was followed by a WHO report in 2002. ·In 1999,the UN adopted the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and designated November 25 as the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women.

·In 2002, as a follow-up of the WHA declaration in 1996 of violence as a major public health issue, the World Health Organization published the first World Report on Violence and Health, which addressed many types of violence and their impact on public Violence Against Women; 13 Recommendations for Action

health, including forms of violence affecting particularly women. The report specifically noted the sharp rise in civil society organizations and activities directed at responding to gender-based violence against women from the 1970s to the 1990s. In 2004, the World Health Organization published its "Multi-country study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women." This study of women's health and domestic violence by surveyed over 24,000 women in 10 countries from all regions of the world. It assessed the prevalence of and extent of violence against women, particularly violence by intimate partners. It linked this with health outcomes to women. It also documented strategies and services which women would use to cope with intimate- partner violence.

·The 2006 UN Secretary General's "In-depth study on all forms of violence against women," the first comprehensive international document on the issue.

·The 2011 Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, which is the second regional legally-binding instrument on violence against women and girls.

·In 2013, the United Nations Commission on the Violence Against Women; 14 Recommendations for Action

Status of Women (CSW) adopted, by consensus, Agreed Conclusions on the elimination and prevention of all forms of violence against women and girls (formerly, there were no agreed-upon conclusions). ·Also in 2013, the UN General Assembly passed its first resolution calling for the protection of defenders of women's human rights. The resolution urges states to put in place gender-specific laws and policies for the protection of women's human rights defenders and to ensure that defenders themselves are involved in the design and implementation of these measures.

UN General Assembly resolution also calls on states to protect women's human rights defenders from reprisals for cooperating with the UN and to ensure their unhindered access to and communication with international human rights bodies and mechanisms.

Additionally, on the national level, individual countries have also organized efforts (legally, politically, socially) to prevent, reduce and punish violence against women. As a particular case study, here are some developments since the 1960s in the United States to oppose and treat violence against women: ·1967: One of the country's first domestic violence shelters opened in Maine. Violence Against Women; 15 Recommendations for Action

·1972: The country's first rape help hotline opened in Washington, D.C.

·1978: Two national coalitions, the National Coalition Against Sexual Assault and the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, were formed, to raise awareness of these two forms of violence against women.

·1984: The US Attorney General created the Department of Justice Task Force on Family Violence, to address ways in which the criminal justice system and community response to domestic violence should be improved.

·1994: Passage of the Violence Against Women Act or VAWA, legislation included in the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, sponsored by then-Senator Joseph Biden, which required a strengthened community response to crimes of domestic violence and sexual assault, strengthened federal penalties for repeat sex offenders and strengthened legislative protection of victims, among many other provisions.

·2000: President Clinton signed into law the VAWA of 2000, further strengthening federal laws, and emphasizing assistance of immigrant victims, Violence Against Women; 16 Recommendations for Action

elderly victims, victims with disabilities, and victims of dating violence.

·2006: President Bush signed into law the VAWA of 2006, with an emphasis on programs to address violence against Indian women, sexual assault, and youth victims, and establishing programs for Engaging Men and Youth, and Culturally and Linguistically Specific Services.

·2007: The National Teen Dating Abuse Hotline opened.

·2009: President Obama declared April as Sexual Assault Awareness Month.

·2015: Then President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan signed the bill on VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015 into law on 25th May 2015 which was passed by the Senate of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Other countries have also enacted comparable legislative, political and social instruments to address violence against women. Experts in the international community generally believe, however, that solely enacting Violence Against Women; 17 Recommendations for Action punitive legislation for prevention and punishment of violence against women is not sufficient to address the problem. For example, although much stricter laws on violence against women have been passed in Bangladesh, violence against women is still rising.

Instead, it is thought that wide societal changes to address gender inequalities and women's empowerment will be the way to reduce violence against women.

Impact on the society According to an article in the Health and Human Rights Journal, regardless of many years of advocacy and involvement of many feminist activist organizations, the issue of violence against women still "remains one of the most pervasive forms of human rights violations worldwide. The violence against women can occur in both public and private spheres of life and at any time of their life span. Many women are terrified by these threats of violence and this essentially has an impact on their lives that they are impeded to exercise their human rights, for instance, the fear for contribution to the development of their communities socially, economically and politically. Apart from that, the causes that trigger VAW or gender-based violence can go beyond just the issue of gender and into the issues of age, class, culture, ethnicity, Violence Against Women; 18 Recommendations for Action religion, sexual orientation and specific geographical area of their origins. Importantly, other than the issue of social divisions, violence can also extend into the realm of health issues and become a direct concern of the public health sector. A health issue such as HIV/AIDS is another cause that also leads to violence. Women who have HIV/AIDS infection are also among the targets of the violence. The World Health Organization reports that violence against women puts an undue burden on health care services, as women who have suffered violence are more likely to need health services and at higher cost, compared to women who have not suffered violence. Another statement that confirms an understanding of VAW as being a significant health issue is apparent in the recommendation adopted by the Council of Europe, violence against women in private sphere, at home or domestic violence, is the main reason of "death and disability" among the women who encountered violence. In addition, several studies have shown a link between poor treatment of women and international violence. These studies show that one of the best predictors of inter- and intra national violence is the maltreatment of women in the society. Violence Against Women; 19 Recommendations for Action

WHO's typology table Throughout the life cycle Phase Type of violence Infancy Sex - selective abortion; effects of battering d uring pregnancy on birth outcomes Female infanticide; physical, sexual and psychological abuse.

Girlhood Child marriage; female genital mutilation; physical, sexual and psychological abuse; incest; child prostitution and pornography. Dating and courtship violence (e.g. acid throwing and date rape) ; economically coerced sex (e.g. school girls having sex with “sugar daddies”in return for school fees).

Adolescence Sexual abuse in the workplace; rape; sexual harassment; forced prostitution and and pornography; trafficking in women; partner adulthood violence; marital rape; dowry abuse and murders; partner homicide; psychological abuse; abuse of women with disabilities; forced pregnancy.

Elderly Forced “suicide” or homicide of widows for economic reasons; sexual, physical and psychological abuse. Violence Against Women; 20 Recommendations for Action

Significant progress towards the protection of women from violence has been made on international level as a product of collective effort of lobbying by many women's rights movements; international organizations to civil society groups. As a result, worldwide governments and international as well as civil society organizations actively work to combat violence against women through a variety of programs. Among the major achievements of the women's rights movements against violence on girls and women, the landmark accomplishments are the "Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women” that implies “political will towards addressing VAW ” and the legal binding agreement, “the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).” In addition, the UN General Assembly resolution also designated 25 November every year as International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women. Violence Against Women; 21 Recommendations for Action

Chapter Three

FORMS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

Violence against women can take a number of forms which are listed below: a) Rape i. Violence against victims. b) Marital rape. c) Domestic violence. i. Diagnosis planning. ii. Honor killings. iii. Dowry violence. iv. Acid throwing. v. Forced marriage. vi. Force-feeding. d) Mob violence. e) Stalking. f) Sexual harassment. g) Human trafficking and forced prostitution. Violence Against Women; 22 Recommendations for Action

h) Mistreatment of widows. i) Accused of witchcraft. j) State violence. i. War rape and sexual slavery during military conflict. ii. Forced sterilization and forced abortion. iii. Violence by the police and other authority figures. iv. Stoning and flogging. k) Female genital mutilation. i. Interventionist approaches. ii. As a public health issue. iii. As a human rights issue. iv. Debates about best approaches. l) Breast ironing. m) Obstetric violence. i. The fight for a more humane and respectful birth. ii. Legal action against obstetric violence. n) Sport-related violence against women. o) Online violence against women. Violence Against Women; 23 Recommendations for Action

Rape Rape is a type of sexual assault, usually involving sexual intercourse. Rape is usually perpetrated by men against boys, women, and girls; women and girls are usually assaulted more often than boys and usually by someone they know.

A person commits the offence of rape if- (a) he/she intentionally penetrates the vagina, anus or mouth of another person with any other part of his/her body or anything else.

(b) the other person does not consent to the penetration;

(c) the consent is obtained by force or means of threat or intimidation of any kind or by fear of harm or by means of false and fraudulent representation as to the nature of the act or the use of any substance or addictive capable of taking away the will of such person or in the case' of a married person by Impersonating his/her spouse.

The Nigeria Criminal Code, Cap 'C38”, Sections 357 and 358, states that a person has committed rape when he has sexual relations with a woman against her consent, while putting her in fear of death or harm, misrepresenting as the husband of the woman or having carnal knowledge of a girl with unsound mind or with a girl under 14. Violence Against Women; 24 Recommendations for Action

Mrs. Funmi Falana, a Lagos-based lawyer and public commentator, said the Nigerian Constitution is biased against women. She said, “By virtue of Section 353 of the Criminal Code Act, any person who unlawfully and indecently assaults any male person is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for three years. But Section 360 of the Act regards indecent assault on a woman a misdemeanour, which attracts a punishment of two years imprisonment. “The serious criminal offence of having carnal knowledge of a girl being of or above 13 years and under 16 years of age or of a woman or girl who is an idiot or imbecile is classified as a misdemeanour, which is punishable by two years imprisonment under Section 221 of the Criminal Code. Even then, the accused may be discharged and acquitted if he can prove that he believed on reasonable grounds that the girl was of or above the age of 16 years.” Internationally, the incidence of rapes recorded by the police during 2008 varied between 0.1 in Egypt per 100,000 people and 91.6 per 100,000 people in Lesotho with 4.9 per 100,000 people in Lithuania as the median. According to the American Medical Association (1995), sexual violence, and rape in particular, is considered the most under reported violent crime. The rate of reporting, prosecution and convictions for rape varies considerably in different jurisdictions. Rape by strangers is usually less common than rape by persons the victim knows. The rape epidemic in Nigeria is becoming more and more endemic, even with some parents found to be raping their own Child. Violence Against Women; 25 Recommendations for Action

Majority of cases are not being reported at the police station; that is why there is dearth of adequate data from states in Nigeria. The rising incidences of rape in Nigeria are linked to Money rituals, wealth, power, longevity voodoo, cultism and psycho-social problems. Globally, gory details of perverted sexual escapades emerge, provoking revulsion and horrified sighs. Daily in Nigeria, there has been an increasing number of rape and sexual harassment incidents, including the rape of minors. On the increase is paedophilia, the sexual attraction to children who have not yet reached puberty, especially babies. It has really become a major issue for parents, counsellors and psychologists and millions of Nigerians. The media has been awash with pathetic cases of minors defiled by mostly trusted persons who chose to abruptly strip the innocent kids of their innocence. This disturbing trend is becoming endemic and, like a wildfire, it is spreading at an alarming rate, unchecked. The global prevalence of rape and child defilement has been estimated at 19.7 per cent for females and 7.9 for males, according to a 2009 study published in Clinical Psychology Review, a health publication that examined 65 studies from 22 countries. The data also attributed the highest prevalence rate of child sexual abuse geographically to Africa. Further research has showed that the girl child is mostly affected, as men of their fathers' age and, in many cases, their biological fathers, defile them and inflict lifelong physical and emotional pain on them. Violence Against Women; 26 Recommendations for Action

According to a research conducted by a group of lecturers from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, under the aegis of Women on Molestation, Intimate Harassment and Intimate Exploitation, 80 per cent of girls, before attaining age 18, experience intimate violence and abuse while 31 per cent of them experience intimate violence and abuse before age 13. The Ondo State-based group, which conducted a study in Oyo and Osun states, noted that 80 per cent of 3,118 students interviewed had experienced intimate violence and abuse, adding that it was alarming that molestation and other forms of intimate violence against girls in the study were perpetrated in the homes of the victims. The principal researchers, Dr. Olutoyin Mejiuni and Prof. Oluyemisi Obilade, said some men capitalised on the trust reposed in them to molest their victims, as investigations revealed that the assailants were mainly their relatives, a few teachers and religious leaders, family friends and neighbours, among others. The researchers noted that “The respondents suffered shame, fear, aches and pains, cuts and injuries, especially to their womanliness, bleeding, loss of virginity, pregnancy and ostracism as a result of intimate violence and abuse” . Speaking on the psychological makeup of paedophiles or rapists, Dr. Charles Umeh, a clinical psychologist at the Lagos University Teaching Hospital (LUTH), noted that no major cause had been identified but asserted that experts were beginning to focus more on psychosocial factors. Violence Against Women; 27 Recommendations for Action

The researchers postulated that people with a history of sexual abuse tend to grow up becoming perpetrators. He explained that another factor was arrested development, where adults tend to use children for sexual gratification. He noted that some others see sexuality as a means of dominance, and because they can't really reach out to the opposite sex, they subdue minors to prove their masculinity. In his view, most of the perpetrators work as teachers, hostel masters, and pastors, with many of them involved in sporting activities. According to experts, statistics on rape may not really be a good reflection of the extent of the crime, as most of the acts go unreported. This is owing to shame, fear of stigmatisation or a culture of silence in Nigeria. Yet the data in the public domain should elicit an immediate call for action. In 2014 alone, a hospital in Edo State reportedly handled 80 rape cases in seven months. The TAMAR Sexual Assault Referral Centre, Enugu, said it has received 472 separate cases of sexual violence since 2014. Out of the report, 89 victims were gang-raped, while seven were not able to remember the number of persons that raped them. Among that number, 354 knew the rapists, while 118 didn't. But only 37 were charged to court, out of which five were discharged. Seven of the cases are at prosecution stage, with conviction recorded in one case and the perpetrator sentenced to 14 years in prison. According to the Lagos State Police Command, Violence Against Women; 28 Recommendations for Action between 2012 and 2013, about 678 cases were recorded, while a total of 162 reported cases of sexual and physical abuse were recorded as at April 27, 2016. The office of Women Affairs and Poverty Alleviation in Lagos State said it treated about 589 cases, ranging from sexual abuse to physical abuse and child labour, in the same year. Former attorney-general and commissioner for justice in Lagos State, Mr. Adeola Ipaye, said the spate of rape and defilement was alarming, with the trend reaching a crisis stage. He put the figure of reported cases of minors' rape and defilement in 2012 alone at 427, stressing that many cases remained unreported. The Office of the Public Defender (OPD), a department under the Lagos State Ministry of Justice, also disclosed in a report that, between January and March, 2012, 39 cases of child abuse were handled by the office while 15 cases of rape and 17 cases of defilement were also treated. Between January and September 2015, the OPD also reported handling about 70 child defilement cases and 406 rape cases, with 1,143 of such cases treated between 2007 and 2015. In 2017, Katsina State Police Command said it recorded 210 cases of rape and unnatural acts in the state in 2017. The command's spokesman, DSP Isa Gambo, told the News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) that 275 persons allegedly involved in the various rape cases were arrested during the period. He said 207 of the cases were in court, with three still under investigation. Violence Against Women; 29 Recommendations for Action

Nigerian schools and other educational centres seem to have become a fertile ground for child sexual abuse and a breeding ground for paedophiles. Nothing worries parents more than these. As the plague of child sexual abuse erodes the moral and social fabrics of schoolchildren, schools and parents appear helpless and clueless concerning what to do. Often, if a case of child sexual abuse gets reported at a police station, the matter is 'settled' covertly as the abuse itself. There is no sex offenders' register in Nigeria, meaning that a paedophile if dismissed from a school can be employed by another school to teach children. The facts and figures of sexual molestations of schoolchildren in Nigeria are grim. According to a 2015 United Nations International Children Education Fund (UNICEF) report, six out of 10 children in the country are made to experience sexual abuse before the age of 18. That may pale into insignificance when compared with the fact that some of these sexual violations come in the form of rape. Corroborating that fact is the Positive Action for Treatment Access's report which stated that more than 31 per cent of girls had their first sexual encounter through rape. Specifically, at least 1,200 girls were raped in Rivers State in 2012 according to the Centre for Environment, Human Rights and Development. In that same year, a four- year (between 2008 and 2012) analysis of sexual assault cases at Lagos State University Teaching Hospital Violence Against Women; 30 Recommendations for Action

(LASUTH) revealed that out of a total 287 reported cases of sexual assault, 83 per cent of the victims were below the age of 19. And in its study on sexual abuse, Enugu State University Teaching Hospital (ESUTH), found out that 70 per cent of sexual assault victims were under the age of 18. A Lagos High Court, Igbosere, on February 6, 2018 sentenced 47-year-old businessman, Maduabuchi Onwuta, to 25 years imprisonment for defiling a 16-month-old baby. The judge, Sedotan Ogunsanya, in her judgement held that the prosecution had proved its case beyond reasonable doubt when she said: “I am satisfied that the prosecution has proved its case beyond all reasonable doubt. “I find the accused guilty of the offence of defilement. He is sentenced to 25 years imprisonment, which will commence from the date of sentencing.” During the trial, the prosecution led by Adebayo Haroun, had alleged that the convict committed the offence on November 26, 2013, at Isheri, Lagos. According to Mr. Haroun, “The convict had been a longtime family friend of the complainant's family; he and the complainant's uncle were secondary school classmates. “He helped the complainant's mother by subletting a room in his apartment to her when she had accommodation problems. “On the fateful day, the baby’s mother took her daughter to Onwuta's bedroom and put the toddler in his care while she went to bath. “After her bath, she approached her daughter and the child kept crying and pointing at her underwear saying, 'mummy see, see', she checked the child's underwear and Violence Against Women; 31 Recommendations for Action noticed blood. “Her mother took her to a hospital where tests confirmed that her hymen had been ruptured. “On the day of the alleged defilement, only the toddler, her mother and the accused were at home,” the prosecutor said. Mr. Onwuta, in his testimony on February 6, 2017, however, denied the allegations. He said:“The baby's mother gave me the baby to watch over her while she went to bath. “There were four of us at home on that fateful day; the baby, her mother, the mother's young niece and I. “I, however, fell asleep and did not know what happened to the baby during the time I was asleep. “I was woken by the baby's mother, who said the baby was bleeding from her private part. “She accused me of defiling her daughter, but I did not defile the 16-month-old baby.” The toddler's mother, a policewoman and John Bankole, a medical doctor, testified for the prosecution during the trial. Mr. Bankole in his evidence, said that medical examination revealed bruising and signs of forceful trauma to the child's private part. The medical doctor noted that the toddler had a broken and bridged hymen. He said that a creamy discharge was found around her private part which could have been seminal fluid. The offence contravenes Section 137 of the Criminal Law of Lagos State 2011, which recommends a life sentence for a person found guilty of defilement of a child. On January 18, 2018, the authorities in Jigawa State expressed dismay over increase in rape cases in the State. Violence Against Women; 32 Recommendations for Action

