Timeline / 1860 to 1920

Date Country Theme

1860 - 1900 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces

Following development of the Port of La Goulette, new districts relating to trade and industrial activities are born. The neighbourhood is given the name of “Little Sicily”, which is suggestive of its role as host to a poor immigrant population mainly from southern Italy.

1860 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The restoration of the Aqueduct of Zaghouan is completed, running water arrives in Tunis.

1860 - 1863 Tunisia Economy And Trade

Restoration of the Zaghouan Aqueduct, Tunisia’s largest water-service network, allows supply to the capital and its suburbs.

1860 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

7 November: on the initiative of painter Gheorghe Panaitescu-Bardasare, a School of Fine Arts and an art gallery are founded in Ia#i.

1860 France Travelling

First trip by Napoleon III to Algeria; the second will take place in 1865.

1860s - 1908 Jordan Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

After centuries of neglect the creation of new administrative units late in the 19th century strengthens the Ottoman presence in Transjordan. This trend materialises in the construction of administrative buildings in newly established or re-established towns and investment in infrastructure. New towns mean new roads: Amman, Jerash and Madaba are linked by paved roads and in 1906 Madaba is linked with Karak. Construction of the Hijaz Railway and lines of communication results in extensive urban development along the railway. However, it also creates social disparities and tensions.

1860 - 1918 Jordan Fine And Applied Arts

Newcomers to Transjordan, whether from neighbouring Arab countries such as Syria, Palestine and Hijaz or from further afield such as Caucasus, bring with them not only artefacts of their home culture, including personal ornaments, weapons, costumes and treasured items, but also the necessary skills and social habits that help them to adapt in their new homeland.

1860 - 1870 Jordan Reforms And Social Changes

By the 1860s, population density has decreased drastically. The border of the sawn cultivated land had been pushed westwards under the pressure of the nomadic tribes from the east. Several reasons are suggested for this decline, including maladministration and the taxation policies of the Ottoman Empire. Some of the regions south of Ajlun, including Amman area, and along the escarpment of Date Country Theme the Jordan valley were almost completely abandoned. Recovery starts during the last quarter of the 19th century.

1860 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

The unification of Italy leads to urban expansion outside the old city walls, which have lost their defensive value. Medieval urban buildings are often demolished in order to build monumental architecture.

1860 - 1870 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

In opposition to academic painting, the Macchiaioli movement (Telemaco Signorini, Vincenzo Cabianca and Silvestro Lega) experiments with “spot painting”, based on the strong contrast between light and shadow.

1860 Italy Political Context

The right to vote is reserved for a small elite of men who have certain levels of income and education: only 2.2% of the Italians can vote.

1860 - 1865 Greece Fine And Applied Arts

Both Nikolaos Gyzis and Nikiphoros Lytras win scholarships to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Munich.

1860 - 1874 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos writes a five-volume History of the Greek Nation, a highly influential historiographical work about the continuity of Greek history since antiquity.

1860 Austria Migrations

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is born in Moravia; he emigrates from Moravia to Vienna.

1860 Spain Fine And Applied Arts

The Manises pottery begins to produce objects in lustreware.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)

The icon “Seven Holy Teachers” (Sedmochislenitzi) is painted by the most significant representative of Christian religious art in Macedonia, Dicho Krstevic Zograph, at the peak of his creativity. It represents the Slav missionaries Sts Cyril and Methodius and their disciples Clement, Nahum, Gorazd, Sabbas and Angelarij in a solo composition. His icons are distinguished by bright colour and baroque features.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM) Date Country Theme

The birth in Prilep of the first Macedonian composer Atanas Badev (d. 1908). He studied music in Russia and was conductor of several school choirs and of the first city choir in Prilep.

1860 - 1870 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Marko K. Cepenkov (1829–1920) was born in Prilep. Among the greatest collectors of Macedonian oral folk literature, during the 1860s he was prolific in recording folklore creations. The importance of his collecting activities lies not only in the volume but also in the diversity of folklore traditions recorded, including proverbs, sayings, tales, songs, riddles, charms, beliefs, dreams and interpretation, and children's games.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Grigor Prlichev's epic poem "The Serdar", written in Greek, wins first prize at the annual poetry competition held in Athens. Prlichev (1830–93) was born in Ohrid. This prolific Macedonian poet and translator was a dedicated advocate of introducing the native spoken language in Macedonian schools. He was referred to as a second Homer, having translated the "Iliad" into the Macedonian language.

1860 Lebanon Political Context

Yusuf Bek Butros Karam, a Lebanese Maronite born in 1823 fights in the 1860 civil war and leads a rebellion in 1866-67 against the Ottoman Empire’s rule in Mount Lebanon. His proclamations have been interpreted as an early expression of Lebanese nationalism.

1860 Lebanon Political Context

A full-scale war erupts between Maronites and Druze. Napoleon III of France sends 7,000 troops to Beirut and helps impose a partition: Druze control of the territory is recognised as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites are forced into an enclave. This is ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861.

1860 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Under the liberal educational reforms, Lyceu Nacional de Aveiro (Aveiro High School) is the first school in Portugal to occupy a building designed specifically for this function. Previously schools occupied existing buildings, often old convents. The school had been created as Colégio de Aveiro in 1848.

1860 Portugal Travelling

Travelling became a great cultural and social phenomenon with Romanticism. The “Grand Tour” through the countries of the known world, namely around the Mediterranean, became a means of developing cultural and social skills. Travel became refined and even a simple journey to the countryside required such accessories as this travel case for meals.

Circa 1870 - Circa 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme

Impressionist painters capture the effects of light in outdoor and everyday scenes.

1860 - 1910 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

Realism (a backlash to both Classicism and Romanticism) is exemplified by French artist Gustave Courbet’s Die Steinklopfer (1849), although long before then Albrecht Dürer had painted his highly realistic Junger Feldhase (1502).

1860 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

October: First private newspaper to be published by Turkish journalists,Tercüman- # Ahvâl, published by Agah Efendi and #brahim #inasi.

1860 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

October: Journalists #brahim #inasi and Agah Efendi publish the first private Muslim newspaper Tercümân-# Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events).

1861 Tunisia Political Context

Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution limiting his powers. Tunisia’s first constitution is the culmination of the reformist policies of the 19th-century Husaynid beys.

1861 France Travelling

Embassy sent by King Mongkut of Siam (now Thailand) to Napoleon III.

1861 Italy International Exhibitions

First Italian National Exhibition of Agricultural and Industrial Products and Fine Arts opens in Florence.

1861 Italy Rediscovering The Past

The pre-unification laws on the protection of cultural heritage of the individual Italian states remain in force even after unification. Until 1902, different Italian regions are thus subject to different disciplines.

1861 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Collection of Macedonian poems compiled by the Miladinov brothers is published in Zagreb. Konstantin Miladinov (1830–62), a prominent Macedonian poet, folklorist and educator is a major contributor. Despite a reference to Bulgarian songs in the title, the folk literature recorded by the Miladinovs originated mostly from the areas of Struga, Ohrid, Prilep, Kukush and Bitola.

1861 Lebanon Political Context

In the aftermath of the Lebanese civil war in 1860, the Ottoman authorities impose a new system of government for the mountain districts of Lebanon. Formerly, the region had been divided into two districts, one with a Maronite Christian Date Country Theme administrator and the other with a Druze. The Ottomans combine them into a single district, known as the mutasarrifiyya.

1861 - 1876 Turkey Political Context

Reign of Sultan Abdülaziz.

1862 France Rediscovering The Past

Creation of the Museum of Celtic and Gallo-Roman Antiquities by Napoleon III in Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

1862 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The British India Company establishes a regular steamer service in the Arabian Gulf, first as a mail service, and later enhanced by cargo and passenger services.

1862 Italy Economy And Trade

Law on the unification of currencies passed: the lira becomes the Italian currency.

1862 Portugal International Exhibitions

The “International Exhibition on Industry and Art” in London distinguishes Portugal with 165 Medals of Honor and 240 mentions.

1862 France Fine And Applied Arts

The Picnic on the Grass by Édouard Manet marks a transition from Realism to Impressionism

1862 Germany Political Context

Otto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia.

1862 Turkey Travelling

Steamship company Fevâid-I Osmâniyye is founded.

1862 Turkey Travelling

April: Sultan Abdülaziz visits Egypt.

1863 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The literary society Junimea, which had an important role in promoting Romanian literature, is founded in Ia#i. In 1867 it begins publishing a periodical in which the works of Romanian writers appear and also translations from worldwide literature.

1863 Romania Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme

December: the National Gathering of the United Principalities adopts the law through which the land owned by monasteries (more than a quarter of Romania’s surface) becomes property of the state.

1863 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the 167.5 m high Mole Antonelliana in Turin, initially conceived as a synagogue. It soon becomes the city’s landmark building.

1863 - 1885 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Opening of applied art schools, often attached to museums: Industrial Museum of Turin (1863), Artistic Industrial Museum of Rome (1873), Naples (1882) and Palermo (1885).

1863 Italy Travelling

The Club Alpino Italiano is founded in Turin. Its goal is “to promote the knowledge of mountains, and especially of Italian mountains, their ascent and scientific expeditions”. In 25 years, membership reaches 4,500 with 34 local branches. By 1900 it had built 57 mountain huts.

1863 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Bedrich Smetana's (1824–1884) opera Verkaufte Braut (The Bartered Bride) had its first performance in Prague.

1863 Morocco Political Context

The intention of the trade treaty signed with France in August 1863 is to curb the damaging effects of protectionism and to limit the extent of European penetration but, subverted from its original purpose, it becomes one of the causes of the protectionism problem. The Dahir of June 1864 then proclaimed freedom of trade throughout the Sharifian Empire. The conventions of 1856, 1860–1 and 1863 established the legal bases for relations between Morocco and Europe. Europe’s influence then began to grow.

1863 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

On 18 October, under the rule of Khedive Isma‘il, the Egyptian Museum opens in the Caireen district of Bulaq under the management of French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, known as Mariette Pasha.

1863 Egypt Migrations

Muhammad Sa‘id Pasha dispatches part of a Sudanese battalion to help stop a rebellion against the Second Mexican Empire.

1863 - 1879 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

Education attracts renewed interest during Isma‘il Pasha’s era. His government establishes schools and reviews students’ expenses, including their living expenses, which sees the restoration of the Diwan (or ministry) of Schools that Sa‘id had annulled. Now as the education budget increased, gradually, the Date Country Theme government also returned to dispatching missions to Europe, mostly to France. A number of primary schools were established across the country: from Alexandria in the north to Minya in the south.

1863 Spain Fine And Applied Arts

The painters Mariano Fortuny y Marsal and Francisco Lameyer travel to North Africa. Fortuny buys different artworks and textiles for his collection.

1863 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novel Amor de Perdição (Fatal Love) by Camilo Castelo-Branco (1825–90). Written very quickly, this romance has everything to be a major work of passion: tragic intensity, speed of action, balance of characters and simplicity of style.

1863 Turkey International Exhibitions

Sergi-i Umumi-I Osmani (Ottoman General Exhibition), its format borrowed from Western exhibitions, is opened in #stanbul.

1864 Tunisia Political Context

The popular uprising sounds the death knell for reform. The great figure of this insurrection, ‘Ali bin Ghedham, comes from the region of Kasserine.

1864 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

Dimitrie Bolintineanu, the Minister of Religion and Public Instruction, organises in Bucharest an exhibition displaying works of contemporary Romanian artists, the most important of the time being painters Theodor Aman, Gheorghe Tattarescu and Carol Popp de Szathmari.

1864 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

14 April: the Commune Law is adopted by which cities and towns become urban communes, led by a mayor and a council. All urban communes must have a fire department and a hospital.

1864 Romania Political Context

14 May: coup d’état of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who dissolves parliament and proposes a new constitutional project, which is voted the same month and ratified by the Ottoman Empire and the guaranteeing Powers in June 1864. The Statute Expanding the Paris Convention assigned greater power to the prince and the government.

1864 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

4 August: establishment of the General Directorate of the Post and the Telegraph in the United Principalities.

1864 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

19 August: establishment of Bucharest’s city hall. Bucharest had been the United Principalities’ capital since 1861.

1864 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

26 August: Alexandru Ioan Cuza promulgates the first Romanian land reform, which transforms peasants into owners of the land on which they had been working on the estates of the aristocracy. Peasants are also freed from the duties they had to perform for the nobility.

1864 Romania Economy And Trade

27 October: foundation of the Romanian Chamber of Commerce and Industry.

1864 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

14 November: a School of Fine Arts (which today is the National University of Art) is founded in Bucharest by painters Gheorghe Tattarescu and Theodor Aman.

1864 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

December: the law of public instruction establishes free, compulsory primary education.

1864 - 1865 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Qawasim and other sheikhdoms of the Arab littoral are held by Britain to sign a Treaty pledging to abstain from any interference with British Gulf Telegraph installations and to punish any aggressions made against them.

1864 Lebanon Travelling

Inauguration of the Capuchin cathedral dedicated to Saint Louis IX King of France. The Capuchins had arrived in Beirut in 1628, practising their rites in the old Saint George church where the current Maronite cathedral now stands. Before moving to their present location the Capuchins built their first church, also dedicated to Saint Louis, in Beirut in 1732.

1864 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

A governmental survey reveals the existence of 443 friendly societies (Società di mutuo soccorso), all located in Central and Northern Italy (Milan has 38 societies with a total of 9,923 members, Turin 13 with 14,864 members). Their number and membership grows considerably over time until the development of modern welfare.

1864 Greece Political Context

The Ionian islands are incorporated within the newly established Greek State.

1864 Lebanon Political Context Date Country Theme

Dawud Pasha (the mutasarrif [governor] of Lebanon, appointed by the Ottomans) restores to Lebanon a part of its lost territory, establishes for the Druze a school in Abayh that still bears his name and struggles against the feudal lords in the south and the clerical party in the north.

1864 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

Creation of the Carmo Archaeological Museum by the Portuguese Association of Civil Architects, which in 1867 adopts the title of Royal Association of Civil Architects and Portuguese Archaeologists. The museum is located in the ruins of medieval Convento do Carmo, destroyed by the 1755 earthquake.

1864 Portugal Economy And Trade

Banco Nacional Ultramarino is established in Lisbon, as the issuing bank for Portuguese overseas territories. BNU has a significant role in supporting the economic development of the country and the former colonies. Its savings, investment and issuing role facilitates the currency circulation throughout them.

