אשכנז )דמות מקראית( Ashkenaz אַשְׁ כְׁ נַז, דמות מקראית, היה בנו הראשון של גומר בן יפת .ונינו של נֹחַ )בראשית י' 2-3( http://www.morfix.co.il/en/Ashkenaz

אשכנזי :English translation results for אַשְׁ כְׁ נַזִּי שֵ ם Ashkenazic (person) ( of East European or Western origin) אַשְׁ כְׁ נַזִּי תואר Ashkenazic (pertaining to of East European or Western origin)

http://www.morfix.co.il/en/%D7%90%D6%B7%D7%A9%D6%B0%D7%81%D7%9B%D6%B0%D6%BC%D7 %A0%D6%B7%D7%96%D6%B4%D6%BC%D7%99 Ạšəkənạzziy Descended from /Yiyḏiyš–speaking European Jews Contents

1 1 1.1 Etymology ...... 2 1.2 History ...... 2 1.2.1 History of Jews in Europe before the Ashkenazim ...... 2 1.2.2 High and Late Middle Ages migrations ...... 3 1.2.3 Medieval references ...... 4 1.2.4 Modern history ...... 4 1.3 Definition ...... 6 1.3.1 By religion ...... 6 1.3.2 By culture ...... 7 1.3.3 By ethnicity ...... 7 1.4 Customs, laws and traditions ...... 8 1.4.1 Ashkenazic liturgy ...... 8 1.4.2 Ashkenazi as a surname ...... 8 1.5 Relations with Sephardim ...... 9 1.6 Notable Ashkenazim ...... 9 1.7 Genetics ...... 9 1.7.1 Genetic origins ...... 9 1.7.2 The Khazar hypothesis ...... 12 1.7.3 Medical genetics ...... 12 1.8 See also ...... 12 1.9 References ...... 12 1.9.1 References for “Who is an Ashkenazi Jew?" ...... 18 1.9.2 Other references ...... 19 1.10 External links ...... 19

2 Ashkenaz 20 2.1 ...... 20 2.2 Medieval reception ...... 20 2.2.1 Rabbinic ...... 20 2.2.2 Ashkenazi Jews ...... 21 2.2.3 Armenian tradition ...... 21 2.2.4 German royal genealogy ...... 21

i ii CONTENTS

2.3 References ...... 22 2.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ...... 23 2.4.1 Text ...... 23 2.4.2 Images ...... 24 2.4.3 Content license ...... 26 Chapter 1

Ashkenazi Jews

For other uses, see Ashkenaz (disambiguation). In the late Middle Ages, the majority of the Ashkenazi population shifted steadily eastward,[24] moving out of the Holy Roman Empire into the Pale of Settlement (com- prising parts of present-day Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine).[25][26] In the course of the late 18th and 19th centuries, those Jews who remained in or returned to the German lands ex- perienced a cultural reorientation; under the influence of the and the struggle for emancipation, as well as the intellectual and cultural ferment in urban centers, they gradually abandoned the use of Yiddish, while de- veloping new forms of Jewish religious life and cultural identity.[27] The genocidal impact of (the mass murder of approximately six million Jews during World War II) devastated the Ashkenazim and their culture, affecting al- most every Jewish family.[28][29] It is estimated that in the 11th century Ashkenazi Jews composed only three per- The Jews in Central Europe (1881) cent of the world’s total Jewish population, while at their peak in 1931 they accounted for 92 percent of the world’s Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Jews. Immediately prior to the Holocaust, the number of [30] .Ashkenazi He- Jews in the world stood at approximately 16.7 million , ַאְׁשְּכַנִּזים :simply Ashkenazim (Hebrew brew pronunciation: [ˌaʃkəˈnazim], singular: [ˌaʃkəˈnazi], Statistical figures vary for the contemporary demography [1] of Ashkenazi Jews, oscillating between 10 million and ְיהּוֵדי ַאְׁשְּכַנז Modern Hebrew: [aʃkenaˈzim, aʃkenaˈzi]; also [2] Y'hudey Ashkenaz),[16] are a population 11.2 million. Sergio DellaPergola in a rough calculation who coalesced as a distinct community in the Holy Ro- of Sephardic and , implies that Ashkenazi [31] man Empire around the end of the first millennium.[17] Jews make up less than 74% of Jews worldwide. Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews of Jews worldwide.[32] is Yiddish (which incorporates several dialects), with Hebrew used only as a sacred language until rela- Genetic studies on Ashkenazim—researching both their tively recently. Throughout their time in Europe, paternal and maternal lineages—suggest a significant Ashkenazim have made many important contributions proportion of Middle Eastern ancestry. Those studies to philosophy, scholarship, literature, art, music, and have arrived at diverging conclusions regarding both the science.[18][19][20][21] degree and the sources of their European ancestry, and have generally focused on the extent of the European ge- Ashkenazim originate from the Jews who settled along netic origin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages.[33] the Rhine River, in Western Germany and Northern Ashkenazi Jews are popularly contrasted with Sephardi [22] France. There they became a distinct diaspora com- Jews (also called Sephardim), who descend from Jews munity with a unique way of life that adapted tradi- who settled in the Iberian Peninsula, and Mizrahi Jews, tions from Babylon, The , and the Western who descend from Jews who remained in the Middle East. [23] Mediterranean to their new environment. The Ashke- There are some differences in how the groups pronounce nazi religious rite developed in cities such as Mainz, certain Hebrew letters, and in points of ritual. Worms, and Troyes. The eminent French Rishon Shlomo Itzhaki (Rashi) would have a significant impact on the Jewish religion.

1 2 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

1.1 Etymology 1.2 History

1.2.1 History of Jews in Europe before the Ashkenazim The name Ashkenazi derives from the biblical figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, son of Japhet, son Outside of their origins in ancient Israel, the history of of Noah, and a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Na- Ashkenazim is shrouded in mystery,[48] and many theo- tions (Genesis 10). The name of Gomer has often been ries have arisen speculating on their emergence as a dis- linked to the ethnonym Cimmerians. Biblical Ashke- tinct community of Jews.[49] The most well-supported naz is usually derived from Assyrian Aškūza (cuneiform theory is the one that details a Jewish migration from Is- Aškuzai/Iškuzai), a people who expelled the Cimmeri- rael through what is now Italy and other parts of southern ans from the Armenian area of the Upper Euphrates,[34] Europe.[50] The historical record attests to Jewish com- whose name is usually associated with the name of the munities in southern Europe since pre-Christian times.[51] Scythians.[35][36] The intrusive n in the Biblical name is Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until 212 with a nun CE when Emperor Caracalla granted all free peoples this ו likely due to a scribal error confusing a waw privilege. Jews were required to pay a poll tax until the [38[]37[]36נ.] reign of Emperor Julian in 363. In the late Roman Em- In Jeremiah 51:27, Ashkenaz figures as one of three king- pire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and doms in the far north, the others being Minni and Ararat, religious ties and enter into various local occupations. perhaps corresponding to Urartu, called on by God to re- [38][39] But, after became the official religion of sist Babylon. Rome and Constantinople in 380, Jews were increasingly In the Yoma tractate of the Babylonian the name marginalized. Gomer is rendered as Germania, which elsewhere in rab- The history of Jews in Greece goes back to at least the binical literature was identified with Germanikia in north- Archaic Era of Greece, when the classical culture of western Syria, but later became associated with Ger- Greece was undergoing a process of formalization after mania. Ashkenaz is linked to Scandza/Scanzia, viewed the Greek Dark Age. The Greek historian Herodotus as the cradle of Germanic tribes, as early as a 6th- [40] knew of the Jews, whom he called “Palestinian Syrians”, century gloss to the Historia Ecclesiastica of Eusebius. and listed them among the levied naval forces in ser- In the 10th-century History of Armenia of Yovhannes vice of the invading Persians. While Jewish monothe- Drasxanakertc'i (1.15) Ashkenaz was associated with ism was not deeply affected by Greek Polytheism, the Armenia,[41] as it was occasionally in Jewish usage, where Greek way of living was attractive for many wealthier its denotation extended at times to Adiabene, Khazaria, Jews.[52] The in the Agora of Athens is dated Crimea and areas to the east.[42] His contemporary Saadia to the period between 267 and 396 CE. The Stobi Syna- Gaon identified Ashkenaz with the Saquliba or Slavic gogue in Macedonia, was built on the ruins of a more an- territories,[43] and such usage covered also the lands of cient synagogue in the 4th century, while later in the 5th tribes neighboring the Slavs, and Eastern and Central [42] century, the synagogue was transformed into Christian Europe. In modern times, Samuel Krauss identified [53] [44] basilica. thrived in Antioch and the Biblical “Ashkenaz” with Khazaria. Alexandria, many of these Greek-speaking Jews would Sometime in the early medieval period, the Jews of convert to Christianity.[54] Sporadic[55] epigraphic evi- central and eastern Europe came to be called by this dence in grave site excavations, particularly in Brige- term.[38] In conformity with the custom of designating ar- tio (Szőny), Aquincum (Óbuda), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), eas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was Triccinae (Sárvár), Savaria (Szombathely), Sopianae denominated Sefarad (Obadiah 20), France was called (Pécs) in Hungary, and Osijek in Croatia, attest to the Tsarefat (1 Kings 17:9), and Bohemia was called the presence of Jews after the 2nd and 3rd centuries where Land of Canaan.[45] By the high medieval period, Tal- Roman garrisons were established,[56] There was a suffi- mudic commentators like Rashi began to use Ashke- cient number of Jews in Pannonia to form communities naz/Eretz Ashkenaz to designate Germany, earlier known and build a synagogue. Jewish troops were among the as Loter,[38][40] where, especially in the Rhineland com- Syrian soldiers transferred there, and replenished from munities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz, the most im- the Middle East, after 175 C.E. Jews and especially Syr- portant Jewish communities arose.[46] Rashi uses leshon ians came from Antioch, Tarsus and Cappadocia. Oth- Ashkenaz (Ashkenazi language) to describe German ers came from Italy and the Hellenized parts of the Ro- speech, and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred man empire. The excavations suggest they first lived in to the Crusaders as Ashkenazim.[40] Given the close links isolated enclaves attached to Roman legion camps and between the Jewish communities of France and Germany intermarried with other similar oriental families within following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi the military orders of the region.[55] Raphael Patai states came to refer to both the Jews of medieval Germany and that later Roman writers remarked that they differed lit- France.[47] tle in either customs, manner of writing, or names from 1.2. HISTORY 3

the people among whom they dwelt; and it was especially pear to have begun to settle in the north, especially along difficult to differentiate Jews from the Syrians.[57][58] Af- the Rhine, often in response to new economic opportuni- ter Pannonia was ceded to the Huns in 433, the garrison ties and at the invitation of local Christian rulers. Thus populations were withdrawn to Italy, and only a few, enig- Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, invited Jacob ben Yeku- matic traces remain of a possible Jewish presence in the tiel and his fellow Jews to settle in his lands; and soon area some centuries later.[59] after the Norman Conquest of England, William the Con- No evidence has yet been found of a Jewish presence in queror likewise extended a welcome to continental Jews antiquity in Germany beyond its Roman border, nor in to take up residence there. Bishop Rüdiger Huzmann called on the Jews of Mainz to relocate to Speyer. In Eastern Europe. In Gaul and Germany itself, with the possible exception of Trier and Cologne, the archeologi- all of these decisions, the idea that Jews had the know- how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve cal evidence suggests at most a fleeting presence of very few Jews, primarily itinerant traders or artisans.[60] A sub- revenues, and enlarge trade seems to have played a promi- nent role.[67] Typically Jews relocated close to the mar- stantial Jewish population emerged in northern Gaul by the Middle Ages,[61] but Jewish communities existed in kets and churches in town centres, where, though they came under the authority of both royal and ecclesiastical 465 CE in Brittany, in 524 CE in Valence, and in 533 CE [67] in Orleans.[62] Throughout this period and into the early powers, they were accorded administrative autonomy. Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant In the 11th century, both Rabbinic Judaism and the cul- Greek and Latin cultures, mostly through conversion to ture of the Babylonian Talmud that underlies it became Christianity.[63] King Dagobert I of the Franks expelled established in southern Italy and then spread north to the Jews from his Merovingian kingdom in 629. Jews in Ashkenaz.[68] former Roman territories faced new challenges as harsher Numerous massacres of Jews occurred throughout Eu- anti-Jewish Church rulings were enforced. rope during the Christian Crusades. Inspired by the Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire around preaching of a First Crusade, crusader mobs in France 800, including northern Italy and Rome, brought on a and Germany perpetrated the Rhineland massacres of brief period of stability and unity in Francia. This created 1096, devastating Jewish communities along the Rhine opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle again north of river, including the SHuM cities of Speyer, Worms, and the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms sim- Mainz. The cluster of cities contain the earliest Jewish ilar to those once enjoyed under the Roman Empire. In settlements north of the Alps, and played a major role in addition, Jews from southern Italy, fleeing religious per- the formation of Ashkenazi Jewish religious tradition,[23] secution, began to move into central Europe. Returning along with Troyes and Sens in France. Nonetheless Jew- to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took up occu- ish life in Germany persisted, while some Ashkenazi Jews pations in finance and commerce, including money lend- joined Sephardic Jewry in Spain.[69] Expulsions from ing, or usury. (Church legislation banned Christians from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany lending money in exchange for interest.) From Charle- (15th century), gradually pushed Ashkenazi Jewry east- magne’s time to the present, Jewish life in northern Eu- ward, to Poland (10th century), Lithuania (10th cen- rope is well documented. By the 11th century, when tury), and Russia (12th century). Over this period of Rashi of Troyes wrote his commentaries, Jews in what several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish eco- came to be known as “Ashkenaz” were known for their nomic activity was focused on trade, business manage- halakhic learning, and Talmudic studies. They were crit- ment, and financial services, due to several presumed fac- icized by Sephardim and other Jewish scholars in Islamic tors: Christian European prohibitions restricting certain lands for their lack of expertise in Jewish jurisprudence activities by Jews, preventing certain financial activities (dinim) and general ignorance of Hebrew linguistics and (such as "usurious" loans)[70] between Christians, high literature.[64] Yiddish emerged as a result of Judeo-Latin rates of literacy, near universal male education, and abil- language contact with various High German vernaculars ity of merchants to rely upon and trust family members in the medieval period.[65] It is a Germanic language writ- living in different regions and countries. ten in Hebrew letters, and heavily influenced by Hebrew By the 15th century, the Ashkenazi Jewish communi- and Aramaic, with some elements of Romance and later [66] ties in Poland were the largest Jewish communities of the Slavic languages. Diaspora.[71] This area, which eventually fell under the domination of Russia, Austria, and Prussia (Germany), would remain the main center of Ashkenazi Jewry until 1.2.2 High and Late Middle Ages migra- the Holocaust. tions The answer to why there was so little assimilation of Jews in central and eastern Europe for so long would seem to Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities lie in part in the probability that the alien surroundings in north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as the 8th and central and eastern Europe were not conducive, though 9th century. By the 11th century Jewish settlers, moving contempt did not prevent some assimilation. Further- from southern European and Middle Eastern centers, ap- 4 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