Abdu Jinjiri, police spokesperson in the state, said 51 cases were reported to the police in the state in 2017, compared to 38 in 2016. “To our greatest dismay, most of the suspects are old men of 50 to 60 years of age.” Ladi Dansure, the State Commissioner for Women Affairs and Social Development, in an exclusive interview with PREMIUM TIMES, confessed that the state government considered the rate of rape in the state as worrisome. “It is difficult for a week or two to pass without the ministry receiving a report of rape. But rape is something that is reported only when the damage had been done. It is something you can't see, we only observe the damage. She recalled a suspect that was arrested in 2018 for allegedly raping seven teenage school girls. “He used to block them on their way back from school. He raped them one after the other by threatening them with knife. The girls were later diagnosed with HIV/AIDS. Mrs. Dansure said another suspect was arrested in Birnin Kudu Local Government Area for allegedly raping four teenage girls at a viewing centre. She recalled that a four-year -old girl was raped in Jahun Local Government Area and that girl is undergoing surgery on vesico vaginal fistula (VVF) as a result of the rape. “However, our confidence in the prosecuting agencies is eroding,” the commissioner said. “To our greatest dismay, the arrested suspect in Birnin Kudu was brought to court with a psychiatric certificate and was Violence Against Women; 33 Recommendations for Action granted bail and he walked away free. Abdu Jinjiri, police spokesperson in the state said police interrogation of suspects revealed that most of the suspects were influenced into the crime by a superstitious belief that “by defiling a minor, their immune system will be re-energised to make them more agile,” Mr. Jinjiri told PREMIUM TIMES. “Similarly, others believe that having sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure them of HIV/AIDS.” The police spokesperson, Mr. Jinjiri, said some suspects also said they obeyed instructions by marabouts that sex with minors would enable them have material prosperity. He said teenage girl hawkers are the most vulnerable to the crime in the state. Mrs. Dansure also identified bad parenting as one of the reasons for the rising number of rape cases in the state. “Parents must not be reluctant, they need to be more vigilant over their wards, even at school.” Virginity is traditionally revered in the state. An implication of this is that women identified as rape victims are considered as damaged goods and stigmatised. This makes many parents to often embrace silence when their daughters are victims of rape. Mrs. Dansure called on religious clerics, traditional rulers and media organisations to intensify public enlightenment to help curtailing the menace. Sex still remains a subject discussed in hush tones at many homes, leaving ignorant kids potential and vulnerable preys of sexual predators in schools. Many campaigns have been Violence Against Women; 34 Recommendations for Action made about sex education being included on the academic menu of schools for children. However, not a few people, especially parents are apprehensive such education may go wrong. In the end oftentimes, the kids learn about sex the hard and unfortunate ways. According to experts, sexually abused children perform less than their classmates. They feel distracted and withdrawn from other students, teachers and then from their studies. In 2015, one Aisha Tokura, the founder of Twin and I Child Care Foundation in partnership with the National Agency for the Prohibition of Traffic in Persons (NAPTIP) and the Youth Reformation Centre (YRC) waged a campaign against child sexual abuse. Education and psychology experts note that prevention is better than cure. They urged parents to ensure that as part of the things they look out for in enrolling their kids in a particular school is the moral integrity of the teachers and other workers. They also encouraged parents to give their children sex education, no matter how awkward it may be. But there is the need to rehabilitate children who are already abused sexually. There is urgent need to identify the ones that have been abused in schools so that they can be counseled and see how the damage the child abuse has done to their psyche can be mitigated. Mr. Jona Ukpai, the Chief Investigation Officer of the National Agency for the Prohibition of Traffic in Persons Violence Against Women; 35 Recommendations for Action

(NAPTIP), agreed that the incidence of child trafficking and sexual abuse is high in Nigeria. Weighing in on the issue, Margaret Udoh, the Coordinator of National Council of Child Rights Abuse of Nigeria, said, “Child sexual abuse is one of the crimes that should have stricter penalties in Nigeria.” Nigeria being one of the 194 countries of the United Nations that signed the Convention to the Rights and Welfare of the Child, analysts said little has been done by school authorities and the government to protect children at crèche, kindergarten, nursery, and other learning centres for young ones. According to the convention, children have the right to survival; the right to develop to the fullest; right to protection from harmful influences and abuse and exploitation and to participate fully in family, cultural and social life. It remains to be seen when State Governments will begin to name, shame and nail children sex offenders by publishing their names and photos, so that the public can be aware of the potential danger of having such ones being close to their children. A human rights lawyer, Mr. Evans Ufeli, said it was disheartening that, as at 2015, Nigeria had only recorded 18 rape convictions in its legal history. This trend has been attributed to the inability of public institutions to address the menace by punishing the perpetrators To many, it is simply an indictment on the nation's Violence Against Women; 36 Recommendations for Action policies and laws. Moreover, worried by the rising incidences of rape and other violent crimes, then President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan signed the bill on VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015 into law on 25th May 2015 which was passed by the Senate. In Section 2 subsection i, ii and iii of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT (2015). A person convicted of an offence under subsection (1) of this section is liable to imprisonment for life except: (i) where the offender is less than 14 years of age, the offender shall be liable to a maximum of 14 years imprisonment;

(ii) in all other cases to a minimum of 12 years imprisonment without an option of fine; and

(iii) in the case of rape by a group of persons, the offenders shall be liable jointly and severally to a minimum of 20 years imprisonment without an option of fine. Victims of rape can be severely traumatized and may suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder; in addition to psychological harm resulting from the act, rape may cause physical injury, affect their academic performance or have additional effects on the victim, such as acquiring of a Violence Against Women; 37 Recommendations for Action sexually transmitted infection or becoming pregnant.

In Section 3 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015, the court shall also award appropriate compensation to the victim as it may deem fit in the circumstance.

Violence against Victims Following a rape, a victim may face violence or threats of violence from the rapist, and, in some cultures, from the victim's own family and relatives. Violence or intimidation of the victim may be perpetrated by the rapist or by friends and relatives of the rapist, as a way of preventing the victims from reporting the rape, of punishing them for reporting it, or of forcing them to withdraw the complaint; or it may be perpetrated by the relatives of the victim as a punishment for "bringing shame" to the family. This is especially the case in cultures where female virginity is highly valued and considered mandatory before marriage. |In extreme cases, rape victims are killed in honor killings. Victims may also be forced by their families to marry the rapist in order to restore the family's "honor". Due to the astonishing rate of sexual violence incidences, the Nigerian Senate passed the motion “Urgent Violence Against Women; 38 Recommendations for Action need to investigate the alarming rate of rape and sexual assault against women, children, and vulnerable people across the country” in May 2017. Three crucial aspects highlighted by the motion are the fact that these crimes are usually committed by familiar faces to the victims, a high percentage of them involve individuals under the age of consent, and most of the cases go unresolved. The motion was introduced by Deputy Majority Leader from Kebbi South Senatorial District, Senator Bala Ibn Na'Allah. The resultant effect of this menace has continued to make nonsense of efforts by parents and other stakeholders to nip the trend in the bud. However some members of the society have attributed the increasing rate of rape to social decadence and nonchalant attitude of some parents. Many say that the economic downturn Nigeria is facing has forced many parents to pursue wealth at the detriment of proper care for their children, which in turn exposes them to those who capitalize on the situation to indulge in such devilish act with them.

Rape Stories The #Metoo movement, a viral hashtag used on social media to help demonstrate the widespread prevalence of sexual assault and harassment of women, has played a major role in the 'speaking out' development. In Nigeria, Violence Against Women; 39 Recommendations for Action where many victims suffer in silence, the women are using the opportunity to tell their horror stories.

Brenda Uphopho, a festival producer from Lagos is one of the five women who shared their sexual abuse stories with CNN. According to her, she was assaulted three times by three different men but she never found the nerve to tell anyone until it was dawned on her that her teenage daughter was fast growing up in the same world that soiled her purity. One day, she was walking up the stairs in her office when she suddenly felt someone's hand reaching underneath her skirt. She turned around and it was her boss. “I screamed, and he was shocked at my scream. And I was shocked that he was shocked,"Uphopho told CNN. She was just five years old when she was first abused by a man who worked for her family - the man had forced her to touch him. Uphopho said she did not understand how serious the situation was at that age, so she kept quiet. When it happened again she was 18, and old enough to know she had been violated. "During a party, I found myself alone with a stranger who wanted to force me to have sex with him. He beat me up when I refused he sexually assaulted me. I was too ashamed to tell anyone about it," she said. She added that: "I just felt if I was going to tell anybody ... they would ask me ... 'What did you wear? What were you doing there? How did you end up alone with this person?'". So she believed it was her fault. "I could be walking on the street and I would get my butt slapped by a bike rider. My coworkers would make unsolicited sexual comments to me and I wouldn't think it was out of place," she said. Uphoho and her husband have Violence Against Women; 40 Recommendations for Action co-produced a play called "Shattered," which seeks to encourage victims of sexual violence to speak up about their experiences. Also recalling her ordeal, 22-year-old Eurel Nwafor said she was raped in August 2017 after some opposition union members stormed her former place of work. She was working as a personal assistant in a super market in Lagos at the time of the incident. "There was a lot of chaos outside the office. On opening the door to see what was happening, I received a slap from a man and before I could recover, he dragged me outside," she said. The man ripped her clothes off and forced himself on her. "He didn't listen, though I begged him to stop," Nwafor said. She said she has been making frantic efforts to file charges against the rapist, despite her family's disapproval. "My mom wants me to leave everything in God's hands, likewise ... other family members, but I refuse to suffer in silence," she said. She then shared a video on Instagram, where she pleaded for help - it went viral and caught the attention of support group Stand To End Rape, which offered her counseling and legal advice. “I cannot wake up every morning, knowing that the person that did this to me is out there going about his daily activities like nothing happened," Nwafor said.

Chichi Ogbonnaya, another victim, was defiled at 10 years Violence Against Women; 41 Recommendations for Action old by an 'uncle'. “This man was respected in our church and I called him 'uncle,'" she said. Ogbonnaya was sent to live with the man by her mother, who could not afford to take care of her. "He made me lie on top of him while his wife was away. He tried to penetrate me but when he could not, he went to get something that looked like a lubricant," she recalled the first incident with the man. "He told me to stay calm and be quiet. I didn't know what was happening," Ogbonnaya said. Ogbonnaya told CNN she remembers him handing her "the blood-soaked sheet to wash before his wife returned." The abuse continued for five years until she was 15. She is also speaking out about the assaults for the first time. Ogbonnaya said the man even forced her to have an abortion, which was badly done, and this made her bleed alone in her bedroom. "Even after I left the house, the act still continued and I just felt it was too late. I was too exposed to a whole lot of things ... I didn't have that sort of relationship with my mum to start telling her what happened to me," she said. She now works as a program manager for Women at Risk International Foundation, a rape crisis center.

In 2010, Oluwaseun Ayodeji Osowobi, now 28, was working as a volunteer in a local election when she was Violence Against Women; 42 Recommendations for Action asked to register underage voters. Her refusal to carry out the illegal request landed her in trouble. She said one of the candidates in the election tried to make her juicy offers just to make her buldge. "He said 'You are a young girl, after service, what is next for you? You want to get a job? I will give you money, get you a car, give you employment and make your life better,'" she told CNN. Osowobi said she turned down the offers still. "Nobody was kind except this young man who came to my polling center to register," She said. He offered her a ride home, saying it was not safe for her to walk by herself at night. "He made advances at me. When I declined, his countenance changed and I knew I was in danger. I struggled to get out of the car but he chased after me and dragged me on the floor with my braids. He assaulted me while I pleaded with him that I was a virgin. I felt worthless after,"she said. Osowobi said she was able to move past the traumatic experience with the support and counseling she got from her parents. "I told my parents and apologized because I felt I had disappointed them. My mother said to me: 'Your worth is not in your vagina; your worth lies in your capacity as a human being to think, work and impact your generation,'" she said. Osowobi said the experience inspired her to start Stand to End Rape - one of the two rape centers in Lagos. Violence Against Women; 43 Recommendations for Action

At the age of 6 years old, another victim, Omodasola Omibeku, was first abused by a distant relative. "Anytime we were alone, he brought out his penis and asked if I knew what it was and wanted to touch it? He would put it in my hand or mouth," she told CNN. The man lived with them in her family house, which she said was full of "aunties and uncles, some not even blood relatives." "I was in a lot of pain when he raped me some months after. I still feel the pain any time I talk about it. It was like trying to force a huge spiky rock into a tiny hole." The second incident was her first year in the University. Omibeku said she was attacked while walking home to her hostel after lectures. "I thought I was being robbed, so I offered him my bag and phone but he didn't want any of that. “He pushed me to the ground, grabbed my right knee and raped me," she said. According to her, the two experiences has messed up her sexual life. "How am I supposed to enjoy sex without having to think about how someone forcefully raped me? It gives me the idea that that is what sex is supposed to be. It messed up my first knowledge of sex," she said. Omibeku said she began to rise above the trauma after she met other victims of sexual abuse at Osowobi's Stand to End Rape center. "Up until then, I thought I was the only person that had been raped in the world. I thought I was the only person carrying this pain," Omibeku said. She has since volunteered at the center to offer support to other victims. Omibeku wants her story and how she healed to help other women know it is possible to move past the trauma. Violence Against Women; 44 Recommendations for Action

Obiamaka Orakwue was only 14 when she was raped and murdered at her parent's home in the Abule Ado area of Lagos. The incident happened on Wednesday, July 26, 2017. Her crime? She refused sexual advances from a group of hemp-smoking miscreants. They reportedly scaled her parent's fence, gang-raped her and inflicted fatal injuries on her. Weeks into the dastardly act, the perpetrators are still walking free, while the police insist the search for her killers is still on. But from all indications, the case might have gone cold, like many others before it. Ironically, this similar act in some other climes would ultimately be met with the most gruesome punitive measures. Such was the case of 22-year-old Hussein Al- sakit, a Yemeni man, who was publicly executed for the rape and murder of a four-year-old girl recently. Another faced a similar fate on July 31, for the rape of a three-year-old. Their execution, according to the authorities, was to act as a deterrent to intending rapists and murderers.

In July 29, 2017, 28-year-old Suleiman Sabiu of Daddara Village, Kastina State, allegedly raped the 11-year-old daughter of his neighbour. On September 8, 2013, the Katsina State Police Command arrested two men for allegedly raping a four-year-old girl to death in Sandamu town of the state. According to reports, the deceased was allegedly lured into the act while on an errand. Violence Against Women; 43 Recommendations for Action

In November 2017, another two-year-old was reportedly raped by a 34-year-old driver, Oyewale Ojo. He was arrested by the Oyo State Police Command for defiling the toddler, the daughter of his neighbours. On August 14, 2012, Alabi Bakare, a 45-year-old commercial cyclist and husband of two wives was sentenced to five years imprisonment by an Ikeja magistrate's court for molesting three minors. According to reports, he was caught committing the act by a neighbour and pleaded guilty to having carnal knowledge of the minors whose age ranged between three and six in the Alapere area of Ketu, Lagos.

In October, 2012, the Ogun State Police Command arrested a 62-year-old man, Alabi Ibraheem, for the alleged serial defilement of his 10-year-old stepdaughter. The violated girl, a primary six pupil, said she had lost count of the times her stepfather raped her. According to the girl: “Daddy always comes to me when mummy is not at home, and warned me not to tell anybody so that I won't die.”

Sylvester Ehijere, 47, was arrested in March 2013 for the serial rape of his seven-year-old daughter and one-month- old granddaughter. He was exposed by his wife who noticed bloodstains on the toddler's thigh. The girl later told the police that her father had raped her several times.

In February 2017, 20-year-old cobbler; Kingsley Philip Violence Against Women; 46 Recommendations for Action pleaded “not guilty” to the charge of 'fingering' his neighbours' five-year-old daughter, in his apartment in Idimu, Lagos State. Vaginal discharges from the child alerted her mother to the sexual assault, to which she confirmed that their neighbour inserted his fingers into her private parts. In March 2017, 55-year-old man Magaji Dansale allegedly drugged his new wife in order to be able to carry out the act while she slept at their apartment in Musawa, Katsina State. The mother awoke to blood stains around her baby's private parts. Dansale tried to convince her pile was the culprit, but a visit to the hospital proved otherwise, making him the prime suspect in the baby's rape.

In May 2017, Three unknown men snatched Suwaiba Ahmadu's infant from her back and fled into the bushes to rape her until she fell into a coma. This vile act was committed in the Danju Local Government in Katsina State.

In June 2017, 20-year-old Nurudeen Akintoye narrowly escaped a lynching when he was recently arrested for raping a deaf and dumb girl, in a bush at Obafemi-owode, Ogun State. The girl, who was hitherto a virgin, was seen bleeding from around her vaginal area which reportedly prompted the attempted lynching. Also in June 2017 Edet James Asuquo has been charged to court in in Cross River State for the rape of a 13- year-old girl, in what is being described as a quest to fulfil a personal vendetta on Asuquo's part to spread the deadly virus as far as possible. Violence Against Women; 47 Recommendations for Action

In June 2016, it was reported that a 24-year-old man, Haruna Tukur, was remanded in prison for defiling a six-year-old girl in Kaduna. The accused was said to have lured her to an uncompleted building in Malali and raped her. According to the former Permanent Secretary of Kaduna State Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development, Hajiya Hauwa Usman Umar, the issue of rape is something that is of grave concern. She blamed the inadequacies of the law to prosecute perpetrators for the rising rate of the evil act. Also, the chairperson of the Kaduna State chapter of the Nigeria Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ), Juliet Nwogu Oyoyo, has in strong terms condemned the act of rape. She disclosed the plan of the association to organize a rally to kick against rape and molestation of the female folk. Mrs Christiana Ali of Restoration Ministry also advised government to empower the justice system so that stringent punishment could be meted out to whoever is found guilty of rape in the country to serve as a deterrent. Similarly, the proprietress of Usra Academy in Kaduna, Hajiya Halimatu Sadiya Baba, has decried the increasing cases of rape of minors in the state and Nigeria at large, saying, capital punishment be meted on perpetrators. According to her, many perpetrators of the evil act go unpunished while families of victims fail to raise alarm for fear of stigmatisation. She, therefore called on perpetrators of such acts to Violence Against Women; 48 Recommendations for Action desist and change their ways saying, “If they are not caught here on earth, they will give account of their deeds on judgement day.” She also called on both federal and state governments to mete capital punishment on perpetrators to serve as detriment to others. Hajiya Maryam Abubakar, a housewife and mother, said her heart bleeds when young girls are seen battling fistula as a result of being raped. “It is disheartening that young girls are being raped by either their fathers, brothers, uncles, friends and other relatives among others. Angered by the rising cases of rape of minors in Kaduna, Governor Nasir el-Rufai has recently declared war on rape, saying his administration would henceforth follow any reported case to conclusion irrespective of whose ox was gored. El-Rufai lamented activities of rapists in the state, saying his administration would employ all legal means to deal with the menace. He said a bill is currently being worked upon by the state assembly to address the issue of rape. He also disclosed that the 19 northern states governments are currently reviewing the penal code to replace the obsolete punitive measures attached to rape in the region. He urged distressed persons to reach security operatives in the state on the following numbers: 08064810576, 08050366625 for prompt intervention.