1864 Portugal Economy And Trade

The unpopular tobacco monopoly is ended by parliamentary law. Hereafter tobacco will be auctioned and exploited by those offering the best price to the state. Some of the main tobacco companies merge into bigger companies to ensure its exploration. The Companhia Lisbonense de Tabacos, founded in 1865, becomes a major player.

1864 Germany Political Context

As a consequence of the Prussian–Danish war, Denmark retracts its demand for Schleswig and Holstein.

1864 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–95) develops the first periodic table of chemical elements.

1864 - 1910 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

During this period the Beirut Tram covers 12 km around Beirut’s centre. It runs until 1910.

1864 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

Imperial decree orders that all civil servants have to light one or two street gas lamps in front of their houses both in summer and winter.

1865 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

The first showing of the “Living Artists Exhibition” (for painters and sculptors), organised by painter Theodor Aman, takes place in Ia#i. The annual organisation of such an exhibition is established by a decree issued in December 1864. Date Country Theme

1865 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The new-born Italian state approves a civil code that places women in a subordinate position in the family. Boys and girls can inherit equally, but married women need “marital authorisation” to manage their property. Male and female adultery are treated differently. The “defence of honour” is accepted as attenuating circumstance in murder cases.

1865 - 1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The worst of the five cholera epidemics that hit Italy during the 19th century kills more than 160,000. The most affected towns are always Naples and Palermo.

1865 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The royal yacht Mahroussa is built for Isma‘il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt.

1865 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

1 May: Santa Apolónia Central Railway Station of Lisbon, connecting to the East and North Railways, is inaugurated. It is sited in the north bank of the Tagus River, close to Praça do Comércio in Lisbon. It is an example of 19th-century iron buildings.

1865 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

The stuccoes of the corridor of the Monserrate Palace are inspired by those of Alhambra Palace in Granada. The profusion of columns is considered to recall those in the Hypostyle Hall of the Cordova Mosque.

1865 Portugal International Exhibitions

“A Exposição Internacional”, in Porto, is the first international exhibition organised in Portugal. Designed by the English architect Thomas Dillen Jones, it follows the London model and was conceived to accommodate the Portuguese International Exhibition.

1865 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Bom-senso e Bom-gosto (Good Sense and Good Taste) by Antero de Quental (1842–91) is an open letter published as pamphlet, replying to and ridiculing the poetry of António Feliciano de Castilho (1800–75) and urging young writers to take a revolutionary position instead. This controversy became known as the "Questão Coimbrã” (the Coimbra Question).

1865 Turkey Political Context

Formation of Young Ottoman opposition against the bureaucratic domination of Ali Pa#a and Fuad Pa#a.

Circa 1865 - Circa 1900 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Naturalism, a literary movement that draws inspiration from descriptions of life, science and documentary observation, and which on occasion makes use of crude vocabulary to give it greater veracity, causes widespread offence. The movement was led by Émile Zola, with his Rougon-Macquart cycle.

1865 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz orders the building of a hospital known as the military infirmary. It will later be turned into a courthouse after the French Mandate and then become the Insitute of Fine Arts of the Lebanese University.

1865 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first comprehensive physics textbook in Turkish, Mehmed Emin Dervi# Pa#a’s (1817–79) Usul-i Hikmet-i Tabiiyye (Elements of physics) is published in Istanbul.

1866 Romania Political Context

February: because of his authoritative regime, Cuza is forced to abdicate by a coalition of conservative and liberal-radical politicians.

1866 Romania Political Context

14–20 April: plebiscite leading to German Prince Carol de Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen being elected ruler of the United Principalities and recognised by the Ottoman Empire in October. On 13 July a new constitution is adopted, based on the Belgian one from 1835.

1866 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context

Qawasim lands are divided among the four sons of Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr following his death. The number of Trucial States rises from five to nine.

1866 Austria Migrations

Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from south-western Germany is elected as Prince of Romania.

1866 Italy Economy And Trade

A law confiscates the properties of religious orders and congregations, and establishes a state fund to support the clergy and monks.

1866 Italy Political Context

Italy participates in the Austro-Prussian War on the side of Prussia and annexes Venice.

1866 Greece Fine And Applied Arts

Nikiphoros Lytras takes up a professorship at the School of the Arts in Athens. Date Country Theme

1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The poet Kostis Palamas publishes his first collection of verse entitled the Songs of My Fatherland. A major figure on the Greek literary scene, Palamas writes the Olympic Anthem and is nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature.

1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Emmanuel Roidis, one of Greece’s most influential authors, publishes his novel Pope Joan, which is translated into a number of languages.

1866 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Egyptian stamps are issued on 1 January.

1866 - 1867 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

In 1866 the School of Irrigation and Architecture is inaugurated at al-Za‘faran Saray in ‘Abbasiyya in Cairo; it then transfers to Mustafa Fadil Saray at Darb al-Jama‘iz in 1867. The School provides a study programme of five years: a preparatory year followed by a further four years; two years respectively specialising in irrigation and architecture.

1866 Spain Economy And Trade

Financial crisis during the last years of Queen Isabel II's government because of public investments in the construction of the railway.

1866 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Werner von Siemens invents the dynamo.

1866 - 1905 Germany Economy And Trade

Henri Nestlé founds the company Nestlé, which becomes the world’s largest corporation for comestible goods.

1866 - 1871 Germany Economy And Trade

Formation of the North German Confederation in 1866/7 sees a federation of the 22 independent states of northern Germany, with nearly 30 million inhabitants. It was the first modern German nation-state and the basis for the later German Empire (1871–1918).

1866 Turkey Economy And Trade

#zmir-Ayd#n railway is built.

1866 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

The Civil Medical School is opened. Date Country Theme

1866 Austria Political Context

Following defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz (3 October), at the Peace of Vienna, Austria is forced to cede the Venetian province to Italy.

1867 Romania Political Context

The centre of present-day Transylvania is integrated into the Hungarian kingdom after the creation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Partium and Banat had already been included in Hungary.

1867 Romania Economy And Trade

4 May: proclamation of the law for the introduction of a new monetary system and for the issuing of national coins; 1870 is the year when the first Romanian coins are minted in Romania having previously been minted abroad.

1867 Romania International Exhibitions

At the International Exposition held in Paris, the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia have their own pavilions.

1867 Romania International Exhibitions

On the occasion of the International Exposition of Paris a book with information about Romania’s agriculture, commerce, industry and resources is published in Paris by a commission coordinated by Alexandru Odobescu.

1867 Romania Rediscovering The Past

The Pietroasa Treasure is displayed at the International Exposition in Paris.

1867 France International Exhibitions

The exposition known as the Universal World Exhibition of Art and Industry – the seventh World Expo/Fair and the second held in Paris after that of 1855; it ran from 1 April to 3 November 1867 on the Champ-de-Mars in Paris; 41 countries were represented.

1867 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Austrian Museum of Applied Arts purchases the minbar from the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo.

1867 Italy Economy And Trade

Law on the abolition of religious bodies: the real estate properties of 25,000 religious bodies are auctioned.

1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme

Around 60 per cent of men and 80 per cent of women are unable to sign their marriage certificate because they are unable to write.

1867 Italy Political Context

Uprising in Rome demanding unification with Italy. At the same time, Garibaldi leads an expedition of volunteers that enters the Papal States and tries to seize Rome. Roman rebels are defeated and executed. Garibaldi is defeated by Papal troops backed by a French expeditionary corps (France protects the Papal States).

1867 Italy Travelling

The Società Geografica Italiana is founded. In 1869-70, it organises an exploratory expedition to East Africa, in 1875 to Tunisia and in 1876 to Ethiopia. Many other journeys to Africa, and also to Central Asia, South America and Papua follow. Such travels generally combined scientific purposes and political agendas.

1867 United Kingdom International Exhibitions

The Paris Exhibition is the major international exhibition of the century. In the aftermath of the Crimean War (1854–56), when France, Britain and Turkey ally against Russia, there is a boost of friendship with and interest in the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan visits the Paris Exhibition and then continues to London where he was made a Knight of the Garter.

1867 United Kingdom Political Context

The 1850s and 1860s sees close political, commercial and cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire and Britain. The zenith of this relationship is the state visit of Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz to France and then Britain. The Prince of Wales then reciprocates with a visit to Constantinople, Damascus and Jerusalem in 1869.

1867 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

The Austrian-Hungarian compromise creates a dual-monarchy that has common ministries only for foreign affairs, defence and public finance.

1867 Egypt Travelling

Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Paris and then London, where he is received by Queen Victoria and welcomed by the Lord Mayor. He attends a British Royal Navy fleet review alongside the Ottoman Sultan.

1867 Spain Rediscovering The Past

Foundation of the Museo Arqueológico Nacional in Madrid following the European movement to create national museums holding the remains of a country's past in tandem with the development of archaeology as a discipline. The museum covers prehistory to modern times, and from its opening in 1871 Spanish Moorish objects are displayed in its Medieval galleries.

1867 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme

Febo Moniz published by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Subtitled "Romance Histórico Português do Século XVI", the action takes place in Lisbon in 1580. The protagonist is the prosecutor Febo Moniz, the sole representative of the state to protest against the acclamation of Philip II of Spain as King of Portugal.

1867 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The opening of the Lisbon Astronomical Observatory, Portugal’s national observatory, which has legal responsibility for national timekeeping. It is located in the Tapada da Ajuda, a green area in the west of Lisbon.

1867 Portugal Economy And Trade

First phylloxera disease reaches the Portugal countryside. Porto wine and Portuguese wine production in general is reduced dramatically. This disease causes economic, financial and social distress and leads to the abandonment of vineyard farms. The loss of revenues and unemployment increases emigration, especially to Brazil.

1867 - 1880 Portugal Economy And Trade

Phylloxera Commission created by the government in order to protect vineyards from the disease. To combat the disease demands new methods of planting and production. New organisations of wine producers claim from central government the preservation of regional varieties as well as the definition and defence of Port and Douro wine “Denominação de Origem Controlada”.

1867 Portugal International Exhibitions

At the “Exposition Universelle” in Paris, the Portugal Pavilion employs a neo- Manueline architectural style. The exoticism is a symbol of the Portuguese Empire built by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries.

1867 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of the poet António Nobre (1867–1900). Só, written during his exile in Paris (1892), is the only work published in his lifetime. The nostalgia of this work, a landmark of the symbolist movement, is tempered by a certain self- irony, alternating a symbolist refined vocabulary with a more colloquial one. He influenced the work of the main Portuguese modernists.

1867 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

July: The first Portuguese major Civil Code is entrusted to António Luís Seabra (1798–1895), the first methodical code maker in Portugal. It is intended to meet the liberal need to regulate the juridical system as happened with French Napoleonic Code. One of its main concerns is the regulation of civil marriage. The Code will remain in force for nearly a century.

1867 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Foundling wheels for babies left anonymously to be cared for were used between the 15th and the 19th century. From 1867 they are gradually abolished and replaced by asylums for orphans, foundlings and abandoned older children. Date Country Theme Organised childcare is promoted from 1870 through the foundation of childcare centres and public support for families.

1867 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Premiere of the opera Roméo et Juliet by Charles-François Gounod.

1867 - 1885 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

King Ludwig II of Bavaria sets in motion the building of his second palace, Linderhof (1869–85), the smallest of the large palaces he had built, and the only one he lived to see completed. The king’s penchant for the so called Moorish style can be seen in several elements, such as the Moorish Kiosk (1867) and the Moroccan House (1878). The King’s House on the Schachen (1869–72), built with a Turkish Hall by Georg von Dollmann, further attests to Ludwig’s admiration for the “Oriental” style.

1867 Turkey International Exhibitions

The Ottoman Empire participates in the International Exhibition in Paris. The Ottoman pavilions are designed in #stanbul by a self-taught French architect named Léon Parvillée in collaboration with the Italian architect Barborini. Sultan Abdülaziz travels to Paris at the invitation of Emperor Napoleon III to attend the opening of the World Exhibition.

1867 Turkey Travelling

Sultan Abdülaziz makes state visits to European powers.

1867 Turkey Political Context

8 June: The Egyptian governor receives from the Sublime Porte the title of “khedive,” which provides him legislative independence.

1867 Austria Travelling

Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz visits Vienna on 18 July.

1868 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

29 April: the Romanian Philharmonic Society is founded by conductor Eduard Wachmann with the aim of organising a permanent symphony orchestra. The inaugural concert takes place in the same year on 15 December.

1868 Lebanon Rediscovering The Past

Luigi Palma di Cesnola, the American Consul in Cyprus, gives a collection of Cyprian pottery to the Syrian Protestant College (now the American University) in Beirut. This event is the first step towards the foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University.

1868 Lebanon Travelling Date Country Theme

Foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut after Luigi Palma di Cesnola gives a collection of Cypriot pottery to the newly formed university.

1868 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The railway across the Brenner Pass (via the Alps) opens.

1868 Austria Migrations

Michael Latos is born in Croatia (Austrian Empire) in 1828. He later deserts the Austrian army and flees to the Ottoman Empire, where he makes a military career as Omar Pasha and becomes Minister of War in 1868.

1868 - 1883 Italy Migrations

Different circular letters by the Minister of Interior place obstacles on migration: migrants are supposed to have work contracts or to prove they have enough funding to repatriate. Such circular letters have only limited effect. Landowners put pressure on government to discourage migration.

1868 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Gualberta Alaide Beccari (a feminist with republican ideas, much influenced by Mazzini) founds the periodical La donna, which campaigns for women’s rights. La donna’s main contributor is Anna Maria Mozzoni, who since 1865 had campaigned against “marital authorisation” and for women’s right to vote.

1868 - 1874 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the Abdeen Palace in Cairo begins in 1868 and inauguration takes place some six years later.

1868 - 1886 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

A Law School is established during Isma‘il Pasha’s era in 1868. Known then as the School of Management and Languages, the two schools separate in 1882 and remain as such until July 1886. That year, it becomes the School of Law with two departments, primary and high.

1868 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The “Generation of ‘68” writers begin to publish after the 1868 revolution; the group is named by one of its members, Leopoldo Alas, known as Clarín. Their characteristics are middle-class consciousness and a realist style. Authors in this group include Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, José María Pereda, Benito Pérez Galdós and Emilia Pardo Bazán.

1868 Spain Political Context

Carlist wars, economic crisis (1866–68) and disgruntlement with Queen Isabel II and the government explode in the September revolution known as La Gloriosa. The revolution is followed by six years of democratic government under Amadeo Date Country Theme I, from the Italian Saboya family, (1870–73) and then under the first Spanish Republic (1873–74), causing the 3rd Carlist war.