the Responsa of Asher ben Jehiel (pp. 4, 6); his Halakot (Berakot i. 12, ed. Wilna, p. 10); the work of his son Jacob ben Asher, Tur Orach Chayim (chapter 59); the Responsa of Isaac ben Sheshet (numbers 193, 268, 270). In the compilation, Genesis Rabbah, Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as German tribes or as German lands. It may corre- spond to a Greek word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Jews in Syria Palaestina, or the text is corrupted from “Germanica.” This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by Germamia, which evidently stands for Ger- many, and which was suggested by the similarity of the The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent. sound. In later times, the word Ashkenaz is used to designate southern and western Germany, the ritual of which sec- more, Jews lived almost exclusively in shtetls, maintained tions differs somewhat from that of eastern Germany and a strong system of education for males, heeded rabbinic Poland. Thus the prayer-book of Isaiah Horowitz, and leadership, and scorned the lifestyle of their neighbors; many others, give the piyyutim according to the and all of these tendencies increased with every outbreak of Ashkenaz and Poland. of antisemitism.[72] According to 16th-century mystic Rabbi Elijah of Chelm, Ashkenazi Jews lived in Jerusalem during the 11th cen- 1.2.3 Medieval references tury. The story is told that a German-speaking Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed Dolberger. So when the knights of the First Crusade came to siege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger’s family members who was among them rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to Worms to repay the favor.[76] Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form of halakhic questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the 11th century.[77]

1.2.4 Modern history

Material relating to the history of German Jews has been preserved in the communal accounts of certain communi- ties on the Rhine, a Memorbuch, and a Liebesbrief, doc- uments that are now part of the Sassoon Collection.[78] Heinrich Graetz has also added to the history of Ger- man Jewry in modern times in the abstract of his seminal Jews from Worms (Germany) wear the mandatory yellow badge. work, History of the Jews, which he entitled “Volksthüm- liche Geschichte der Juden.” In the first half of the 11th century, Hai Gaon refers to In an essay on Sephardi Jewry, Daniel Elazar at the questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs[79] summarized the by which he undoubtedly means Germany. Rashi in the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thou- latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language [73] [74] sand years, noting that at the end of the 11th century, 97% of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz. Dur- of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazi; by ing the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. the end of the 16th century, the: 'Treaty on the redemp- In the Mahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is re- tion of captives’, by Gracian of the God’s Mother, Mercy ferred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue Priest, who was imprisoned by Turks, cites a Tunisian there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other [75] Hebrew, made captive when arriving to Gaeta, who aided observances. others with money, named: 'Simon Escanasi', in the mid- In the literature of the 13th century, references to the land 17th century, “Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim and the language of Ashkenaz often occur. Examples in- three to two”, but by the end of the 18th century, “Ashke- clude Solomon ben Aderet's Responsa (vol. i., No. 395); nazim outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result 1.2. HISTORY 5

of improved living conditions in Christian Europe ver- sus the Ottoman Muslim world.”[79] By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly 92% of world Jewry.[79] These factors are sheer demography showing the migration pat- terns of Jews from Southern and Western Europe to Cen- tral and Eastern Europe. In 1740 a family from Lithuania became the first Ashke- nazi Jews to settle in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem.[80] In the generations after emigration from the west, Jew- ish communities in places like Poland, Russia, and Be- larus enjoyed a comparatively stable socio-political en- vironment. A thriving publishing industry and the print- ing of hundreds of biblical commentaries precipitated the development of the Hasidic movement as well as major Jewish academic centers.[81] After two centuries of com- parative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries in re- sponse to pogroms in the east and the economic oppor- tunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since 1750.[71] In the context of the European Enlightenment, began in 18th century France and spread throughout Western and Central Europe. Disabilities that had limited the rights of Jews since the Middle Ages Jewish woman chased by men and youth armed with clubs during were abolished, including the requirements to wear dis- the Lviv pogroms, July 1941, then occupied Poland, now Ukraine tinctive clothing, pay special taxes, and live in ghettos isolated from non-Jewish communities, and the prohi- world Jewry today.[79] The Holocaust also effectively put bitions on certain professions. Laws were passed to in- an end to the dynamic development of the Yiddish lan- tegrate Jews into their host countries, forcing Ashke- guage in the previous decades, as the vast majority of nazi Jews to adopt family names (they had formerly used the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, around 5 million, patronymics). Newfound inclusion into public life led were Yiddish speakers.[85] Many of the surviving Ashke- to cultural growth in the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlighten- nazi Jews emigrated to countries such as Israel, Canada, ment, with its goal of integrating modern European val- Argentina, Australia, and the United States after the war. ues into Jewish life.[82] As a reaction to increasing an- tisemitism and assimilation following the emancipation, Following the Holocaust, some sources place Ashke- was developed in central Europe.[83] Other Jews, nazim today as making up approximately 83–85 per- particularly those in the Pale of Settlement, turned to cent of Jews worldwide,[86][87][88][89] while Sergio Del- socialism. These tendencies would be united in Labor laPergola in a rough calculation of Sephardic and Zionism, the founding ideology of the State of Israel. Mizrahi Jews, implies that Ashkenazi make up a no- tably lower figure, less than 74%.[31] Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews [32] The Holocaust worldwide. Ashkenazi Jews constitute around 35– 36% of Israel’s total population, or 47.5% of Israel’s Jew- ish population.[90][91] Of the estimated 8.8 million Jews living in Europe at the beginning of World War II, the majority of whom were Ashkenazi, about 6 million – more than two-thirds Israel – were systematically murdered in the Holocaust. These included 3 million of 3.3 million Polish Jews (91%); 900,000 of 1.5 million in Ukraine (60%); and 50–90% Main article: Ashkenazi Jews in Israel of the Jews of other Slavic nations, Germany, Hungary, and the Baltic states, and over 25% of the Jews in France. In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used in a manner un- Sephardi communities suffered similar depletions in a related to its original meaning, often applied to all Jews few countries, including Greece, the and the who settled in Europe and sometimes including those former Yugoslavia.[84] As the large majority of the vic- whose ethnic background is actually Sephardic. Jews tims were Ashkenazi Jews, their percentage dropped from of any non-Ashkenazi background, including Mizrahi, nearly 92% of world Jewry in 1931 to nearly 80% of Yemenite, Kurdish and others who have no connection 6 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

with the Iberian Peninsula, have similarly come to be 1.3 Definition lumped together as Sephardic. Jews of mixed back- ground are increasingly common, partly because of in- See also: Who is a Jew? termarriage between Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi, and partly because many do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life experiences as Jews.[92] Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged 1.3.1 By religion to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in halakhic matters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Religious Jews have Minhagim, customs, in addition to Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain reli- , or religious law, and different interpretations of gious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. law. Different groups of religious Jews in different geo- These political parties result from the fact that a portion of graphic areas historically adopted different customs and the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties; al- interpretations. On certain issues, Orthodox Jews are re- though the electoral map changes from one election to an- quired to follow the customs of their ancestors, and do not other, there are generally several small parties associated believe they have the option of picking and choosing. For with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role this reason, observant Jews at times find it important for of religious parties, including small religious parties that religious reasons to ascertain who their household’s reli- play important roles as coalition members, results in turn gious ancestors are in order to know what customs their from Israel’s composition as a complex society in which household should follow. These times include, for exam- competing social, economic, and religious interests stand ple, when two Jews of different ethnic background marry, for election to the Knesset, a unicameral legislature with when a non-Jew converts to Judaism and determines what 120 seats.[93] customs to follow for the first time, or when a lapsed or less observant Jew returns to traditional Judaism and must People of Ashkenazi descent constitute around 47.5% of determine what was done in his or her family’s past. In (and therefore 35–36% of Israelis).[4] They this sense, “Ashkenazic” refers both to a family ancestry have played a prominent role in the economy, media, and and to a body of customs binding on Jews of that ances- politics[94] of Israel since its founding. During the first try. Reform Judaism, which does not necessarily follow decades of Israel as a state, strong cultural conflict oc- those minhagim, did nonetheless originate among Ashke- curred between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews (mainly nazi Jews.[97] east European Ashkenazim). The roots of this conflict, which still exists to a much smaller extent in present- In a religious sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is any Jew whose day Israeli society, are chiefly attributed to the concept family tradition and ritual follows Ashkenazi practice. of the "melting pot".[95] That is to say, all Jewish immi- Until the Ashkenazi community first began to develop in grants who arrived in Israel were strongly encouraged to the Early Middle Ages, the centers of Jewish religious “melt down” their own particular exilic identities within authority were in the Islamic world, at Baghdad and in the general social “pot” in order to become Israeli.[96] Islamic Spain. Ashkenaz (Germany) was so distant geo- graphically that it developed a minhag of its own. Ashke- The Ashkenazi Chief in the and Israel in- nazi Hebrew came to be pronounced in ways distinct from clude: other forms of Hebrew.[98] In this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi is • : (23 February 1921 – 1 Sephardic, since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews fol- September 1935) low Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a Sephardic or • Isaac Halevi Herzog: (1937 – 25 July 1959) Mizrahi woman who marries into an Orthodox or Haredi Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her children to be Ashke- • Isser Yehuda Unterman: (1964–1972) nazi Jews; conversely an Ashkenazi woman who mar- ries a Sephardi or Mizrahi man is expected to take on • : (1972–1983) Sephardic practice and the children inherit a Sephardic identity, though in practice many families compromise. • : (1983–1993) A convert generally follows the practice of the beth din that converted him or her. With the integration of Jews • Israel Meir Lau: (1993 – 3 April 2003) from around the world in Israel, North America, and other places, the religious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew • She'ar Yashuv Cohen (acting): (3 April 2003 – 14 is blurring, especially outside .[99] April 2003) New developments in Judaism often transcend dif- • : (14 April 2003 – 14 August 2013) ferences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends • : (14 August 2013 – present) such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of 1.3. DEFINITION 7