Marital Rape Marital rape, also known as spousal rape, is non- Violence Against Women; 49 Recommendations for Action consensual sex perpetrated by the victim's spouse. Once widely condoned or ignored by law, spousal rape is now repudiated by international conventions and increasingly criminalized. Still, in many countries, spousal rape either remains legal, or is illegal but widely tolerated and accepted as a husband's prerogative. The criminalization of marital rape is recent, having occurred in the past few decades. Traditional understanding and views of marriage, rape, sexuality, gender roles and self determination have started to be challenged in most Western countries in the 1960s and 1970s, which has led to the subsequent criminalization of marital rape during the following decades. With a few notable exceptions, it was during the past 30 years when most laws against marital rape have been enacted. Some countries in Scandinavia and in the former Communist Bloc of Europe made spousal rape illegal before 1970, but most Western countries criminalized it only in the 1980s and 1990s. In many parts of the world the laws against marital rape are very new, having been enacted in the 2000s. In Canada, marital rape was made illegal in 1983, when several legal changes were made, including changing the rape statute to sexual assault, and making the laws gender neutral. In Ireland spousal rape was outlawed in 1990. In the US, the criminalization of marital rape started in the mid- 1970s and in 1993 North Carolina became the last state to make marital rape illegal. In England and Wales, marital rape was made illegal in 1991. The views of Sir Matthew Hale, a 17th-century jurist, published in The History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736), stated that a husband cannot be guilty of the rape of his wife because the wife "hath given up herself in this kind Violence Against Women; 50 Recommendations for Action to her husband, which she cannot retract"; in England and Wales this would remain law for more than 250 years, until it was abolished by the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords, in the case of R v R in 1991. In the Netherlands marital rape was also made illegal in 1991. One of the last Western countries to criminalize marital rape was Germany, in 1997. The relation between some religions (Christianity and Islam) and marital rape is controversial. The Bible at 1 Corinthians 7:3-5 explains that one has a "conjugal duty" to have sexual relations with one's spouse (in sharp opposition to sex outside marriage which is considered a sin) and states that "The wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does. And likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does. Do not deprive one another. Some conservative religious figures interpret this as rejecting to possibility of marital rape. Islam makes reference to sexual relations in marriage too, notably: "Allah's Apostle said, 'If a husband calls his wife to his bed (i.e. to have sexual relation) and she refuses and causes him to sleep in anger, the angels will curse her till morning'; and several comments on the issue of marital rape made by Muslim religious leaders have been criticized. Many Countries including Nigeria do not criminalize marital rape because sex in marriage is consider an absolute right of the husband and can be taken without the consent of his wife.

Domestic Violence An analysis by the UN of several international studies found domestic violence against women to be most prevalent in Ethiopia;. women are more likely to be Violence Against Women; 51 Recommendations for Action victimized by someone that they are intimate with, commonly called "intimate partner violence" or (IPV). Instances of IPV tend not to be reported to police and thus many experts believe that the true magnitude of the problem is hard to estimate. Women are much more likely than men to be murdered by an intimate partner. In the United States, in 2005, 1181 women, in comparison with 329 men, were killed by their intimate partners. In England and Wales about 100 women are killed by partners or former partners each year while 21 men were killed in 2010. In 2008, in France, 156 women in comparison with 27 men were killed by their intimate partner. According to WHO, globally, as many as 38% of murders of women are committed by an intimate partner. A UN report compiled from a number of different studies conducted in at least 71 countries found domestic violence against women to be most prevalent in Ethiopia. In Western Europe, a country which has received major international criticism for the way it has dealt legally with the issue of violence against women is Finland; with authors pointing that a high level of equality for women in the public sphere (as in Finland) should never be equated with equality in all other aspects of women's lives. A study by Pan American Health Organization conducted in 12 Latin American countries found the highest prevalence of domestic violence against women to be in Bolivia. Though this form of violence is often portrayed as an issue within the context of heterosexual relationships, it also occurs in lesbian relationships, daughter-mother relationships, roommate relationships and other domestic relationships involving two women. Violence against women in lesbian relationships is about as common as violence against women in Violence Against Women; 52 Recommendations for Action heterosexual relationships. 25 percent of women in Nigeria have to go through the ordeal of domestic violence. The worst forms of them are battering, trafficking, rape and homicide. The poorer the women are, the greater the risk of their suffering from domestic violence. While domestic violence is a global problem, it has literarily taken residence in Africa with endless stories of pains and sorrow following it. In Nigeria particularly, the epidemic has assumed a disturbing dimension that even current penalties have not been able to serve as deterrent. Although described as any violent confrontation between family or household members such as spouses/partners, relatives, children or wards, involving physical harm, wilful intimidation, sexual assault, psychological or emotional assault, women have remained the chief sufferers of domestic violence in Nigeria, with perpetrators claiming to be acting in accordance with tradition. These perpetrators claim that traditionally, in Nigeria, the beating of wives and children is widely sanctioned as a form of discipline. Therefore, in beating their children, parents believe they are instilling discipline in them—the same way husbands beat, torture their wives who are regarded as children who can be prone to indiscipline if not 'disciplined'. But is it truly cultural to be violent to women at the slightest opportunity? Domestic violence is temporary insanity that occurs when someone cannot control ones anger. It is very inhuman to lay hands on a spouse. Domestic violence is sadly becoming more rampant now. In actual fact, some women do provoke their husband to anger but Violence Against Women; 53 Recommendations for Action that must not translate to laying of hands as punishment of correctional measure. In my community, violent cases between husband and wife or maltreatment of women are obvious. Misinformation is part of the problem that leads to misunderstanding of culture which inadvertently leads to violence at homes. “When a woman is being married, a customary bride price is paid on her as a mark of respect to her and she, in return is expected to respect the husband. That is where tradition and culture involve such submissiveness but that should not in any way lead to abuse of privilege or wife battering. Domestic violence is a societal problem and not cultural. There are lot of things happening at homes now and when people get angry, they use that opportunity to vent their anger at anybody available to them. That's the kind of society we live in right now; which may be attributed to so many things, including economic hardship or even spiritual. Any man who beats his wife is beaten in Yoruba culture by his father or any elder in his family as a corrective measure. In Edo land, right from the days of their fathers, women are respected and treated as queens. They can be harsh sometimes but being violent to their wives is not a dictate from Edo culture. The same way perpetrators and even societies choose to commit violence, they can choose to stop. The invaluable support of communities, traditional leaders and family elders in curbing the trend cannot be over- emphasized. This is because they constitute one of the most revered influencers of public opinion and lifestyle. Violence Against Women; 54 Recommendations for Action

Teaching men and boys respect for the female gender is pertinent. As a long-lasting panacea, parents too must live up to their roles as role models because the likelihood of any child becoming violent towards the opposite sex will be less if the parents rarely displayed such. The issue of domestic violence has been a trend in homes for many years. Now it is receiving serious attention from human rights activists, the government and international bodies. In recent times many have gone through the agonizing and traumatizing situation in silence due to the African stereotype of men being the head of the home and women being made to be submissive. Through campaigns and agitations, many Nigerians have begun to voice out their plights and women have received attention and subsequently been rescued from their life-threatening situations. Nigerian celebrities are also not left out of this saga, as many have started revealing the hell in which they've lived in and trauma they had experienced from their abusive partners. Above all, government, as well as law enforcement agencies and the judiciary, should live up to their responsibility of protecting lives by making sure there is improved access to justice and that perpetrators are brought to book.

Other Forms of Domestic Violence Psychological/Emotional Abuse: This refers to any act that provokes fear, diminishes the individual's self worth, dignity or self-esteem, inflicts psychological trauma on another person. In the family, acts of intimidation, silent Violence Against Women; 55 Recommendations for Action treatment, yelling, talking down, playing on emotions, degradation, treating her as though she was a child, blackmailing, threatening, coming home drunk or stoned, refusing to provide support or up keep for the children amount to emotional abuse.

Sexual Violence: This is any unwelcome or forced sexual activity. Examples of this could include unwanted sexual contact, forcing woman to have sex even the husband, forcing the woman to have sex with others, uttering threats to obtain sex, forcing sex when the woman is sick, after childbirth or surgery, treating the woman as a sex object, refusing to allow or forcing the woman to use contraception.

Verbal Abuse: This is the use of negative comments that are unwelcome, embarrassing, offensive, threatening/or degrading to a woman. Examples of verbal abuse include name-calling, slut shaming, body shaming, labeling, false accusations, lying, insults, curses, and the likes.

Financial Abuse: This is any behavior that reduces, eliminates or deprives a woman of her financial independence. Examples are refusing her to gain employment, run her own business or engage in any financial activity, forcefully taking her money, forging her signature or name, withholding money, spending money on addiction, gambling, sexual services at the expense of her well being and up-keep, keeping her in the dark concerning the family finances and assets.

Social Abuse: This is isolating or alienating a woman from friends or family. That is, controlling who her friends are, where she goes, what she does, whom she sees and talks to, Violence Against Women; 56 Recommendations for Action making her incommunicado by seizing her phone, barring her from public functions or and other social activities.

Religious Abuse: Any tactics that exert power and control over a woman's spirituality and religious orientation. That is, choosing where she can or cannot worship, dictating how she should and should not worship. It also involves using religion to justify abuse or dominance, using religious position to pressure for sex or favours and to cover up domestic violence.

Using Privilege/Social Status: Any comments or actions that suggest she is inferior because she comes from a different socio-economic background. An abuser who was a Pilot can say to her woman: “You daughter of a cook, do you have any pilot in your family? Have you seen a pilot before in your life?” He can also use his social status and influence to hide and deny his abusive behaviour so she could not get help. At the end, he tried to use his position to engage her in expensive legal proceedings in another city far away from where they both live and he will do everything possible to manipulate and prolong legal proceedings. These are the various ways men abuse women using their social status. Clearly, violence against women is the most visible sign of pervasive patriarchy and chauvinism and directly impacts women's physical and psychological health and her entire life! Whatever form it takes, violence against women can have serious long-term physical and emotional effects. In Nigeria, Section 19 subsection 1 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015, Any person who batters his/her spouse commits an Offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or to fine not exceeding Violence Against Women; 57 Recommendations for Action

N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment. Also, in sub section 2, Any person who attempts to commit the act of violence provided for in sub section (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to fine not exceeding N100,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment. In Section 9 subsection 1 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015, Any person who forcefully evicts his/her spouse from his/her home or refuses him/her access commits an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to fine not exceeding N300,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment. Moreover, In Section 9 subsection 2 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015, any person who attempts to commit the offence provided for in subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment. Also, in subsection 3, Any person who incites, aids, abets, or counsels another person to commit the offence as provided for in subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year, or to fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment. In subsection 4, Any person who receives or assists another who to his/her knowledge committed the offence Violence Against Women; 58 Recommendations for Action

Abused, battered, abandoned: Horrible stories of Nigerian women who survived violent, murderous spouse. provided for in subsection (1) of this section is an accessory after. the fact' and is therefore liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to tine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

Whenever Roselyn disagreed with her husband, it would earn her a beating. For the eight years she lived with him, Roselyn was beaten more than 60 times. Sadly, her now 16- year old son witnessed several sessions of the ugly incident. With each scar, came a sting of pain in her heart that kept multiplying until she ran for her dear life. Even though she noticed signs of his aggressive nature before they got married, she thought it would be a one-time event. He slapped her once when they were courting but she waved it aside. According to Roselyn, a French graduate, her ex- husband believed she shouldn't have a say in their marriage. It was an abomination to him. She felt discouraged at the life she was living. She needed to take permission from him, to visit her family otherwise he would beat her till she fainted. She was literally living in hell. Filled with regrets at the turn of events in her life, Roselyn said she would have put two and two together, Violence Against Women; 59 Recommendations for Action because he told her his father used to beat his mother a lot. While beating her, he tells her, 'my father used to beat my mother and she didn't die, if I beat you, you will not break, you are not an egg.' During the nine months duration of her pregnancy, the beating worsened. On one occasion, he threw a lit lantern at her, but luckily for her, she dodged and the settee in their sitting room almost caught fire. At another time, he held a knife to her head. The horror she felt that day was better imagined as her whole life flashed before her eyes and she begged to stay alive for her son. His eyes were blood shot, and she didn't believe that she would survive that encounter. Roselyn was disappointed when she reported her husband's inhumane behaviour to his father. He told her to be patient that the beating was normal. Her local pastor didn't even provide the needed succour she needed at that time with words. Not even the police were ready to protect her from the beatings she endured at home. ''When I went to my local Pastor, he told me that I shouldn't be making him angry, and that whatever my husband says, I should submit. I asked him if that included his asking me to rob a bank or kill someone. When I went to the police, they took one look at me and laughingly said, 'you are not a small girl. You either bear it or seek a divorce.' But for me “What I wanted at that time was for the violence to stop but not necessarily for the marriage to end.'' Looking back, Roselyn confessed that her marriage was over in the second year, but was determined to make it work against all odds. Her reason? She didn't want to be tagged a divorcee. She was also worried over how she would raise her Violence Against Women; 60 Recommendations for Action son, who witnessed some of the abuses. So, she had to hide him at her parents' house at some point to shield him from the beatings. She eventually got help from an NGO that helps abused women. Roselyn is just one out of several women out there who are enduring domestic violence for several reasons while a number of brave ones have already taken a walk out of such homes so that they can live. Hadiza was married to a popular Nigerian musician Zaaky Azzay. Right from the beginning of their marriage, it was hell personified for her frail body. Violence and physical assault were integral part of their marriage. She said that at the slightest argument between them, Zaaky would lash out at her, abused her verbally and threw things at her. Several times, in the early years of their marriage, whenever she got pregnant, he would ask her to abort it. She was concerned and asked him if he didn't want them to have children. Eventually, they had three children, but the violence didn't stop. Hadiza has lost count of how many times he beat her and pushed her out of their house or abandoned her on the road if they had an argument in the car while driving home from somewhere. “On more than two occasions, I went to the police station to report, but they never took me seriously. When I could not take it any longer, I decided to take my destiny in my hands. Initially, I ran away, because Zaaky had said, if I did not leave, he would kill me.'’ Someone referred Hadiza to Project Alert and they gave her shelter. She stayed there for six months. In the first few days she was in the shelter, she was miserable, because Violence Against Women; 61 Recommendations for Action she missed her children. Hadiza succeeded in having two of her three children but the action infuriated her husband who used his personal relationship with the Police to threaten and intimidate her. They tried tracing her to the shelter, and at that point Project alert had to petition the Inspector General of Police. It was all joy for Hadiza when the petition was approved and the Lagos State Police Command was asked to back off on a case that was already in court. She also went to the public to tell her story as he had gone on the social media to say one small NGO, known as Project Alert, was trying to use his name to make money. By the time Hadiza told her own side of the story, he was silenced. Recalling her sad days as a married woman, Hadiza recalled that Zaaky didn't allow her to gain any employment She lived in his shadow and her self-esteem was at its lowest ebb though she was careful not to provoke him. Since he was older than she by about 20 years, she disclosed that Zaaky felt she was too young to know or do anything against his order. Her opinion in the house did not count, and anytime she tried voicing out anything, she received serious beatings. While she was at the Shelter, and received constant counseling, her self-confidence and es- teem returned gradually. She started believing in herself and was able to earn a living. She engaged in petty trading with the support from her father. Life smiled on Hadiza who was able to rent a small apartment for herself and her children having lived in the shelter for six months. Today, her marriage to Zaaky is over. But Zaaky still has her oldest daughter. Hadiza did everything she could to get her daughter away from Zaaky. Omo had gotten used to receiving severe beatings from her husband for eight years. She was an orphan who opened her heart and life to Kenneth. At the time they met, he appeared Violence Against Women; 62 Recommendations for Action like her messiah but that quickly fizzled out as he kept pre- senting her with blows, kicks and slaps at every given opportunity. One day, he beat her so much that she fainted. It was the voice of her confused children that kept ringing in her subconscious until her neighbours revived her. When she regained consciousness, she was soaked in water. Her crying children were by her side looking lost, confused and scared. Her six year old daughter begged her not to allow daddy kill her as the beatings had become a regular occurrence in their home. Her daughter informed her that daddy kept kicking her on the head even after she had passed out. Omo said that contrary to advance from neighbours that she should live her abusive husband while she could still be with her children. She stayed in the marriage and forgave her husband and continued to pray for a change. However, Omo would live to regret her decision as her prayers fell on hard ground. The husband became worse and abused her the more. Three months later, he threatened to kill her and the children. This time, she knew the threat was real. She became fearful and lost all hopes, thinking of what would happen when he eventually carries out his threats. She said to herself, ''My kids were frightened, and my daughter begged me to call the police, but I refused, claiming that a good woman won't call the police on her husband. Her next statement made me cry. She said you always protect him, he beats you, spits on you, but you still protect him. I hope you will be happy if he eventually kills us “. Violence Against Women; 63 Recommendations for Action

It was not that her daughter wasn't telling the truth, but the reality was that they had nowhere to go. But her friend came to her rescue offering her a boys' quarters accommodation in her home. She moved in with her two children. They had rest for a while until her husband started threatening the couple who took them in. Omo narrated further, “after two months, he started calling, asking people to call and say how sorry he was. I was considering going back but every time I pray, I keep get- ting this feeling that if I go back to him, I might not come back alive. I wanted to go back because I hate divorce.'’ Tola was married for 10 years and she was blessed with two children. But then, her marriage was not as happy as she envisaged. Her husband had on several occasions beaten and threatened her. He forced her to remain quiet and not to disclose about what was going in their home. She trembled whenever she heard his voice. All she would do to provoke him was to ask him questions about what she deemed important and he would flip. On one occa- sion, he attempted strangling her and pulled off her hair from the scalp. Worse still, he never provided for the family as and when due and refused her, conjugal rights. Having endured the frustration for a long time, Tola made attempts to bring in their pastor to mediate. The husband turned the suggestion down. It then dawned on her that she would no longer risk her life for a union that was snuffing out every inch of breath from her. With nowhere to go and no money to keep her and her children together, she ran to a Shelter For Abused Violence Against Women; 64 Recommendations for Action