1868 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The birth of José Viana da Motta (d. 1948). Pianist, composer, conductor and pedagogue, he studied piano and composition in Berlin and performed in concerts around the world. He was professor of Piano at the Conservatory of Geneva and Director of the Conservatório Nacional de Lisboa, maintaining his concert career alongside teaching.

1868 - 1886 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Ludwig II (r. 1864–86) had several palaces built during his reign. The most famous among these are Neuschwanenstein (1868–92, still in construction when Ludwig died), Neues Schloss Herrenchiemsee (1878–86, built along the lines of Versailles, but never completed), and Linderhof (1869–85), the only palace the king lived to see completed.

1868 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

29 June: Nam#k Kemal and Ziya Pa#a publish oppositional weekly newspaper in London, where they had fled to.

1869 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past

The opening of the Suez Canal sparks a second burst of British popular interest in ancient Egypt.

1869 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Timi#oara is the first city in Romania to use horse-drawn trams for public transportation. In Bucharest they are introduced in 1871.

1869 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

Opening of the new State Opera House in Vienna.

1869 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria attends the opening of the Suez Canal on 17 November.

1869 Austria Travelling

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria visits Jerusalem.

After 1869 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

Banyan (Hindu) merchants from British India increase their commercial, shipping and banking activities throughout the Trucial Coast, particularly within the pearling sector. Soon the Banyan becomes the main financiers, controlling all processes involving the preparation and pricing of pearls for export to Europe. Date Country Theme

1869 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The railway line from the Thesion district in central Athens to the Port of Piraeus opens.

1869 - 1878 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Under French direction the Suez Canal opens in 1869, improving the route to India. Britain then acquires a financial interest in the Canal in 1875. When in 1878 Cyprus becomes part of the British Empire, another fuelling station on the imperial route to India is achieved.

1869 United Kingdom Political Context

Built largely with French expertise and capital, the Suez Canal shortens the journey to India. The British government secures a major financial interest in the Canal in 1876, and its security becomes a major British interest for the following century.

1869 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Khedive Isma‘il commissions a French company to construct the first bridge across the River Nile in Cairo, the Qasr al-Nil Bridge.

1869 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

The Opera House is inaugurated in November 1869 with Verdi’s Opera Rigoletto. In attendance, seated in the Royal loge, are Khedive Isma‘il Pasha, Empress Eugénie and her husband Napoleon III, and François Joseph I of Austria.

1869 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

With completion of the Suez Canal a number of dignitaries and high-profile personalities arrive in Egypt for the inauguration, including Empress Eugénie of France.

1869 Egypt Travelling

Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Britain.

1869 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Installation of the first public telephone line in Romania (in Bucharest between the Minister of Internal Affairs and the Central Post Office).

1870 - 1875 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past

Academic interest and geopolitical concerns combine to stimulate the state-of- the-art mapping of Palestine. There is strong interest in the lands of the Bible. In addition, following the opening of the Suez Canal, threats to British routes to India loom from the north, first from Russia and then from the Ottoman Empire and Germany.

1870 France Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

From 1870, the suburbs appear around major French cities such as Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and Marseille.

1870 France Political Context

The Third Republic had a difficult start: the Treaty of Versailles with Prussia granting Alsace and Lorraine to the German Empire, and repression of the Commune. After a period known as the “Moral Order”, the Opportunist (1879–98) or Radical Republic (1898–1914) set up a large number of reforms in all areas, which include among others: a law on primary education (1881–2); a law on freedom of the press (1881); the restoration of the law on divorce (1884); a law allowing Trades Unions (1884); and a law on the separation of Church and State (1905).

1870 France Travelling

From 1870 onwards, as the peripheries around the big French cities like Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and Marseille start growing, they develop into a real suburban belt around the city.

Around 1870 - Around 1920 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

The period marks the peak of the pearling industry as the main export-commodity industry of the Gulf region.

1870 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Renewal and urban modernisation of Rome starts with the opening of a long road linking Porta Pia (where the Italian army broke into the city in 1870) to the Quirinale Palace, residence of the King (formerly a papal palace). The headquarters of some ministries are located along this road.

1870 - 1912 Italy Political Context

In 1870, taking advantage of French defeat at the hands of Prussia, the Italian army captures Rome, which becomes the capital of Italy. The Pope considers Italian rule on Rome to be illegitimate and bans Catholics from participating in Italian political life. In the following decades the ban is progressively lifted to counter socialist growth.

1876 - 1899 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

Extensive emigration of intellectuals from Macedonia to neighbouring countries and Russia. With unfavourable conditions at home for science and research, many Macedonian students stay in the country where they studied to contribute to the development of science, culture and arts. They often organised societies such as the Sofia Circle of Macedonian Students run by Petar Pop-Arsov (1872–1941), which began issuing Loza newspaper in 1882.

1870 Lebanon Political Context

Ottomans appoint Rustam Pasha as mutasarrif (governor). He is an equally firm and economical administrator. Date Country Theme

1870 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Publication of Joao de Deus’s Cartilha Maternal, a beginner’s reading book that was to be in use for a long time. João de Deus was a follower of Maria Montessori’s pedagogical theories and founded in Portugal the “Escola Nova” movement.

1870s - 1900s France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The corset introduces the fashion for a more slender figure.

1870 France Political Context

The Franco-Prussian War: France's defeat to Prussia results in the abdication of Napoleon III. Proclamation of the Third Republic.

1870 Germany Economy And Trade

The Deutsche Bank is founded by Georg von Siemens.

1870 - 1913 Germany Economy And Trade

The rail network transforms German industry, and merchant shipping multiplies.

Since 1870 Germany Migrations

The so-called Ruhrpolen migrate to the Ruhr, where many work in coal mining.

1870 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

Fire in Beyo#lu (#stanbul) destroys about 3,000 houses; 80 people are killed. After that incident using brick and stone to build houses becomes obligatory.

1870 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ahmed Mithat Efendi (1844–1912), who introduced the novel from the Ottoman community begins to publish Letaif-I Rivayat (Finest Stories), which includes long stories and novellas.

1871 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Alexandru Odobescu sends an archaeological questionnaire to teachers all over the country, who have to return information about archaeological discoveries or vestiges of antique monuments existing in the areas where they live or work.

1871 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Fréjus Rail Tunnel under Alps, between Italy and France, inaugurated (12.8 km long).

1871 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

24 December: first world performance of the new opera by Verdi, Aida, set in ancient Egypt, at the Khedivial Opera House in Cairo.

1871 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Nikolaos Politis publishes the first volume of his pioneering work on Greek folklore, Study of the Life of Modern Greeks: Modern Greek Mythology.

1871 - 1877 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Jezira Bridge is constructed in 1871 and opens to traffic in 1877. The intention is to link the districts of Dokki and Bulaq al-Dakrur with Zamalek. Construction requires redirection of the Nile bed.

1871 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giuseppe Verdi’s Egyptian-themed Aida premiers in Cairo on 24 December.

1871 - 1896 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces

By the end of the 19th century tram lines have increased in cities. Madrid has horse-drawn trams from 1871 and Barcelona from 1872 but the first city with an electric tram is Bilbao in 1896, followed by Cartagena.

1871 Spain Rediscovering The Past

Voyage of the frigate Arapiles to the Near East. The ship was commissioned by the Spanish government to travel to the Near East with Spanish archaeologists and curators to document ancient monuments and buy antiquities. It sailed from Naples to Greece, Istanbul, Rhodes, Cyprus, Lebanon and Egypt and brought back drawings, notes and artworks to be kept in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional of Madrid.

1871 France Political Context

When the people of Paris refuse to accept defeat and take up arms the Versailles- based government resist and harshly repress the "Commune".

1871 Germany Political Context

The German Empire, a union of sovereign states and free cities, is established under Prussian leadership.

1871 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Berlin becomes the imperial capital.

1871 - 1910 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

The second Industrial Revolution sees massive immigration; the population rises from 41 to 65 million, and from only eight cities with no more than 100,000 inhabitants, more than 48 cities are formed. Date Country Theme

1871 - 1914 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

The process of urbanisation begins: in 1907 Berlin had more than 2 million citizens of which around 40% are locals, 20% German immigrants and 40% foreign immigrants.

From 1871 Germany Economy And Trade

The capital market is enlivened by France’s payment of 5 million French francs, paid to Germany as compensation following the war between the two countries (1870–1).

From 1871 - 1914 Germany Economy And Trade

Germany’s industrial production is now six times what it had been.

1871 Turkey Economy And Trade

Ottoman railway policy is formulated by the decree of Sultan Abdülaziz to establish a main line between #stanbul and Baghdad, with secondary lines to the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts.

1871 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822–90) begins excavations in Troy.

1872 - 1874 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces

The city of Tunis benefits from the first installation of public street lighting. An English company builds a gasometer and installs the pipelines necessary to supply gas for street lighting of the city’s main arteries.

1872 Austria Economy And Trade

Foundation of the Austrian Agricultural University in Vienna.

1872 - 1891 Austria International Exhibitions

The Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museum of Fine Arts) in Vienna is built.

1872 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Italian composer Verdi is commissioned by the Egyptian Khedive to compose the opera Aida for celebrations to mark the opening of the Suez Canal. Later Verdi is also commissioned to compose the Egyptian National Anthem.

1872 - 1874 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

O Desterrado (The Outcast), a sculpture by António Soares dos Reis (1847–89) is an idealised self-portrait. It conveys the collective feelings of his contemporary intellectuals and the feelings of loneliness and longing common to those who Date Country Theme had left their homeland. The sculptor’s romantic sensibility enabled him to shape feelings and psychological tensions in the marble.

1872 France Fine And Applied Arts

Impression, Sunrise by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet.

1872 - 1879 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

As a consequence of the Kulturkampf the influence of the Catholic Church is limited in Germany.

1873 - 1877 Tunisia Economy And Trade

Khayr al-Din undertakes reform of the Tunisian economy.

1873 - 1877 Tunisia Political Context

The regency of Khayr al-Din, the Grand Vizier reformer, who reorganises institutions and the economy. His major cultural works are the creation of Sadiki College and major reform of the Zaytuna Mosque.

1873 Romania International Exhibitions

Two Romanians are members of the international jury of the Vienna International Exposition: agronomist and economist P.S. Aurelian and doctor Carol Davila.

1873 Romania Travelling

The first tourism organisation from Romania, called the Alpine Association of Transylvania, is founded in Bra#ov.

1873 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of a new water-supply pipeline from the Alps to Vienna.

1873 Austria International Exhibitions

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria opens the Weltausstellung, Vienna’s World Trade Fair.

1873 Austria International Exhibitions

A copy of the decoration from the Tomb of Khnumhotep is exhibited in the Egyptian Pavilion of the World Trade Fair.

1873 Austria International Exhibitions

At the World Trade Fair in Vienna, the Austrian Museum of Applied Art purchases a pair of jugs from Tunisia for the museum.

1873 Austria Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme

The Austrian archaeologist Alexander Conze organizes excavations in Samothrace.

1873 Greece Economy And Trade

Foundation of the Greek Stock Market.

1873 - 1894 Morocco Political Context

Reign of Mulay al-Hasan I: Mulay al-Hasan I maintains the political independence of the country. He attempted to adapt the country to its new circumstances and employed a policy of reforms, affecting all areas of political and economic life, to improve the management of public affairs.

1873 Spain Economy And Trade

Development of the Minas de Riotinto (Huelva, Andalucía). Bought by a British company, the mines bring important economic progress to this region. The dangerous chemicals used in metal extraction spark the first environmental protest by mine workers. (The first fooball match took place in this mine, thanks to the British engineers.)

1873 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)

The first railway in Macedonia runs from Thessalonica via Skopje to Belgrade. Its construction, financed with foreign investments, began in 1871 and the track to Skopje is finished in 1873. The Skopje–Mitrovica line is completed in 1878. In 1888 it is connected to Serbian railways at the border crossing Zibevche near Vranje.

1873 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)

Construction of the first railway station in Macedonia in Skopje.

1873 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

A primary school building to be built in wood attracts the attention of visitors to the Portuguese stand at the “Weltausstellung” (world exposition) in Vienna.

1873 Germany Rediscovering The Past

The development of Classical Archaeology is strongly influenced by Heinrich Schliemann in the second half of the 18th century when for example he finds the “Gold of Troy”.

1873 Germany Economy And Trade

The Krupp Corporation is the largest industrial concern in Europe.

1873 - 1880 Germany Economy And Trade Date Country Theme

The economic crash known as the Gründerkrise sees companies and banks shut down and a rise in unemployment and social dissatisfaction.

1873 - 1878 Germany International Exhibitions

The Moorish Kiosk, built for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1878, was subsequently bought for Linderhof Palace Park by Ludwig II. The Moroccan House, which was actually built in Morocco for the International Exhibition in Vienna in 1873 and acquired by a private individual after the king’s death, was bought by the German state in 1980 and reconstructed in the Palace Park in 1998.

1873 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Levi Strauss, a German citizen in exile in America, requests the patent for blue Jeans.

1873 Lebanon Economy And Trade

Beirut Water Works factory is founded, providing water for daily use by the Lebanese people, taking water from Nahr al-Kalb and distributing it through an extensive water network.

1873 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

First art exhibition in #stanbul, organised by #eker Ahmed Pa#a.

1873 Turkey International Exhibitions

Ottoman participates in Vienna World Exhibition with a faithful full-scale replica of the Sultan Ahmed Fountain near Hagia Sophia in #stanbul. Ottoman artisans crafted the details of the façade panels, and the most of the materials were brought from Turkey.

1873 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

Heinrich Schliemann finds what he calls “Priam’s Treasure” in Troy.

1873 Turkey Political Context

1 April: Nam#k Kemal’s play Vatan Yahud Silistre arouses patriotic sentiments in #stanbul.

1874 Romania Rediscovering The Past

18 April: decree for the founding of the Commission of Public Monuments to record the public monuments on Romanian territory and to ensure their conservation.

1874 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

Issue of the first sanitation law in the United Principalities. The sanitation system is organised hierarchically and a Superior Medical Council, with a consultative role, is created. Date Country Theme

1874 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Joseph Strauss composes the opera Die Fledermaus.

1874 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The first Emirati historian Abdullah Saleh al-Mutawa’ is born in Sharjah.

1874 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

Kasper von Zumbusch (1830–1915) begins work on a monument to Empress Maria Theresia, situated on Maria-Theresien-Platz at the Ringstrasse in Vienna.

1874 Egypt Migrations

Khedive Isma‘il attempts to reduce slave trading and extends Egypt’s rule in Africa. Managing to annex Darfur in 1874, he is prevented from further expansion into Ethiopia when his army is defeated by the Emperor Yohannes IV.