“post-denominational Judaism”[100][101] often bring to- speaking a German dialect similar to Yiddish. (A third gether younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In re- community of Provençal Jews living in Comtat Venaissin cent years, there has been increased interest in , were technically outside France, and were later absorbed which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the into the Sephardim.) The two communities were so sep- framework. Another trend is the new popularity of arate and different that the National Assembly emanci- ecstatic worship in the movement and the pated them separately in 1790 and 1791.[105] Carlebach style , both of which are nominally of [102] But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry Ashkenazi origin. emerged, especially when France was wracked by the Dreyfus affair in the 1890s. In the 1920s and 1930s, 1.3.2 By culture Ashkenazi Jews from Europe arrived in large numbers as refugees from antisemitism, the Russian revolution, Culturally, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by the and the economic turmoil of the Great Depression. By concept of Yiddishkeit, which means “Jewishness” in the the 1930s, Paris had a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Yiddish language.[103] Yiddishkeit is specifically the Jew- Jews were involved in diverse political movements. Af- ishness of Ashkenazi Jews.[104] Before the Haskalah and ter the Vichy years and the Holocaust, the French Jewish the emancipation of Jews in Europe, this meant the study population was augmented once again, first by Ashkenazi of and Talmud for men, and a family and com- refugees from Central Europe, and later by Sephardi im- munal life governed by the observance of Jewish Law for migrants and refugees from North Africa, many of them men and women. From the Rhineland to Riga to Roma- francophone. nia, most Jews prayed in liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew, Then, in the 1990s, yet another Ashkenazi Jewish wave and spoke Yiddish in their secular lives. But with mod- began to arrive from countries of the former Soviet Union ernization, Yiddishkeit now encompasses not just Ortho- and Central Europe. The result is a pluralistic Jewish doxy and Hasidism, but a broad range of movements, community that still has some distinct elements of both ideologies, practices, and traditions in which Ashkenazi Ashkenazi and Sephardic culture. But in France, it is be- Jews have participated and somehow retained a sense of coming much more difficult to sort out the two, and a Jewishness. Although a far smaller number of Jews still distinctly French Jewishness has emerged.[106] speak Yiddish, Yiddishkeit can be identified in manners of speech, in styles of humor, in patterns of association. Broadly speaking, a Jew is one who associates cultur- 1.3.3 By ethnicity ally with Jews, supports Jewish institutions, reads Jewish books and periodicals, attends Jewish movies and theater, In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose an- travels to Israel, visits historical , and so forth. cestry can be traced to the Jews who settled in Central It is a definition that applies to in general, Europe. For roughly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim and to Ashkenazi Yiddishkeit in particular. were a reproductively isolated population in Europe, de- As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Europe, mostly spite living in many countries, with little inflow or out- in the form of to Israel, or immigration to flow from migration, conversion, or intermarriage with North America, and other English-speaking areas such other groups, including other Jews. Human geneticists as South Africa; and Europe (particularly France) and have argued that genetic variations have been identified Latin America, the geographic isolation that gave rise that show high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but to Ashkenazim has given way to mixing with other cul- not in the general European population, be they for patri- tures, and with non-Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are lineal markers (Y-chromosome haplotypes) and for ma- no longer isolated in distinct geographic locales. Hebrew trilineal markers (mitotypes).[107] Since the middle of the has replaced Yiddish as the primary Jewish language 20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, for many Ashkenazi Jews, although many Hasidic and both with members of other Jewish communities and with Hareidi groups continue to use Yiddish in daily life. people of other nations and faiths.[108] (There are numerous Ashkenazi Jewish anglophones and A 2006 study found Ashkenazi Jews to be a clear, ho- Russian-speakers as well, although English and Russian mogeneous genetic subgroup. Strikingly, regardless of are not originally .) the place of origin, Ashkenazi Jews can be grouped in France’s blended Jewish community is typical of the cul- the same genetic cohort – that is, regardless of whether tural recombination that is going on among Jews through- an Ashkenazi Jew’s ancestors came from Poland, Russia, out the world. Although France expelled its original Jew- Hungary, Lithuania, or any other place with a historical ish population in the Middle Ages, by the time of the Jewish population, they belong to the same ethnic group. French Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish pop- The research demonstrates the endogamy of the Jewish ulations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally population in Europe and lends further credence to the refugees from the Inquisition and concentrated in the idea of Ashkenazi Jews as an ethnic group. Moreover, southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, though intermarriage among Jews of Ashkenazi descent concentrated in formerly German Alsace, and mainly has become increasingly common, many Haredi Jews, 8 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS particularly members of Hasidic or Hareidi sects, con- • Ashkenazi Jews frequently name newborn children tinue to marry exclusively fellow Ashkenazi Jews. This after deceased family members, but not after liv- trend keeps Ashkenazi genes prevalent and also helps re- ing relatives. , in contrast, often name searchers further study the genes of Ashkenazi Jews with their children after the children’s grandparents, even relative ease. It is noteworthy that these Haredi Jews of- if those grandparents are still living. A notable ten have extremely large families.[11] exception to this generally reliable rule is among Dutch Jews, where Ashkenazim for centuries used the naming conventions otherwise attributed exclu- 1.4 Customs, laws and traditions sively to Sephardim such as Chuts. • Ashkenazi tefillin bear some differences from The Halakhic practices of (Orthodox) Ashkenazi Jews Sephardic tefillin. In the traditional Ashkenazic rite, may differ from those of Sephardi Jews, particularly in the tefillin are wound towards the body, not away matters of custom. Differences are noted in the Shulkhan from it. Ashkenazim traditionally don tefillin while Arukh itself, in the gloss of Moses Isserles. Well known standing, whereas other Jews generally do so while differences in practice include: sitting down. • Ashkenazic traditional pronunciations of Hebrew differ from those of other groups. The most prominent consonantal difference from Sephardic and Mizrahic Hebrew dialects is the pronunciation of the Hebrew letter tav in certain Hebrew words (historically, in postvocalic undoubled context) as an /s/ and not a /t/ or /θ/ sound. Further information: Ashkenazi Hebrew

• The example of the chevra kadisha, the Jewish burial society, The prayer shawl, or tallit (or tallis in Ashkenazi He- Prague, 1772 brew), is worn by the majority of Ashkenazi men af- ter marriage, but western European Ashkenazi men wear it from Bar . In Sephardi or Mizrahi • Observance of Pesach (Passover): Ashkenazi Jews Judaism, the prayer shawl is commonly worn from traditionally refrain from eating legumes, grain, early childhood.[109] millet, and rice (quinoa, however, has become ac- cepted as foodgrain in the North American commu- nities), whereas Sephardi Jews typically do not pro- 1.4.1 Ashkenazic liturgy hibit these foods. The term Ashkenazi also refers to the nusach Ashkenaz • Ashkenazi Jews freely mix and eat fish and milk (Hebrew, “liturgical tradition”, or rite) used by Ashke- products; some Sephardic Jews refrain from doing nazi Jews in their Siddur (prayer book). A nusach is de- so. fined by a liturgical tradition’s choice of prayers, the or- der of prayers, the text of prayers, and melodies used in • Ashkenazim are more permissive toward the usage the singing of prayers. Two other major forms of nusach of wigs as a hair covering for married and widowed among Ashkenazic Jews are Nusach Sefard (not to be women. confused with the Sephardic ritual), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, and Nusach Ari, as used by Lubav- • In the case of for meat, conversely, Sephardi itch Hasidim. Jews have stricter requirements – this level is com- monly referred to as Beth Yosef. Meat products that are acceptable to Ashkenazi Jews as kosher may 1.4.2 Ashkenazi as a surname therefore be rejected by Sephardi Jews. Notwith- standing stricter requirements for the actual slaugh- Several famous people have Ashkenazi as a surname, ter, Sephardi Jews permit the rear portions of an such as Vladimir Ashkenazy. However, most people animal after proper Halakhic removal of the sciatic with this surname hail from within Sephardic commu- nerve, while many Ashkenazi Jews do not. This is nities, particularly from the Syrian Jewish community. not because of different interpretations of the law; The Sephardic carriers of the surname would have some rather, slaughterhouses could not find adequate skills Ashkenazi ancestors since the surname was adopted by for correct removal of the sciatic nerve and found it families who were initially of Ashkenazic origins who more economical to separate the hindquarters and moved to Sephardi countries and joined those communi- sell them as non-kosher meat. ties. Ashkenazi would be formally adopted as the fam- 1.7. GENETICS 9 ily surname having started off as a nickname imposed Efforts to identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through by their adopted communities. Some have shortened the DNA analysis began in the 1990s. Currently, there name to Ash. are three types of genetic origin testing, autosomal DNA (atDNA), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and Y- chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA). Autosomal DNA is a mix- 1.5 Relations with Sephardim ture from an individual’s entire ancestry, Y-DNA shows a male’s lineage only along his strict paternal line, mtDNA shows any person’s lineage only along the strict mater- Relations between Ashkenazim and Sephardim have not nal line. Genome-wide association studies have also been always been warm. North African Sepharadim and employed to yield findings relevant to genetic origins. Berber Jews were often looked upon by Ashkenazim as Like most DNA studies of human migration patterns, second-class citizens during the first decade after the the earliest studies on Ashkenazi Jews focused on the Y- creation of Israel. This has led to protest movements DNA and mtDNA segments of the human genome. Both such as the Israeli Black Panthers led by Saadia Mar- segments are unaffected by recombination (except for the ciano, a Moroccan Jew. Nowadays, relations are get- ends of the Y chromosome – the pseudoautosomal re- ting better.[110] In some instances, Ashkenazi communi- gions known as PAR1 and PAR2), thus allowing tracing ties have accepted significant numbers of Sephardi new- of direct maternal and paternal lineages. comers, sometimes resulting in intermarriage.[111][112] These studies revealed that Ashkenazi Jews originate from an ancient (2000 BCE - 700 BCE) population of the [122] 1.6 Notable Ashkenazim Middle East who had spread to Europe. Ashkenazic Jews display the homogeneity of a genetic bottleneck, meaning they descend from a larger population whose See also: Ashkenazi Jewish intelligence and List of numbers were greatly reduced but recovered through a Ashkenazi Jews few founding individuals. Although the Jewish people, in general, were present across a wide geographical area as Ashkenazi Jews have a noted history of achievement in described, genetic research done by Gil Atzmon of the Western societies[113] in the fields of exact and social Longevity Genes Project at Albert Einstein College of sciences, literature, finance, politics, media, and others. Medicine suggests “that Ashkenazim branched off from In those societies where they have been free to enter other Jews around the time of the destruction of the First any profession, they have a record of high occupational Temple, 2,500 years ago ... flourished during the Roman achievement, entering professions and fields of commerce Empire but then went through a 'severe bottleneck' as they where higher education is required.[114] Ashkenazi Jews dispersed, reducing a population of several million to just have won a large number of the Nobel awards.[115][116] 400 families who left Northern Italy around the year 1000 [123] While they make up about 2% of the U.S. population,[117] for Central and eventually Eastern Europe.” 27% of United States Nobel prize winners in the 20th Various studies have arrived at diverging conclusions re- century,[117] a quarter of Fields Medal winners,[118] 25% garding both the degree and the sources of the non- of ACM Turing Award winners,[117] half the world’s Levantine admixture in Ashkenazim,[33] particularly with chess champions,[117] including 8% of the top 100 world respect to the extent of the non-Levantine genetic ori- chess players,[119] and a quarter of Westinghouse Science gin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages, which is Talent Search winners[118] have Ashkenazi Jewish ances- in contrast to the predominant Levantine genetic ori- try. gin observed in Ashkenazi paternal lineages. All studies Time magazine's person of the 20th century, Albert Ein- nevertheless agree that genetic overlap with the Fertile stein,[120] was an Ashkenazi Jew. According to a study Crescent exists in both lineages, albeit at differing rates. performed by Cambridge University, 21% of Ivy League Collectively, Ashkenazi Jews are less genetically diverse students, 25% of the Turing Award winners, 23% of the than other Jewish ethnic divisions, due to their genetic [124] wealthiest Americans, and 38% of the Oscar-winning bottleneck. film directors, and 29% of Oslo awardees are Ashkenazi Jews.[121] Male lineages: Y-chromosomal DNA

The majority of genetic findings to date concerning 1.7 Genetics Ashkenazi Jews conclude that the male line was founded by ancestors from the Middle East.[125][126][127] Others 1.7.1 Genetic origins have found a similar genetic line among Greeks, and Macedonians. Main article: Genetic studies on Jews A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. 10 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

Hammer et al.[128] found that the Y-chromosome of chondrial DNA was closely related to that of the host Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that community.” In his view, this suggested, “that Jewish are also common among other Middle Eastern peoples, men had arrived from the Middle East, taken wives from but uncommon in the autochthonous European popula- the host population and converted them to Judaism, af- tion. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashke- ter which there was no further intermarriage with non- nazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The Jews.”[107] proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews In 2006, a study by Behar et al.,[132] based on what amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an esti- was at that time high-resolution analysis of haplogroup mated 80 generations, with “relatively minor contribution K (mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of the current of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim,” and a Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from total admixture estimate “very similar to Motulsky’s av- just four women, or “founder lineages”, that were “likely erage estimate of 12.5%.” This supported the finding that from a Hebrew/Levantine mtDNA pool” originating in “Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the the Middle East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Addi- Near East resemble each other more closely than they re- tionally, Behar et al. suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi semble their non-Jewish neighbors.” “Past research found mtDNA is originated from ~150 women, and that most of that 50–80 percent of DNA from the Ashkenazi Y chro- those were also likely of Middle Eastern origin.[132] In ref- mosome, which is used to trace the male lineage, origi- erence specifically to Haplogroup K, they suggested that nated in the Near East,” Richards said. although it is common throughout western Eurasia, “the The population has subsequently spread out. Based on the observed global pattern of distribution renders very un- accounts of Syrian Orthodox bishop Bar Hebraeus who likely the possibility that the four aforementioned founder lived between 1226 and 1286 CE, by the time of the de- lineages entered the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool via gene struction of the in 70 CE, as many as six flow from a European host population”. million Jews were already living in the Roman Empire. In 2013, however, a study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial Recently Gregory Cochran largely disproved him. One DNA by a team led by Martin B. Richards of the comment by Tacitus mentioned the presence of 4,000 University of Huddersfield in England reached different Jews in Rome, enough to sustain a number of synagogues, [129] conclusions, corroborating the pre-2006 origin hypothe- including a Samaritan synagogue. sis. Testing was performed on the full 16,600 DNA units A 2001 study by Nebel et al. showed that both Ashkenazi composing mitochondrial DNA (the 2006 Behar study and Sephardic Jewish populations share the same over- had only tested 1,000 units) in all their subjects, and the all paternal Near Eastern ancestries. In comparison with study found that the four main female Ashkenazi founders data available from other relevant populations in the re- had descent lines that were established in Europe 10,000 gion, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups to 20,000 years in the past[133] while most of the remain- in the north of the Fertile Crescent. The authors also re- ing minor founders also have a deep European ancestry. port on Eu 19 (R1a) chromosomes, which are very fre- The study states that the great majority of Ashkenazi ma- quent in Central and Eastern Europeans (54%–60%) at ternal lineages were not brought from the Near East (i.e., elevated frequency (12.7%) in Ashkenazi Jews. They hy- they were non-Israelite), nor were they recruited in the pothesized that the differences among Ashkenazim Jews Caucasus (i.e., they were non-Khazar), but instead they could reflect low-level gene flow from surrounding Euro- were assimilated within Europe, primarily of Italian and pean populations or genetic drift during isolation.[130] A Old French origins. Richards summarized the findings on later 2005 study by Nebel et al., found a similar level of the female line as such: "[N]one [of the mtDNA] came 11.5% of male Ashkenazim belonging to R1a1a (M17+), from the North Caucasus, located along the border be- the dominant Y-chromosome haplogroup in Central and tween Europe and Asia between the Black and Caspian Eastern Europeans.[131] seas. All of our presently available studies including my own, should thoroughly debunk one of the most question- able, but still tenacious, hypotheses: that most Ashke- Female lineages: Mitochondrial DNA nazi Jews can trace their roots to the mysterious Khazar Kingdom that flourished during the ninth century in the Before 2006, geneticists had largely attributed the region between the Byzantine Empire and the Persian ethnogenesis of most of the world’s Jewish populations, Empire.”[134] The 2013 study estimated that 80 percent of including Ashkenazi Jews, to Israelite Jewish male mi- Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indige- grants from the Middle East and “the women from each nous to Europe, and only 8 percent from the Near East, local population whom they took as wives and converted while the origin of the remainder is undetermined.[13][133] to Judaism.” Thus, in 2002, in line with this model of ori- According to the study these findings “point to a signif- gin, David Goldstein, now of Duke University, reported icant role for the conversion of women in the formation that unlike male Ashkenazi lineages, the female lineages of Ashkenazi communities.”[13][14][135][136][137][138] Karl in Ashkenazi Jewish communities “did not seem to be Skorecki at Technion criticized the study for perceived Middle Eastern”, and that each community had its own flaws in phylogenetic analysis. “While Costa et al have genetic pattern and even that “in some cases the mito- 1.7. GENETICS 11 re-opened the question of the maternal origins of Ashke- DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the nazi Jewry, the phylogenetic analysis in the manuscript Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, does not 'settle' the question.”[139] Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signa- ture but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups A 2014 study by Fernández et al. has found that Ashke- [144] nazi Jews display a frequency of haplogroup K in their than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen. Atz- maternal DNA that suggests an ancient Near Eastern ori- mon’s team found that the SNP markers in genetic seg- gin, similar to the results of Behar. He stated that this ments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times observation clearly contradicts the results of the study led more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts by Richards that suggested a European source for 3 ex- clusively Ashkenazi K lineages.[140] of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Association and linkage studies Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter- In genetic epidemiology, a genome-wide association marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Em- study (GWA study, or GWAS) is an examination of all or pire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish most of the genes (the genome) of different individuals of participants in the study shared about as much DNA as [145][146] a particular species to see how much the genes vary from fourth or fifth cousins. individual to individual. These techniques were originally A 2010 study by Bray et al., using SNP microarray tech- designed for epidemiological uses, to identify genetic as- niques and linkage analysis found that when assuming sociations with observable traits.[141] Druze and Palestinian Arab populations to represent the A 2006 study by Seldin et al. used over five thou- reference to world Jewry ancestor genome, between 35 sand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic and 55 percent of the modern Ashkenazi genome can substructure. The results showed “a consistent and re- possibly be of European origin, and that European “ad- producible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' mixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by European population groups”. Most northern, central, studies that used the Y chromosome” with this reference and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, point. Assuming this reference point the linkage dise- Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the “north- quilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population was inter- ern” population group, while most individual partici- preted as “matches signs of interbreeding or 'admixture' [147] pants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, between Middle Eastern and European populations”. Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the “southern” On the Bray et al. tree, Ashkenazi Jews were found to be a group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews genetically more divergent population than Russians, Or- showed >85% membership in the “southern” group. Re- cadians, French, Basques, Italians, Sardinians and Tus- ferring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, cans. The study also observed that Ashkenazim are more the authors state the results were “consistent with a later diverse than their Middle Eastern relatives, which was Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups”.[11] counterintuitive because Ashkenazim are supposed to be a subset, not a superset, of their assumed geographical A 2007 study by Bauchet et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews source population. Bray et al. therefore postulate that were most closely clustered with Arabic North African these results reflect not the population antiquity but a his- populations when compared to Global population, and in tory of mixing between genetically distinct populations in the European structure analysis, they share similarities Europe. However, it’s possible that the relaxation of mar- only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their riage prescription in the ancestors of Ashkenazim that [142][143] east Mediterranean origins. drove their heterozygosity up, while the maintenance of A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer the FBD rule in native Middle Easterners have been keep- et al. stated “Two major groups were identified by ing their heterozygosity values in check. Ashkenazim dis- principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by de- tinctiveness as found in the Bray et al. study, therefore, scent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and Euro- may come from their ethnic endogamy (ethnic inbreed- pean/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the ing), which allowed them to “mine” their ancestral gene proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern pool in the context of relative reproductive isolation from European populations suggested similar origins for Euro- European neighbors, and not from clan endogamy (clan pean Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions inbreeding). Consequently, their higher diversity com- of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations pared to Middle Easterners stems from the latter’s mar- to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry”, as both groups riage practices, not necessarily from the former’s admix- – the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews – ture with Europeans.[148] shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 The genome-wide genetic study carried out in 2010 by years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread Behar et al. examined the genetic relationships among all across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups major Jewish groups, including Ashkenazim, as well as (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of 12 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