Women in Lagos which helped Tola regain her life. Mercy was married for nine turbulent years. Trouble started during preparations for their wedding. As invites were being sent out to friends, he beat her up and broke her left eardrum in the process. Immediately, she wanted to call the wedding off, but both families begged and prevailed on her not to do so, as it would bring about shame. They pleaded on his behalf and he promised never to hit her again. But he didn't keep his promise. Four months into their marriage, he started beating her at every slightest opportunity. This led to further deterioration in her left ear, as he kept slapping and hitting her. She revealed that the beatings continued on her unabated for nine years despite the families interventions. often times ended with both families ask Mercy to apologise to her husband not-withstanding the beatings. Hardly would a month go by that he wouldn't beat her. At one time, he attempted to strangle her. She however managed to escape from him and called out to neighbours. Having escaped, she reported him to the police. He was invited but no agreement could be reached as he told the police that as long as she argues with him, he would keep beating her. ''At this point, Mercy realized that there was no hope for their marriage and that she needed to run for her dear life. she lamented that neither her security nor those of her children were guaranteed in the marriage. Having run to Project Alert for Women, a non-governmental organization, her marriage was resolved on the grounds of cruelty Violence Against Women; 65 Recommendations for Action physical assult and threat to life. After six weeks of Mercy’s admission the project alert for women opened the first shelter for abused women in Nigeria.'' While Mercy gained custody of their children, her ex-husband was made to pay maintenance allowance for the abandoned children. Mercy’s ordeal was far from being over as her ex- husband never obeyed the court order and judgement. He refused to cater for the children. The Project Alert for Women sponsored Mercy to a Law School and thereafter, assisted her to gain employment into University of Lagos where she is now an employee. Though Mercy was happy to be alive to tell her story, she never had it easy to catering for her children as a single parent. Her children gave her the strength to keep on moving. A mother of four, Bolaji had suffered incessant physical and psychological assault from her husband, Lawrence. She experienced various forms of physical assault ranging from chasing her with cutlass on several occasions; throwing her things out of their home; seizing and destroying her personal and official properties such as office laptop and phones. Even though Lawrence had a business of his own, he had on numerous occasions forced Bolaji to transfer her salaries to his own bank account, using the children as bait. He had severally threatened to frustrate her in life and render her useless, saying that nothing would happen. For the most part of their 11 -year old marriage, Bolaji lived in unimaginable fear for her life and those of her children. At one point, he asked her to resign from her job after taking her salary. He placed her under house arrest for days. He seized her phones and placed her under house Violence Against Women; 66 Recommendations for Action arrest for days. When she eventually communicated to her father pleading to be rescued, Lawrence pushed her out of their home while she was still breast feeding her baby. After much power tussle between both families using the police, her baby was handed over to her. She filed for a restraining order against him. Bolaji has known peace ever since she left her abusive husband and she's doing well with her four children. Rosemary had married Mr. Roland hoping the marriage would be filled with bliss. They had both started a business together, built a house and bought cars together, but all the documents were in the name of Lawrence alone. When she summoned the courage to ask him why all the documents were in his name only when she contributed 70 per-cent of the money involved, he beat her up, tearing her clothes before their neighbours. He started sleeping around with women, and whenever she expressed her displeasure, she would receive a thorough beating. Since they had a traditional marriage he proceeded to a customary court to seek for divorce. According to Rosemary, ''The last time he beat me up in the presence of my children and neighbours, I reported him to the police and he was invited for questioning. At the station, the police made him sign an undertaking never to assault me again.'’

RESEARCHER ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA There are insufficient data on domestic violence in Nigeria. This is primarily due to the stigma and silence Violence Against Women; 67 Recommendations for Action surrounding the issue. While there are not much research as there should ideally be on such a serious social and public health issue due to fear, shame and silence surrounding domestic violence as well as limited funding to engage in the requisite research, there are clear data generated by reputable organisations. Domestic violence cuts across all socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. Twenty eight per cent of all women, almost a third of all women in Nigeria, have experi- enced physical violence. This is a significant number in a country of almost 160 million, where almost half are women. Up to 43 per cent of women thought that wife- beating could be justified on the grounds of matters like burning the food; arguing with their husbands; going out without asking for permission; neglecting the children; and refusal to have sexual intercourse. Women with no formal education were more likely to say that wife beating was justified. Rural men were more likely to say that wife beating on any of the above- mentioned grounds was justified. Men with a secondary school education were less likely to justify wife-beating than men with less education. A study by Sure Smile Women and Children Initiative 2018 showed that women who received formal education would more likely have experienced domestic violence. Also, women who live in urban areas would more likely have experienced domestic violence than their counterparts who live in the rural areas. Violence Against Women; 68 Recommendations for Action

The Gender in Nigeria, Report 2012 also indicated that young women between the ages of 15 and 24 were most likely to have experienced physical violence. They were also most likely to justify violence, including wife beating. While many women are now speaking out against the violence they have had to endure. Others have escaped with permanent disabilities and scars while some who are not so lucky have died in the process of being battered con- stantly.

Diagnosis Planning The American Psychiatric Association planning and research committees for the DSM-5 (2013) canvassed a series of new Relational disorders which include Marital Conflict Disorder Without Violence or Marital Abuse Disorder (Marital Conflict Disorder With Violence). Couples with marital disorders sometimes come to clinical attention because the couple recognize long- standing dissatisfaction with their marriage and come to the clinician on their own initiative or are referred by an astute health care professional. Secondly, there is serious violence in the marriage which is -"usually the husband battering the wife". In these cases the emergency room or a legal authority often is the first to notify the clinician. Most importantly, marital violence "is a major risk factor for serious injury and even death and women in violent Violence Against Women; 69 Recommendations for Action marriages are at much greater risk of being seriously injured or killed (National Advisory Council on Violence Against Women 2000). The authors of this study add that "There is current considerable controversy over whether male-to-female marital violence is best regarded as a reflection of male psycho pathology and control or whether there is an empirical base and clinical utility for conceptualizing these patterns as relational.

Recommendations for clinicians making a diagnosis of Marital Relational Disorder should include the assessment of actual or "potential" male violence as regularly as they assess the potential for suicide in depressed patients. Further, "clinicians should not relax their vigilance after a battered wife leaves her husband, because some data suggest that the period immediately following a marital separation is the period of greatest risk for the women. Many men will stalk and batter their wives in an effort to get them to return or punish them for leaving. Initial assessments of the potential for violence in a marriage can be supplemented by standardized interviews and questionnaires, which have been reliable and valid aids in exploring marital violence more systematically. However, with what they call "very recent information on the course of violent marriages which suggests that "over time a husband's battering may abate somewhat, but perhaps because he has successfully Violence Against Women; 70 Recommendations for Action intimidated his wife. The risk of violence remains strong in a marriage in which it has been a feature in the past. Thus, treatment is essential here; the clinician cannot just wait and watch. The most urgent clinical priority is the protection of the wife because she is the one most frequently at risk, and clinicians must be aware that supporting assertiveness by a battered wife may lead to more beatings or even death.

Honor killings Honor killings are a common form of violence against women in certain parts of the world. In honor killings, women and girls are killed by family members (usually husbands, fathers, uncles or brothers) because the women are believed to have brought shame or dishonor upon the family. These killings are a traditional practice, believed to have originated from tribal customs where an allegation against a woman can be enough to defile a family's reputation. Women are killed for reasons such as refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by their relatives, attempting to leave a marriage, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, dressing in ways which are deemed inappropriate. Honor killings are common in countries such as Afghanistan, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Yemen. Violence Against Women; 71 Recommendations for Action

Honor killings also occur in immigrant communities in Europe, the United States and Canada. Although honor killings are most often associated with the Middle East and South Asia, they occur in other parts of the world too. In India, honor killings occur in the northern regions of the country, especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

In Turkey, honor killings are a serious problem in Southeastern Anatolia. In Nigeria, Boko Haram fighters killed older boys and men in front of their families before taking women and children into the forest where many died of hunger and diseases.

Dowry Violence The custom of dowry, which is common in South Asia, especially in India, is the trigger of many forms of violence against women. Bride burning is a form of violence against women in which a bride is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. Dowry death refers to the phenomenon of women and girls being killed or committing suicide due to disputes regarding dowry. Dowry violence is common in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. In India, in 2011 alone, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry Violence Against Women; 72 Recommendations for Action deaths, while unofficial figures suggest the numbers to be at least three times higher.

Substance Attack Section 21 subsection 1 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT (2015), stated that any person who uses chemical, biological or any other harmful liquid on another commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of life imprisonment without an option of fine. Acid throwing, also called acid attack, or vitriolage, which is the common substance attack in Nigeria is defined as the act of throwing acid onto the body of person "with the intention of injuring or disfiguring him or her out of jealousy or revenge". The most common types of acid used in these attacks are sulfuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid. Perpetrators of these attacks throw acid at their victims, usually at their faces, burning them, and damaging skin tissue, often exposing and sometimes dissolving the bones. The long term consequences of these attacks include blindness and permanent scarring of the face and body. Women and girls are the victims in 75-80% of cases. Acid attacks are often connected to domestic disputes, including dowry disputes, and refusal of a proposition for marriage, or of sexual advances. Furthermore, in the case of attempted substance attack, aiding substance attack and accessory after the fact to substance attack, Section 21 subsection 2, 3, and 4 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT (2015) states as follows: Violence Against Women; 73 Recommendations for Action

(2) Any person who attempts to commit the act of violence described in subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twenty-five years without an option of fine.

(3) Any person who incites aids, abets, or counsels another person to commit the act of Violence as provided for in subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twenty- five years without an option of fine.

(4) Any person who receives or assists another who to his/her knowledge committed the offence provided for in subsection (1) of this section is an accessory after the fact and is therefore liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twenty- five years without the option of fine.

Forced Marriage A forced marriage is a marriage in which one or both of the parties are married against their will. Forced marriages are common in South Asia, the Middle East and Africa. The customs of bride price and dowry that exist in many parts of the world contribute to this practice. A forced marriage is also often the result of a dispute Violence Against Women; 74 Recommendations for Action between families, where the dispute is 'resolved' by giving a female from one family to the other. The custom of bride kidnapping continues to exist in some Central Asian countries such as Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and the Caucasus, or parts of Africa, especially Ethiopia. A girl or a woman is abducted by the would be groom, who is often helped by his friends. The victim is often raped by the would be groom, after which he may try to negotiate a bride price with the village elders to legitimize the marriage. Force-feeding In some countries, notably Mauritania, young girls are forcibly fattened to prepare them for marriage, because obesity is seen as desirable. This practice of force-feeding is known as leblouh or gavage. The practice goes back to the 11th century, and has been reported to have made a significant comeback after a military junta took over the country in 2008.

Mob Violence In 2010 Amnesty International reported that mob attacks against single women were taking place in Hassi Messaoud, Algeria. According to Amnesty International, "some women have been sexually abused" and were targeted "not just because they are women, but because they are living alone and are economically independent.

Stalking Stalking is unwanted or obsessive attention by an individual or group toward another person, often manifested through persistent harassment, intimidation, or following or Violence Against Women; 75 Recommendations for Action monitoring of the victim. Stalking is often understood as "course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear". Although stalkers are frequently portrayed as being strangers, they are most often known people, such as former or current partners, friends, colleagues or acquaintances. Stalking by partners can be very dangerous, as sometimes it can escalate into severe violence, including murder. Stalking offenders are male and most stalking victims are female. Furthermore, Section 17 subsection 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015, states as follows: (1) Any person who stalks another commits an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to fine not exceeding N500,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(2) Any person who attempts to commit the act of violence provided for in subsection (l) of section (17) is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(3) Any person who incites, aids, abets, or counsels another person to commit the act of violence as provided for in subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year Violence Against Women; 76 Recommendations for Action

or to fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(4) Any person who receives or assists another who to his/her knowledge committed the offence provided for in subsection (1) of this section is an accessory after the fact and is therefore liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to fine not exceeding N 100,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

Sexual harassment Sexual harassment is abusive, uninvited and unwelcome behaviours of a sexual nature, typically in the work/studying place, which may include intimidation, bullying or coercion of a sexual nature, or the inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favours. It can be verbal or physical, and it is often perpetrated by a person in a position of authority against a subordinate. In the United States, sexual harassment is a form of discrimination which violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence defines sexual harassment as: "any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature with the purpose or effect of violating the dignity of a person, in particular when creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment. In Nigeria, Sexual harassment occur frequently in Tertiary institutions where randy Lecturers and Non Academic Staff demand unwelcome sexual advances or request for sexual favour from female students to pass them Violence Against Women; 77 Recommendations for Action in examination; failing which the student will spend extra year in the school till they give in to their demand. It is also rampant in Nigeria work places in Government offices and Private sector; either the boss is demanding for sex to employ the woman or sex to give her promotion. In Section 5 subsection 1 and 2 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015, states as follows: (1) Any person who compels another by force or threat to engage in any conduct or act sexual or otherwise, to the detriment of the victim's physical/psychological well-being commits an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to fine not exceeding N500, 000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(2) Any person who attempts to commit the offence provided for in subsection (1) of this. section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to fine not exceeding N300.000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment. Human Trafficking and Forced Prostitution Human trafficking refers to the acquisition of persons by improper means such as force, fraud or deception, with the aim of exploiting them. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Violence Against Women; 78 Recommendations for Action

Children states that:

"Trafficking in persons" shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.

Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs".

Because of the illegal nature of trafficking, reliable data on its extent is very limited. The WHO states that: "Current evidence strongly suggests that those who are trafficked into the sex industry and as domestic servants are more likely to be women and children." A 2006 study in Europe on trafficked women found that the women were subjected to serious forms of abuse, such as physical or sexual violence, which affected their physical and mental health. Nigeria is a source, transit, and destination country Violence Against Women; 79 Recommendations for Action for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced labor and forced prostitution. Trafficked Nigerian women and children are recruited from rural areas within the country's borders - women and girls for involuntary domestic servitude and forced commercial sexual exploitation, and boys for forced labor in street vending, domestic servitude, mining, and begging. Nigerian women and children are taken from Nigeria to other West and Central African countries, primarily Gabon, Cameroon, Ghana, Chad, Benin, Togo, Niger, Burkina Faso, and the Gambia, for the same purposes. Children from West African states like Benin, Togo, and Ghana – where Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) rules allow for easy entry – are also forced to work in Nigeria, and some are subjected to hazardous jobs in Nigeria's granite mines. Nigerian women and girls are taken to Europe, especially to Italy and Russia, and to the Middle East and North Africa, for forced prostitution. Traffickers sometimes move their victims to Europe by caravan, forcing them to cross the desert on foot, and subjecting them to forced prostitution to repay heavy debts for travel expenses. Nigerian girls were repatriated from Libya and Morocco, where they were reportedly held captive in the commercial sex trade. The Government of Nigeria fully complies with the standards for the elimination of trafficking. It demonstrated Violence Against Women; 80 Recommendations for Action sustained progress to combat human trafficking during the reporting period. It also continued to undertake strong efforts to raise awareness of human trafficking through National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP). To better ensure victims' rights are respected, NAPTIP formed a committee in mid-2009 to review victim care policies, aiming to strike a balance between ensuring victims' safety in shelters and promoting their freedom of movement. The Nigerian government in 2009 pledged over $7 million in annual funds for NAPTIP's operation and activities. The Director General of the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP), Julie Okah-Donli, disclosed that more than 25,000 Nigerians have been held in slave and sex camps in Libya. Okah-Donli made this known while defending the agency's 2018 budget before the Senate Committee on Judiciary, Human Rights and Legal Matters. She said of the figure, about 5000 of the victims were repatriated within the period.”A large number of Nigerians have also been returned from other countries in Europe and Africa. ”All these people need to be properly received, profiled and assisted. ”NAPTIP has been working in conjunction with other governmental and non governmental agencies such as National Emergency Agency (NEMA), International Organisation for Migration (IOM) and others to provide help to these unfortunate Nigerians,”she said. Violence Against Women; 81 Recommendations for Action

She lamented that in spite of the evils of human trafficking not so much attention was focused on the menace. She said the recent trend which marked the resurgence of slave trade was more alarming and required the attention it deserved. ”In recent months the odious and perverse consequences of human trafficking and irregular migration were forcefully brought to our television screens with gory tales,”she said. She said if human trafficking was to be reduced or eliminated, massive public awareness as well as behavourial change campaigns must be sustained from the grassroots to the national level. Many victims of trafficking needed to undergo skills acquisition training or receive formal education.

Causes of Human Trafficking Traffickers prey on people with promises of higher incomes to improve economic situations, support parents and families in villages, and escape from war and conflict. Women and children are the key target group because of their marginalization in many societies and their limited economic resources. Other key target groups include: ­People from impoverished and low income households. ­Ethnic minorities, indigenous people, hill tribes, refugees, and illegal migrants. ­People with low levels of education. ­Young girls running away from home. a) Poverty: widespread poverty — International Violence Against Women; 82 Recommendations for Action

Labour Organization (ILO)/IPEC report shows that 8 milllion Nigerian children engaged in exploitative child labour and 40% of Nigerian street children and hawkers are trafficked children due to poverty.

b) Desire to migrate to study & work in the urban city and abroad --- ILO report showed that the desire of Nigerian potential victims to Migrate is exploited by offenders to recruit and gain initial control or cooperation, only to be replaced by more coercive measures once the victims have been moved to another State or region of the country, which may not always be the one to which they had intended to migrate.

c) Conflicts --- World Bank report showed that more than 1.5 billion people live in countries affected by violent conflict. Conflict is a push factor for trafficking, migration and poverty. In Nigeria prone conflict zone, Boko Haram trafficked women and children. They use them as soldiers, militias and suicide bombers.

Women in the North East suffer from appalling violence and abuse that add to the burdens of stifling patriarchy. Boko Haram's exploitation of them, including sexual and gender-based violence, markedly deviates from modern mainstream Islamic social norms and is closer to nineteenth century and earlier patterns of enslavement and raiding.

Nevertheless, the view of women as Boko Haram's passive victims that became widely accepted after Violence Against Women; 83 Recommendations for Action

the Chibok girls' abduction is misleading and needs substantial revision. Violence against women should not obscure the fact that many are also actors in the conflict and at times perpetrators.

Many have been exploited, abused and displaced, while others have played active roles in the insurgency and the counter-insurgency. Conversely, Nigeria's recovery of Boko Haram-controlled territory does not necessarily alleviate women's suffering. In a deeply divided, traumatised society, it also fuels new forms of violence, exclusion and coercion against those suspected of complicity with the insurgents.

Recognising the military's improved efforts to tackle Boko Haram under President Buhari should not mean turning a blind eye to official abuses that could sow the seeds for renewed rebellion. The multiple ways women experience and engage with the conflict need to be fully understood and directly inform policies for alleviating their suffering and paving the way for reconciliation and rebuilding society.