1874 - 1885 Spain Political Context

Restoration of the monarchy. A military uprising under General Martínez Campos in Sagunto against the Republic returns the throne to the Bourbon Dynasty, with Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) as King.

1874 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Beginnings of the Macedonian amateur theatre in Veles initiated by educator and playwright Jordan Hadzi Konstantinov-Dzinot (1821–82). Professional theatres open in the late 19th century. Vojadan Chernodrinski (1875–1951) is considered one of the founders of the Macedonian theatre. The premiere for his best-known play, the tragedy Macedonian Bloody Wedding was held in Sofia, Bulgaria, on 7 November 1900.

1874 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

“Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing more than medicine on a large scale”, Rudolf Virchow stated in defence of public health and the building of hospitals in Berlin (i.e. Friedrichshain (1874), Moabit (1875, now closed) and Am Urban (1890); even parks and playgrounds were important to improve city life for the proletariat, Virchow continued.

1874 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the residential blocks of Akaretler (Istanbul) by the architect Agob Balian. They are built for the elite staff of the nearby Dolmabahçe Palace.

1875 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past

The Saint Louis Museum in Carthage is founded in the former seminary of the White Fathers. Date Country Theme

1875 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes

The creation of Sadiki College based on a modern concept of education: the school separates from the mosque and a distinction is made between educational structures and those of the religious life.

1875 - 1893 Romania Political Context

Creation of the first Romanian political parties: the Liberal Party (1875), the Conservative Party (1880), the Radical-Democratic Party (1888), and the Social- Democratic Party of Romanian Labourers (1893).

1875 France Rediscovering The Past

Creation of the French School of Rome (excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum).

1875 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as a transshipment centre for traffic to and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.

1875 Lebanon Reforms And Social Changes

Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities, which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent years including, in 1883, a Faculty of Medicine.

1875 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Edmund Count Széchényi establishes Turkey’s first fire brigade in Istanbul.

1875 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as a transshipment centre for traffic to and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.

1875 - 1887 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

Lingah, on the Persian littoral of the Gulf, serves as a conduit for the Trucial Coast’s imports from British India, including cloth, coffee, flour and rice. It is governed as a free port under Qawasim administration.

Late 19th century Greece Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

Mavrokordatos Mansion is built in the Kipseli neighbourhood in Athens for the well- known political family of that name.

Late 19th century Greece Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Evangelismos in Br#ila, Romania.

1875 Greece Rediscovering The Past

Excavations begin at Olympia under the German archaeologist Ernst Curtius; they continue under German leadership until World War II.

Late 19th century Greece Rediscovering The Past

The “early conservator” Panagiotis Kaloudis works on the restoration of the Chaironia Lion.

1875 Austria Migrations

Gustav Mahler (1860–1911) is born in Kališt# in Bohemia; he emigrates from there to Vienna in 1875.

1875 - 1878 Serbia Political Context

During the 1875 Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion against Ottoman authority, the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro provide the insurgents with moral, material and military support, which leads to the first Serbo-Turkish War in 1876. Having been a long time in preparation, the rebellion is widespread and raises questions not only about Serbia but also about the East, thus becoming an event of European importance. Its outcome is the convocation of the Berlin Congress (1878), at which both Serbia and Montenegro gain independence, and Austria- Hungary takes over Bosnia-Herzegovina.

1875 - 1876 Egypt Economy And Trade

In December 1875 Stephen Cave and John Stokes are sent by the British Government to inquire into the finances of Egypt. Their report, published in April 1876, advises that in view of the perceived “waste and extravagance” it is necessary for foreign powers to interfere to restore credit.

1875 Egypt Migrations

The Egyptian Geographic Society is established by a decree of Khedive Isma‘il Pasha on 19 May 1875. Its first president is the German botanist, traveller and ethnologist Georg August Schweinfurth.

1875 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

The Dictionary of Three Languages by Gjorgji Pulevski (d. 1893) is published in Belgrade. It shows the political context and coexistence of Macedonians, Albanians and Turks in the territory of Macedonia. It gives words in Macedonian, Albanian Date Country Theme and Turkish in three columns. Pulevski was also the author of the Dictionary of Four Languages.

1875 - 1876 Portugal Economy And Trade

In 1875 the French government convenes the Diplomatic Conference of the Metre that proclaims the Metre Convention. Portugal receives the tenth copies of the metric and kilogram standards.

1875 Portugal Travelling

Aware that Portuguese empirical knowledge of Central Africa was being overtaken by other countries, the “Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa” is founded to "promote and assist the study and progress of geography and related sciences in Portugal". To raise awareness of the colonial Portuguese possessions in Africa and Asia was also a goal.

1875 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Opening of the Palais Garnier.

1875 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities, which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent years.

1875 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novel Taa##uk-u Talat ve Fitnat (The Romance of Talat and Fitnat) by #emseddin Sami (1850–1904). This book is considered to be the starting point of the Ottoman novel.

1876 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

19 February: birth of the great Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncu#i, author of sculptures such as Mademoiselle Pogany, The Kiss, Bird in Space, and The Endless Column. His works are today exhibited in museums in France, the USA and Romania.

1876 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

Foundation of the Romanian Red Cross.

1876 Italy Rediscovering The Past

In Rome, Luigi Pigorini founds the National Prehistoric Ethnographic Museum, enriching with new acquisitions the ethnographic and prehistoric collection previously belonging to the Kircher Museum, founded in the 17th century.

1876 Spain Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme

Following the curtailment of academic freedom in the university, a group of professors expelled from Madrid University introduces in Spain a new education system under the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution for Education), a secular private project that would modernise all levels of the education system between 1876 and 1936. This initiative was to have an important impact on some of the most important Spanish intellectuals.

1876 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

In 1870, after attending universities in Edinburgh and London, Scottish-born Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) immigrates to Canada before becoming professor of vocal physiology at Boston. There, in pursuit of a device to help the deaf, Bell invented the telephone, which he patented in February 1876 only days ahead of other rivals. It was not until 10 March 1876 that the famous words “Mr Watson, come here; I want you” were transmitted by telephone. He formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877.

1876 Portugal Political Context

Partido Histórico and Partido Reformista merge into the Partido Progressista in September. Power alternation with the Partido Regenerador framed rotativism. They were able to carry out some urgent reforms but in the end the system soon degenerated into political conformism.

1876 - 1881 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

The "Urban General Improvements Plan for Lisbon" (Commission of 1876–81) designs wide, straight roads – modern boulevards – to define orthogonal blocks for buildings, with roundabouts, pavements, vegetation and street furniture namely at Avenida 24 de Julho, Avenida da Liberdade and covering the area from Picoas to Campo Grande.

1876 Portugal International Exhibitions

“Centennial International Exhibition” Philadelphia, USA. Support for visitors and accommodation of the Portuguese Commissariat were the main purposes of a stylish and exotic Portugal Pavilion.

1876 - 1909 Turkey Political Context

Reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II.

1876 France Fine And Applied Arts

Dance at Le moulin de la Galette by the Impressionist painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir.

1876 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Robert Koch discovers bacteriology.

1876 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

By 1876 Beirut has increased 10–12 times its size in 1841. Eleven districts are added and Danish acting Consul Julius Loyvted draws the new map and presents it to Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II. Banks, quarantine office, quays, railway office, telegraph, post office, police stations and offices for foreign agencies are all established in the existing city centre.

1876 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

The construction of Dolmabahçe Mosque by Agob Balian.

1876 Turkey Political Context

23 December: Promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution.

1877 - 1881 Romania Political Context

After Parliament declares Romania’s independence (May 1877), Romania participates alongside Russia in the Russian-Ottoman war. The Congress of Berlin (1878) recognises the independence of Romania, which receives the greater part of Dobruja, but cedes the south of Bessarabia to Russia. In March 1881 Romania is proclaimed a kingdom. Prince Carol and his wife Elizabeth are crowned as King and Queen of Romania in May in Bucharest.

1877 - 1882 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

Ion Georgescu, considered to be the first Romanian modern sculptor, studies in Paris, where he exhibits his first works.

1877 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Austrian glass manufacture Lobmayr produces glass cups in the Oriental Style.

1877 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The “Coppino Law” makes elementary schools mandatory and free of charge.

1877 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Viennese Stock Market is completed to a design by Theophil Hansen.

1877 Austria Migrations

Karl Krauss (1874–1936) is born in Ji#ín in Bohemia; he emigrates from Bohemia to Vienna in 1877, where his famous journal Die Fackel (The Torch) is published in 1898.

1877 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Yaqub Sanu‘ founds the satirical magazine Abu Naddara early in this year. It has immediate and wide appeal to both the literate and the illiterate, who find someone to read it to them. Date Country Theme

1877 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Ponte Dona Maria Pia, a bridge over the Douro River, completes the Lisbon–Porto railway line. Designed by Gustave Eiffel and Théophile Seyrig, the bridge keeps the beauty of the Douro unchanged. It was built where the banks are closer. It was named after the Queen.

1877 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of Teixeira de Pascoaes (d. 1952). This poet was the main representative of the aesthetic and doctrinal movement called “saudosismo”, a form of existentialism, and a leader of the movement Renascença Portuguesa. In 1910 he launched in Porto the magazine A Águia, the main resource of the “saudosismo” movement .

1877 Portugal Travelling

Hermenegildo Capelo, Roberto Ivens and Serpa Pinto appointed to organise an expedition to southern Africa. After a briefing by Silva Porto in Bié, they chose separate itineraries. Capelo and Ivens focus on the Kwanza and Kuangu rivers and on the Yaka people. Serpa Pinto picks the Zambezi River and eventually reaches the Transvaal.

1877 - 1878 Turkey Migrations

Mass Balkan migration. After the Russo-Turkish War (called the ’93 War by Turks) between 1 and 1.5 million people are driven from the Balkans to the Ottoman heartlands.

1877 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

German archaeologist Carl Humann (1839–96) begins excavating Pergamon. He would later conduct excavations in Zincirli (1888) and Magnesia (1892).

1877 Turkey Political Context

19 March: Opening of the parliament.

1878 - 1906 Jordan Migrations

Circassian and Chechen refugees settled by the Ottomans help to create new agricultural villages in Transjordan. Two waves of immigrants reach Jordan between 1878 and 1906. The first wave (1878–84) settles in Amman, Wadi al-Sir and Jerash, and the second wave (1901–06) in Na’ur, al-Zarqa, Sukhna, Rusayfa and Suwaylih. A Turkmen community founds a village at al-Rumman in the area of Jerash. Christian families from al-Salt establish new villages in al-Fuhays and Rumaymin while Christian settlers from Karak settle in Madaba. Palestinian and Damascene merchants to settle in al-Salt, Karak, Ajlun and, later, Amman.

1878 - 1881 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces

The Iliou Melathron is designed by architect Ernst Ziller as the residence of the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann and his family. Date Country Theme

1878 United Kingdom Political Context

Uprisings in the Balkan Ottoman territories lead to disproportionate reprisals. Popular protests in Britain oppose support for the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the Crimean War, Britain provides no military aid to the Ottomans in their war with Russia. Diplomatic support is rewarded however, with Britain’s occupation of Cyprus confirmed at the Congress of Berlin.

1878 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Opening of Lisbon Botanical Garden. During the 19th century Portugal aspires to reach the level of economic and social “progress” of other European countries in, for example, education and teaching. Natural History Museum and the Lisbon Botanical Garden were important institutions for scientific research and the exchange and circulation of ideas and natural knowledge.

1878 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

28 September: The first electric lighting on the terrace of the Citadel of Cascais to celebrate the 15th birthday of future King Carlos I (ruling from 1889). A ball commemorates the electric lighting premiere. The daily press celebrate the occasion, saying that the electric light turned the entrance and the royal residence balconies into “a clear and luminous day’’.

1878 Portugal International Exhibitions

At the Paris “Exposition Universelle”, the Portuguese Pavilion sets up a sophisticated, emblematic scenario, portraying the monasteries of Batalha and Jerónimos, two of the magnificent symbols of the 15th and 16th Portuguese Discoveries.

1878 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The anti-Socialist laws known as Sozialistengesetz prohibit socialist organisations, meetings and publications.

1878 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

The Law School is opened.

1878 Turkey Political Context

3 March: Russo-Turco Treaty of St Stefano defines Bulgaria, which includes present-day Bulgaria, present-day Macedonia and northern Greece.

1878 Turkey Political Context

13 March: Abdülhamid II dissolves parliament.

1878 Austria Political Context

In June the signatories at the Congress of Berlin grant Austria the right to occupy and fully administer Bosnia and Herzegovina for an undetermined period. Date Country Theme

1879 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

18–20 January: the National Theatre of Bucharest premieres the comedy A Stormy Night by Ion Luca Caragiale, the greatest Romanian playwright. It is Caragiale’s first staged play and is a great public success.

1879 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Creation of the telephone network in France.

1879 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

A British-enforced Treaty is signed to ensure the mutual surrender of fraudulently absconding debtors in the pearling industry. It is signed by the Trucial Sheikhs in the presence of Haji Abdul Rahman, the Residency Agent at Sharjah, and Haji Abdul al-Qasimi, the Residency Munshi who had been deputed from Bushire to convey the directives of the British Resident.

1879 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

Hans Makart (1840–84) designs the “Makart Parade” to celebrate the Silver wedding anniversary of the Imperial couple, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Empress Elisabeth (“Sisi”).

1879 - 1882 Egypt Political Context

The ’Urabi Revolution, led by Colonel Ahmed ’Urabi, erupts in February 1879 and continues until 1882. It is the first revolution of the modern age in Egypt.

1879 Spain Rediscovering The Past

Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola and his daughter discover the cave paintings of Altamira. De Sautuola and Juan Vilanova y Piera in an 1880 publication identify them as Palaeolithic, meeting scepticism and ridicule until the discovery of similar paintings elsewhere results in recognition of their findings in 1902. Famous for drawings and polychrome paintings of animals and human hands the cave is now a national museum and World Heritage site.

1879 - 1888 Spain Reforms And Social Changes

Pablo Iglesias founds the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE – Spanish Socialist Party) in 1879; under his leadership the socialists institute the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT – General Workers' Union) in 1888, with liberals in power. At the same time the anarchist movement creates associations that later will become trade unions.

1879 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

11 October: The labour association Voz do Operário is founded in Lisbon by Custódio Gomes and Custódio Braz Pacheco, two factory workers in the tobacco industry, to defend the rights of the workers more disrespected and threatened than ever by the tobacco industry crisis of 1879. Date Country Theme

1879 Germany Economy And Trade

The German Empire moves from a free-trade system to protective duty.