the genetic relationship between these Jewish groups and disease, including many that are well reported in the me- non-Jewish ethnic populations. The study found that con- dia, that have been conducted among Jews. Jewish pop- temporary Jews (excluding Indian and Ethiopian Jews) ulations have been studied more thoroughly than most have a close genetic relationship with people from the other human populations, for a variety of reasons: Levant. The authors explained that “the most parsimo- nious explanation for these observations is a common ge- • Jewish populations, and particularly the large netic origin, which is consistent with an historical formu- Ashkenazi Jewish population, are ideal for such re- lation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient search studies, because they exhibit a high degree of Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant”.[149] endogamy, yet they are sizable.[156] • Jewish communities are comparatively well in- 1.7.2 The Khazar hypothesis formed about genetics research, and have been sup- portive of community efforts to study and prevent [156] Main article: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry genetic diseases.

The result is a form of ascertainment bias. This has some- In the late 19th century, it was proposed that the core of times created an impression that Jews are more suscepti- today’s Ashkenazi Jewry are genetically descended from ble to genetic disease than other populations.[156] Health- a hypothetical Khazarian Jewish diaspora who had mi- care professionals are often taught to consider those grated westward from modern Russia and Ukraine into of Ashkenazi descent to be at increased risk for colon modern France and Germany (as opposed to the currently cancer.[157] held theory that Jews from France and Germany migrated into Eastern Europe). The hypothesis is not corroborated Genetic counseling and are often under- by historical sources[150] and is unsubstantiated by genet- taken by couples where both partners are of Ashke- ics, but it is still occasionally supported by scholars who nazi ancestry. Some organizations, most notably have had some success in keeping the theory in the aca- , organize screening programs to pre- demic consciousness.[151] vent homozygosity for the genes that cause related diseases.[158][159] The theory has sometimes been used by Jewish authors such as Arthur Koestler as part of an argument against traditional forms of antisemitism (for example the claim that “the Jews killed Christ”), just as similar arguments 1.8 See also have been advanced on behalf of the Crimean Karaites. Today, however, the theory is more often associated with • History of the Jews in Europe antisemitism[152] and anti-Zionism.[153][154] • History of the Jews in Germany A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, • from 13 universities and academies, from 9 countries, as- History of the Jews in Poland sembling the largest data set available to date, for assess- • History of the Jews in Russia (Ukraine, Belarus) ment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evi- dence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. “Thus, • Jewish ethnic divisions analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sam- • List of Israeli Ashkenazi Jews ple from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corrobo- rates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their • Memorbuch, a book dedicated to the memory of ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East martyrs and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ances- • try with other Jewish populations, and that there is no in- Nusach Ashkenaz dication of a significant genetic contribution either from • Oberlander Jews within or from north of the Caucasus region”, the authors concluded.[155] • Sephardi Jews

1.7.3 Medical genetics 1.9 References

Main article: Medical genetics of Jews [1] “Ashkenazi Jews”. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Re- There are many references to Ashkenazi Jews in the liter- trieved 29 October 2013. ature of medical and population genetics. Indeed, much [2] “First genetic mutation for identified in awareness of “Ashkenazi Jews” as an ethnic group or cat- Ashkenazi Jews”. The Gazette. Johns Hopkins University. egory stems from the large number of genetic studies of 8 September 1997. Retrieved 2013-07-24. 1.9. REFERENCES 13

[3] Feldman, Gabriel E. (May 2001). “Do Ashkenazi Jews an Ashkenazi reference panel supports population- have a Higher than expected Cancer Burden? Implications targeted personal genomics and illuminates Jewish and for cancer control prioritization efforts”. Israel Medical European origins”. Nature Communications. 5: Association Journal. 3 (5): 341–46. Retrieved 2013-09- 4835. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5E4835C. PMC 4164776 04. . PMID 25203624. doi:10.1038/ncomms5835. Re- trieved 16 September 2014. [4] Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS. “Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age” (PDF). Retrieved 22 [16] Ashkenaz, based on Josephus: PACE: Antiquities of March 2010. the Jews, 1.{{{chap}}}.{{{sec}}} (Whiston), Perseus Project AJ1.6.1, . and his explanation of Genesis [5] http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/yid/ 10:3, is considered to be the progenitor of the ancient Gauls (the people of Gallia, meaning, the people from [6] “Reconstruction of Patrilineages and Matrilineages of Austria, France and Belgium), and the ancient Franks (of, and Other Israeli Populations From Y- both, France and Germany). According to Gedaliah ibn Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Varia- Jechia the Spaniard, in the name of Sefer Yuchasin (see: tion” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May Gedaliah ibn Jechia, Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah, Jerusalem 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-15. 1962, p. 219; p. 228 in PDF), the descendants of Ashke- [7] “Jews Are The Genetic Brothers Of Palestinians, Syrians, naz had also originally settled in what was then called And Lebanese”. Science Daily. 2000-05-09. Retrieved Bohemia, which today is the present-day Czech Repub- 2013-07-19. lic. These places, according to the Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 1:9 [10a], were also called simply by the dio- [8] http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/ cese “Germamia”. Germania, Germani, Germanica have study-finds-close-genetic-connection-between-jews-kurds-1. all been used to refer to the group of peoples comprising 75273 the German Tribes, which include such peoples as Goths, whether Ostrogoths or Visigoths, Vandals and Franks, [9] Wade, Nicholas (9 June 2010). “Studies Show Jews’ Ge- Burgundians, Alans, Langobards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, netic Similarity”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2013- Suebi and Alamanni. The entire region east of the Rhine 08-15. River was known by the Romans as “Germania” (Ger- many). [10] “High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and sub- [17] Mosk, Carl (2013). Nationalism and economic develop- stantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews” (PDF). Re- ment in modern Eurasia. New York: Routledge. p. 143. trieved 2013-08-15. ISBN 9780415605182. In general the Ashkenazim orig- inally came out of the Holy Roman Empire, speaking a [11] Seldin MF, Shigeta R, Villoslada P, et al. (Septem- version of German that incorporates Hebrew and Slavic ber 2006). “European population substructure: cluster- words, Yiddish. ing of northern and southern populations”. PLoS Genet. 2 (9): e143. PMC 1564423 . PMID 17044734. [18] Henry L. Feingold (1995). Bearing Witness: How Amer- doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020143. ica and Its Jews Responded to the Holocaust. Syracuse University Press. p. 36. [12] Adams SM, Bosch E, Balaresque PL, et al. (December 2008). “The genetic legacy of religious diversity and in- [19] Eric Hobsbawm (2002). Interesting Times: A Twentieth tolerance: paternal lineages of Christians, Jews, and Mus- Century Life. Abacus Books. p. 25. lims in the Iberian Peninsula”. American Journal of Hu- man Genetics. 83 (6): 725–736. PMC 2668061 . PMID [20] Glenda Abramson (ed.), Encyclopedia of Modern Jewish 19061982. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007. Culture, Routledge 2004 p. 20.

[13] M. D. Costa and 16 others (2013). “A substan- [21] T. C. W. Blanning (ed.), The Oxford History of Modern tial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashke- Europe, Oxford University Press, 2000 pp. 147–148 nazi maternal lineages”. Nature Communications. [22] Ashkenazi (Encyclopædia Britannica) 4. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4E2543C. PMC 3806353 . PMID 24104924. doi:10.1038/ncomms3543. [23] ShUM cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz

[14] “Jewish Women’s Genes Traced Mostly to Europe – Not [24] Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel, et al (2007). “Germany.” Ency- Israel – Study Hits Claim Ashkenazi Jews Migrated From clopaedia Judaica. 2nd ed. Vol. 7. Detroit: Macmillan Holy Land”. The Jewish Daily Forward. 12 October Reference USA. p. 518-546; here: p. 524. 2013. [25] Mosk (2013), p. 143. “Encouraged to move out of the [15] Shai Carmi; Ken Y. Hui; Ethan Kochav; Xinmin Liu; Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communi- James Xue; Fillan Grady; Saurav Guha; Kinnari Upad- ties intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, hyay; Dan Ben-Avraham; Semanti Mukherjee; B. Mon- the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward ica Bowen; Tinu Thomas; Joseph Vijai; Marc Cruts; Poland.” Guy Froyen; Diether Lambrechts; Stéphane Plaisance; Christine Van Broeckhoven; Philip Van Damme; Her- [26] Harshav, Benjamin (1999). The Meaning of Yiddish. wig Van Marck; et al. (September 2014). “Sequencing Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. “From the 14 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the cen- [38] Paul Kriwaczek, Yiddish Civilisation, Hachette 2011 p. ter of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... 173 n. 9. comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including to- day’s Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine [39] Otto Michel "Σκύθης", in Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, William Bromiley, Gerhard Friedrich (eds.) Theological from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Dictionary of the New Testament, William B. Erdmanns, Moscow.” (1971) 1995 vol. 11, pp. 447–50, p. 448 [27] Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel, et al (2007). “Germany.” Ency- [40] “Ashkenaz” in Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik clopaedia Judaica. 2nd ed. Vol. 7. Detroit: Macmillan (eds.) Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Detroit: Reference USA. p. 518-546; here: p. 526-528. “The Macmillan Reference USA, Gale Virtual Reference Li- cultural and intellectual reorientation of the Jewish mi- brary, 2007. 569–571. Yoma 10a nority was closely linked with its struggle for equal rights [41] Gmirkin (2006), p. 148. and social acceptance. While earlier generations had used solely the Yiddish and Hebrew languages among them- [42] Abraham N. Poliak 0 “Armenia”, in Michael Berenbaum selves, ... the use of Yiddish was now gradually aban- and Fred Skolnik (eds), Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd.ed. doned, and Hebrew was by and large reduced to liturgical Macmillan Reference USA Detroit, Gale Virtual Refer- usage” (p. 527). ence Library 2007, Vol. 2, pp. 472–74 [28] Yaacov Ro'i, “Soviet Jewry from Identification to Iden- [43] David Malkiel, Reconstructing Ashkenaz: The Human tity”, in Eliezer Ben Rafael, Yosef Gorni, Yaacov Ro'i Face of Franco-German Jewry, 1000–1250, Stanford (eds.) Contemporary Jewries: Convergence and Diver- University Press, 2008, p. 263 n.1. gence, BRILL 2003 p. 186. [44] Malkiel (2008),p. 263, n.1, citing Samuel Krauss, [29] Dov Katz, “Languages of the Diaspora”, in Mark Avrum “Hashemot ashkenaz usefarad” in Tarbiz, 1932, 3:423– Ehrlich (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Ori- 430. Krauss identified Ashkenaz with the Khazars, a the- gins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO sis immediately disputed by Jacob Mann the following 2008 pp. 193ff., p. 195. year.