Women need help from the authorities and their international partners, but careful thought and planning is required to ensure its effective delivery. All should take into consideration the historical context of gender discrimination rooted in law and cultural practice, and how the insurgency has further affected women in various ways, from sexual abuse Violence Against Women; 84 Recommendations for Action

to lost economic opportunities, and diversify programs accordingly.

They should also make sure that development and reconstruction plans are based on a gendered analysis of the conflict. Moreover, women need support not only to gain more control over their lives, but also to become actors and decision-makers in reconstructing the North East.

Federal authorities and their partners should recognise that although the states in North East Area have a central role to play, religion too can be a resource for facilitating this process and for promoting positive change for women more generally.

There is urgent need for reorientation training for Civilian Joint Task Force, Vigilante Groups and Boko Harm Exposed Persons in North East and other stakeholders concerning Protection from the effects of armed conflict in the North East States.

Although largely hidden due to the stigma attached to victims, Sexual and gender-based violence must be addressed with appropriate and culturally sensitive referral pathways and response mechanisms. The climate of impunity and a weak justice system hamper prevention of and response to violations against women and children.

Few survivors come forward for fear of reprisals by perpetrators and stigmatization by their own communities, as well as having no confidence that Violence Against Women; 85 Recommendations for Action

the authorities will hold perpetrators accountable or that reporting the crime will provide them with access to much needed services.

There are also gaps in socio-economic and psycho- social support. However, of the victims of the ongoing insurgency in the Nigeria women, boys and girls have been the most targeted, with the abduction and forced marriage or sale of girls a defining feature of the Boko Haram insurgency. Reportedly, more than 500 women and girls have been abducted since 2009. It will be recalled that on 14 April 2014, Boko Haram militants attacked a government secondary boarding school in Chibok, Borno State, where girls from surrounding areas had gone to take exams.

The gunmen arrived in the town late at night in a blaze of gunfire and headed for the school where they raided the dormitories and loaded 276 girls on to Lorries. Some managed to escape within hours of their kidnapping, mostly by jumping off the lorries and running off into the bushes.

219 girls were taken away sparking one of the biggest global social media campaigns, with tweeters using the hashtag #BringBackOurGirls. For two years, little was heard of the 219 girls. Then in May 2016, an army-backed vigilante group in the Sambisa Forest, a Boko Haram stronghold close to the border with Cameroon, found one of the girls Violence Against Women; 86 Recommendations for Action

with a child.

Two other girls managed to escape in September 2016 and January 2017. The release of the 82 girls in May 2017 was a result of negotiations brokered by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). October 2016 saw the first mass release with 21 girls being freed following negotiations between the government and Boko Haram, brokered by the ICRC. Then in May 2017, another 82 girls were freed, once again with the help of the ICRC. This leaves 113 girls who are still unaccounted for. It is believed that they are still being held by Boko Haram, although there are reports that some may have died.

One girl, Zara, who was kidnapped by Boko Haram, though not from Chibok, told news men how she was stigmatized on her return because she was pregnant. She was called a Boko Haram bride and was shunned.

Also, Boko Haram terrorist attacked Government Girls Technical School Dapchi, Yobe State on 19th February 2018. “Out of the total register of 906 students in school that day, 110 students were abducted”. On 21 March 2018, Boko Haram released 104 Dapchi girls after negotiation with Nigeria Federal Government, 5 girls died remaining 15 year Violence Against Women; 87 Recommendations for Action

old Leah Shribu in Boko Haram custody.

In many areas, women and children were the only ones left after Boko Haram either forcibly recruited or killed the men and older boys or the military arrested them. The security forces and state have had difficulty deciding what to do with thousands of survivors.

The need to survive in Boko Haram areas and the blurred lines between victims and perpetrators have fed suspicion of IDPs. That suspicion, and the poor performance and abuses of Nigerian officials – and of some of their international partners – who are meant to assist the IDPs have combined to create a humanitarian crisis with serious long-term risks.

Women and girls in the camps face specific problems. Locked up in compounds where most guards and much of the staff are men, many have experienced sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) or resorted to “survival sex” with camp officials and security personnel in exchange for food, money or permission to leave the camp.

In several sites, sexual exploitation was said to be so frequent that parents preferred to marry their daughters at an early age. The blurred lines between Violence Against Women; 88 Recommendations for Action

Boko Haram member, abductee, slave, wife, supporter, victim and sympathiser have left many women and girls with the stigma of association.

That stigma – heightened if they have children born to Boko Haram fathers, even if the pregnancy was against their will – is a major obstacle to reintegration into community life. Children born to women who were raped or married (by force or choice) to Boko Haram fighters are seen in IDP camps and host communities in Maiduguri and elsewhere in the North East as having “bad blood” from their fathers and potential future security risks.

President Buhari publicly sought to counter this attitude by holding a Boko Haram child in his arms. The consequences of exclusion from mainstream society are significant for both the individual's social, political and economic prospects and north- eastern society's cohesion and stability. Isolation and alienation risk generating new frustration and resistance of the kind that gave rise to Boko Haram. Children of stigmatised females may in time reject state institutions. Stigmatisation can also inhibit reintegration into normal community life. In Maiduguri's IDP camps even women who were abducted and raped or enslaved are often socially isolated, labelled “Boko Violence Against Women; 89 Recommendations for Action

Haram wives” and “Sambisa women”.

Given the prevailing norms, with sex outside marriage socially unacceptable, they may be rejected by their family, and their lot is likely to be worse if they have had children outside marriage, as they have no way to hide the situation.

One should, however, beware of generalisation: social judgments can take into account the degree of support the individual gave Boko Haram. Those perceived to have been coerced are not necessarily seen in the same way as women believed to have stayed more willingly.

Trafficking Techniques ­Local Contacts - Traffickers enlist the help of local persons and villagers to identify vulnerable families. ­Direct Sale - Women and children are sold to traffickers by parents or other family members. ­Deceit - Unscrupulous agents deceive parents and lure women and girls with false promises of well- paid work in cities or marriages to rich husbands. ­Debt Bondage - Traffickers provide economic incentives and financial loans to parents which bind Violence Against Women; 90 Recommendations for Action

their children into sex-slavery or other exploitative forms of labor. Debt terms are often ill-defined.

Nigeria Government Sustenance of Law Enforcement efforts to Combat Trafficking Trafficking in Persons Law Enforcement and Administration Act (2003), amended in (2005) increased penalties for trafficking offenders, prohibits all forms of human trafficking. The law's prescribed penalties of five years' imprisonment and/or a 670 Dollars fine for labor trafficking, 10 years' imprisonment for trafficking of children for forced begging or hawking, and 10 years to life imprisonment for sex trafficking are sufficiently stringent and commensurate with penalties prescribed for other serious crimes, such as rape. Nigeria's 2003 Child Rights Act also criminalizes child trafficking, though only 23 of the country's 36 states, including the Federal Capital Territory, have enacted it. According to the Nigerian constitution, laws pertaining to children's rights fall under state purview; therefore, the Child Rights Act must be adopted by individual state legislatures to be fully implemented. Together with international partners, the government provided specialized training to officials on how to recognize, investigate, and prosecute instances of Violence Against Women; 91 Recommendations for Action trafficking. NAPTIP dismissed two staff members from public service who were found to have diverted victims' funds; they were made to refund the money back.

Efforts of Nigeria Government to protect trafficking victims a) Police, customs, immigration, and National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) officials systematically employed procedures to identify victims among high-risk persons, such as young women or girls traveling with non-family members.

b) Various government agencies referred trafficking victims to NAPTIP for sheltering and other protective services. Shelter staff assessed the needs of victims upon arrival and provided food, clothing, shelter, recreational activities, and instruction on various skills, including vocational training and psychological counseling.

c) While at National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) shelters, victims received vocational training assistance provided by government funding. The 2003 Trafficking in Persons Law Enforcement and Administration Act Violence Against Women; 92 Recommendations for Action

provides for treatment, protection, and non- discriminatory practices for victims.

d) The law specified no trafficking victim could be detained for any offense committed as a result of being trafficked. The government took steps to relocate victims' quarters a considerable distance from detention areas for trafficking offenders, greatly reducing the possibility traffickers could exert undue influence over their victims.

Victims were allowed to stay in government shelters for six weeks. If a longer time period was needed, civil society partner agencies were contacted to take in the victim. Officials encouraged victims to assist with the investigation and prosecution of traffickers, and victims served as witnesses in all of NAPTIP's successful cases. e) Victims could theoretically seek redress through civil suits against traffickers, or claim funds from a Victims' Trust Fund set up in 2009 through which assets confiscated from traffickers are transferred to victims. The Trust Fund committee is chaired by the Minister of Justice and meets four times per year.

f) The government provided a limited legal alternative to the removal of foreign victims to countries where Violence Against Women; 93 Recommendations for Action

they face hardship or retribution – short-term residency that cannot be extended.

Prevention of Human Trafficking by the Nigerian Government. National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) Public Enlightenment Unit worked throughout the reporting period on national and local programming to raise awareness. For example, in rural Benue, Kogi, and Edo States, NAPTIP introduced grassroots programs and held its first annual race against human trafficking in Edo State with 5,000 runners. On the national level, it convened the 2009 Model UN Conference for secondary school students with a theme of combating human trafficking. Furthermore, a nine-state tour was launched to establish state working groups against human trafficking. The objective of these and several related programs was to sensitize vulnerable people, sharpen public awareness on trends and tricks traffickers used to lure victims, warn parents, and share ideas among stakeholders. Audiences ranged from 50 to 5,000 persons. National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) worked with Immigration Services to monitor emigration and immigration patterns for evidence of trafficking. The long-established Stakeholders Forum Violence Against Women; 94 Recommendations for Action continued quarterly meetings in Abuja to foster collaboration among agencies.

In August 2009, NAPTIP held a stakeholders' workshop in Kaduna to set program priorities and cost estimates for implementing the National Plan of Action, which was established in 2008. Nigerian troops underwent mandatory human rights and human trafficking training in preparation for peacekeeping duties abroad. The government did not take major action to reduce the demand for commercial sex acts, though officials moved to shut down brothels in major cities. In Federal Capital Territory Abuja, it is a criminal offence to be a sex hawker.

Forced Prostitution Forced prostitution is prostitution which takes place as a result of coercion by a third party. In forced prostitution, the party/parties who force the victim to be subjected to unwanted sexual acts exercise control over the victim. In Section 3 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015, any person who coerces another to engage in any act to the detriment of that other person's physical or psychological well being commits an offence and upon conviction is liable to three Violence Against Women; 95 Recommendations for Action years imprisonment. Mistreatment of Widows A widow is a woman whose spouse has died. In some parts of the world, widows are subjected to serious forms of abuse, often fueled by traditional practices such as widow inheritance. Nigeria is a hot bed of troubling rituals. In some part of Nigeria; once a woman loses her husband, a ritual in which the widow is forced to sit on the floor naked for the duration of the husband's burial rites signifies the woman's loss status in her community, also known as dethronement. The fact that some of the Mistreatment of widows are based on deeply rooted and widely accepted traditions makes it unlikely that legislative solutions alone will make much of a difference, at least in the immediate future. Some Nigerian States have nonetheless issued Laws aimed at banning certain mortuary/burial practices. States including Ebonyi (in 2001), Enugu (in 2001) and Cross River (in 2005) issued laws criminalizing certain acts to which widows are traditionally subjected. Among the Hausa community widows are given specific instructions as to how to mourn their deceased husbands. Section 15 subsection 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT |(2015) states as follows: (1) Any person who subjects a widow to h a r m f u l Violence Against Women; 96 Recommendations for Action

traditional practices commits an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to fine not exceeding N500,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(2) Any person who attempts to commit the act of violence provided for in subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(3) Any person who incites, aids, abets, or counsels another person to commit the act of violence as provided for in subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a' term not exceeding one year or to fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(4) Any person who receives or assists another who to his/her knowledge committed the offence provided for in subsection (1) of this section is an accessory, after the fact and is therefore liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to fine not exceeding Violence Against Women; 97 Recommendations for Action

N 100,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment. Accusation of Witchcraft Witch trials in the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries) were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence. In addition, there are also countries which have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In Saudi Arabia, witchcraft remains a crime punishable by death.

State Violence Militarism produces special environments that allow for increased violence against women. War rapes have accompanied warfare in virtually every known historical era. Rape in the course of war is mentioned multiple times in the Bible: "For I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to battle, and the city shall be taken and the houses plundered and the women raped..." Zechariah 14:2 "Their little children will be dashed to death before their eyes. Their homes will be sacked, and their wives will be raped."Isaiah 13:16.

War rapes are rapes committed by soldiers, rebels, other combatants or civilians during armed conflict or war, or during military occupation. This can be distinguished from sexual assaults and rape committed amongst troops in Violence Against Women; 98 Recommendations for Action military service. It also covers the situation where women are forced into prostitution or sexual slavery by an occupying power. During World War II the Japanese military established for soldiers brothels filled with "comfort women and girls", who were forced into sexual slavery, these exploited women were for the purpose of creating access and entitlement for men. Another example of violence against women incited by militarism during war took place in the Kovno Ghetto. Jewish male prisoners had access to (and used) Jewish women forced into camp brothels by the Nazis, who also used them. Rape was committed during the Bangladesh Liberation War by members of the Pakistani military and the militias that supported them. Over a period of nine months, hundreds of thousands of women were raped. Susan Brownmiller, in her report on the atrocities, said that girls from the age of eight to grandmothers of seventy-five suffered attacks. Rape used as a weapon of war was practiced during the Bosnian War where rape was used as a highly systematized instrument of war by Serb armed forces predominantly targeting women and girls of the Bosniak ethnic group for physical and moral destruction. Estimates of the number of women raped during the war ranged from 50,000 to 60,000; as of 2010 only 12 cases were prosecuted. The 1998 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda recognized rape as a war crime. Presiding judge Navanethem Pillay said in a statement after the verdict: that "From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of Violence Against Women; 99 Recommendations for Action war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war.” In 2006, five U.S. troops from a six-man unit gang raped and killed a 14-year-old girl in a village near the town of Al-Mahmudiyah, Iraq. After the rape the girl was shot in her head and the lower part of her body, from her stomach down to her feet, was set on fire. A 1995 study of female war veterans found that 90 percent had been sexually harassed. In 2003 survey found that 30 percent of female vets said they were raped by the military and in 2004 study of veterans who were seeking help for post-traumatic stress disorder it was found that 71 percent of the women said they were sexually assaulted or raped while serving. According to one report, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant's capture of Iraqi cities in June 2014 was accompanied by an upsurge in crimes against women, including kidnap and rape. The Media reported that ISIL's extremist agenda extended to women's bodies and that women living under their control were being captured and raped. Fighters are told that they are free to have sex and rape non-Muslim captive women. Yazidi girls in Iraq allegedly raped by ISIL fighters committed suicide by jumping to their death from Mount Sinjar, as described in a witness statement. Haleh Esfandiari from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars has highlighted the Violence Against Women; 100 Recommendations for Action abuse of local women by ISIL militants after they had captured an area.

"They usually take the older women to a makeshift slave market and sold them. The younger girls were raped or married off to fighters", she said, adding, "It's based on temporary marriages, and once these fighters have had sex with these young girls, they just pass them on to other fighters." Speaking of Yazidi women captured by ISIL, Nazand Begikhani said "these women have been treated like cattle. They have been subjected to physical and sexual violence, including systematic rape and sex slavery. They've been exposed in markets in Mosul and in Raqqa, Syria, carrying price tags." In December 2014 the Iraqi Ministry of Human Rights announced that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant had killed over 150 women and girls in Fallujah who refused to participate in sexual jihad. Moreover, In Nigeria Hundreds of women and girls captured by Boko Haram have been raped, repeatedly. Many of the Nigeria women rescued by Nigerian Soldiers are pregnant and battered. Some of the Boko Haram terrorists even pray before raping the women, offering supplications to God to make the product of what they are doing become children that will inherit their Violence Against Women; 101 Recommendations for Action ideology.

Forced Sterilization and forced Abortion Forced sterilization and forced abortion are forms of gender-based violence. These procedures are reported to be practiced in countries such as Uzbekistan and China.

Violence by the Police and other Authority figures When police officers misuse their power as agents of the state to physically and sexually harass and assault victims, the survivors, including women, feel much less able to report the violence. It is standard procedure for police to inter by force into the victim's home even after the victim's numerous requests for them to go away. Government agencies often disregard the victim's right to freedom of association with their perpetrator. Shelter workers were often reduced themselves to contributing to violence against women by exploiting their vulnerability in exchange for a paying job. Human rights violations perpetrated by police and military personnel in many countries are correlated with decreased access to public health services and increased practices of risky behavior among members of vulnerable groups, such as women and female sex workers. These practices are especially widespread in settings Violence Against Women; 102 Recommendations for Action with a weak rule of law and low levels of police and military management and professionalism. Police abuse in this context has been linked to a wide range of risky behaviors and health outcomes, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance abuse. Extortion of sexual services and police sexual abuse have been linked to a decrease in condom use and an elevated risk of STI and HIV infections among vulnerable groups.

Stoning and Flogging Stoning, or lapidation, refers to a form of capital punishment whereby an organized group throws stones at an individual until the individual dies. Stoning is a punishment that is included in the laws of several countries, including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Pakistan, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and some states in Nigeria, as punishment for adultery. Flogging or flagellation is the act of methodically beating or whipping the human body. It is a judicial punishment in various countries for specific crimes, including sex outside marriage. These punishments employed for sexual relations outside marriage, apart from constituting a form of violence in themselves, can also deter victims of sexual violence from reporting the crime, because the victims may themselves be punished (if they cannot prove their case, if they are deemed to have been in the company of an unrelated male, or if they were unmarried and not virgins at Violence Against Women; 103 Recommendations for Action the time of the rape). In Section 2 subsection 1 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT (2015), any person who willfully causes or inflicts physical injury on another person by means of a any weapon, substance or object commits an offence and is liable on conviction 10 years imprisonment not exceeding five years or a fine not exceeding N100,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

Female Genital Mutilation Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 125 million women and girls in Africa and the Middle East have experienced FGM. The WHO states that: "The procedure has no health benefits for girls and women" and "Procedures can cause severe bleeding and problems in urinating, and later cysts infections. Infertility as well as complications in childbirth. Increased risk of newborn deaths are associated with Female Genital Mutilations. (FGM) are recognized internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women. It reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women". According to a UNICEF report, the top rates for FGM are in Somalia with 98 percent of women affected, Violence Against Women; 104 Recommendations for Action

Guinea 96 percent, Djibouti 93 percent, Egypt 91 percent, Eritrea 89 percent, Mali 89 percent, Sierra Leone 88 percent, Sudan 88 percent, Gambia 76 percent, Burkina Faso 76 percent, Ethiopia 74 percent, Mauritania 69 percent, Liberia 66 percent, and Guinea-Bissau 50 percent. According to some local practitioners, it is believed that FGM is linked to cultural rites and customs. It is considered to be a traditional practice which continues to take place different communities/countries of Africa and Middle East, including in places where it is banned by national legislation. FGM is defined as a “harmful traditional practice” in accordance to the Inter-African Committee. Due to globalization and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa and Middle East, to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, US, and UK. In May 2015, out going President Goodluck Jonathan signed the ban on Female genital mutilation into law. The ban falls under the Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015 passed in the Nigeria Senate on May 5th 2015. Interventionist approaches on Female Genital Mutilation There exist several approaches that were set up by international health organizations and civil societies (for example, Tostan) aimed at eliminating the practice of FGM in implemented countries: 1. FGM as a Public Health issue (also known as health Violence Against Women; 105 Recommendations for Action

risks approach).