1879 Germany International Exhibitions

The Great Industrial Exposition is held at the Lehrter Bahnhof in Berlin, where one of main attractions is the first electric locomotive from Siemens & Halske.

1879 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

4 May: Judicial reform extends the administrative authority of Ministry of Justice over mixed courts.

1880 - 1890 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts

It was the era of eclecticism. The French Protectorate builds the regency’s infrastructure in the European classical tradition, constructing monuments in the impressive Greco-Roman style.

1880 - 1914 Tunisia Migrations

Italian and French farmers settle in agricultural areas of the Regency of Tunis.

1880 Romania Economy And Trade

29 April: promulgation of the law for the founding of the National Bank of Romania.

1880 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Grigore Tocilescu’s book Dacia before the Romans is awarded the grand prize of the Academic Society, for the best work on the history of Dacia before the Roman conquest.

1880 - 1920 France Economy And Trade

The industrial boom is fuelled by technological innovations (i.e. electricity, cinema, the car and aeroplane). Advances in metallurgy results in construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1889.

1880 France Rediscovering The Past

Excavations of French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero (1846–1916) in Egypt.

1880 Lebanon Migrations

A small number of Lebanese people emigrate to the USA, the first of a wave of migration abroad.

1880 - 1887 Italy Economy And Trade Date Country Theme

Italy is hit by the international agricultural crisis and annual per capita income decreases.

1880 - 1887 Italy Migrations

As a consequence of agricultural crisis, mass migration starts.

1880 - 1889 Italy Migrations

Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 37,000; USA 24,000; Argentina 39,000; Brazil 22,000.

1880 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Anna Maria Mozzoni and Paolina Schiff (an academic) found the League for the Promotion of Women’s Interests, the first feminist organisation in Italy.

1880s - 1910s Italy Travelling

The growth of a European middle class and the improvement of transportation make tourism possible for increasing numbers of European citizens. According to very tentative estimates, 450,000 foreign tourists visited Italy in 1897 and 900,000 in 1911.

1880 - 1893 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Corinth Canal opens.

1880 - 1920 Greece Migrations

Approximately 400,000 Greeks migrate to America due to widespread unemployment and economic problems.

1880s United Kingdom Migrations

European Zionism initiates a small migration, mostly from Russia – especially after the pogroms – to Palestine. Among the Jewish community in Palestine are ancestors of Jewish migrants from the 15th and 16th centuries who fled the Iberian Peninsula after their expulsion by Ferdinand and Isabella.

1880 Morocco Political Context

The intention of the 1880 Madrid Conference, reflected in the agreements signed by Morocco under the reign of Mulay al-Hasan I and the countries of Europe, is to enhance the benefits of reform in Morocco and to provide a legal and regulatory framework for Mulay al-Hasan I. Following these agreements, the European countries won the right to own land and assets throughout Morocco. The agreements were the result of globalisation of Moroccan business.

1880 - 1910 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The emergence of musical nationalism. Various musicians and composers, such as Isaac Albéniz, Enrique Granados and Manuel de Falla, develop musical styles identified with Spanish traditions and folklore, including flamenco.

1880s onwards Spain Travelling

Travelling to North Africa, Egypt or the Turkish Empire becomes part of the leisure travels of wealthy families of Spain.

1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

Celebration of the third centenary of the death of Luís de Camões. His poetry is considered the epitome of Portuguese literature both for The Lusiads, the epic national poem in which Vasco da Gama tells the history of Portugal to the Samorim (king) of Calcutta upon his arrival in India in 1498, and for his love sonnets.

1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

The 11th International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology is held in Lisbon. This important conference gives international recognition to the dynamism that Portuguese archaeology has demonstrated since 1850.

1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

The remains of the poet Luís de Camões and the explorer Vasco da Gama are moved to the Jerónimos Monastery. Vasco da Gama and Luís de Camões (north and south side respectively), the two main representatives of the 16th-century The Lusiads epic poem, are honored and rest beside members of the Avis dynasty buried in Jerónimos.

1880 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

3 October: Barbadinhos steam pumping station is inaugurated. The water from the Alviela Canal starts to be pumped thus increasing the water supply to Lisbon.

1880 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novella O Mandarim (The Mandarin) by Eça de Queirós (Queiroz) (1845–1900).

1880 - 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts

Trends in painting in this period include: "Post-Impressionism" (i.e. Cézanne, Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec, van Gogh); Pointillism (i.e. Seurat, Signac); Symbolism (i.e. Moreau, Puvis de Chavannes, Redon); Les Nabis (i.e. Bonnard, Denis, Sérusier, Vuillard) and Primitivism (i.e. Matisse, Rousseau).

1880 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Soirées de Médan, a collection of short stories by Guy de Maupassant, Émile Zola, etc., is considered to be the Naturalist manifesto.

1880 - 1900 Germany Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme

The painting by Franz von Stuck, Die Sünde (1893), exemplifies the period in art known as Post-Imperialism and Symbolism.

1880 - 1914 Germany Migrations

More than 5 million migrants from Russia and the Habsburg Empire journey through Germany on their way to America.

Since 1880 Germany Migrations

Foreign workers (especially from Austria-Hungary, Russia and Poland) arrive in the German Empire in increasing numbers to work in seasonal agriculture.

From 1880 Germany Migrations

As the process of Industrialisation in the so-called Ruhrgebiet region develops, Polish miners and farmhands migrate to the Ruhr, which becomes a place known as Ruhrpoland.

From 1880 Germany Migrations

Germany’s colonisation of Namibia, Tanzania, Cameroon and Togo.

1880 - 1900 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of “Naturalism” in literature (i.e. the works of Hauptmann, Holz and Schlaf) is characterised by a reality without embellishment or subjective insight (the radicalisation of realism).

1880 Germany Travelling

The dome of Cologne is completed (construction began in 1248). It is the tallest church building in the world at the time.

1881 - 1920 Tunisia Economy And Trade

Crises, both within the country’s social structures and the national economy, are the result of the protectorate’s grip over all the regency’s administration.

1881 - 1883 Tunisia Political Context

At the metropolitan palace, Muhammad Sadiq Bey signs the treaty imposed by the French Protectorate known as the Treaty of Bardo (or Treaty of Kasser al-Sa‘id). This is followed by the Convention of Marsa in 1883. The Regency of Tunis passes from Ottoman suzerainty to French domination.

1881 - 1884 Tunisia Political Context

Tunisians put up stiff resistance to French occupation without any external support. The Sublime Porte, itself threatened by the Western powers, limits the show of protest against the French occupation. Date Country Theme

1881 France International Exhibitions

The Paris-based International Exhibition of Electricity presents the telephone and light bulbs.

1881 France Reforms And Social Changes

The (Jules) Ferry Law establishes free, compulsory and secular primary education for all French children.

1881 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

Designs for a telephone network in Vienna.

1881 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Construction of the telephone network in Vienna.

1881 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Italian telephone services run by private companies start operating.

1881 Italy International Exhibitions

The first Italian National Industrial Exhibition is held in Milan.

1881 - 1901 Italy Migrations

2,251,463 people migrate from Italy; 67 per cent of them go to the USA.

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

At La Scala Theatre in Milan, premiere of Excelsior, mimic ballet by Luigi Manzotti, music by Romualdo Marenco. Through 11 allegorical scenes glorifying 19th- century scientific and industrial progress (steam-engine, electric light, telegraph, Suez Canal, Fréjus Rail Tunnel, etc.), it celebrates the triumph of Light over Obscurantism.

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giovanni Verga (1840–1922) publishes the novel I malavoglia (published in English as The House by the Medlar-Tree), which describes the life of a family of Sicilian fishermen. Verga was the most important author of the Italian realist school known as verismo.

1881 United Kingdom Economy And Trade

When the Ottoman Empire is declared bankrupt, an Ottoman Public Debt Commission is established made up of an international body – mainly British, French and German – to manage the Empire’s finances. This becomes a form of veiled European control of Turkey’s economy. This followed a similar imposition of financial control over Egypt’s finances. Date Country Theme

1881 Austria Economy And Trade

The Osterreichische-Alpine Montan-Gesellschaft is founded to mine the rich iron resources of north-west Styria.

1881 Spain Fine And Applied Arts

Birth of Pablo Picasso in Málaga. In Spain Picasso’s birth date would be established as the boundary between works of art in the Academic style and the avant-garde style.

1881 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Portugal Contemporâneo, by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Detailed analysis of the events between 1826 and 1868, it is considered the most clear-sighted study of Portugal in the 19th century. The author makes a general criticism of Portuguese liberalism, presented as a historical account.

1881 Portugal Travelling

With a thorough knowledge of the African hinterland, António da Silva Porto appeals to the Sociedade de Geografia to sponsor a plan for the scientific and commercial exploitation of Africa. The remote hinterland was about to be discovered by explorers and Africa’s boundaries defined by the colonial powers.

1881 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Werner von Siemens develops the tram.

1881 Austria Political Context

The alliance of the three Emperors of Germany, Russia and Austria recognise the Habsburg Empire’s predominance in the western Balkans. In June, Austria reaches an agreement with King Milan I of Serbia, whereby Austria promises to support an eventual Serbian expansion in the south, while Serbia agrees to exclude any agreement with other powers without Austria’s prior approval.

1882 Tunisia Migrations

Inauguration of the new Catholic Cathedral in Tunis, designed in the monumental Greco-Roman style, in line with the image France intends to convey in the early days of its protectorate over the regency.

1882 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past

The Alaoui Museum is founded in the bey’s palace in Bardo, in a wing of the complex formerly used to host the bey’s harem.

1882 - 1888 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

Swiss engineers Carl Culmann and Arnold Burkly-Ziegler are contracted to develop a water supply network for Bucharest. Date Country Theme

1882 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

In Bucharest the first electric generators are installed and used to illuminate some important buildings of the city (the Royal Palace, the Cotroceni Palace, the National Theatre), Victory Avenue and Ci#migiu Park.

1882 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Grigore Tocilescu begins to research the remains of the Roman town Tropaeum Traiani (modern Adamclisi in Dobruja).

1882 - 1884 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

On the occasion of the 1884 General Exhibition of Turin, construction of the Rocca (castle) and the Borgo Medievale (medieval village) in Parco del Valentino (Valentino Park) in order to promote appreciation for 15th-century Piedmont architecture. In 1884, the Municipality of Turin buys part of this area, where it will later locate the Civic Museums.

1882 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Gotthard Rail Tunnel between Italy and Switzerland opens (14.9 km). The construction work had started in 1872.

1882 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Brera Picture Gallery, originally created by Maria Teresa of Austria in 1776, becomes an independent museum.

1882 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

In order to fight malaria, Parliament approves a law on drainage of swamps. Malaria plagues about one-third of Italian territory, where 10 per cent of the population lives.

1882 Italy Political Context

Electoral reform: the right to vote is extended to 7 per cent of the Italian population, by lowering the age limit (from 25 to 21) and the level of income required.

1882 Italy Political Context

The Triple Alliance formed (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary).

1882 - 1896 Italy Political Context

Italy’s first African war: in 1882 Italy starts colonial expansion in the Horn of Africa; in 1890, Eritrea becomes an Italian colony. Afterwards, Italy attempts to penetrate into Ethiopia and suffers a crushing defeat at Adwa (the biggest African victory over a colonial army): Italy loses 4,000 Italian and 2,000 colonial soldiers. The Crispi government resigns.

1882 Italy Travelling Date Country Theme

The municipality of Cervia (on the Adriatic Sea) builds a bathing establishment explicitly intended for the middle class: previously a prerogative of the elite, beach tourism starts to become a more widely practised activity.

1882 - 1898 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Weaponry is developed with lethal effect during the 19th century. The Civil War in the United States stimulates this expansion, but weapons of mass destruction – notably the Maxim gun – spread with European imperial ambitions. A huge disparity of power is created, shown by British military victories in Egypt (1882) and Sudan (1898).

1882 United Kingdom Reforms And Social Changes

With the British occupation of Egypt comes growth in European-imported ideas and fashions. Egypt becomes a significant tourist destination for wealthier Europeans. English and French –especially French – become commonly used languages.

1882 United Kingdom Political Context

Britain also acquires indirect control over Egypt, with an occupying army and control over Egyptian finances and administration. Egyptian tourism flourishes and with it a superficial economic development – an affluent class, construction of railways and building projects. However, European cultural influences in Egypt are mostly French.

1882 Serbia Political Context

The first king of Serbia in the modern age is Milan Obrenovi#, Prince (1822–82) and King (1882–89). From the start of his independent reign, Knez Milan works to build up the military, and sides with Russia in his foreign policy. He declares war on Turkey in 1876, but it ends in Serbia’s defeat due to poorly prepared diplomatic policy. The signing of the Treaty of San Stefano (made between the two countries after the Russo-Turkish War) is followed by an about-face in Knez Milan’s policy as he turns more and more to Austria-Hungary. A decision by the Congress of Berlin in 1878 grants Serbia independence, while the Secret Convention (between Serbia and Austria-Hungary) binds Austria-Hungary into declaring Serbia a kingdom in 1882.

1882 Egypt Political Context

Britain occupies Egypt.

1882 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces

Madrid has two "extensions": the first had been designed by the Marquis of Salamanca in 1860; the second, in 1882, is a modern design by Arturo Soria known as “Ciudad Lineal” (linear city), a plan for an elongated urban formation. The city will consist of a series of functionally specialised parallel sectors.

1882 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The concession for telephone lines is signed and they are first installed in Lisbon and Porto. The first telephone list of Lisbon is published with 22 numbers located Date Country Theme around 1.5 km from the telephone exchange. Public telephone cabins were installed and opened from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m. though always available to firemen, police and doctors.

1882 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

White Houses of Capri by naturalist painter António Carvalho da Silva Porto (1850– 93) represents the new interest in travelling and other cultures.

1882 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Inauguration of the first public kindergarten in Lisbon and Porto by followers of the Froebel method. The pupils, aged from 3 to 7 years, are divided into four age groups, each with a classroom; the plan includes a games room, toilets, offices and a refectory. The method respected the learning rhythm of the children and created didactic tools.

1882 France Fine And Applied Arts

The Thinker by the sculptor Auguste Rodin.

1882 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Robert Koch discovers the cause of tuberculosis.

1882 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

Birth of #brahim Çall# (d. 1960). He was a prominent painter who was sent to Paris between 1910 and 1914 where he studied in the workshop of Fernand Cormon.

1882 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

28 September: Bayezid Kütüphânesi, the first public library in #stanbul is founded.

1883 (18 October) - 1883 (30 Romania Political Context October)

30 October: by signing a treaty with Austro-Hungary, to which Germany adheres the same day and Italy in 1888, Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance.