[30] “The Jewish Population of the World (2010)". Jewish [45] Michael Miller, Rabbis and Revolution: The Jews of Virtual Library., based on American Jewish Year Book. Moravia in the Age of Emancipation Stanford University American Jewish Committee. Press,2010 p. 15.

[31] Sergio DellaPergola (2008). ""Sephardic and Oriental” [46] Michael Brenner, A Short History of the Jews Princeton Jews in Israel and Countries: Migration, Social Change, University Press 2010 p. 96. and Identification”. In Peter Y. Medding. Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews. X11. Oxford University Press. [47] Malkiel p. ix pp. 3–42. DellaPergola does not analyze or mention the [48] Cecil Roth (1966). Cecil Roth; I. H. Levine, eds. The Ashkenazi statistics, but the figure is implied by his rough World History of the Jewish People: The Dark Ages, Jews estimate that in 2000, Oriental and Sephardi Jews consti- in Christian Europe, 711–1096. 11. Jewish historical pub- tuted 26% of the population of world Jewry. lications. pp. 302–303. Was the great Eastern European [32] Focus on Genetic Screening Research edited by Sandra R. Jewry of the 19th century preponderantly descended (as Pupecki P:58 is normally believed) from immigrants from the Germanic lands further west who arrived as refugees in the later Mid- [33] “Summary of Recent Genetic Studies”. Science Maga- dle Ages, bearing with them their culture? Or did these zine. Retrieved 2013-08-13. new immigrants find already on their arrival a numeri- cally strong Jewish life, on whom they were able to impose [34] Russell E. Gmirkin, Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and their superior culture, including even their tongue (a phe- Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and the Date of the Penta- nomenon not unknown at other times and places – as for teuch, T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 2006 pp.148, 149 n.57. example in the 16th century, after the arrival of the highly [35] Sverre Bøe, Gog and Magog: Ezekiel 38–39 as Pre-text cultured Spanish exiles in the Turkish Empire)?) Does the for Revelation 19, 17–21 and 20, 7–10, Tübingen: Mohr line of descent of Ashkenazi Jewry of today go back to Siebeck, 2001, p. 48: “An identification of Ashkenaz and a quasi-autochthonous Jewry already established in these the Scythians must not ... be considered as sure, though lands, perhaps even earlier than the time of the earliest it is more probable than an identification with Magog.” Franco-German settlement in the Dark Ages? This is one Nadav Naʼaman, Ancient Israel and Its Neighbors: Inter- of the mysteries of , which will probably action and Counteraction, Eisenbrauns, 2005, p. 364 and never been solved. note 37. Jits van Straten, The Origin of Ashkenazi Jewry: [49] Bernard Dov Weinryb (1972). The Jews of Poland: A The Controversy Unraveled. 2011. p. 182. Social and Economic History of the Jewish Community in [36] Vladimir Shneider, Traces of the ten. Beer-sheva, Israel Poland from 1100–1800. Jewish Publication Society. pp. 2002. p. 237 17–22. [37] Sverre Bøe, Gog and Magog: Ezekiel 38–39 as Pre-text [50] Gregory Cochran, Henry Harpending, The 10,000 Year for Revelation 19, 17–21 and 20, 7–10, Tübingen: Mohr Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolu- Siebeck, 2001, p. 48. tion, Basic Books, 2009 pp. 195–196. 1.9. REFERENCES 15

[51] K. R. Stow, The Jews in Rome: The Roman Jew BRILL, [65] Neil G. Jacobs, Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction Cam- 1995 pp. 18–19. bridge University Press, 2005 p. 55.

[52] A Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World By David Sacks [66] YIDDISH LANGUAGE P.126 [67] Nina Rowe, The Jew, the Cathedral and the Medieval City: [53] Ancient Synagogues: Historical Analysis and Archaeo- Synagoga and Ecclesia in the 13th Century Cambridge logical Discovery edited by Dan Urman, Paul Virgil Mc- University Press, 2011 p. 30. Cracken Flesher P:113 [68] Guenter Stemberger, “The Formation of Rabbinic Ju- [54] Jewish Virtual Library: Hellenism daism, 70–640 CE” in Neusner & Avery-Peck (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Judaism, Blackwell Publishing, [55] András Mócsy, Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History 2000, p. 92. of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire, (1974) Routledge 2014 pp.228-230. [69] Judaism: Ashkenazim [70] Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1976). A History of the Jewish Peo- [56] Toch, Michael (2013). The Economic History of European ple. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-39730-4. Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages. Leiden: Brill. p. 156-157. [71] Schoenberg, Shira. “Ashkenazim”. Jewish Virtual Li- brary. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Re- [57] Sándor Scheiber, Jewish Inscriptions in Hungary: From the trieved 24 May 2006. 3rd Century to 1686, pp.14-30, p.14: “a relatively large number of Jews appeared in Pannonia from the 3rd cen- [72] Feldman, Louis H. Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World tury ACE onwards.” : Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian. Ewing, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press, 1996. p 43. [58] Jits van Straten, The Origin of Ashkenazi Jewry: The Con- troversy Unraveled, Walter de Gruyter, 2011 p. 60, citing [73] Commentary on Deuteronomy 3:9; idem on Talmud trac- Patai. tate Sukkah 17a

[59] Toch (2013). p. 242. [74] Talmud, Hullin 93a

[60] Toch (2013), p. 67, p. 239. [75] ib. p. 129

[61] Toch (2013), p. 68. [76] Seder ha-Dorot, p. 252, 1878 ed.

[62] 'Some sources have been plainly misinterpreted, others [77] Epstein, in “Monatsschrift,” xlvii. 344; Jerusalem: Under point to “virtual” Jews, yet others to single persons not res- the Arabs ident in the region. Thus Tyournai, Paris, Nantes, Tours, [78] David Solomon Sassoon, Ohel Dawid (Descriptive cata- and Bourges, all localities claimed to have housed com- logue of the Hebrew and Samaritan Manuscripts in the munities, have no place in the list of Jewish habitation in Sassoon Library, ), vol. 1, Oxford Univ. Press: their period. In central Gaul Poitiers should be struck from London 1932, Introduction p. xxxix the list, In Bordeaux it is doubtful as to the presence of a community, and only Clermont is likely to have possessed [79] Elazar, Daniel J. “Can Sephardic Judaism be Recon- one. Further important places, like Macon, Chalon sur structed?". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Re- Saone, Vienne, and Lyon, were to be inhabited by Jews trieved 24 May 2006. only from the Carolingian period onwards. In the south we have a Jewish population in Auch, possibly in Uzès, [80] Kurzman, Don (1970) Genesis 1948. The First Arab- and in Arles, Narbonne and Marseilles. In the whole of Israeli War. An Nal Book, New York. Library of France altogether, eight places stand scrutiny (including Congress number 77-96925. p. 44 two questionable ones), while eight other towns have been found to lack a Jewish presence formerly claimed on insuf- [81] Breuer, Edward. “Post-medieval Jewish Interpretation.” ficient evidence. Continuity of settlement from Late An- The Jewish Study Bible. Ed. Adele Berlin and Marc tiquity throughout the Early Middle Ages is evident only Zvi Brettler. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. in the south, in Arles and Narbonne, possibly also in Mar- 1900. seilles.... Between the mid-7th and the mid-8th century no [82] Breuer, 1901 sources mention Jews in Frankish lands, except for an epi- taph from Narbonne and an inscription from Auch' Toch, [83] “Jews”, William Bridgwater, ed. The Columbia-Viking The Economic History of European Jews pp. 68–9 Desk Encyclopedia; second ed., New York: Dell Publish- ing Co., 1964; p. 906. [63] Shaye J. D. Cohen, The Beginnings of Jewishness: Bound- aries, Varieties, Uncertainties University of California [84] “Estimated Number of Jews Killed in The Final Solution”. Press 2001. Jewish Virtual Library. Archived from the original on 28 April 2006. Retrieved 24 May 2006. [64] David Malkiel, Reconstructing Ashkenaz: The Human Face of Franco-German Jewry, 1000–1250 Stanford Uni- [85] Solomo Birnbaum, Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache (4., versity Press, 2008 pp. 2–5, 16–18. erg. Aufl., Hamburg: Buske, 1984), p. 3. 16 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

[86] Gershon Shafir, Yoav Peled, Being Israeli: The Dynamics [101] Greenberg, Richard; Cohen, Debra Nussbaum (Fall of Multiple Citizenship Cambridge University Press 2002 2005). “Uncovering the Un-Movement” (PDF). B'nai p. 324 'The Zionist movement was a European movement B'rith Magazine. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 in its goals and orientation and its target population was September 2005. Retrieved 2013-09-05. Ashkenazi Jews who constituted, in 1895, 90 percent of the 10.5 million Jews then living in the world (Smooha [102] Donadio, Rachel (10 August 2001). “Any Old Shul Won't 1978: 51).' Do for the Young and Cool”. Archived from the original on 7 October 2006. Retrieved 24 May 2006. [87] Encyclopædia Britannica, 'Today Ashkenazim constitute [103] “What is Yiddishkeit?". Archived from the original on 26 more than 80 percent of all the Jews in the world, vastly November 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2013. outnumbering Sephardic Jews.' [104] Weiner, Ben. “Reconstructing Yiddishkeit” (PDF). [88] Asher Arian (1981) in Itamar Rabinovich, Jehuda Rein- Reconstructionist Rabbinical College. Retrieved 8 Novem- harz, Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings ber 2013. on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, pre-1948 to the present UPNE/Brandeis University Press 2008 p. 324 [105] “French Revolution.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2008. 29 “About 85 percent of the world’s Jews are Ashkenazi” May 2014.

[89] David Whitten Smith, Elizabeth Geraldine Burr, Under- [106] Wall, Irwin. (2002) “Remaking in standing World Religions: A Road Map for Justice and France”, in Howard Wettstein, Diaspora’s and Exiles. Peace Rowman & Littlefield, 2007 p. 72 'Before the University of California Press, pp. 164–90. German Holocaust, about 90% of Jews worldwide were [107] Wade, Nicholas (14 January 2006). “New Light on Ori- Ashkenazim. Since the Holocaust, the percentage has gins of Ashkenazi in Europe”. The New York Times. dropped to about 83%.' Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Re- trieved 24 May 2006. [90] “Ashkenazi (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Re- trieved 2013-09-04. [108] Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). “Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora”. The New York [91] Khazzoom, Loolwa. “Jews of the Middle East”. Jewish Times. Virtual Library. Retrieved 2013-09-04. [109] "Tallit: Shawl". Religionfacts.com. Re- [92] Meyers, Nechemia (12 July 1997). “Are Israel’s Marriage trieved 2013-07-24. Laws 'Archaic and Irrelevant'?". Jewish News Weekly. Retrieved 17 July 2008. [110] Michael Balter (3 June 2010). “Tracing the Roots of Jew- ishness”. Science. Retrieved 31 October 2013. [93] “Field Listing - Legislative Branch”. World Fact Book. CIA. Retrieved 8 November 2013. [111] “Did You Know 25% of Chabad in Montreal are Se- fardi?". The Chabad Sociologist. Retrieved 8 November [94] As of 2013, every President of Israel since the country’s 2013. foundation in 1948 has been an Ashkenazi Jew [112] Shahar, Charles. “A Comprehensive Study of the Ultra Orthodox Community of Greater Montreal (2003).” Fed- [95] Liphshiz, Cnaan (9 May 2008). “Melting pot' approach eration CJA (Montreal). 2003. in the army was a mistake, says IDF absorption head”. Haaretz. Retrieved 8 November 2013. [113] Murray, Charles (April 2007). “Jewish Genius”. Com- mentary Magazine. Archived from the original on 30 [96] Yitzhaki, Shlomo and Schechtman, EdnaThe “Melting November 2007. Retrieved 23 December 2007. Dispro- Pot": A Success Story? Journal of Economic Inequality, portionate Jewish accomplishment in the arts and sciences Vol; 7, No. 2, June 2009, pp. 137–51. Earlier version continues to this day. by Schechtman, Edna and Yitzhaki, Shlomo Archived 9 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine., Working Pa- [114] Murray, Charles (April 2007). “Jewish Genius”. Com- per No. 32, Central Bureau of Statistics, Jerusalem, Nov. mentary Magazine. Archived from the original on 30 2007, i + 30 pp. November 2007. Retrieved 23 December 2007. From 1870 to 1950, Jewish representation in literature was four [97] “The Origins of Reform Judaism.” Jewish Virtual Library. times the number one would expect. In music, five times. 27 May 2014. In the visual arts, five times. In biology, eight times. In chemistry, six times. In physics, nine times. In mathemat- [98] “Pronunciations of Hebrew.” Jewish Virtual Library. 27 ics, twelve times. In philosophy, fourteen times. May 2014. [115] “JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS”. Jinfo.org. Re- [99] Lieberman, Asaf (18 January 2013). “The unbearable trieved 16 March 2016. At least 194 Jews and peo- lightness of being Ashkenazi.”. Haaretz. Retrieved 27 ple of half- or three-quarters-Jewish ancestry have been May 2014. awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all in- dividual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2015, [100] Rosenthal, Rachel (2006). “What’s in a name?". Kedma and constituting 36% of all US recipients during the same (Winter 2006). period. In the scientific research fields of Chemistry, 1.9. REFERENCES 17