2. FGM as a Human Rights issue (also known as Human Rights-based approach). Some scholars suggest that, when dealing with FGM, it is necessary to take lessons from history, particularly 19th-century campaign against foot- binding in China which was successful.

As a public health issue The existing approaches to eliminate FGM are principally founded on health-based arguments and methods. Supporters of that approach established their arguments on the need to protect women's health from hazards caused by FGM. It is acknowledged that FGM affects women's health, reproduction, and sexual functioning. According to the World Health Organization's ?ndings “women who have had FGM) are signi?cantly more likely to experience difficulties during childbirth and that their babies are more likely to die as a result of the practice”. Moreover, it can "result in myriad of complications, from infections, menstrual difficulties and painful intercourse to stillbirths and brain-damaged infants, increased risk of HIV infection, and psychological and emotional stress. “ Therefore, in order to eradicate the procedure, advocates of the health risks approach designed strategies to Violence Against Women; 106 Recommendations for Action raise public awareness of negative impacts of FGM to women's bodies and health. The health approach was commonly used and promoted, until it was criticized and, to a certain extent, replaced by the Human rights approach.

As a human rights issue In 1993, at the Vienna World Conference on Human Rights, the issue of FGM was for the first time addressed as a form of violence against women under the framework of International Human Rights. Since then, the elimination of FGM has taken a prominent place in the agenda of the international human rights discourse, leaving behind the health risk approach.

"The global human rights discourse differs from earlier Western policies, which focused on health in relation to female genital mutilation. It modifies earlier Western feminist arguments that read female genital mutilation as patriarchal control over women's bodies and sexuality, and as a symbol of women's subordination".

The human rights-based arguments are founded principally on a concept of universal human rights. Supporters of that approach emphasize the flagrant violation of fundamental rights, and they consider FGM as a violent violation of woman 's and child's fundamental rights including the right to life, the right to be protected from cruel treatment, the right to physical integrity, and the right to health. According to Shell-Duncan FGM is violence against Violence Against Women; 107 Recommendations for Action not only women, but it also constitutes a violation in the rights of child not yet achieved puberty. The use of International Human Rights discourse to tackle FGM has, however, faced challenges such as “there are no international human rights instruments that speci?cally address female genital cutting”. Therefore, advocates of FGM's elimination, building their arguments upon the UN Declarations, Conventions, and a Theory of Justice suggest that the issue of FGM can be addressed under the legal framework of the three legal instruments such as: Violation of Rights of Child, violation of rights of women, and the right to be protected from torture.

Debates about best approaches There are growing debates about what is the most appropriate approach to tackle FGM. Both the health and the human rights-based approaches have been criticized. The critique of the health approach is related to the medicalization of FGM, meaning that concentration on health risks neglects the other aspects of FGM practice(for example, legal) and leads not to the banning of practice, but to medically safe performance of FGM. This critique is defined by Shell-Duncan:

"A ?nal problematic aspect of the health approach as a rationale for abandoning FGC is that the emphasis on health risks is believed by anti-circumcision advocates to have inadvertently promoted the conceptualization of FGC and obstetrical complications." Violence Against Women; 108 Recommendations for Action

The human rights approach notices the lack of legal instruments to address FGM. In addition to that, the usage of universal human rights language might be at a variance with collective identity and cultural understandings of indigenous people. That is why "the post-colonialist critique as an approach to the politics of female circumcision stresses the need for contextualised understandings of indigenous meanings arguing against the human rights approach. In Section 6 subsection 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015 in Nigeria states that: (1) The circumcision or genital mutilation of the girl child or woman is hereby prohibited.

(2) Any person who performs female circumcision or genital mutilation or engages another to carry out such circumcision or mutilation commits an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding four years or to fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(3) Any person who attempts to commit the offence provided for in subsection (2) of this section is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to fine not exceeding Nl00,000.00 or to both such fine and Violence Against Women; 109 Recommendations for Action

imprisonment.

(4) Any person who incites, aids, abets, or counsels another person to commit the offence provided for in subsection (2) of this section is guilty of the offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to fine not exceeding Nl 00,000.00 or to both such fine and imprisonment.

Breast Ironing Breast ironing (also known as "breast flattening") is the practice of pounding and massaging the breasts of a pubescent girl, using hard or heated objects, in an attempt to make them stop developing or disappear. It is typically carried out by the girl's mother, with the aim of making the girl less sexually attractive to men and boys, so that her virginity is preserved. It is practised primarily in Cameroon, but has also been reported across other areas in West and Central Africa. Breast ironing is very painful and can have negative emotional and physical consequences.

Obstetric Violence “Obstetric violence” refers to acts categorized as physically Violence Against Women; 110 Recommendations for Action or psychologically violent in the context of labor and birth. In most developed and many developing countries, birth takes place in an increasingly medicalized environment; with numerous surgical interventions. Women are sometimes coerced into accepting, or it can be done without her consent. Medicalized birth practices and interventions such as Caesarean sections, episiotomies and hormonal birth induction; which should normally be restricted to only a minority of cases where risks for the mother are clear, are increasingly being used during births that could otherwise take place naturally. Some organizations and scholars consider this a violent act against the woman and her child. The concept also includes the unjustified use of instruments and maneuvers that have been recognized as risky to the health of the mother and child, or whose benefits and risks have not been sufficiently examined (use of forceps, Kristeller maneuver, vacuum extraction). The World Health Organization opined that “the boom in unnecessary surgeries is jeopardizing women's health”, that Caesarean sections have reached “epidemic proportions” in many countries (46% in China, 25% and above in many Asian, European and Latin American countries), and that sometimes financial incentives for doctors and hospitals have an influence too. Concerning episiotomies, the World Health Organization informs that they “carry a greater risk of getting infected, and can cause a higher blood loss, than (natural) tears”, and that “Limiting the use of episiotomy to strict indications has a number of benefits: less posterior Violence Against Women; 111 Recommendations for Action perineal trauma, less need for suturing and fewer complications”. England's National Health Service informs that episiotomies may cause pain and discomfort for the woman for many months after their child's birth, and the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists also recommends a restriction on their use. The WHO recently stated that “in normal birth, there should be a valid reason to interfere with the natural process. The aim of care is to achieve a healthy mother and child with the least possible level of intervention compatible with safety”. Practices that should be stopped (in normal labor), according to the WHO are: ®Shaving the pubic hair. ®Giving an enema to empty the bowels. ®Electronic fetal monitoring. ®Not letting the woman eat or drink. ®Telling the woman to hold her breath and push during the second stage of labor (rather than leaving it to do her own way). ®Stretching and interfering with the entrance to the vagina when the baby is being born. ®Episiotomy. ®Taking the baby away from its mother at birth. ®Getting the woman to lie down on her back during labor and/or delivery. Violence Against Women; 112 Recommendations for Action

The fight for a more humane and respectful birth In Latin America, with the increasingly medicalized and surgical context of birth, many organizations propose a rediscovery of natural, unmedicated birth. Different scholars such as O. Fernández, Olde et al have analyzed the link between Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and obstetric violence . Various NGO's around the world have the purpose of defending “the right to a respectful and humane birth”, such as the Canadian organization Humanize Birth, or the Spanish association El Parto es Nuestro (“Birth Is Ours”). In the United States, Young Women United engages in policy and advocacy efforts to improve the access that low income and pregnant people of color have to midwifery care, as well as improve breastfeeding rates in New Mexico communities (Medicaid funding is also available for home births). Other organizations such as The Birth Trauma Association claim to “support women suffering from Post Natal Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or birth trauma”; which rather than being the result of the birth process itself, is caused by “factors such as loss of control, loss of dignity, the hostile or difficult attitudes of the people around them, feelings of not being heard or the absence of Violence Against Women; 113 Recommendations for Action informed consent to medical procedures”. The WHO's Reproductive Health library states that a de-humanized, highly medical context for normal births can “promote the use of unnecessary interventions, neglect women's emotional needs and contribute to a high overall cost of medical services”.

Legal action against Obstetric Violence In Venezuela, as well as in the Mexican states of Veracruz, Chiapas, Guanajuato and Durango, laws have been passed to give women the right to a life free of obstetric violence. Venezuela's Organic Law on the Right of Women to a Life Free of Violence, approved in November 2006, defines on its Article 51 the following acts as forms of obstetric violence: ®Failing to timely and efficiently take care of obstetric emergencies. ®Forcing the woman to give birth in a face-up (lithotomy) position and with legs on stirrups, when the means are available for vertical birth. ®Blocking the child's early attachment to the mother without a justified medical cause, denying the mother the possibility of picking up the child and breastfeeding immediately after birth. Violence Against Women; 114 Recommendations for Action

®Altering the natural process of the low-risk birth, by use of induction and acceleration techniques, without obtaining the mother's voluntary, explicit and informed consent. ®Practicing caesarean sections when the conditions are available for natural birth, without obtaining the mother's voluntary, explicit and informed consent.

Mexico's GIRE (Group for Information on Planned Reproduction) has issued a report where it also mentions the “normalization of obstetric violence”, as well as psychological and emotional mistreatment by care providers being common during childbirth. It also mentions forced sterilization as a form of severe violence against women; one which might disproportionally affect indigenous women. Psychological and verbal abuse during childbirth, as well as coercion into accepting surgical intervention, are also documented in Goer's “Cruelty in Maternity Wards: Fifty Years Later”; published in the Journal of Perinatal Education.

Sport-related Violence against Women Sport-related violence against women refers to any physical, sexual, mental acts that are “perpetrated by both Violence Against Women; 115 Recommendations for Action male athletes and male fans or consumers of sport and sporting events, as well as by coaches of female athletes”. The documenting reports and literature suggest that there are obvious connections between contemporary sport and violence against women. Such events as the 2010 World Cup, the Olympic and Commonwealth Games “have highlighted the connections between sports spectatorship and intimate partner violence, and the need for police, authorities and services to be aware of this when planning sporting events”. Sport-related violence can occur in various contexts and places, including homes, pubs, clubs, hotel rooms and the streets. In Nigeria women are commonly the victims of physical sexual harassment and verbal annihilation if they dare to attend matches and sit in areas occupied by most aggressive males. Also the unequal and biased media representation of male and female sports in Nigeria favors the development and commercial potential of male athletes. Moreover, women are significantly under-represented in organizational structures of sports. This serves as to devalue the potential contribution that women might make to the sports development in the country. Large numbers of women teams are afforded woeful level of support.

Online Violence against Women For many women, the Internet has become a danger zone, with thousands of women subjected to threats, demeaning Violence Against Women; 116 Recommendations for Action language, and literal and figurative attacks every single day. The gender component of this harassment is clear in the type of threats and language used, which includes threats of rape and graphic sexual violence, with the aim to silence women online. Women who face this type of harassment have little recourse when it comes to reporting, receiving support or legal redress. At best, they are encouraged to ignore the abuse and turn off the computer, while at worse they are blamed for the abuse or for undermining others’ free speech. On September 24, 2015, the United Nations Broadband Commission released a report that claimed that almost 75% percent of women online have encountered cyber violence. Nigeria Government passed a law known as CYBERCRIMES (PROHIBITION, PREVENTION, ETC) ACT, 2015. The Act provides an effective, unified and comprehensive legal, regulatory and institutional framework for the prohibition, prevention, detection, prosecution and punishment of cyber crimes in Nigeria. This act also ensures the protection of critical national information infrastructure, and promotes cyber security and the protection of computer systems and networks, electronic communications, data and computer programs, intellectual property and privacy rights. On Cyberstalking, Section 24 of CYBERCRIMES (PROHIBITION, PREVENTION, ETC) ACT, 2015 states that any person who knowingly or intentionally sends a message or other matter by means of computer systems or network that: Violence Against Women; 117 Recommendations for Action

(a) is grossly offensive, pornographic or of an indecent, obscene or menacing character or causes any such message or matter to be so sent; or

(b) he knows to be false, for the purpose of causing annoyance, inconvenience danger, obstruction, insult, injury, criminal intimidation, enmity, hatred, ill will or needless anxiety to another or causes such a message to be sent; commits an offence under this Act and shall be liable on conviction to a fine of not more than N7,000,000.00 or imprisonment for a term of no more than 3 years or to both such fine and imprisonment.

(2) Any person who knowingly or intentionally transmits or causes the transmission of any communication through a computer system or network: (a) to bully, threaten or harass another person, where such communication places another person in fear of death, violence or bodily harm or to another person;

(b) containing any threat to kidnap any person or any threat to harm the person or another, any demand or request for a ransom for the release of any kidnapped person, to extort from any person, Violence Against Women; 118 Recommendations for Action

firm, association or corporation, any money or other thing of value; or

(c) containing any threat to harm the property or reputation of the addressee or another or the reputation of a deceased person or any threat to accuse the addressee or any other person of a crime, to extort from any person, firm, association, or corporation, any money or other things of value; commits an offence under this Act and shall be liable on conviction:

(i) in the case of paragraphs (a) and (b) of this subsection to imprisonment for a term of 10 years and/or a minimum fine of N25,000,000.00; and

(ii) in the case of paragraph (c) and (d) of this subsection, to imprisonment for a term of 5 years and or a minimum fine of N15,000,000.00. Violence Against Women; 119 Recommendations for Action

Chapter Four

ACTIVISM

ctivism refers to "a doctrine or practice that emphasizes direct vigorous action especially in Asupport of or opposition to one side of a controversial issue." In the activism for violence against women, the objectives are to address and draw public attention on the issues of VAW as well as seek and recommend measures to prevent and eliminate this violence. Many scholarly articles suggest that the VAW is considered as a violation of human rights as well as “public health issue.” In order to better comprehend the anti- violence movements against VAW, there is a need to also understand the generic historical background of feminist movements in a holistic manner. Talking about the international women's movement, many feminist scholars have categorized these movements into three waves according to their different beliefs, strategies and goals. The emergence of the first women's movements, or so called the first wave of feminism, dated Violence Against Women; 120 Recommendations for Action back in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century in the United States and Europe. During this period, the first series of feminist movements developed from the context of “industrial society and liberal politics” that triggered the 'feminist groups' with the concern of equal access and opportunity for women. This wave marked` a period of “suffrage, independence, rights to nationality, work and equal pay” for women. The second wave of feminist movements was the series of movements from the period of the “late 1960s to early 1970s.” It was noted by feminist scholars that this wave could be characterized as a period of women's liberation and the rise of a branch of feminism known as 'radical feminism. This wave of feminism emerged in the context of postwar period and society where other mainstream movements also played a large role. For instance, the civil rights movements, which was meant to condemn capitalism, imperialism' and oppression' of people based on the notion of race, ethnicity, gender identity and sexual orientation. This wave marks a period of equal rights at home and workplace as well as rights to development for the purposes of people of different races, ethnicities, economic statuses and gender identities. The third wave of feminism is the newest wave of feminism led by young feminists whose understanding and context were of the globalized world order with an invention of many new technologies. This wave was a transition communism to more complex issues of new kinds of 'warfare,' threats and violence. Violence Against Women; 121 Recommendations for Action

This new wave also “embraced ambiguity” and introduced a feminist approach of 'intersectionality' that included the issues of “gender, race, class and age-related." Other than that, the third wave marked a period of feminism dealing with identity politics, body politics as well as the issues of violence. Nonetheless, the VAW movement was initiated in the 1970s when some feminist movements started to bring the discussion on the issue of violence into the feminist discourse. Many other groups, on the national as well as international levels, had attempted to push for the betterment of women through lobbying of the state officials and delegates, demanding the conferences on 'gender issues' and thus made the VAW known to a wider range of population. Therefore, to put this into the theoretical context, VAW can be categorized along with the third wave of feminism which focused on 'violence.' VAW Activist Movements came in many forms and operated through different levels as "local, national and international levels" with different approaches:- health and human rights frameworks. The movements stemmed mostly from social movements and groups of women who see the need to create organizations that can 'lobby' their governments to establish "sanctuaries, shelters" and provision of services that would help in protecting these victims or so-called battered women from acts of violence. Violence Against Women; 122 Recommendations for Action

The term battered women was used in a number of VAW movements. It had its root in the early stages of organizing efforts to tackle the problem of violence against women in many regions of the world such as Africa, Asia Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean. Many activist movements operated without the support of their governments. They developed "innovative measures" to assist the battered women by providing services such as shelters and centers for these women; drafting and lobbying the governments to include the recognition and language of VAW into national legislations and international human rights instruments. Also they were advocating to raise the awareness of people via education and training sessions; forming national, regional as well as international networks to empower the movements; organizing demonstration and gathering more efforts to end violence acts against women. In addition, many women's rights activist groups see the issue of violence against women as a central focus of their movements. Many of these groups take 'human rights' approach as the integral framework of their activism. These VAW movements also employed the idea of 'women's rights as human rights,' tried to transform the concepts and ideas of 'human rights,' which are mostly reckoned to be 'Western concepts'. They 'vernacularized them into the concepts that could be understood in their local institutions. Violence Against Women; 123 Recommendations for Action

Levels of Activist Movements There are various levels in the activist movements. They are diverse in nature and differ in their strategic programmes of intervention. The strategies applied at the various levels focus on the end of violence against women. The levels include the local level or national level. On the local level, emphases are on individuals, relationships and families. They take preventive as an approach to tackle the issues on ground. They encouraged people to re-examine their attitudes and beliefs in order to trigger and create fundamental changes in their deep rooted beliefs and behaviors. These changes can be life-changing, and helpful to those who participated. Nevertheless, the impact on societal level seem to be restricted and of minimal effect. Some activists and scholars suggested that the changes in the norms and cultural attitudes should be focussed on the communal level for these are the sources that permit the abusive behaviour of men towards women. An example of activism on the local level can be seen in South Africa. The movements of VAW in this context employ a strategy that is based on the 'prevention' approach, which is applicable on individual and societal levels: in families and communities. This movement encouraged the individuals and small populations to rethink about their attitudes and beliefs in order to create a possibility to alter the deep-rooted beliefs and behaviour, which had led to the act of violence against women. Violence Against Women; 124 Recommendations for Action