1883 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

6 June: the death of Romanian composer Ciprian Porumbescu, at the age of only 29. One of the melodies he composed will be adopted for Albania’s national anthem in 1912.

1883 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

A credit-fuelled “construction fever” explodes in Rome and in the other urban centres.

1883 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme

In Milan, the first thermoelectric power station in Europe is inaugurated.

1883 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Inauguration of the National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, in the Exhibition Palace by Pio Piacentini. It is intended to focus on “national” art.

1883 - 1914 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Sheikh Saqr II bin Khalid bin Sultan al-Qasimi, ruler of Sharjah, is also acknowledged as one of the greatest poets of his time. He is the grandfather of the current Sheikh of Sharjah (Sheikh Sultan bin Mohammad al-Qasimi).

1883 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Czech writer Frank Kafka is born in Prague; he dies in Klosterneuburg, Austria, in 1924.

1883 - 1903 Egypt Economy And Trade

The Egyptian Exchange, one of the oldest stock markets in the Middle East, traces its origins to 1883 when the Alexandria Stock Exchange is established, followed by the Cairo Stock Exchange in 1903.

1883 Egypt Travelling

Arriving in Egypt as diplomatic agent and Consul-General of Britain, Sir Evelyn Baring’s (Lord Cromer’s) first task is to demand that Khedive Muhammad Tawfiq should abandon Sudan. Tawfiq consents reluctantly, but having done so he then does everything he can to ensure success of the policy that Baring has been sent to carry out.

1883 Portugal Travelling

A Commission of Cartography is created to prepare an atlas of all Portuguese colonies and map three expeditions to Africa. The first expedition (1884–85), undertaken by Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo Capelo, starts in Moçâmedes in Angola (in present-day Namibia) aiming to reach to the east coast. The expedition members would face risks from hunger, cold, harsh nature, the wildlife and the tsetse fly.

1883 - 1889 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Imperial Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initiates German social laws and the basic system for a modern social state.

1883 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

Opening of the School of Fine Arts (Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) by Osman Hamdi Bey. It consists of sections for painting, sculpture and architecture.

1883 Turkey Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme

Osman Hamdi Bey, Ottoman administrator and archaeologist excavates in Nemrud. Publication of his book Le Tumulus de Nemroud-Dagh.

1883 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Nam#k Kemal writes Renan Müdafanamesi (Critique of Renan), a book on Islam and science.

1883 Austria Political Context

In October, the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef concludes a secret alliance with the Hohenzollern King of Romania, Carol I, against Russia.

1884 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

12 October: Timi#oara is the first European city where electric street lighting is introduced not only on some streets, but also across the entire city. An electric plant is built and 731 incandescent lamps with coal filament installed, covering an area of 10 km2.

1884 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The inauguration of the first railway line (Buz#u–M#r##e#ti) designed and built by Romanian engineers.

1884 France Reforms And Social Changes

Unionism (“workers’ and employers professional associations”) becomes legal in France.

1884 - 1919 Lebanon Economy And Trade

The old Egyptian port undergoes several important changes: buildings are extended, a commercial tribunal is constructed, and the land area is expanded by infilling with rocks brought by railway from Nahr al-Kalb.

1884 - 1885 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

First experiments of electric street lighting in Turin and Milan.

1884 Italy International Exhibitions

The General Italian Exhibition in Turin attracts 3 million visitors.

1884 - 1885 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Cholera epidemic causes 7,000 deaths in Naples and 2,500 in Palermo (out of a total 21,000 deaths). The government starts programmes of urban renewal in Naples and other towns (the most effective tool to prevent new epidemics).

1884 Serbia Political Context Date Country Theme

The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.

1884 Serbia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.

1884 - 1885 Portugal Political Context

Berlin Conference called by Portugal to regulate European colonisation and convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The Portuguese government presents the "Pink Map”, a project uniting the colonies of Angola and Mozambique through the corridor of land that separates them. The proposal is rejected by England although endorsed by the majority of countries.

1884 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Estacio Pharmacy in Porto founded in 1883 starts to produce the first pills for medication. The preparation of manipulated medicines in the apothecaries of the Catholic monasteries and convents (Boticas de Convento) is replaced by the production of medicines by laboratory pharmacies.

1884 - 1888 Portugal Travelling

The Muatiânvua Expedition to Angolan’s Lunda territory led by Major Henrique de Carvalho provides exceptional scientific data on meteorology, zoology, ethnography and linguistics and photographic records. This second great expedition aims to counter the diversion of trade from Malanje to Zaire implemented by other colonial countries.

1884 - 1890 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Gottlieb Daimler develops the petrol engine and Rudolf Diesel invents the diesel engine.

1884 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The goal in founding the Society for German Colonization was to acquire colonial territories overseas.

1884 - 1885 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Germany establishes protectorates in south-west Africa, Cameroon, Togo, East Africa and New Guinea.

1884 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

7 May: An industrial school for girls is opened in #stanbul.

1885 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

8 May: The renowned Romanian soprano Hariclea Darclée makes her debut at the Paris Opéra, as Marguerite in Charles Gounod’s Faust. Date Country Theme

1885 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

After the 1884–85 cholera epidemic hits Naples (the fourth cholera epidemic hitting the city since 1835), the government starts a redevelopment plan to clear Naples of slums and improve its sewerage and water systems. Similar renewal plans will be extended to other cities.

1885 Egypt Economy And Trade

Alexandria’s Futures Market is one of the oldest in the world. The first recorded local cotton transaction takes place in 1885 in Café de l’Europe on the Place des Consuls, later renamed Muhammad ‘Ali Square. It is here that cotton merchants meet and cut deals based on supply and demand for the long staple, Karnak and Menuf, or the short to medium staple, Ashmuni, Giza and Zagora. Over the years, deals extend to cottonseed varieties such as Hull, Afifi and Sakellaridis.

1885 - 1889 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The singer Salama Hijazi turns to acting with the Kirdahi and al-Haddad troupes. Through his contributions, many musical theatre troupes emerge such as Aziz Eed, Naguib al-Rihani and ‘Ali al-Kassar. As one of the first artists to travel abroad, Hijazi achieves worldwide acclaim for his musical and theatrical works. Warmly welcomed in Italy, Syria and Tunisia, he is granted awards of appreciation by many international governments. Hijazi’s statue stands at the Museum of Napoli.

1885 Spain Political Context

Death of King Alfonso XII. Alfonso XIII born posthumously. Pacto de El Pardo: agreement between liberals and conservatives to rule the country by turns. Regency of Queen María Cristina until 1902 when King Alfonso XIII comes of age.

1885 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)

The earliest portrait in Macedonian art that is not part of religious depiction, a portrait of a child is painted by Dimitar Andonov of Papradishte (1859–1954). Dimitar Andonov was one of the last Macedonian “zographs” (icon painters) and the founder of Macedonian profane art.

1885 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

O Grupo Do Leão painted by Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro is a landmark in 19th- century painting both for its quality and for its subject matter. The depicted group of artists in the Leão beer house were linked to the Portuguese Naturalist and Realist painting movement. This work became famous and marked the beginning of a period of great artistic activity.

1885 Portugal International Exhibitions

“Exposition Universelle”, Antwerp. Sponsored by the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa and Banco Nacional Ultramarino, the Portuguese Pavilion reflects a strong Islamic influence.

1885 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The birth of Guilhermina Suggia (d. 1950). This great Portuguese cellist was a pupil of Pablo Casals, with whom she lived for some years. The two were considered the world’s greatest cellists. She played as a soloist with prestigious orchestras. She devoted the last years of her life to teaching but continued to give concerts.

1885 Portugal Travelling

21 June: the expedition of Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo Capelo reaches Quelimane, Mozambique, after 14 months. Throughout their 8,300 km expedition across the African hinterland, Ivens wrote and drew sketches and maps, while Capelo collected specimens of plants, rocks and animals. The constant desertions and sickness and death of the bearers increased the danger and uncertainty.

1885 Portugal Travelling

20 September: After their return to Lisbon a triumphal reception was offered to Capelo and Ivens by several Portuguese associations. During the solemn session organised by the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa (SGL) at the Teatro Real de S. Carlos, following their lectures, the explorers receive the SGL gold medal from King Luís I.

1885 - 1887 Portugal Travelling

The third great expedition, undertaken by Serpa Pinto and Augusto Cardoso, aims to establish a trade corridor between the eastern region of lakes, and the coast of Mozambique. Major Serpa Pinto fell ill and was replaced by Augusto Cardoso who reached Quelimane after a journey of 2,500 km lasting 20 months, during which some agreements were signed with African chiefs.

1885 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Part of the Old Serail in Zahlé is used to house the local prison, with severe overcrowding. The prison was moved to a better location in 2009. Still known as the Old Serail, the restored monument today serves as the Town Hall and houses the offices of the municipality and a museum illustrating Zahlé’s history.

1886 Tunisia Travelling

Muhammad Sadiq Bey on a visit to Algiers is received by Napoleon III.

1886 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 9 from working in factories and mines and those under the age of 12 from working at night.

1886 Greece Fine And Applied Arts

Nikolaos Gyzis, one of Greece’s most important 19th-century painters, becomes professor at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich.

1886 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Completion of the construction of Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon. Engineer Frederico Ressano Garcia (1847–1911) followed Joseph Pezarat’s plans. Inspired Date Country Theme by Haussmann’s Parisian boulevards, Avenida da Liberdade is testimony to the economic boom of the Fontismo period, with new residential areas built for investment and profit.

1886 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Opening of D. Luís I road bridge over the Douro River in Porto. At the time this iconic bridge held the record for the longest iron arch in the world (180 m.) It was a huge advance for the urban traffic network since it allowed a road connection between Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia over the Douro.

1886 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Augusto Hilário (1864–96), the quintessential fado singer of Coimbra, enrols at the University of Coimbra and became a symbol of “Coimbra Serenade”. "Fado Hilário" is his best known work as a composer and writer.

1886 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler invent the modern automobile.

Since 1886 Germany Travelling

Seven weeks after the death of King Ludwig II in 1886, Neuschwanstein Castle – built in order that the king could withdraw from public life – opened to the public.

1886 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

26 February: Mihri Mü#fik Han#m, one of the first female painters of renown, is born.

1887 France Travelling

The birth of the French Riviera, originally frequented by wealthy English patrons.

1887 - 1918 Austria Migrations

The son of an Austrian general, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha becomes King of Bulgaria; he leaves Bulgaria and immigrates to Germany in 1918.

1887 - 1906 Jordan Reforms And Social Changes

In 1887 a land register is established for the district of Ajlun. In the district of al- Balqa communal land is converted to private ownership. In 1906 the land register is extended to southern regions including al-Salt, Karak, Tafila and Ma’an. As a consequence many agricultural villages are founded and re-founded in the area between Amman and Karak, leading to a significant increase in agricultural production, especially cereal crops.

1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Adoption of a protectionist policy aimed at boosting industrial development. Date Country Theme

1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Federation of Italian Cooperatives is funded (from 1893 known as the League of Cooperatives).

1887 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

After long silence, Verdi composes a new opera on a text by Arrigo Boito: Othello, based on Shakespeare’s tragedy. In Othello, Verdi adopts a more fluent narrative structure that goes beyond the traditional division into separate units (arias, duets, concertatos, choirs).

1887 - 1914 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Thanks to improved public health services and living conditions there has been a strong decrease in the annual number of deaths by disease since 1887 (e.g. deaths from measles have decreased by 73 percent; from diptheria by 86 per cent; from smallpox by 99 per cent).

1887 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

El-Hakaneia Palace on Manshieh Square in Alexandria is designed by Alfonso Maniscalco in the Beaux-Arts tradition. Constructed as the seat of the “Mixed Tribunals” the building is still used as a courthouse today.

1887 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of A Relíquia (The Relic) by Eça de Queirós. The novel criticises the hypocrisy of the Portuguese society.

1887 Portugal Travelling

The Naval Academy is founded for teaching and research on Portuguese tropical medicine. Its purpose is to provide access to tropical medicine for general medical students and as a specialty for naval doctors. The Academy had a small laboratory for some diagnostic tests.

1887 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Emil Berliner invents the phonograph.

1887 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The foundation, under Wassa Pasha’s rule, of the port of Beirut on the eastern part of the Saint George Bay on Beirut’s northern Mediterranean cost, west of Beirut River. It is one of the largest and busiest ports on the eastern Mediterranean.

1887 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Saida.

1888 - 1892 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme

Establishment of the Tunisian Post and Telegraphs Office; during this time the first Tunisian postage stamp was issued and the Hôtel des postes (Post Office building) was inaugurated in Tunis.

1888 - 1893 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Completion of the Port of La Goulette; a large, modern complex accessible to large vessels, brings development to the city of Tunis.

1888 - 1893 Tunisia Economy And Trade

Completion of the Port of La Goulette. After five years in construction, the port complex opens to trade on 28 May 1893.

1888 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Austria’s Legislation is passed for the mandatory insurance of workers (employees).

1888 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of Piazza Esedra (now Piazza della Repubblica) in Rome, designed by Gaetano Koch. The newly built palaces with porticos around the square are opposite the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) and connect the area of Termini railway station to via Nazionale, providing an attractive entrance to the city.

1888 - 1890 Italy Economy And Trade

Tariff war with France.

1888 Italy Migrations

The first law on migration introduces measures aimed at preventing a married woman from migrating without her husband’s consent; at preventing men to migrate to avoid military service; and at granting migrants some protection against abuses.

1888 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

First comprehensive law on health services.

1888 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

The Burgtheater (National Theatre) moves from its former residence at the Hofburg (Imperial Castle) to purpose-built premises at the Ringstrasse.

1888 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Building of a submarine (aparato de profundidades) designed by a naval officer, Isaac Peral. The boat (22 x 2.87 metres) is driven by electric engines and has a periscope and three torpedos. In spite of a successful test, the Spanish Navy decides not to put the prototype into production. Date Country Theme

1888 Spain International Exhibitions

The Barcelona Universal Exhibition held in the Parc de la Ciutadella from April to December attracts exhibitors from 22 countries and more than two million visitors. The park displays monuments in the Modernismo/Modernisme and Neo-Mudéjar styles.

1888 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

A movement to awaken national awareness leads to the establishment of many independent associations of Macedonian emigrants, such as the Macedonian Literary Society established by Gjorgji Pulevski in Sofia in 1888.

1888 Portugal International Exhibitions

Portuguese Industrial Exhibition in Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon.