Economics, Physics, and Physiology/Medicine, the cor- [127] Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). “Y Chromosome Bears responding world and US percentages are 26% and 38%, Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora”. The New York respectively. Among women laureates in the four research Times. Retrieved 10 October 2012. fields, the Jewish percentages (world and US) are 33% and 50%, respectively. Of organizations awarded the Nobel [128] Hammer, M. F.; A. J. Redd; E. T. Wood; M. R. Bon- Peace Prize, 22% were founded principally by Jews or by ner; H. Jarjanazi; T. Karafet; S. Santachiara-Benerecetti; people of half-Jewish descent. Since the turn of the cen- A. Oppenheim; M. A. Jobling; T. Jenkins; H. Ostrer; tury (i.e., since the year 2000), Jews have been awarded B. Bonné-Tamir (9 May 2000). “Jewish and Middle 25% of all Nobel Prizes and 28% of those in the scientific Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool research fields. of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (12): 6769–74. [116] Pinker, Steven (17 June 2006). “The Lessons of the Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. PMC 18733 . PMID Ashkenazim: Groups and Genes”. The New Republic. 10801975. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997. Archived from the original on 5 January 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2007. Though never exceeding 3 percent [129] Cochran, Gregory. “Jews in the Roman Empire”. https: of the American population, Jews account for 37 percent //westhunt.wordpress.com. Retrieved 17 May 2017. Ex- of the winners of the U.S. National Medal of Science, 25 ternal link in |website= (help) percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in litera- [130] Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Bernd Brinkmann, Partha P. ture, 40 percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in Majumder, Marina Faerman, Ariella Oppenheim. “The Y science and economics, and so on. Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Land- scape of the Middle East”, The American Journal of Hu- [117] G. Cochran, J. Hardy, H. Harpending. “Natural History man Genetics (2001), Volume 69, number 5. pp. 1095– of Ashkenazi Intelligence” Archived 11 September 2013 112 at the Wayback Machine., Journal of Biosocial Science 38 (5), pp. 659–93 (2006), University of Utah [131] Nebel A, Filon D, Faerman M, Soodyall H, Oppenheim A (March 2005). “Y chromosome evidence for a founder [118] Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham’s Children: Race, Identity, effect in Ashkenazi Jews”. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 13 (3): and the DNA of the Chosen People. Hachette Digital, Inc. 388–91. PMID 15523495. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201319. p. 211. ISBN 0446580635. [132] Behar, Doron M.; Ene Metspalu; Toomas Kivisild; [119] “Top 100 Players October 2013 FIDE Top players Alessandro Achilli; Yarin Hadid; Shay Tzur; Luisa archive”. Ratings.fide.com. Retrieved 2013-10-31. Pereira; Antonio Amorim; Lluı's Quintana-Murci; Kari Majamaa; Corinna Herrnstadt; Neil Howell; Oleg Bal- [120] Frederic Golden (31 December 1999). “Albert Einstein”. anovsky; Ildus Kutuev; Andrey Pshenichnov; David Gur- Time. Retrieved 21 September 2013. witz; Batsheva Bonne-Tamir; Antonio Torroni; Richard Villems; Karl Skorecki (March 2006). “The Matrilin- [121] Nelly Lalany (2011-07-23). “Ashkenazi Jews rank eal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent smartest in world”. Ynetnews. Retrieved 27 October Founder Event” (PDF). American Journal of Human Ge- 2013. netics. 78 (3): 487–97. PMC 1380291 . PMID [122] Tony Nick Frudakis (2010-07-19). Molecular 16404693. doi:10.1086/500307. Archived (PDF) from Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Us- the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 30 Decem- ing DNA. p. 383. ISBN 9780080551371. ber 2008. [133] Nicholas Wade (8 October 2013). “Genes Suggest Eu- [123] Jesse Green (6 November 2011). “What Do a Bunch of ropean Women at Root of Ashkenazi Family Tree”. The Old Jews Know About Living Forever?". New York Mag- New York Times. azine. Retrieved 2013-07-19. [134] Martin Gershowitz (2013-10-16). “New Study Finds [124] Bloch, Talia (19 August 2009). “The Other Jewish Ge- Most Ashkenazi Jews Genetically Linked to Europe”. netic Diseases”. The Jewish Daily Forward. Retrieved 8 Jewish Voice. Retrieved 2013-10-31. November 2013. [135] Ofer Aderet (11 October 2013). “Study traces Ashke- [125] Jared Diamond (1993). “Who are the Jews?" (PDF). nazi roots to European women who probably converted Retrieved 8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 to Judaism - The genetic analysis traced the lineage of (November 1993): 12–19. many Ashkenazi Jews to four maternal founders in Eu- rope”. Haaretz. Retrieved 16 November 2014. [126] M.F. Hammer; A.J. Redd; E.T. Wood; M.R. Bon- ner; H. Jarjanazi; T. Karafet; S. Santachiara-Benerecetti; [136] Melissa Hogenboom (9 October 2013). “European link to A. Oppenheim; M.A. Jobling; T. Jenkins‡‡; H. Os- Jewish maternal ancestry”. BBC News. trer & B. Bonné-Tamir. “Jewish and Middle East- [137] Michael Balter (8 October 2013). “Did Modern Jews ern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y- Originate in Italy?". Science Magazine. chromosome biallelic haplotypes”. PNAS. 97 (12): 6769– 6774. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. PMC 18733 . [138] Tia Ghose (8 October 2013). “Most Ashkenazi Jews PMID 10801975. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997. Re- are genetically Europeans, surprising study finds”. NBC trieved 11 October 2012. News. 18 CHAPTER 1. ASHKENAZI JEWS

[139] European link to Jewish maternal ancestry Hammer, Michael F.; Skorecki, Karl; Villems, Richard (8 July 2010). “The genome-wide structure of the [140] Eva Fernández; Alejandro Pérez-Pérez; Cristina Gamba; Jewish people” (PDF). Nature. 466 (7303): 238– Eva Prats; Pedro Cuesta; Josep Anfruns; Miquel Molist; 242. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..238B. PMID 20531471. Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo; Daniel Turbón (5 June 2014). doi:10.1038/nature09103. Retrieved 2013-09-04. “Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Mar- [150] The Karaites of Galicia: An Ethnoreligious Minority itime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus Among the Ashkenazim and the Aegean Islands”. PLOS Genetics. 10 (6): [151] Rubin 2013. e1004401. PMC 4046922 . PMID 24901650. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004401. [152] Davies 1992, p. 242.

[141] Pearson TA, Manolio TA; Manolio (2008). “How [153] Vogt 1975. to interpret a genome-wide association study”. JAMA. 299 (11): 1335–44. PMID 18349094. [154] “Gene study settles debate over origin of European Jews”. doi:10.1001/jama.299.11.1335. AFP. 16 January 2013. Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-04. [142] Rosenberg, Noah A.; Pritchard, Jonathan K; Weber, JL; Cann, HM; Kidd, KK; Zhivotovsky, LA; Feld- [155] Behar, Doron M.; Metspalu, Mait; Baran, Yael; man, MW; et al. (2002). “Genetic structure of Kopelman, Naama M.; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Glad- human populations”. Science. 298 (5602): 2381– stein, Ariella; Tzur, Shay; Sahakyan, Havhannes; Bah- 2385. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.2381R. PMID 12493913. manimehr, Ardeshir; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Tambets, doi:10.1126/science.1078311. Kristiina; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Kusniarevich, Aljona; Balanovsky, Oleg; Balanovsky, Elena; Kovacevic, Lejla; [143] Bauchet, Marc; McEvoy, Brian; Pearson, Laurel N.; Marjanovic, Damir; Mihailov, Evelin; Kouvatsi, Anasta- Quillen, Ellen E.; Sarkisian, Tamara; Hovhannesyan, sia; Traintaphyllidis, Costas; King, Roy J.; Semino, Or- Kristine; Deka, Ranjan; Bradley, Daniel G.; Shriver, nella; Torroni, Antonio; Hammer, Michael F.; Metspalu, Mark D.; et al. (2007). “Measuring European Population Ene; Skorecki, Karl; Rosset, Saharon; Halperin, Eran; Stratification with Microarray Genotype Data”. Ameri- Villems, Richard; Rosenberg, Noah A. (2013). “No Ev- can Journal of Human Genetics. 80 (5): 948–56. PMC idence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for 1852743 . PMID 17436249. doi:10.1086/513477. the Ashkenazi Jews”. Human Biology Open Access Pre- Prints. Wayne State University (41). Retrieved 14 Octo- [144] Saey, Tina Hesman (3 June 2010). “Tracing Jewish ber 2014. Final version at http://digitalcommons.wayne. roots”. ScienceNews. edu/humbiol/vol85/iss6/9/ [145] Atzmon, Gil; Hao, Li; Pe'Er, Itsik; Velez, Christopher; [156] Carmeli, Daphna Birenbaum (2004). “Prevalence of Pearlman, Alexander; Palamara, Pier Francesco; Mor- Jews as subjects in genetic research: Figures, explana- row, Bernice; Friedman, Eitan; Oddoux, Carole; Burns, tion, and potential implications”. American Journal of Edward & Ostrer, Harry (2010). “Abraham’s Children Medical Genetics. 130A (1): 76–83. PMID 15368499. in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.20291. Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry”. American Journal of Human Genet- [157] Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2009). ics. 86 (6): 850–59. PMC 3032072 . PMID 20560205. The guide to clinical preventive services 2009. AHRQ doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015. Publication No. 09-IP006.

[146] “Genes Set Jews Apart, Study Finds”. American Scientist. [158] E. L. Abel’s book Jewish Genetic Disorders: A Layman’s Retrieved 8 November 2013. Guide, McFarland, 2008: ISBN 0-7864-4087-2

[147] Bray, Steven M.; Mulle, Jennifer G.; Dodd, Anne [159] See Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders F.; Pulver, Ann E.; Wooding, Stephen; Warren, Stephen T. (2010). “Signatures of founder effects, admixture, and selection in the Ashkenazi Jew- 1.9.1 References for “Who is an Ashkenazi ish population”. PNAS. 107 (37): 16222–16227. Jew?" Bibcode:2010PNAS..10716222B. PMC 2941333 . PMID 20798349. doi:10.1073/pnas.1004381107. • Goldberg, Harvey E. (2001). The Life of Judaism. [148] “How to Interpret Patterns of Genetic Variation? Admix- University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21267- ture, Divergence, Inbreeding, Cousin Marriage”. Anthro- 3. pogenesis. 2012-07-24. Retrieved 2013-07-19. • Silberstein, Laurence (2000). Mapping Jewish Iden- [149] Behar, Doron M.; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Metspalu, Mait; tities. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147- Metspalu, Ene; Rosset, Saharon; Parik, Jüri; Rootsi, Si- 9769-5. iri; Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Kutuev, Ildus; Yudkovsky, Guennady; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Balanovsky, Oleg; • Wettstein, Howard (2002). Diasporas and Exiles: Semino, Ornella; Pereira, Luisa; Comas, David; Gur- Varieties of Jewish Identity. University of California witz, David; Bonne-Tamir, Batsheva; Parfitt, Tudor; Press. ISBN 0-520-22864-2. 1.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 19

• Wex, Michael (2005). Born to Kvetch: Yiddish Lan- guage and Culture in All Its Moods. St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-30741-1.

1.9.2 Other references

• Beider, Alexander (2001): A Dictionary of Ashke- nazic Given Names: Their Origins, Structure, Pro- nunciations, and Migrations. Avotaynu. ISBN 1- 886223-12-2. • Biale, David (2002): Cultures of the Jews: A New History. Schoken Books. ISBN 0-8052-4131-0. • Brook, Kevin Alan (2003): “The Origins of East European Jews” in Russian History/Histoire Russe vol. 30, nos. 1–2, pp. 1–22. • Gross, N. (1975): Economic History of the Jews. Schocken Books, New York. • Haumann, Heiko (2001): A History of East Eu- ropean Jews. Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9241-26-1. • Kriwaczek, Paul (2005): Yiddish Civilization: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4087-6 • Lewis, Bernard (1984): The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05419-3. • Bukovec, Predrag: East and South-East European Jews in the 19th and 20th Centuries, European His- tory Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: 17 December 2012. • Vital, David (1999): A People Apart: A History of the Jews in Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821980-6.

1.10 External links

• The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe • Kaplan, Karen (18 April 2009). “Jewish legacy in- scribed on genes?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 23 December 2009. • Ashkenazi history at the Jewish Virtual Library • Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA haplogroup distribution varies among distinct subpopulations: lessons of population substructure in a closed group-European Journal of Human Genetics, 2007 • “Analysis of genetic variation in Ashkenazi Jews by high density SNP genotyping” • Nusach Ashkenaz, and Discussion Forum • Ashkenaz Heritage Chapter 2

Ashkenaz

For other uses, see Ashkenaz (disambiguation). The association of the term by medieval Jewry with the Ashkenaz is a term found in a number of contexts. geographical area centered on the Rhineland led to the Jewish culture that developed in that area to be called Ashkenazi, the only form that the term is still used today.

2.1 Hebrew Bible

In the genealogies of the Hebrew Bible, Ashkenaz (He- Aškănaz) was a descendant of Noah. He’ ׁאַשְכְּנַז :brew was the first son of Gomer and brother of Riphath and Togarmah (Genesis 10:3, 1 Chronicles 1:6), with Gomer being the grandson of Noah through Japheth. According to Jeremiah 51:27, a kingdom of Ashke- naz was called together with Ararat and Minni against Babylon, which reads:

Set ye up a standard in the land, blow the trumpet among the nations, prepare the na- tions against her [ie. Babylon], call together against her the kingdoms of Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz; appoint a captain against her; cause the horses to come up as the rough caterpillars.