Another example of the local level movement could be seen in East Africa that employs the preventive approach, which is applicable on the communal level. They call this approach 'A raising voices' approach. This approach employed an 'ad hoc' framework that could be used complementaritly with the individual approach. Its strategy was to aggravate the status quo issues onto the individuals and communities perception and establish a common ground of interests for them to push for the movement, but for a short period. In addition, to the domestic level, there seemed to be many 'autonomous movements. Autonomous feminist movements for VAW could be understood as "a form of women's mobilization that was devoted to promoting women's status and well-being independent of political parties there were other associations that do not have the status of women as their main concern. THE TRANSNATIONAL FEMINIST NETWORK On this level the anti-violence movements apply different strategies based on the specificities of their cultures and beliefs in their particular regions. On this level, the activist movements are known as "transnational feminist networks" or TFNs. The TFNs have a significant impact, like the autonomous movements on the national level, in shaping sets of policies as well as pushing for the recognition and inclusion of language of VAW in the United Nations human Violence Against Women; 125 Recommendations for Action rights mechanisms:- The International Human Rights Agreements. Their activities are ranging from lobbying the policy makers; organizing demonstrations on the local and regional levels; to creating institutional pressure that could push for changes in the international institutional measures. On the international level, the movements that advocate for women's rights and violence against women are the mixture of (civil society) and actors from the domestic and regional levels. On this level, the objectives of VAW movements focused on "creating shared expectations" within the domestic and regional levels as well as "mobilizing members of domestic civil society" to create "standards in global civil society." The global women's movement determined to transform members of international conventions and conferences to "a conference on women's rights" by pushing for a "stronger language and clearer recognition" of the VAW issues. In addition, the United Nations also plays a Violence Against Women; 126 Recommendations for Action vital role in promoting and campaigning for the VAW movements on the international level. For instance, in 2008, Ban Ki-Moon, the UN Secretary General initiated and launched the campaign called "UniTE To End Violence Against Women." This campaign "calls on governments, civil society, women's organizations, young people, the private sector, the media and the entire UN system to join forces in addressing the global pandemic of violence against women and girls." The campaign also declared every 25th of the month to be "Orange Day" or "a day to take action to raise awareness and prevent violence against women and girls." In conclusion, each level of activism is intertwined and has the common purpose to end violence against women. The activism on the local level can significantly affect the movements on the other levels: transnational and international levels. All in all, the effort on different levels lead to change that can penetrate to all levels. In a scholarly article on Combating Violence Against Women, the authors illustrated from their research analysis on how the norms of international society can shape and influence the policy making on the domestic or national level and vice versa. They argue that there are 'three' mechanisms, which have effects on the making of national policies as well as global agreements and conventions. Three of which are: 1) The influence of global treaties and Violence Against Women; 127 Recommendations for Action

documents such as CEDAW on women's rights" on the national policies. 2) The influence of regional agreements on VAW (particularly after certain tipping points are reached)" - on both domestic policies and international conventions.

3) Regional demonstration effects or pressure for conformity captured as diffusion within regions” on the international norms and agreements.

Achievements of the VAW Movements on the Global level:

­Publication of first major document that highlights the recognition of violence against women as a human rights violation:- the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women in Vienna, 1993. ­ Transform of Vienna conference from a general and mainstream human rights conference into the conference on women's rights. ­Though other Human Rights Organisations like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch had agenda on women's rights but did not focus on the issues of VAW and did not consider rape and domestic violence as violation of human rights. ­Violence against women was emphasized and named Violence Against Women; 128 Recommendations for Action

as a critical concern during the 1995 Fourth World Women Conference in Beijing. ­The need for the development of the new international norms which have been used by activist and governments in the proposition of legislation which provide actions to readress and acts of violence against women as a result of collective efforts the global feminist movements. ­The full corporation of the VAW issues into the "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women" or CEDAW was as a result of the push from the Global Feminist Movements. On the regional level: a) America: the Inter-American Convention on Violence Against Women, which was formally announced and adopted by the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1994, immediately after the Vienna Conference.

b) Europe: The European Union (EU)'s initiatives to combat violence against women after the 1990s: the 1997 resolution calling for a zero tolerance: specifically on UN human rights instruments of CEDAW and the Vienna Declaration.

The Council of Europe also developed "a series of initiatives" related to the issue of VAW: "the 2000 resolution on trafficking, the 2003 resolution on domestic violence, and the 2004 resolution on honor Violence Against Women; 129 Recommendations for Action

crimes" as well as promoted "the 2002 recommendation on the protection of women against violence and established its monitoring framework."

c) Africa: There emerged a series of regional meetings and agreements, which was triggered by the UN processes on the international level such as Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, 1985; the 1993 Kampala Prep Com; the 1994 Africa-wide UN women's conference that led to the identification of VAW as a critical issue in the Southern African Women's Charter.

d) Nigeria: National Council for Women's Societies (NCWS), founded in 1958 is a Non- Governmental Organization that have primarily humanitarian objectives rather than profit-making; and cover all sectors from agriculture, community development, micro-credit, health/ population control, social justice, legislation, water and sanitation, women empowerment/ education, etc.

The NCWS has a broad membership which extends all over Nigeria. Its affiliate member organizations include: 1) Association of Professional Women Bankers (APWB). 2) International Federation of Women Lawyers (FIDA). 3) Sure Smiles Women and Children Advocacy Initiative. 4) Zonta International. 5) Medical Women's Association (MWA). Violence Against Women; 130 Recommendations for Action

6) Nigerian Girl Guide Association. 7) Nigerian Association of University Women (NAUW). 8) Nigerian Association of women Journalists (NAWOJ). 9) Association of Women Librarians in Nigeria. 10) Women of the Home Front. 11) Jamiy'yar Matan Arewa - (Northern Women Association). 12) The Lioness Club. 13) Market Women's Association. 14) Soroptimist International. 15) Association of Lady Pharmacists (ALP). 16) Association of Professional Women Engineers of Nigeria (APWEN). 17) Nigerian Federation of Business and Professional Women (NFBPW). 18) S.O.S Children Village Nigeria. 19) National Association of Women Judges (NAWJ). 20) National Association of Women in Sports (NAWIS). 21) National Association of Women in Business (NANWIB). 22) Niger Wives Association of Nigeria. 23) Nigerian Association of Women Industrialists. 24) Organisation for Early Childhood Education. 25) Nigerian Labour Congress (Women's Wing). 26) Baha'i Office for the Advancement of Women. Violence Against Women; 131 Recommendations for Action

27) Abimolite Sisters Club of Nigeria. 28) Female Architects of Nigeria. 29) Amata Progressive Women's League 30) Christian Council of Nigeria. 31) Warri Women Vanguard. 32) Nka Ikamesit Iban (Ibibio Women's Co-operative Societies). 33) West Indian Association. 34) Muslim Mothers Association. 35) Prison Officers Wives Association (PROWA). 36) Society of Women Accountants of Nigeria (SWAN). 37) Nigerian Association of Nurses and Midwives. 38) Nigerian Association of Media Women. 39) Plan Parenthood Federation of Nigeria. 40) Federal Home Science Association. 41) National Council of Catholic Women's Organisations Nigeria (NCCWO) . 42) International Women Society. 43) Adorable Foundation International 44) Women in Colleges Of Education (WICE). 45) Home Science Association. 46) Reality Organization. 47) Adazuruezu Igbo Women Association. 48) Divine Precious Women Star and Youth Development Organization. 49) National Grassroots Association of Nigeria. 50) United Women Traders. 51) Keke Owners and Riders Wives Association. Violence Against Women; 132 Recommendations for Action

52) Association for the Blind. 53) Divine Treasure Women and Youth Empowerment Initiative. 54) Kabzeyan National Women Association. 55) Jamaiyar Matan Arewa. 56) Hausa Northern Women Community. 57) Grassroots Women. 58) Social Welfare. 59) Women of Like Mind Empowerment Initiative. 60) Women in Aviation. 61) Eggon Women. 62) Prison Officers Wives Association (PROWA). 63) Kasuwa De Kasuwa. 64) Miyetti Allah Cattle Breeds Association of Nigeria (Women Wing). 65) Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA). 66) Yoruba Women Association. 67) Nigerian Army Officers' Wives Association (NAOWA). 68) Defence And Police Officers' Wives Association (DEPOWA). 69) Naval Officers' Wives Association (NOWA). 70) Customs Officers' Wives Association (COWA). 71) Immigration Officers' Wives Association (IMMOWA). 72) Road Safety Officers' Wives Association (ROSOWA). 73) Police Officers' Wives Association (POWA). 74) Civil Defence Officers' Wives Association (CDOWA). 75) Yoruba Women Association. 76) Fire Officers' Wives Association (FOWA). Violence Against Women; 133 Recommendations for Action

77) Women Wing of Living Christ Mission. 78) Association of Grain Processors and Allied Produce Farmers of Nigeria (Women Wing ). 79) United Women for Peace Initiative Nigeria. 80) Benevolent Women Organization. 81) Family for Peace Development Initiative. 82) Society of Women in Taxation. 83) Female Arcloteds of Nigeria. 84) Grassroots Women Empower ment of Nigeria. 85) Community Awareness on Development Network. 86) Women Care and Livelihood Foundation for Economic Empowerment. 87) Helping Hand International. 88) Nigeria Council of Catholic Women Organization. 89) Wazobia Women United Association. 90) Widow Organization International. Violence Against Women; 134 Recommendations for Action

Chapter Five

ACCESS TO JUSTICE FOR WOMEN VICTIMS OF VIOLENCE

fforts to fight violence against women can take many forms and access to justice, or lack thereof. EFor such violence varies greatly depending on the justice system. International and regional instruments are increasingly used as the basis for national legislation and policies to eradicate violence against women. The Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Eradicate and Punish Violence Against Women – also known as the Belém do Parà Convention, for instance, has been applied by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) in its first case of domestic violence to condemn Brazil in the Maria da Penha case. This led the Brazilian government to enact in 2006 the Maria da Penha Law, the country's first law against domestic violence against women. There is also the South Asian Agreement on Regional Cooperation's (SAARC) Protocol to End Trafficking in Women and Children. Violence Against Women; 135 Recommendations for Action

Examples of measures put in place As violence is often committed by a family member, women first started by lobbying their governments to set up shelters for domestic violence survivors. The Julia Burgos Protected House established in Puerto Rico in 1979 was the first shelter in Latin America and the Caribbean for battered women. In 2003, 18 out of the 20 countries in the region had legislation on domestic or family violence, and 11 countries addressed sexual violence in their laws. Legislative measures to protect victims can include restraining orders, which can be found in Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Paraguay, Venezuela, Turkey, the United States and many western European countries for instance. Courts can also be allowed by law (Germany, 2001) to order the perpetrator to leave the home so that victims do not have to seek shelter. Countries were urged to repeal discriminatory legislation by 2005 following the review of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action in 2000. Egypt, for instance, abolished a law that exempted men from rape charges when marrying their victims. However, the goal of antiviolence legislation is often to keep the families together, regardless of the best interests of women, which perpetuate domestic violence. Innovative measures have been pioneered in a number of countries to end violence against women. In Brazil and Jordan, women's police stations have been introduced, and one-stop women's shelters were created in Malaysia and Nicaragua. Violence Against Women; 136 Recommendations for Action

Marital rape has been illegal in every American state and the District of Columbia since 1993, but is rarely prosecuted in America. In 2013 the UN General Assembly passed its first resolution calling for the protection of defenders of women's human rights. The resolution urges states to put in place gender- specific laws and policies for the protection of women's human rights defenders and to ensure that defenders themselves are involved in the design and implementation of these measures, and calls on states to protect women's human rights defenders from reprisals for cooperating with the UN and to ensure their unhindered access to and communication with international human rights bodies and mechanisms. In Nigeria, on 25th May 2015, out going President Goodluck Jonathan signed the ban on Female genital mutilation into law. The ban falls under the VIOLENCE AGAINST PERSONS (PROHIBITION) ACT 2015 passed in the Nigeria Senate on May 5th 2015. He also Signed CYBERCRIMES (PROHIBITION, PREVENTION, ETC) ACT, 2015. Furthermore, four specific laws that deal with rape cases in Nigeria: 1. The Criminal Code (CC) – This is applicable in all the Southern States. Under the Criminal Code, rape is when any person has sexual intercourse with a woman or girl, without her consent, or incorrectly obtained consent. Consent can be incorrectly obtained when it is done: a) by force/threat/intimidation.

b)by means of false or fraudulent representation as to the nature of the act. Violence Against Women; 137 Recommendations for Action

c) by a person impersonating a married woman's husband in order to have sex.

Under the Criminal Code, sexual intercourse with under aged girls or people with unsound mind is the offence of defilement, and so technically a person could be charged for rape and defilement.

2. The Penal Code (PC) – This is applicable in all the Northern States. Under the Penal Code, rape is when a man has sexual intercourse with a woman against her will, without her consent, or with incorrectly obtained consent. Consent can be incorrectly obtained when it is done: a) by putting her in fear of death or hurt.

b) by a person impersonating a married woman's husband in order to have sex.

Moreover, under the Penal Code, sex with a girl under 14 years of age or who is of unsound mind is rape, irrespective of whether there is consent. Also the Penal Code, explicitly states that sexual intercourse by a man with his wife is not rape.

3. The Criminal Laws of Lagos (CLL) – This is applicable only in Lagos State. Under the Criminal Law of Lagos, rape is when a man has sexual intercourse with a woman or girl without her consent, or with incorrectly obtained consent.

Consent can be incorrectly obtained when it is done: a) by force, impersonation threat or intimidation of any kind. Violence Against Women; 138 Recommendations for Action

b) by means of false and fraudulent representation as to the nature of the act.

As with the Penal Code, the Criminal Law of Lagos explicitly states that sexual intercourse by a man with his wife cannot be unlawful, and therefore a man cannot rape his wife. It is important to note here that in all 3 laws; rape can only occur when the vagina of the woman is penetrated.

However, this does not mean that anal unlawful sexual intercourse is allowed. This is a crime, and is covered under different descriptions in each legislation. The penalty for rape across all the laws is life imprisonment (however this is not a mandatory sentence in all of them).

4. The Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act (VAPPA) – This is applicable in only the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act defines rape as when a person intentionally penetrates the vagina, anus or mouth of another person with any other part of his/her body or anything else without consent, or with incorrectly obtained consent.

Consent can be incorrectly obtained when it is done: a) by force/threats/intimidation.

b) by means of false and fraudulent representation as to the nature of the act.

c) by the use of substances capable of taking away the will of that person. Violence Against Women; 139 Recommendations for Action

d) by a person impersonating a married woman's husband in order to have sex.

5. The Child Rights Act (CRA) – This is only applicable in the States which have domesticated it. Child Rights Act. Provides that sex with a child is rape, and anyone who has sexual intercourse with a child is liable to imprisonment for life upon conviction.

Challenges faced by Women in accessing Justice and Limitations of Measures There can be a de jure or de facto acceptance of violent behaviors and lack of remedies for victims. a) Lack of criminalization — In many places, acts of abuse, especially acts such as female genital mutilation, marital rape, forced marriage and child marriage, are not criminalized, or are illegal but widely tolerated, with the laws against them being rarely enforced. There are instances where crimes against women are also categorized as minor offenses. b) Lack of awareness of the existing laws — In many places, although there are laws against violence on the books, many women do not know of their existence. This is especially the case with marital rape - its criminalization being very recent in most countries. c) Challenges in making a case in court The burden of proof can be placed on the victim. Violence Against Women; 140 Recommendations for Action

For instance in the Philippines, before a change in law in 1997, rape used to be described as a crime against chastity; and virginity played an important role in court. In various countries, such as Bangladesh, a woman's past sexual experience continues to be very important in a case of rape. It can also be difficult to make a case of sexual assault in court, when members of the judiciary expect evidence of severe struggle and injury as determinative evidence of non-consent. d) Existing laws are insufficient, conflicting, and have no effect in practice — Some laws on domestic violence, for instance, conflict with other provisions and ultimately contradict their goals. In Ukraine, a law on domestic violence also provides that the police can arrest the victim for provocation.

Legal frameworks can also be flawed when laws that integrate protection do so in isolation, notably in relation to immigration laws. Undocumented women in countries where they would have, in theory, access to justice, don't in practice for fear of being denounced and deported. The CEDAW Committee recommends that a State authority's obligation to report undocumented persons be repealed in national legislation. Measures to address violence against women range from access to legal-aid to the provision of shelters and hotlines for victims. Despite advances in legislation and policies, the lack of implementation of the measures put in place prevents significant progress in eradicating violence against Violence Against Women; 141 Recommendations for Action women globally. This failure to apply existing laws and procedures is often due to the persisting issue of gender stereotyping. The barriers that women face in participating in the justice system as lawyers, law enforcement officers, etc also play an important role in perpetuating a lack of concern for women victims of violence. In war and post-conflict times, women are often denied a seat at the negotiation table despite the role they may have played in peace building processes, thus preventing issues such as sexual violence to be pushed forward on the agenda. Measurement of the impact of these measures is also difficult due to a lack of data and coordination of efforts between policy-makers and implementing partners. Relation with Marriage Laws The relation between violence against women and marriage laws, regulations and traditions can be discussed. The US and English laws subscribed until the 20th century to the system of coverture, that is, a legal doctrine under which, upon marriage, a woman's legal rights were subsumed by those of her husband. Today, outside the West, many countries severely restrict the rights of married women: for example, in Yemen, marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission. In Iraq husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives. The criminal code states in Paragraph 41 that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right; examples of legal rights include: 1. “The punishment of a wife by her husband Violence Against Women; 142 Recommendations for Action

2. The disciplining by parents. 3. Disciplining by teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom". In the West countries, married women faced discrimination until just a few decades ago: for instance, in France, married women received the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965. In Spain, during the Franco era, a married woman required her husband's consent (permiso marital) for nearly all economic activities, including employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975. Concerns exist about violence related to marriage - both inside marriage (physical abuse, sexual violence, restriction of liberty) and in relation to marriage customs (dowry, bride price, forced marriage, child marriage, marriage by abduction, violence related to female premarital virginity). Claudia Card, professor of Philosophy at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, wrote that: "The legal rights of access that married partners have to each other's persons, property, and lives makes it all but impossible for a spouse to defend herself (or himself), or to be protected against torture, rape, battery, stalking, mayhem, or murder by the other spouse. Legal marriage thus enlists state support for conditions conducive to murder and mayhem.”