1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Os Maias by Eça de Queirós. A mature romance and perhaps his best known. Focused on the saga of the Maia family through three generations, it debates the issue of the country’s destiny, in the context of the Constitutionalist ennobled bourgeoisie, whose good intentions end up capsizing.

1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of Fernando Pessoa (d. 1935) is the classic author of Portuguese modernism. His books are published under different names, which he called heteronyms (not pseudonyms), each one corresponding to a cycle of experimental attitudes, which unfold in contradictions.

1888 Portugal Travelling

The neo-Manueline Palace of Bussaco, modelled on the Manueline Belém Tower of Lisbon is commissioned by King Carlos I as a royal retreat. It combines the architectural fashion of castle romanticism (German Burgenromantik) with the neo- Manueline gothic style that evokes the Portuguese Discoveries.

1888 Germany Rediscovering The Past

Julius Stinde writes Frau Buchholz im Orient. He has already documented the cities of Cairo, Jerusalem, Athens, and Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey).

1888 Turkey Economy And Trade

The Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankas#) is founded as the first state-funded bank of the empire.

1888 Turkey Travelling

12 August: Direct rail connection is established between Paris and #stanbul. Date Country Theme

1889 Romania International Exhibitions

The two Romanian pavilions at the International Exposition in Paris – a restaurant and a pavilion for wine tasting – are built by architect Ion Mincu, who uses elements of traditional rustic Romanian architecture.

1889 - 1900 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Archaeologist Alexandru Odobescu publishes in France a book about the Pietroasa Treasure (a historical description and a study on antique silver work).

1889 France International Exhibitions

The Exposition universelle of 1889 in Paris is the tenth registered World Fair held from 6 May to 31 October. It commemorates the French Revolution on the occasion of its centenary. The Eiffel Tower is built for this Expo.

1889 France Political Context

The World Fair in Paris showcases the development of the latest industrial processes, and the Eiffel Tower is constructed for it.

1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Establishment of the National Roman Museum, in the stunning structure of the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) in Rome.

1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Establishment of the Museum of the pre-Roman Antiquities of Latium in the 16th- century Villa Giulia, in Rome. The museum would be later renamed the National Etruscan Museum.

1889 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Founding of the first commercial unit for electricity in Athens. The Royal Palace was the first building in the capital to benefit from electric lighting.

1889 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

The Deutsche Volkstheater (German People’s Theatre) opens in Vienna.

1889 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

The Social Democratic Party is founded during the Hainfeld Congress.

1889 Portugal Political Context

10 October: Coronation of King Carlos I (28 September 1863 – 1 February 1908) Despite the King’s attempt to reform the political system, the growing urban influence of the Republican Party and the people´s discontent were fostered by cash payments made to the Royal House. Date Country Theme

1889 Portugal International Exhibitions

At the Paris “Exposition Universelle” Bordalo Pinheiro’s (1846–1905) famous ceramics decorating the interior of the Portuguese Pavilion are a main attraction for the cosmopolitan visitor.

1889 France Fine And Applied Arts

The inauguration of the Eiffel Tower and the use of iron in architectural structures.

1889 - 1917 Germany Travelling

Kaiser Wilhelm II visits the Ottoman Empire three times, in 1889, 1898 and 1917. On his second official tour he visits Constantinople, Haifa, Jaffa, Jerusalem, Beirut and Damascus, largely to show his support for Ottoman sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II whose Empire was already unstable. The strong connection between the countries is further cemented by a gift from the Kaiser to ‘Abd al Hamid: a “German fountain” that stands in Jerusalem to this day.

1889 Turkey International Exhibitions

Although the Ottoman government does not participate in the 1889 Paris Exhibition, the architecture of the Sultan Ahmed Fountain (from the Vienna Exhibition in 1873) is recycled in the exhibition in the Pavilion of Turkish Tobacco.

1890 - 1920 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces

The 20th century is undoubtedly one of urbanisation. Outside the Arab medina a new city develops to host the many Europeans who have arrived to promote development of the colonial economy.

1890 - 1900 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts

Construction of public and private buildings in the arabisance style, which proposes a synthesis of European architectural styles with Arab and Spanish-North African architecture.

1890 - 1910 Tunisia Migrations

Emergence of a new European-inspired city outside the Arab medina with a multitude of buildings built in the European style.

1890 - 1892 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

In Bucharest a fire tower is built from the plans of the chief architect of the city, George Mandrea. It is both a watchtower, used by firemen to keep the city under observation to rapidly intervene in case of a fire, and a reservoir for water distribution in the eastern part of Bucharest.

1890 France Reforms And Social Changes

On 1 May, Labour Day is celebrated for the first time. Date Country Theme

1890s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context

There is a notable increase in the activity of foreign powers – especially Ottoman Turkey, France and Russia – in the Gulf region. Germany also makes its first appearance. The main interests for all of them are economic and geostrategic.

1890 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Cavalleria rusticana by Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945) has a great success, marking the beginning of verismo (Italian realism) in music, which intends to portray the world of peasants and the poor through strong and passionate drama. The singing style changes radically, leaving behind the aesthetics of bel canto and turning to reciting, even shouting, and spoken parts in the most exciting dramatic moments.

1890 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

For the first time, trade unions organise celebrations for May Day as the International Worker’s Day.

1890 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

The Alexandria Sporting Club is built; it is one of the oldest clubs in Egypt.

1890 - 1920 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

“Alhambrismo” in music. From 1890 many composers produce pieces showing the influence of the Alhambra, e.g.Chapi's Los Gnomos de la Alhambra (1889), Debussy’s Lindaraja (composed in 1901) and La puerta del vino (1912–13). The most important piece is the first movement of Noches en los Jardines de España (1909–15) by Manuel de Falla, titled "En los Jardines del Generalife".

1890 Spain Reforms And Social Changes

Suffrage established for men aged 25 years and above. Although the 1812 Constitution had theoretically established “universal” suffrage for men, during most of the 19th century it had been limited to men above a certain economic level. It was not until 1931, under the Second Republic, that the suffrage became truly universal, including women.

1890 - 1908 Portugal Political Context

The British Ultimatum (11 January 1890) pressures Portugal to withdraw from southern Africa resulting in popular outrage and unrest. The bankruptcy of 1892, anti-monarchic sentiment against King Carlos I, the cost of living and unfulfilled popular needs are major drivers of the Republican movement.

1890 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

The railway station of Rossio (Lisbon) designed by the Portuguese architect José Luís Monteiro, begun in 1886 and inaugurated on 23 November of 1890. Located in the historical centre, the Rossio station follows the neo-Manueline architectural style and is an important building of the 19th-century late Romantic style. Date Country Theme

1890 - 1899 Italy Migrations

Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 26,000, USA 51,000; Argentina 37,000; Brazil 58,000.

1890 - 1910 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

The paintings by Heinrich Vogeler, Das Konzert (Sommerabend) (1893), and Gustav Klimt, Der Kuss (1908), exemplify the period in art known as Jugendstil or Art Nouveau.

1890s - Around 1900 Germany Migrations

After the United States, the German Empire was the most popular country of immigration.

1890s Germany Migrations

The Prussian policy of Abwehrpolitik sees Polish seasonal workers in agriculture forced to leave the German Empire during winter.

1890 - 1910 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of Modern literature (i.e. the works of Hesse, Hauptmann, Mann and Zweig) is characterised by pluralism, the merging of Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Impressionism, etc.

1890s Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Sigmund Freud formulates his theory of psychoanalysis in Vienna.

1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Emperor Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck; and so begins the era of the emperor’s personal regiment.

1890 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Khan Antun Bey Square evolves after the construction of the great Ottoman jetty and quays from 1890 that changes the design of the urban area.

1890 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

16 September: Sailing frigate Ertu#rul sinks while returning from a goodwill voyage to Japan off the coast of Oshima in a typhoon that kills all but 69 of its 609 crew.

1890 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

Müfide Kadri is born (d. 1912). One of the early female painters, she took private classes from Osman Hamdi Bey.

1891 Tunisia Economy And Trade Date Country Theme

Monetary reform: the administration of the protectorate decides to replace the Tunisian monetary unit the “piastre” with the French Franc.

1891 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Museum of Applied Arts in Vienna purchases the Karabakh carpet in Istanbul.

1891 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

First Chambers of Labour (territorial trade unions) founded in Milan.

1891 Greece Economy And Trade

An insurance company for sea transportation is founded on the island of Chios.

1891 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

October: Domitilia de Carvalho is the first woman to study at the University of Coimbra. She is obliged to wear black, sober costumes and a discreet hat to go unnoticed among her male colleagues. A brilliant student she graduated in mathematics (1894), philosophy (1895) and medicine (1904).

1891 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Founding of the Pan-German League (Allgemeine Deutsche Verband; since 1894 the General German Association or Alldeutscher Verband) to advance an active, nationalistic German foreign policy in Europe and overseas.

1891 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929) arrives in #stanbul as an independent artist. He receives the title of court painter in 1896.

1891 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

13 June: The Archaeology Museum in Istanbul is opened.

1891 - 1892 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Lagina.

1891 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ahmed Vefik Pa#a dies. Besides his administrative positions, he is regarded as a precursor of Turkish cultural nationalism and remembered also for contributing to the development of Western theatre in the empire by translating French plays.

1892 - 1914 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Development of the railway network connects the city of Tunis with its hinterland. The network serves the large cities by connecting them with the agricultural centres created by colonisation. Date Country Theme

1892 - 1914 Tunisia Economy And Trade

Development of a railway network connecting the city of Tunis with its hinterland.

1892 - 1895 Romania Political Context

In 1892 a delegation of 237 Romanians sends Emperor Franz Joseph a Memorandum protesting against the discriminatory effects of the union of Transylvania with Hungary (1867). In 1893 the signatories of the petition are sent for trial at the end of which, in May 1894, they are sentenced to prison. However, in 1895 the Emperor amnesties them.

1892 France Rediscovering The Past

Excavations at Delos and Delphi by the French School of Athens.

1892 France Reforms And Social Changes

The Law on Health and Hygiene at work is passed.

1892 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context

The British government effectively becomes the ruler of the Trucial Coast when the sheikhs are forced to pledge that neither they nor their descendants will enter agreements with or grant territorial rights to any government or their representatives other than Britain.

1892 - 1898 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Hydroelectric power plants are built in Tivoli (1892) and Paderno d’Adda (1898) and the power they generated is transported to, respectively, Rome and Milan.

1892 Italy Political Context

Italian Socialist Party founded.

1892 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Muntazah Palace is constructed for Khedive ‘Abbas, which he uses as both a hunting lodge and residence for his companion.

1892 Egypt Travelling

The Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria is created.

1892 Spain International Exhibitions

European and American Historical Exhibitions held in the Palacio de la Biblioteca y Museos Nacionales, Madrid, celebrating the fourth centennial of the discovery of America.

1892 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

18 August: Praça de Touros do Campo Pequeno (Campo Pequeno Bullring) opens its doors with a gala show. Built in an area assigned to the Casa Pia (educational establishment for children in need) by the city of Lisbon in 1889 the bullring was designed by the architect António José Dias da Silva (1848–1912) and inspired by Madrid's bullring.

1892 Portugal Economy And Trade

13 June: bankruptcy is declared in Portugal causing tremendous popular outrage. The deficit in the public finances, the dependence on foreign funding and incipient industrialisation are contributing factors to this crisis.

1892 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Fatma Âliye (1862–1939), female novelist and publisher, publishes Muhâdarât (Reminiscence). Her feminist attitude was apparent in her rejection of marriage for economic reasons, believing in the need for women to join the workforce.

1893 Qatar Political Context

The Battle of al-Wajba is a victory for Sheikh Jassim and Qatar. This represents a decisive moment in the nation's history, asserting Qatar's independence from direct Ottoman interference.

1893 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes

Creation of the first analytical laboratory as part of the services that later became the Pasteur Institute, initially providing a rabies treatment service, and then offering a vaccination centre.

1893 Austria Rediscovering The Past

The Egyptian authorities give the head of a Sphinx of Sesostris III to the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.

1893 - 1895 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (today Piazza della Repubblica) in Florence, after clearing the area of the Ancient Market.

1893 - 1894 Italy Economy And Trade

A comprehensive law on banking establishes the Bank of Italy, which starts operating on 1 January 1894.

1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

At the age of 80, Verdi composes his last opera, Falstaff, an opera buffa that opens new avenues towards the theatre of the 20th century. The music underscores all the subtle nuances of the psychology of the different characters.

1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Manon Lescaut by Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) has a great success in Turin and Puccini becomes the most promising opera composer of the new generation.

1893 Greece Rediscovering The Past

Foundation of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

1893 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

Creation of the Portuguese Ethnological Museum, which in 1906 opened its doors to the public at the Jerónimos Monastery in the Belém area of Lisbon. The museum is currently designated the National Museum of Archaeology.

1893 - 1902 Turkey Migrations

72,000 Muslims and Jews are forced out of Bulgaria. Unlike earlier migrants, they are resettled in towns in Thrace as well as in rural areas of central and eastern Anatolia.

1893 Turkey International Exhibitions

At the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the main Ottoman pavilion refers to the Sultan Ahmed Fountain, but it experiments with a different approach, being designed as an exhibition building.

1894 - 1898 France Political Context

The Dreyfus Affair: Captain Dreyfus is unjustly accused of espionage, is militarily degraded, and then deported at the end of the trial. The writer Émile Zola denounces this situation in a pamphlet entitled J’accuse. The case divides France; it is recognised that Dreyfus is innocent.

1894 - 1913 Italy Economy And Trade

The chemical industry takes off. The production of fertilisers grows from 85,700 tons in 1894 to 1 million tons in 1913.

1894 Italy Travelling

The Touring Club d’Italia is founded. Its main goal is “to make Italians know Italy”. It conceives of tourism as a tool for the cultural growth and modernisation of the country.

1894 - 1908 Morocco Political Context

Having ascended to the throne too young, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz must act under the regency of his father mulay al-Hasan I’s chamberlain for almost six years. Upon his father death in 1900, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz took up the reins of power and made clear his desire to restructure the governing institution of Morocco, the Makhzen. He worked on the modernisation of the army and stabilisation of the currency. He relaunched the project to ensure universal application of the tartib tax, which he wanted to apply to all foreigners and protégés. This project naturally displeased the consular corps. Date Country Theme

1894 - 1900 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Qasim Amin publishes his book Les Egyptiens in French in 1894. In it he rejects the negative claims against the traditions of Oriental society made by Duke Drocom in his book, L’Egypte et les Egyptiens. In defence of Islam, Amin compares the rights of women according to Islam with those of civilized European women. In 1899, he then publishes The Emancipation of Women, which is severely criticized. In 1900, Amin refutes the arguments of his critics with The New Woman, a work that provides fresh fuel to his ardent battle for the emancipation of women.