According to the Encyclopaedia Biblica, “Ashkenaz must have been one of the migratory peoples which in the time of Esar-haddon, burst upon the northern provinces of Asia Minor, and upon Armenia. One branch of this great migration appears to have reached Lake Urumiyeh; for Ashkenaz is shown in Phrygia in this 1854 map of “The World in the revolt which Esar-haddon chastised, the Mannai, as known to the Hebrews” (Lyman Coleman, Historical Textbook who lived to the SW of that lake, sought the help of Is- and Atlas of Biblical Geography) pakai 'of the land of Asguza,' a name (originally perhaps Asgunza) which the skepticism of Dillmann need not hin- It is found in the Hebrew Bible to refer to one of the der us from identifying with Ashkenaz, and from consid- descendants of Noah as well as to a reference to a king- ering as that of a horde from the north, of Indo-Germanic dom of Ashkenaz. Ashkenaz is the first son of Gomer, origin, which settled on the south of Lake Urumiyeh.” and a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations. His name is likely a derivation from the Assyrian Aškūza (Aškuzai, Iškuzai), a people who expelled the Cimmerians 2.2 Medieval reception from the Armenian area of the Upper Euphrates,[1] The Assyrian name is likely based on that of the Scythians. 2.2.1 Rabbinic Judaism The intrusive n in the Hebrew form of the name has been with a In , the kingdom of Ashkenaz was ו explained as a scribal mistake confusing a waw first associated with the Scythian region, then later with [4][3][2].(אשכוז ašknz for aškūz אשכנז i.e. writing) נ nun

20 2.2. MEDIEVAL RECEPTION 21

the Slavic territories,[5] and, from the 11th century on- bet of the Azkanazian nation and of the land wards, with northern Europe and Germany.[6] The re- of Armenia - when, in what time, and through gion of Ashkenaz was centred on the Rhineland and the what kind of man that new divine gift had been Palatinate (notably Worms and Speyer), in what is now bestowed...”[12] the westernmost part of Germany. Its geographic extent did not coincide with the German Christian principalities Later Armenian authors concur with this. Hovhannes of the time, and it included northern France. Draskhanakerttsi (10th century) writes: How the name of Ashkenaz came to be associated in the rabbinic literature with the Rhineland is a subject of "...The sixth son was Tiras from whom were speculation.[6] born our very own Ashkenaz [Ask'anaz] and In rabbinic literature from the 11th century, Ashkenaz Togarmah [T'orgom] who named the country was considered the ruler of a kingdom in the North and that he possessed Thrace after himself, as well of the Northern and Germanic people. (See below.) as Chittim [K'itiim] who brought under his sway the Macedonians. 7. The sons of Tiras were Ashkenaz, from whom descended the Sarma- 2.2.2 Ashkenazi Jews tians, Riphath, whence the Sauromatians [So- ramatk'], and Togarmah, who according to Main article: Ashkenazi Jews Jeremiah subjugated the Ashkenazian army and called it the House of Togarmah; for at first Sometime in the post Biblical early medieval period, the Ashkenaz had named our people after himself Jews of central and eastern Europe came to be called in accord with the law of seniority, as we shall by the name Ashkenazim,[4] in conformity with the cus- explain in its proper place.” [13] tom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with bib- lical names, Spain being identified as Sefarad (Obadiah Because of this tradition, Askanaz is a male given name 20), France as Tsarefat (1 Kings 17:9), and Bohemia as still used today by Armenians. Land of Canaan.[7] By the high medieval period, Tal- mudic commentators like Rashi began to use Ashke- naz/Eretz Ashkenaz to designate Germany, earlier known 2.2.4 German royal genealogy as Loter,[4][8] where, especially in the Rhineland commu- nities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz, the most important Jewish communities arose.[9] Rashi uses leshon Ashkenaz In 1498, a monk named Annio da Viterbo published frag- (Ashkenazi language) to describe the German language, ments known as "Pseudo-Berossus", now considered a and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred to the forgery, claiming that Babylonian records had shown that Crusaders as Ashkenazim.[8] Given the close links be- Noah had more than the three sons listed in the Bible. tween the Jewish communities of France and Germany Specifically, Tuiscon or Tuisto is given as the fourth son following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashke- of Noah, who had been the first ruler of Scythia and Ger- nazi came to refer to both the Jews of medieval Germany many following the dispersion of peoples, with him being and France.[10] Ashkenazi Jewish culture later spread into succeeded by his son Mannus as the second king. Eastern Europe and then to all parts of the world with the Later historians (e.g. Johannes Aventinus and Johann migrations of Ashkenazi Jews. Hübner) managed to furnish numerous further details, in- Geneticist Eran Elhaik, a proponent of the minoritarian cluding the assertion by James Anderson in the early 18th century that this Tuiscon was in fact none other than the Khazar hypothesis, believes Ashkenazi Jews to originate [14] from north-east Turkey. According to him, four village biblical Ashkenaz, son of Gomer. James Anderson’s names in that region are derived from the word “Ashke- 1732 tome Royal genealogies reports a significant num- naz": Iskenz (or Eskenaz), Eskenez (or Eskens), Ashanas, ber of antiquarian or mythographic traditions regarding and Ashchuz.[11] Askenaz as the first king of ancient Germany, for exam- ple the following entry:

2.2.3 Armenian tradition Askenaz, or Askanes, called by Aventinus Tu- isco the Giant, and by others Tuisto or Tuizo In Armenian tradition, Ashkenaz, along with Togarmah, (whom Aventinus makes the 4th son of Noah, was considered among the ancestors of the Armenians. and that he was born after the flood, but with- Koriun, the earliest Armenian historian, calls the Arme- out authority) was sent by Noah into Europe, af- nians an “Askanazian (ie., Ashkenazi) nation”. He starts ter the flood 131 years, with 20 Captains, and the “Life of Mashtots” with these words: made a settlement near the Tanais, on the West coast of the Euxin sea (by some called Asken “I had been thinking of the God-given alpha- from him) and there founded the kingdom of 22 CHAPTER 2. ASHKENAZ

the Germans and the Sarmatians... when Aske- 2.3 References naz himself was 24 years old, for he lived above 200 years, and reigned 176. [1] Russell E. Gmirkin, Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and the Date of the Penta- teuch, T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 2006 pp.148, 149 n.57. In the vocables of Saxony and Hessia, there are some villages of the name Askenaz, and from [2] Sverre Bøe, Gog and Magog: Ezekiel 38–39 as Pre-text for him the Jews call the Germans Askenaz, but Revelation 19, 17–21 and 20, 7–10, Mohr Siebeck, 2001 in the Saxonic and Italian, they are called Tu- p. 48. iscones, from Tuisco his other name. In the [3] Vladimir Shneider, Traces of the ten. Beer-sheva, Israel 25th year of his reign, he partitioned the king- 2002. p. 237 dom into Toparchies, Tetrarchies, and Govern- ments, and brought colonies from diverse parts [4] Paul Kriwaczek, Yiddish Civilisation, Hachette 2011 p. to increase it. He built the city Duisburg, made 173 n. 9. a body of laws in verse, and invented letters, [5] Kraus. S, 1932, Hashemot 'ashkenaz usefarad, Tarbiz which Kadmos later imitated, for the Greek and 3:423-435 High Dutch are alike in many words. [6] Kriwaczek, Paul (2005). Yiddish Civilization: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation. London: Weidenfeld & The 20 captains or dukes that came with Aske- Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-82941-6., Chapter 3, footnote 9. naz are: Sarmata, from whom Sarmatia; Da- cus or Danus – Dania or Denmark; Geta from [7] Michael Miller, Rabbis and Revolution: The Jews of whom the Getae; Gotha from whom the Goths; Moravia in the Age of Emancipation Stanford University Tibiscus, people on the river Tibiscus; Mocia - Press,2010 p. 15. Mysia; Phrygus or Brigus - Phrygia; Thynus - [8] “Ashkenaz” in Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik Bithynia; Dalmata - Dalmatia; Jader – Jadera (eds.) Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Detroit: Colonia; Albanus from whom Albania; Zavus Macmillan Reference USA, Gale Virtual Reference Li- – the river Save; Pannus – Pannonia; Salon - brary, 2007. 569–571. Yoma 10a the town Sale, Azalus – the Azali; Hister – Istria; Adulas, Dietas, Ibalus – people that of old dwelt [9] Michael Brenner, A Short History of the Jews Princeton University Press 2010 p. 96. between the rivers Oenus and Rhenus; Epirus, from whom Epirus. [10] Malkiel p. ix

[11] David Keys (19 April 2016). “Scientists reveal Jewish Askenaz had a brother called Scytha (say the history’s forgotten Turkish roots”. The Independent. Re- Germans) the father of the Scythians, for which trieved 1 May 2016. the Germans have of old been called Scythi- ans too (very justly, for they came mostly from [12] Koriun, The Life of Mashtots, Yerevan, 1981. Translated from Old Armenian (Grabar) by Bedros Norehad old Scythia) and Germany had several ancient names; for that part next to the Euxin was [13] Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi, History of Armenia, Chap- called Scythia, and the country of the Getes, ter I 6-7 Archived June 22, 2012, at the Wayback Ma- but the parts east of the Vistule or Weyssel were chine. called Sarmatia Europaea, and westward it was [14] James Anderson, Royal Genealogies, Or the Genealogical called Gallia, Celtica, Allemania, Francia and Tables of Emperors, Kings and Princes (1732) p. 441 (Ta- Teutonia; for old Germany comprehended the ble 213); also p.442 “The Most Ancient Kings of the Ger- greater part of Europe; and those called Gauls mans”. were all old Germans; who by ancient authors were called Celts, Gauls and Galatians, which is [15] Die Völkertafel der Genesis,(The Table of Nations from confirmed by the historians Strabo and Aventi- the Book of Genesis) (1850) by August Wilhelm Knobel nus, and by Alstedius in his Chronology, p. 201 etc. Askenaz, or Tuisco, after his death, was • J. Simons: The Geographical and Topographical worshipped as the ambassador and interpreter Texts of the Old Testament, Leiden 1959, § 28. of the gods, and from thence called the first Ger- man Mercury, from Tuitseben to interpret.[14]

In the 19th century, German theologian, August Wilhelm Knobel, again equated Ashkenaz with the Germans deriv- ing the name of the Aesir from Ashkenaz.[15] 2.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 23