Moreover in Nigeria, issues of child custody, property rights, marriage, divorce and sexuality are seen as Violence Against Women; 143 Recommendations for Action threatening to men's customary authority in the family and Islamic law (Sharia), governing family law and practice in Northern Nigeria. It will be recalled that the proposed Gender Equality Bill put forward by Senator Biodun Olujimi on March 2016, which seeks to prohibit all forms of discrimination against any person in accordance with Section 4 of the 1999 Constitution (as amended) was rejected by the Senate of National Assembly. The Section prohibits all forms of discrimination due to gender, age and disability through spoken words, acts, rules, customs and practices by any person or institution; the Bill also sought to enforce certain aspects of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) to which Nigeria is a signatory. The modified Bill which was re-presented by Senator Olujinmi in April 2017 and has passed Second Reading. Similarly, the Senate in June 2107 invited National Council for Women's Societies (NCWS) to present a paper during the Public Hearing on a proposed Bill to Establish the National Commission for Peace, Reconciliation and Mediation. NCWS paper noted several gaps and insisted that the involvement of women in peace building and peace resolution mechanisms in Nigeria are non-negotiable. There is need for the Bill to be reworked to include the role of women. Violence Against Women; 144 Recommendations for Action

Chapter Six

RECOMENDATIONS FOR ACTION

iven the huge, and often hidden, complexity behind violence against women, it will take a wide range Gof actors to successfully implement violence- prevention programmes. From health professionals to community workers, from law enforcement officials to school authorities, from urban planners to media campaigners – violence against women prevention has to form many alliances and take various forms. Most importantly, tackling violence against women requires both political and financial commitment. The engagement of governments and other stakeholders at all levels of decision-making – local, national and international is also crucial to the success of any programme to prevent violence against women. Recognising violence against women and its effects may require a great deal of courage and fortitude as the many faces of violence against women go deep into the roots of families, societies and cultures. Political commitment must be made for that change is possible. Violence Against Women; 145 Recommendations for Action

The following recommendations for preventing violence against women reflect the need for multi-sectoral and collaborative approaches: 1. Health sector approach.

2. Criminal justice approach.

3. Increasing the capacity for collecting data on violence against women.

4. The role of men and boys.

5. Support for survivors.

6. Prevention.

7. Protection and service provision.

HEALTH SECTOR APPROACH The responsibility for remedying or containing violence against women in most modern societies fell on the judicial system, police and correctional services and in some cases the military. The health sector, both public and private, were relegated to the role of providing care after the event, when the victims of violence came forward for treatment. Today, the health sector is an active and valuable ally in the global response to violence against women and brings a variety of advantages and assets to this work. One such asset is its closeness to, and therefore familiarity with the problem. The personnel of hospitals and clinics, and other health care providers dedicate a great amount of time to the victims of violence. Violence Against Women; 146 Recommendations for Action

Another important asset is the information that the health sector has at its disposal to facilitate research and preventive work. Possession of data means that the sector is uniquely placed to draw attention to the health burden imposed by violence against women. When combined sensitively with the human stories the health sector witnesses every day, such information that can provide a powerful tool both for advocacy and for action. All around the world, the health sector bears the bulk of the interpersonal violence burden because fatal and non- fatal injury and psychological harm are left to health professionals to deal with and treat. The public health approach seeks to supplement deterrence-oriented criminal justice by answering the questions, “who are the victims and perpetrators of violence?”; “what are the causes of the different forms of violence against women?”; “how do the different types of violence vary from context to context?” and “how can we use this knowledge to reduce the frequency with which men use violence against women and girl child?”. In addition, the increasing recognition that various forms of violence against women is a public health problem that can be prevented by addressing its underlying causes has expanded the role of the health sector. Violence against women has therefore become a problem to be prevented using the same public health tools of epidemiology, primary prevention and evaluation applied to diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria and HIV/AIDS. Violence Against Women; 147 Recommendations for Action

Although the health sector must take the lead in establishing a preventive response to the problem of violence against women, the involvement of many other sectors (both within government and among non- governmental and civil society groups) is an essential component in building the type of sustained multi-sectoral response required to prevent violence against women.

Within National and State Government, potential partner sectors include: ®Education. ®Employment. ®Housing. ®Justice. ®Security. ®Women Affairs and Social Development. ®Sports and Recreation. ®Welfare.

Private sector collaborative partners include: µPrivate suppliers of emergency medical services. µPrivate health-care groups. µHealth and life-insurance industry. µMedia outlets including print, television, radio and web-based. µCorporations whose productivity is threatened by violence against women. Violence Against Women; 148 Recommendations for Action

From the non-governmental sector include organizations working directly with communities on the primary prevention of various forms of violence against women and provision of victim services, and community-based organizations whose work may lead to violence prevention as an important by-product of their efforts, and these include: a) Violence prevention organizations. b) Victim associations. c) Victim care groups. d) Community development organizations.

Research is also fundamental to the development of effective programmes and policies for violence prevention. It is therefore crucial that the health sector involve the broader scientific communities, including: I) Universities. ii) Science councils. iii) Private non-profit research institutes. iv) Think tanks.

To succeed, a public health approach to the prevention of interpersonal violence must be coordinated and driven by a clearly identified lead agency that can set the prevention agenda while at the same time recognizing and reinforcing the roles played by other essential partners. It is therefore vital that the health sector, led by the Minister of Health at the National Level and the Commissioner of Health at the State Level, champions the recognition of violence as a public health problem and Violence Against Women; 149 Recommendations for Action assertively promotes efforts to implement Action Plan. The Ministry of Health will become the focal points for spear heading actions by them and the other groups identified as potential partners.

CRIMINAL JUSTICE APPROACH A criminal justice approach to preventing violence attempts to deter potentially violent behaviour at the individual level with the threat of punishment for violent acts. It answers the questions, “how do we attain justice?” and “how much punishment does this criminal deserve?”. While such an approach is present to varying degrees in almost every State in Nigeria, and may be effective at the individual level to deter violent behaviour, it is not sufficient for the primary prevention of violence against women and the mitigation of its consequences at the population level. Most forms of violence against women are criminal offences. It is important to bring the perpetrators of crimes to justice. There is need for improved protection of victims through access to information on available legal measures and support services, such as sexual violence crisis centres and shelters, along with appropriate and accessible healthcare. Nigerian Government has enacted several laws in the fight on violence against women. Such laws include: vThe Criminal Code. vThe Penal Code. vThe Criminal Laws of Lagos. vThe Child Rights Act. vThe 2003 Trafficking in Persons Law Violence Against Women; 150 Recommendations for Action

Enforcement and Administration Act, amended in 2005. vViolence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015. vCyber crimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc) Act, 2015.

Training on the special needs of female victims of violence and human trafficking for employees working in information services at public prosecution offices is important. Also there is need to provide specialized training for prosecutors, lawyers and judges and address the gender gap in the legal sector by training female judges. Experience has repeatedly shown that without sustained efforts to change institutional culture and practice, most legal and policy reforms will have little effect.

INCREASING THE CAPACITY FOR COLLECTING DATA ON VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN The capacity to collect data on violence can be defined as the ability to routinely record, analyse and report data covering the consequences and causes of violence against women. The goal of increasing data-collection capacity is to create a system that continually obtains descriptive information on a limited number of key factors that can be accurately and reliably measured for all new cases, or for a clearly identifiable subgroup of all new cases.

It is important to increase the reporting of violence Violence Against Women; 151 Recommendations for Action cases and step up efforts to collect, analyse and disseminate more data, supporting those NGOs working to gather better information. Developing the capacity to collect data on the risk factors associated with violence against women and its consequences contributes directly to its prevention at national and local levels by: a) Providing a quantitative definition of the problem that can be shared across different ministries and sectors;

b) Providing ongoing and systematic information on the incidence, causes and consequences of violent incidents at local, regional and national levels;

c) Enabling the early identification of new trends in violence against women and emerging problem areas so that appropriate interventions can be established in time;

d) Suggesting prevention priorities among those at high risk of experiencing or perpetrating violence against women and priorities for addressing the associated Socio-environmental risk factors;

e) Informing the geographical distribution of emergency medical and other victim support services; Violence Against Women; 152 Recommendations for Action

f) Providing information by which to evaluate violence prevention measures.

g) Monitoring seasonal and longitudinal trends in the magnitude and characteristics of violence against women and associated risk factors.

A systematic collection and documentation of data is necessary, as this also allows analysis of victims' and perpetrators' profiles, to address root causes. In addition, surveys are an important tool to show a truer picture of the extent of violence against women.

THE ROLES OF MEN AND BOYS Gender equality and combating gender-based violence are often misconceived as women's issues only. However, men and boys have key role to play in ending violence against women and promoting gender equality. Though some men are perpetrators of violence, men are also negatively affected by gender stereotypes and the results of gender-based violence. Gender equality cannot be achieved without engaging men and promoting positive role models for men and boys. There is need to raise awareness of the important influence men can have in ending gender-based violence and speaking out against all kinds of inequality. Men and boys should be included as allies in the fight on Violence Against Women. Strategies to combat violence against women need to be developed to include working with perpetrators. Violence Against Women; 153 Recommendations for Action

SUPPORT FOR SURVIVORS There is need for Federal and State governments to improve the services and structures needed to support survivors of gender based violence, helping to strengthen improved access for survivors of trafficking and domestic violence to a range of services, including psychological counselling, legal consultations, and legal representation. Formal psychological support for those experiencing sexual violence has been provided largely by the non-governmental sector, particularly rape crisis centres and various women's organizations. Inevitably, the number of victims of sexual violence with access to these services is small. One solution to extend access is through establishing telephone helplines, ideally ones that are free of charge. Training of police on how to handle domestic violence incidents and deal more effectively with various forms of trafficking in human beings is vital. It is important to invest Resources, especially for capacity building and training to support survivors as this requires very specific training and skill sets. Involving women organizations, survivors, men in the development and implementation of policies, projects and activities to combat violence against women is vital. All of those involved in combating violence against women should take account of new and emerging forms of violence against women (such as online violence). The government should recognize the importance of protecting specific groups (such as women in politics and women from minority groups). Violence Against Women; 154 Recommendations for Action

PREVENTION Prevention must be integrated across all sectors and all institutions. At the same time, efforts should be stepped up to raise general awareness, as well as specific awareness raising in areas such as the legal framework, for example through improving and systematizing data, research and documentation. Nationwide campaign against gender stereotypes should be rolled out to change societal attitudes. A focus on challenging stereotypes needs to be more fully integrated into national education systems and curriculums of States, including in vocational education. It is important to integrate material that explores relationships, gender roles and coercion and control into existing programmes for reducing school violence, cyber bullying, delinquency and other problem behaviours, as well as into reproductive and sexual health programmes.

PROTECTION AND SERVICE PROVISION a) Addressing the issue of stigmatization of survivors.

b) Highlighting the importance of high-level standards and guidelines for supporting survivors of Gender Based Violence.

c) Including all stakeholders in improvement of service provision, including public defenders.

d) Urgent action is needed to ensure the safety of women and children who are victims of various forms of violence in conflict, and to meet their immediate needs for shelter, childcare, education and economic empowerment. Violence Against Women; 155 Recommendations for Action

REFRENCES

Chapter 1 OVERVIEW OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

The views of Sir Matthew Hale, a 17th-century jurist, published in The History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736).

Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women". United Nations General Assembly. Retrieved 6 August 2014.

UN Women, Division for the Advancement of Women. Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

Prügl, Elisabeth (Director) (25 November 2013). Violence Against Women. Gender and International Affairs Class 2013. Lecture conducted from The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies (IHEID). Geneva, Switzerland.

Michau, Lori (March 2007). "Approaching old problems in new ways: community mobilisation as a primary prevention strategy to combat violence against women". Violence Against Women; 156 Recommendations for Action

The International Council of Women (ICW) website.

United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) website.

Chapter 2 HISTORY OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

UN Women. "Violence against women: work of the General A s s e m b l y o n v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w o m e n " . un.org/womenwatch. UN Women, Violence Against Women. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

Sesay, A Odebiyi, A. (Eds) (1998) Nigerian women in society and development. Ibadan: Dakun Publishing House.

Nancy J. Hafkin and Edna G. Bay, Women in Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976).

UNIFEM (August 2010). Ending violence against women & girls – Evidence, data and knowledge in the Pacific Island Countries: literature review and annotated bibliography (PDF). UNIFEM. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2011.

"Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women". United Nations General Assembly. Retrieved 9 May 2016. Violence Against Women; 157 Recommendations for Action

"Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa" (PDF). African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights. Retrieved 3 April 2016.

Chapter 3 FORMS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

The Criminal Code, Cap 'C38”, Sections 357 and 358.

Research conducted by a group of lecturers from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, under the aegis of Women on Molestation, Intimate Harassment and Intimate Exploitation(2014).

Violence Against Persons (prohibition) Act 2015 http://www.nan.ng/news/2017-katsina-police-records- 210-rape-cases

"Intimate partner violence: fact sheet". cdc.gov/ncipc. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 4 September2007.

Staff writer. "Definition of honor killing". merriam- webster.com. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 18 November2013. Violence Against Women; 158 Recommendations for Action

“ I n t e r n a t i o n a l D o m e s t i c Vi o l e n c e I s s u e s " . sanctuaryforfamilies.org. Sanctuary for Families. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014.

UN Women (24 December 2012). Confronting dowry- related violence in India: women at the center of justice. UN Women. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

Cruelty in Maternity Wards: Fifty Years Later”; published in the Journal of Perinatal Education.

Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015.

Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc) Act, 2015.

Impact of Violence against Women on society, an article in the Health and Human Rights Journal, 2000.

The Bible at 1 Corinthians 7:3-5.

The Bible at Zechariah 14:2.

Washington, Harold C. (2004). "'Lest he die in battle and another man take her': violence and the construction of gender in the laws of Deuteronomy 20-22".

The 2003 Trafficking in Persons Law Enforcement and Administration Act, amended in 2005. Violence Against Women; 159 Recommendations for Action

Libya Slave Trade: Sure Smiles Magazine 2018 Special Edition.

Filipovic, Jill (2007). "Blogging while female: how internet misogyny parallels real-world harassment". Yale Journal of Law and Feminism. Yale Law School. 19 (2): 295–303.Pdf.

The Bible at Isaiah 13:16.

WHO (June 2000). Female genital mutilation (factsheet). World Health Organization. Retrieved 18 November 2013.

Shell-Duncan, Bettina (June 2008). "From health to human rights: female genital cutting and the politics of intervention". American Anthropologist. Wiley. 110 (2): 225–236.

UNFPA (December 2015). Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions. United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

WHO (1996). Care in normal birth: a practical guide. Safe Motherhood Practical Guide. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. WHO/FRH/MSM/96.24. Retrieved 2 December 2013. Pdf. Violence Against Women; 160 Recommendations for Action

WHO (2015). "Sexual and reproductive health: Prevention and elimination of disrespect and abuse during childbirth". who.int. World Health Organization. Retrieved 21 October2017.

2015 United Nations International Children Education Fund (UNICEF) report.

Convention to the Rights and Welfare of the Child. https://guardian.ng/news/rising-cases-of-child-rape-in- nigerian-schools.

#MeTooNigerian women speak on rape and sexual abuse. http://sunnewsonline.com/dissecting-nigerias-rape- plague/2015. http://venturesafrica.com/nine-shocking-cases-of-child- abuse-this-year-that-validate-the-growing-concern-of- groups-in-nigeria.

Anxiety over increase in rape of minors by Daily Trust / Publish Date: Sep 2 2016.

The Bible at 1 Corinthians 7:3-5. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/08/nigerian-culture- permit-domestic-violence. Violence Against Women; 161 Recommendations for Action http://sunnewsonline.com/abused-battered-abandoned- horrible-stories-of-nigerian-women-who-survived- violent-murderous-spouse.

Ilika et. al. "Intimate Partner Violence among Women of Childbearing Age in a Primary Health Care Centre in Nigeria". Women's Health and Action Research Centre. 2002.

"Cultural Beliefs Fuel Domestic Violence". Daily Trust. Archived from the original on September 26, 2013.

Chapter 4 ACTIVISM

Michau, Lori (March 2007). "Approaching old problems in new ways: community mobilisation as a primary prevention strategy to combat violence against women".

Rosche, Daniela; Dawe, Alexandra (2013). Oxfam Briefing Note: Ending violence against women the case for a comprehensive international action plan (PDF). Oxford: Oxfam GB. p. 2. ISBN 9781780772639.

UN Women. "Violence against women: work of the General A s s e m b l y o n v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w o m e n " . un.org/womenwatch. UN Women, Violence Against Women. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Violence Against Women; 162 Recommendations for Action

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (14 July 2017). General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19 (PDF). Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women(CEDAW). CEDAW/C/GC/35.

Owen, Margaret (1996). "Human rights, equality and legal protection". In Owen, Margaret. A world of widows. London Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Zed Books. ISBN 9781856494205.

Kroløkke, Charlotte; Sørensen, Ann Scott (2006). "Three waves of feminism: from suffragettes to grrls". In Kroløkke, Charlotte; Sørensen, Ann Scott. Gender communication theories & analyses: from silence to performance. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. pp. 1–23. ISBN 9780761929185.

Chapter 5 ACCESS TO JUSTICE FOR VICTIMS

US Civil Rights Act of 1964. https://lawpadi.com/laws-rape-every-nigerian-know.

The 2003 Trafficking in Persons Law Enforcement and Administration Act, amended in 2005. Violence Against Women; 163 Recommendations for Action

The Criminal Code.

The Penal Code.

The Criminal Laws of Lagos.

The Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act.

The Child Rights Act.

Chapter 6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTIONS

Global Database on Violence Against Women: http://evaw- globaldata base. unwomen.org/en/countries.

Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), Statistical Archive – Women in National Parliaments: http://www.ipu.org/wmn- e/classif.htm#1.

World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report 2016, Gender Gap Index 2016:http://reports.weforum.org/global- gender-gapreport-2016.

United Nations Statistics Division, World's Women 2015, :http://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/chapter6/chapter6.html. Violence Against Women; 164 Recommendations for Action

World Health Organization (WHO), Department of Reproductive Health and Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, South African Medical Research Council (2013).

Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence.

Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2015) Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions: https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/workinggroup/d ocuments-public/guidelines-integratinggender-based- violence-interventions.

Ellsberg M et al. Researching domestic violence against women: methodological and ethical considerations. Studies in Family Planning, 2001, 32:1–16.

Putting women first: ethical and safety recommendations for research on domestic violence against women. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2001 (document WHO/FCH/GWH/01.01).