2.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

2.4.1 Text

• Ashkenazi Jews Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews?oldid=792622642 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Vicki Rosen- zweig, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Slrubenstein, RK, Danny, Toby Bartels, PierreAbbat, William Avery, Zoe, Gretchen, Galizia, Atlan, Rick- yrab, Paul Barlow, Menchi, Jizzbug, IZAK, TakuyaMurata, ArnoLagrange, Ciphergoth, BenKovitz, Ruhrjung, Dwo, Reinhard Kraasch, Andrevan, Pladask, Tpbradbury, Grendelkhan, Saltine, Zero0000, Cabalamat, Fvw, Bcorr, David.Monniaux, Branddobbe, Robbot, Jma- bel, Goethean, Altenmann, Lowellian, Mirv, Wjhonson, Rholton, Humus sapiens, Hippietrail, Halibutt, Wikibot, Plandu, Pengo, Centrx, DocWatson42, Marius~enwiki, Barbara Shack, Meursault2004, Zigger, Everyking, No Guru, Jfdwolff, Gilgamesh~enwiki, GGordonWor- leyIII, Neilc, J. 'mach' wust, Quadell, Antandrus, Beland, Catdude, Al-Andalus, Balcer, Kuralyov, Dave Harris, Neutrality, Sam, Thorsten1, Oknazevad, Fintor, Dcandeto, Eyv, ELApro, Lacrimosus, Esperant, D6, Jayjg, Metron, CALR, EugeneZelenko, Rich Farmbrough, Killer- Chihuahua, Smyth, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Stereotek, Mikeage, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Shrike, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Mqduck, Mz, Mike Schwartz, Nectarflowed, Viriditas, Tachitsuteto, Sriram sh, MPerel, Jonathunder, Jakew, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Guy Harris, Zenosparadox, Babajobu, SlimVirgin, Goodoldpolonius2, Ynhockey, Zyqqh, Theodore Kloba, Schaefer, Cromwellt, Esparkhu, Gpvos, Lap- inmies, Grenavitar, Alai, Drbreznjev, Axeman89, KTC, TShilo12, Angr, Simetrical, PoccilScript, Josephf, Benbest, Briangotts, Dodiad, Ortcutt, MONGO, Futhark, Lapsed Pacifist, Uris, Gil-Galad, Wiki-vr, Toussaint, MarcoTolo, Meehawl, BD2412, Opie, Sherpa~enwiki, Crzrussian, Jorunn, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Nightscream, Lastcrab, Hairymon, Josiah Rowe, Ligulem, Arbor, Lairor, Cza- lex, Brighterorange, Bdegfcunbbfv, Noon, MarnetteD, Heptor, FayssalF, FlaBot, Gringo300, Ian Pitchford, Eubot, Nihiltres, Jmw0000, Hottentot, RexNL, BjKa, Codex Sinaiticus, Nick81, Bmicomp, Gurubrahma, Psantora, Chobot, Lastexpofan, HKT, Bgwhite, ZebeFirst, Roboto de Ajvol, Slasher600, YurikBot, RobotE, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Dblandford, Peoplesunionpro, Damacguy, Maor X, RadioFan, Hy- drargyrum, Philopedia, Anomalocaris, AshkeNAZI, NawlinWiki, Joshdboz, Badagnani, Sylvain1972, Dvd Avins, BirgitteSB, Xdenizen, GHcool, TheMcManusBro, M3taphysical, Eliram~enwiki, Maunus, Tomisti, Pintele Yid, Avraham, Straughn, Dbratton, Mamathomas, Andrew Lancaster, Theda, Aeon1006, Red Jay, LeonardoRob0t, Almonroth, Kaicarver, TLSuda, DVD R W, NickelShoe, Eog1916, Canadiancofee, Sardanaphalus, Vanka5, SmackBot, David Kernow, Ejteltschik, Pgk, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, AndreasJS, Geoff.powers, Delldot, Chronodm, Ernham, Chenboy, Jory, James Duncan-Welke, Commander Keane bot, R.S.~enwiki, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, The Gnome, Aleverde, Durova, AnotherBDA, Aucaman, Bluebot, BrownBean, KaragouniS, Yak314, Agateller, RDBrown, MK8, Jprg1966, Jon513, Jellyman, Yid613, Metallurgist, Drsmoo, Yidisheryid, Ww2censor, Szarka, Slackermonkey, Prattjon, Mr.Z-man, Nahum Re- duta, Khoikhoi, Weirdy, Shamir1, Shadow1, Lcarscad, Bulldog123, Andrew c, Lute88, Thorsen, Mooo, Bidabadi~enwiki, DavidHallett, Synthe, SashatoBot, Eliyak, Jjjjjjjjjj, AThing, Davidhaha, Acidburn24m, Loodog, Ekjon Lok, Michael Slana, JoseREMY, JoshuaZ, Iron- Gargoyle, Musashiaharon, Dfass, Dipset1991, DanielMrakic~enwiki, Tasc, Davemcarlson, SimonATL, Succubus MacAstaroth, Halaqah, Symposiarch, Andrwsc, Toddsschneider, Tmangray, Shoeofdeath, Ewulp, Gilabrand, Dan1679, Shirahadasha, Devourer09, Non-Riemann Hypercube, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Bobfrombrockley, Van helsing, Sirmounter, Kowalmistrz~enwiki, Rasd, Ibadibam, ShelfSkewed, Metzen- berg, Darthscott3457, Goldenowl, Cydebot, Karimarie, Danrok, Peripitus, Ppgardne, Galassi, Besieged, Dominicanpapi82, Dreadpiratetif, LaFagotdeParis, Idiotoff, Farzaneh, Shirulashem, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Ghostexorcist, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Renassault, Omi- cronpersei8, Nishidani, JohnInDC, Casliber, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Wandalstouring, Sebasbronzini, Diophantus, Epbr123, Wikid77, A Sniper, Olahus, Lamerkhav, Nalvage, Batamtig, Sobreira, Marek69, Dmws, Boutboul, Jimhoward72, Rlitwin, Yonatan, Obiwankenobi, Rabbi-m, Dr who1975, TimVickers, Fayenatic london, Manushand, Benjil, Storkk, Bigjimr, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Shaul avrom, Do- gru144, Kaobear, MER-C, Skomorokh, Amoruso, Avaya1, Instinct, Fetchcomms, GGreeneVa, Barefact, NoraBG, Yahel Guhan, Magio- laditis, VoABot II, Bg007, SanFranEditor, Shyhiloguy31, Charlyz, Sarahj2107, Ling.Nut, Lucyin, Rami R, Chesdovi, Prestonmcconkie, RebekahThorn, Lutzv, Jaakobou, Wdhowellsr, Hamiltonstone, Evilsuperstar, JaGa, Zorfox2002, Herraotic~enwiki, Homehouse, Ekki01, MartinBot, Jklharris, Rettetast, Azalea pomp, Bus stop, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Zack Holly Venturi, Wikitiki89, DBlomgren, J.delanoy, DokX~enwiki, Bo Basil, Maurice Carbonaro, Natty4bumpo, TomS TDotO, Maproom, DanielEng, The Human Trumpet Solo, Maduskis, Mikael Häggström, S76yu, Islamomt, CFBancroft, Plasticup, Alexb102072, Sundar1, Flyrodjoel, GDW13, Largoplazo, 2812, Tompotts1963, Skryinv~enwiki, AndreasJSbot, IceDragon64, Andy Marchbanks, BernardZ, Maaparty, Funandtrvl, Remi0o, ACSE, Csingrey, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Off-shell, TreasuryTag, Hersfold, Jeff G., Dertkilm, Sammermpc, Rpetit, Epson291, Philip Trueman, O1no1ne, Seek equilibrium, Jdcrutch, Macalusso, Laurajoey, Yeokaiwei, Wassermann~enwiki, Seb az86556, PDF- bot, Noogster, Jamaana, Lisa, Gilisa, IACOBVS, Vladdydaddy, Y, Danrolo~enwiki, Historygypsy, Seneca91, Skarz, Monty845, Alle- borgoBot, Michael Frind, Planet-man828, Alicalvert7, Ehud Lesar, KaliqX, M.V.E.i., SieBot, StAnselm, Hertz1888, SE7, Vanished user skj3ioo3jwifjsek35y, Araignee, Shadowdrak, Pfeder, Michaelmantra, FunkMonk, Tiptoety, Ezra haGuer~enwiki, Serenity forest, Goustien, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, Tuffu55, Southsidney, Osho02, Anchor Link Bot, Sean.hoyland, Stevenredd, Denisarona, W.M. O'Quinlan, Velvetron, Haberstr, ImageRemovalBot, Lenerd, Bochco69, Martarius, Gratedparmesan, ClueBot, Dakman111, Kpsi355, Boodlesthecat, Drouch, All Hallow’s Wraith, Sue Douglasss, ImperfectlyInformed, Knepflerle, Jacurek, Laudak, AirdishStraus, Hafspa- jen, Protagon, Sentosa11, Niceguyedc, Parkwells, Arbeit Sockenpuppe, Agent204.15, Puchiko, Spark240, Excirial, Chefallen, 7&6=thir- teen, Itsabouttime, SchreiberBike, Rbrooku, Aprock, Davidicke, Thingg, American Clio, Drurology, Versus22, Piratesmvp04, Dusen189, Cookiehead, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, Heironymous Rowe, April8, Stickee, Greasywheel, SilvonenBot, Yuvn86, MarmadukePercy, Cat- girl, HexaChord, Semperfi76, Gffcvbhj, Addbot, Rock12321, DOI bot, Atethnekos, TheNeutroniumAlchemist, DougsTech, PositiveSpin, Rbbloom, Tanhabot, Fieldday-sunday, Adrian 1001, Hungaria777, Damiens.rf, Froy1100, CarsracBot, Glane23, Lihaas, FiriBot, Chzz, Jgrosay~enwiki, Debresser, ChenzwBot, SpBot, SamatBot, Jpm1706~enwiki, LamaLoLeshLa, Peter Napkin Dance Party, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Damam2008, Jarble, Greyhood, ScienceApe, Halaster, Arxiloxos, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, H123456789, MiS-Saath, Legobot II, ArchonMagnus, Reenem, Matanya, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, A More Perfect Onion, Hughesdavidw, Bridebe- liever, Goldsmith97, СЛУЖБА, Scythian77, AdjustShift, Rejedef, Kingpin13, Flewis, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Kapitop, Jtmor- gan, Citation bot, Newman Luke, ArthurBot, Parthian Scribe, Xqbot, MrOakes, Willard Baker777, Poetaris, Matttoothman, Hughreid, TheCuriousGnome, Davshul, Tad Lincoln, Srich32977, CaptainLouie, GrouchoBot, Padres Hana, Snakelocks, No More Mr Nice Guy, Omnipaedista, A Jew, RibotBOT, Shattered Gnome, Ari777il, Philip72, Lfcheeky17, Metalman09, Ikhveysnit, Keeper of the Keys, Moxy, Mattis, Utod15, Prezbo, Historylover4, Erik9, Plot Spoiler, Rybrns, Georgian2all, FrescoBot, Mamaberry11, Tobby72, Eaglesperm, Lothar von Richthofen, Gregoriev, BenzolBot, Shreknangst, Citation bot 1, Hanad05, Javert, Yossimgim, Chenopodiaceous, Winterst, Prusak, Passee, LittleWink, Jonesey95, Supreme Deliciousness, Howardmcooper, Victorius III, Jim Fitzgerald, Kibi78704, Jeppiz, Jews love zyk- ToulouseTrousers, French Messiah, TeaStew, Target ,יניבפור ,lon B, Abc518, Trappist the monk, Jordgette, Standardfact, Lotje, Bluekey7 Jackson, IRISZOOM, Cantakukuruz, RjwilmsiBot, Darkhorse521, Thomas Peardew, WhatinSamHill, Beyond My Ken, DASHBot, , Mukogodo, EmausBot, John of Reading, ------, Lotez, GoingBatty, RA0808, Lindagruntwagin, Dcirovic, John of Lancaster, APayan, Professionaleducator, Mz7, Werieth, AvicBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Naviguessor, H3llBot, Greyshark09, SporkBot, Aarp65, Toshio Ya- maguchi, Senjuto, Bozzio, ChuispastonBot, Turmerick, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Yaphehm'odh, El Roih, Islamisgr88, Frietjes, Dru of 24 CHAPTER 2. ASHKENAZ

Id, Patapsco913, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Virtualerian, JeBonSer, Herr Lennartz, Ar- tifexMayhem, Tritomex, Yerevantsi, Harizotoh9, Jennifer.sunshine87, Ernio48, Dryho, Iryna Harpy, Benjitheijneb, VanEman, Maryester, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, Mdann52, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, TylerDurden8823, Jethro B, RocksRsand, Delotrooladoo, Dexbot, ,חובבהיסטוריה ,Mr. Guye, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, Mogism, Saruman38, Hwr007, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Frosty, Evildoer187 Elevatorrailfan, Gmporr, Danton’s Jacobin, Pincrete, Jonney2000, Epicgenius, Ruby Murray, Guitar hero on the roof, Soup business, Janus Savimbi, Cubesknack, Do not collect, Melonkelon, Al Khazar, Beautyon, Backendgaming, Steeletrap, Monochrome Monitor, DMunves, Circleamitai, AlexZ1971, Bradylang, Michael Zeev, Sonici, Hilushit, I.am.a.qwerty, Taikun2013, Ira Lawalker, Thanatosxrx, Liz, Motique, CYYA, Vikingsfan8, Davidbena, Sprayitchyo, Relelel, $LICK NICK, Anarchistdy, Cea Smith Lynsie, Kirk loganewski, G S Palmer, Wiki- favor, Garrettrutledge55, Gilad55, BenjaminHold, Guy355, Monkbot, Bolter21, Tmbenton62, Editosaurus, Joeyc91, Derekitou, Greentent, ,גור אריה יהודה ,Archiloc, Mr. Sort It Out, Cynulliad, Keramiton, Last edited by:, Inactive user 20171, Sundayclose, Redmat85, Jeffgr9 Quinto Simmaco, KasparBot, TheMagikBOT, Lavezzicavani3, ISavedPvtRyan, Yschilov, Permstrump, Zmenglish, InternetArchiveBot, Ultrabomb, Eno Lirpa, MethaneK, GreenC bot, Theutatis, Userius, Samanthaw16, Avrahambeneliezer, ChronoFrog, Bender the Bot, Jim- myNeutron2016, Justeditingtoday, Sheila Ki Jawani, Magic links bot, Ultrabomb1234, Ultrabomb1!1, Ultrabomb12345 and Anonymous: 676 • Ashkenaz Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenaz?oldid=780202171 Contributors: IZAK, Gamaliel, Steve Farrell, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Markussep, Anthony Appleyard, Woohookitty, Doric Loon, BD2412, EamonnPKeane, Gergis, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, Cplakidas, DGtal, Cydebot, I do not exist, Avaya1, Rich257, Sasha l~enwiki, Enaidmawr, R'n'B, Griffinn, VolkovBot, Arnie Gov, Java7837, FlyingAce, Frans Fowler, Gerakibot, Til Eulenspiegel, Berserkerus, Oxymoron83, AMbot, Calatayud- boy, Canglesea, Enthusiast01, Ashkenaz Yephet, SchreiberBike, Toasker, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Mate- rialscientist, FrescoBot, C557jem, LucienBOT, DefaultsortBot, TobeBot, Highdeeboy, Moodswingster, CarstenWinter, ZFT, TomeHale, Maryester, JYBot, Monticores, S1275, AlexZ1971, Iranzamin-Iranzamin, Mr. Lunt, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 33

2.4.2 Images

• File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work based on: Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat, penubag • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Here, based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: Government of Argentina • File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.elibrary.az/docs/remz/pdf/remz_bayraq.pdf and http://www.meclis.gov.az/?/az/topcontent/21 Original artist: SKopp and others • File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP to match the image at [1]. • File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: • Flags of the World – Hungary Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/IsraelAt50/Pages/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem.aspx Original artist: “The Pro- visional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. • File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp 2.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 25

• File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuffKopp • File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006 • File:Flag_of_Moldova.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: vector coat of arms image traced by User:Nameneko from Image:Moldova gerb large.png. Construction sheet can be found at http://flagspot.net/flags/md.html#const Original artist: Nameneko and others • File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass and many others • File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan • File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work; here, colors Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag de- sign by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users • File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 — Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови Original artist: Government of Ukraine • File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • -xfi-'s file • -xfi-'s code • Zirland’s codes of colors Original artist: (of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. • File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li- cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Juden_1881.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Juden_1881.JPG License: Public domain Contrib- utors: Zur Volkskunde der Juden Original artist: Richard Andree • File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File: Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk • File:Lviv_pogrom_(June_-_July_1941).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Lviv_pogrom_%28June_ -_July_1941%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lviv pogrom of 1941 in pictures (Axis History Forum) with external links and reprints. Original artist: Unknown • File:Noahsworld_map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Noahsworld_map.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: ? Original artist: Lyman Coleman • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Prager_Beerdigungsbruderschaft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Prager_ Beerdigungsbruderschaft.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Prag, Jüdisches Museum Original artist: Buchhändler • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 26 CHAPTER 2. ASHKENAZ

• File:Rzeczpospolita.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Rzeczpospolita.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Halibutt • File:Star_of_David.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Star_of_David.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Wormsjews.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Wormsjews.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ?

2.4.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0