1894 - 1900 France Fine And Applied Arts

The Salon des Cent (Salon of the One Hundred) neither focused on any one school of art nor paid attention to any of the official bodies.

1894 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Otto Lilienthal invents the glider.

1895 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Romanian Maritime Service, the first civil naval institution of Romania, is founded. It is intended to buy and build ships and it ensures passenger and freight transportation on the route Br#ila–Constan#a–Istanbul, later extended to Alexandria and to ports on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean: Pireu, Smyrna, Haifa and Beirut.

1895 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

9 December: the first electric tramway is introduced in Bucharest.

1895 Romania Economy And Trade

Promulgation of the Mining Law, which stipulates separation between the ownership of land and of the subsoil resources, which, except for oil, belong to the state. Concessions of oil exploitation by the state (in cases where the owner of the land did not want to do it) are regulated.

1895 Austria Rediscovering The Past

A statue of an athlete is found in Ephesus, Turkey; ‘Abd al-Hamid II, the Ottoman Sultan at the time, gives it as a gift to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I.

1895 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Gugliemo Marconi makes the first successful experiments of radio broadcasts.

1895 - 1913 Italy Economy And Trade

Major growth of iron and steel industry: cast iron production rises from 9,000 tons in 1895 to 426,000 tons in 1913; steel production rises from 50,000 tons in 1895 to 933,000 tons in 1913. Date Country Theme

1895 Italy International Exhibitions

Opening of the First International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice, known as the Venice Biennale. The exhibition – organised to bring the city out of isolation – meets with great public acclaim (224,000 visitors).

1895 Greece Political Context

Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declares that Greece is bankrupt.

1895 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first car in Portugal, a Panhard et Levassor, is personally imported from Paris by the fourth Count of Avilez. The Lisbon Customs did not know how to tax this awkward item. Was it a farm machine or a locomotive? They chose the second option. Count Jorge Avilez drove from Lisbon to his farm in Santiago do Cacém at 15 km an hour.

1895 France Fine And Applied Arts

Castel Béranger by Hector Guimard is in the Art Nouveau style.

1895 France Fine And Applied Arts

The Maison de l'Art nouveau by Samuel Bing.

1895 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Roentgen ray (X-Ray) is discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.

1895 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

German archaeologist Theodor Wiegand begins to excavate ancient Greek city of Priene. He would start to excavate in Miletos in 1896.

1896 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes

Creation of Khaldunia. The purpose of this institution located near the Zaytuna Mosque was to spread scientific knowledge among the Arab communities, and especially among students of Zaytuna University. Its name refers to the great Arab thinker Ibn Khaldun.

1896 France Travelling

Tsar Nicolas II visits France and inaugurates the Pont Alexandre III bridge in Paris.

1896 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Austrian composer Anton Bruckner dies.

1896 Austria Political Context Date Country Theme

Russia recognises Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, a former Austrian officer, as the new Prince of Bulgaria.

1896 - 1914 Italy Economy And Trade

Sustained economic growth (except for short crises in 1900 and 1907–08); industrialisation makes a leap forward.

1896 Greece Travelling

Revival of the Olympic Games.

1896 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

First X-ray made in Portugal by Henrique Teixeira Bastos, Professor of Physics at Coimbra University. In 1895 Roentgen had discovered X-rays and the news was published in Portugal in the newspaper Novidades in January 1896. This first X-ray of the right hand of a boy with bone tuberculosis was made one week after.

1896 Germany International Exhibitions

The Great Industrial Exposition opens at Treptower Park, south of central Berlin.

1896 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Recaîzâde Mahmud Ekrem publishes the novel Araba Sevdas# (A Carriage Affair). He was prominent in literary circles and promoted the Westernisation of Ottoman Turkish literature.

1897 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes

Creation of the French civil hospital provides a surgery and two general medical services to meet the needs of the European population from the outset.

1897 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

The National School of Architecture is founded as a section of the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest. It becomes an independent institution in 1904, under the name the Superior School of Architecture.

1897 - 1899 Romania Travelling

Romanian biologist and speleologist Emil Racovi## participates in the Belgian Antarctic Expedition, the first winter research expedition in the Antarctica region.

1897 - 1898 Italy Political Context

Widespread demonstrations and riots against high bread price. The government uses the army to repress protests: in Milan 85 demonstrators are killed.

1897 Greece Political Context Date Country Theme

Defeat of the Greek Army during the Greek–Turkish War.

1897 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

Gustav Klimt (1867–1918) founds, along with other Viennese artists, the Viennese Secession, a society of Austrian Art Nouveaux artists.

1897 - 1909 United Kingdom Cities And Urban Spaces

Charles Rennie Mackintosh (b. Glasgow, Scotland 1868; d. London, England 1928), artist, designer and architect, is perhaps best known for the Charles Rennie Mackintosh building at Glasgow School of Art, which was built in two stages (1897–9 and 1907–9) due to lack of funding. Designed in the Art and Crafts style, and owing much to Scotland’s baronial tradition, Mackintosh eschewed the architectural styles of Greece and Rome in his design. Achieving the acclaim he felt he deserved in Europe, Mackintosh’s originality was never fully appreciated in the United Kingdom, except by a few loyal supporters and patrons, during his lifetime.

1897 - 1904 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

Formation of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (now the Bode Museum), proposed by Wilhelm von Bode, and built by Ernst von Ihne and Max Hasak.

1897 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

On 9 January 1897 and in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II’s coronation, a clock tower is built near the Grand Serail, Beirut, to make up for the absence of a public clock indicating mandatory Muslim prayer times especially as many foreign institutions had built Western-style clock towers.

1898 - 1899 Romania Travelling

Bazil G. Assan is the first Romanian to go on an expedition around the world, taking the route Constan#a–Istanbul–Cairo–Ceylon–China–Japan–Pacific Ocean– USA–Europe.

1898 Italy Political Context

Anarchist Gaetano Bresci kills the King Umberto I, in revenge for the protesters killed in Milan in 1898. Victor Emanuel III becomes King of Italy.

1898 United Kingdom Political Context

Sudan is in possession of the Egyptians until a Sudanese revolt under the Mahdi severs the connection. It is brought back to Anglo-Egyptian rule with a military conquest led by an Egyptian army officered by the British. Control of Sudan facilitated British colonial expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa.

1898 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme

Shahin Pasha Aqueduct, constructed under Muhammad ‘Ali and located between the Omar Shah and Tukuz Tamar (Darb el-Jamamiz) aqueducts, is infilled with earth.

1898 - 1902 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The British begin construction of the first Dam across the Nile in 1898 and work continues to 1902. Opened on 10 December 1902, the Aswan Low Dam is a gravity (masonry) buttress dam on the Nile in Aswan.

1898 Spain Reforms And Social Changes

The lost of the last overseas territories causes a big crisis. It is the moment for important writers and intellectuals such as Unamuno and Joaquin Costa, all members of what is called "Generación del ‘98” (Generation of ’98) to analyse the reasons for the crisis and look critically at Spain's past and its future.

1898 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The teaching of astronomy as an individual science starts, taking advantage of the astronomy teaching experience acquired since 1837 at the Lisbon Polytechnic School. This school was meant to provide training for cartography surveys and military preparation.

1898 Portugal Economy And Trade

Industrialist Alfredo da Silva refounds CUF (Companhia União Fabril), in Barreiro in the beginning of the 20th century. CUF produced soap, candles and vegetable oils, later becoming a leader of the fertilizer and other chemical products sector. Da Silva gave residential quarters and free education to all his employees nationwide.

1898 - 1917 Germany Rediscovering The Past

Foundation of the Deutsche-Orient Gesellschaft (DOG) in Berlin is to promote research in the field of “Oriental” archaeology and bring it to a wider audience. One of the first archaeological excavations undertaken by the DOG was in Babylon, with the discovery of the Ishtar Gate (now at the Museum of the Ancient Near East in Berlin). DOG was responsible for finds at Tell el-Amarna, the capital of the Pharaonic Empire where the famous bust of Queen Nefertiti was found (now at the Neues Museum). Kaiser Wilhelm II assumed patronage of DOG in 1901.

1898 - 1900 Germany Political Context

Development and rearmament (Aufrüstung) of the German Navy.

1898 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ay#e S#d#ka (d.1903), the first female Ottoman pedagogue, publishes Usûl-i Talim ve Terbiye Dersleri (Lectures on Methods of Teaching and Education). She was the instructor for courses in geography, ethics and handicrafts at the Female Teachers’ Seminary in #stanbul.

1899 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade Date Country Theme

By 1899 private British, French and other European arms dealers import some 20,000 rifles into the Trucial Coast region and Oman annually.

1899 - 1904 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the new Synagogue in Rome (architects: Vincenzo Costa and Osvaldo Armanni), an imposing building of eclectic style, with decorative elements inspired by Assyro-Babylonian architecture.

1899 - 1920s Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of some remarkable Liberty-style buildings, such as the Villino Florio in Palermo and the new building of Palazzo Montecitorio (seat of the Italian Chamber of Deputies in Rome), both by Ernesto Basile, some pavilions for the 1902 national exhibition in Turin, and the small Coppedè neighbourhood in Rome. Overall, however, Liberty style leaves a smaller mark on Italian cities than eclecticism.

1899 Italy Economy And Trade

In Turin, Giovanni Agnelli founds the car factory FIAT.

1899 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Prince Muhammad ‘Ali Tawfiq is responsible for opening the Al-Manyal Palace Museum in 1899, which is set in a large garden of thirty feddans (approx 31 acres).

1899 Egypt Economy And Trade

The National Bank of Egypt introduces notes in denominations of 50 piasters, and one, five, ten, 50 and 100 Egyptian pounds.

1899 Egypt Migrations

British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt.

1899 Egypt Travelling

British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes is appointed Undersecretary of State for Finance in Egypt.

1900 - 1920 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts

Art Nouveau marks the city’s landscape.

1900 - 1910 Tunisia Migrations

The colonial era: social and cultural life are organised around Europeans striving for modernity and accustomed to the cultural life of European cities; hence construction of theatres, hotels, casinos, etc. Date Country Theme

1900s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

British records note that an industry of weaving fine sheep’s-wool ‘aba’ (cloaks) had been developed in Sharjah but, as insufficient quantities were being made to meet local demand, they were also imported from Bahrain and al-Ahsa. Most of the cloth used in the Trucial States at the time was imported from India and elsewhere.

1900s - 1915 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Reforms And Social Changes

Media from Egypt and India critical of British politics penetrates the Trucial Coast. The Cairo-based newspapers Al-Mu’ayyad and Al-Liwa have numerous subscribers on the Trucial Coast.

1900 Romania International Exhibitions

At the International Exposition in Paris, Romania has four pavilions, the central one designed by French architect Jean-Camille Formigé.

1900 Romania Travelling

Al. Saabner-Tuduri publishes a book on the Mineral Waters and the Spas of Romania, the first paper about Romanian balneology, which used to be a very important component of Romanian tourism.

1900 France Economy And Trade

The first line of the Paris Metro is built for the second Universal Exhibition.

1900 France International Exhibitions

The World Fair in Paris as the symbol of the Belle Époque with its theme “the balance of a century”. The exhibition bequeaths to Paris several buildings including the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais.

1900 France Reforms And Social Changes

The law on the working conditions of women and children (Millerand Law) decreases the working day to 11 hours.

1900 Lebanon Migrations

A group of about a dozen Lebanese, dissatisfied with the dismal prospect of earning a livelihood from the stubborn northern Lebanese soil, set out to stake their claim on the mythical riches in the new land of Australia.

1900 - 1908 Jordan Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Hijaz Railway is developed by ‘Abd al-Hamid II (1876–1908) for various reasons, not least of which is to strengthen the Empire’s control in an area that is the only window for the Ottomans to trade with the Far East after the British took control of the major international trade routes (Suez Canal and Arab-Persian Gulf). Supported by Germany, which is seeking control in this area to oppose the British, work on the project, and inauguration of stations coincides with the annual Date Country Theme anniversary of the Sultan’s accession on 1 September. The line reaches Amman in 1903, Ma’an in 1904 and Mudawwara in 1906. The 1,450 km railway reaches Medina in 1908.

1900 - 1909 Italy Economy And Trade

Annual per capita income increases by 18.5% during the decade because of industrialisation.

1900 Italy International Exhibitions

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Italian companies participate in many international exhibition, such as the 1900 Paris World Fair.

1900 - 1909 Italy Migrations

Italians who had migrated to the USA, Argentina and Brazil repatriate to Italy in large numbers during the 1900s: the annual average is 119,857 from the USA; 31,712 from Argentina; 19,864 from Brazil.

1900 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Law on “state quinine” passed: in order to fight malaria, the state will produce quinine and sell it at a low price not only in the 5,000 pharmacies, but also in the 27,000 tobacconists.

1900 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of the celebrated poet Mubarak bin Saif al-Nakhi in Sharjah.

1900 Greece Fine And Applied Arts

Foundation of the National Gallery in Athens. Its chief curator is the acclaimed painter Georgios Iakovidis.

1900 Egypt Travelling

On a visit to Britain, ‘Abbas Hilmi II tells the authorities that he thinks the British have carried out good work in Egypt. He declares himself ready to cooperate with British officials administering Egypt and Sudan.

1900 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

By this year Portugal has 8,345 km of telegraphic lines and 443 telegraphic stations. The telegraph is an urban phenomenon hand in hand with city development. Due to the demand for telegraphic operators, several schools were created. Submarine cables assured the telegraphic service between Portugal and the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Africa.

1900 Portugal International Exhibitions

At the Paris “Exposition Universelle et Internationale”, the Portuguese pavilion is called “Portugal and Portuguese Overseas Colonies”. Inside, on the ground floor, Date Country Theme are two main exhibitions: one on the works of João Vaz (1859–1931) painter of harbours and fishing scenes, the other on natural forest products such as cork.

1900 - 1909 Italy Migrations

Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 57,000; USA 233,000; Argentina 73,000; Brazil 30,000.

1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The establishment of the beneficence “Nobel Prize” by Alfred Nobel.

1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Planck’s Law, which describes electromagnetic radiation.

1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin invents the zeppelin, a steerable airship.

1900 Turkey International Exhibitions

As if to compensate for its absence from the Paris 1878 and 1889 exhibitions, the Ottoman government spends a considerable sum on the pavilion for the Paris Internation Exhibition of 1900, designed by the French architect Adrien-René Dubuisson.

1901 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Russian Steam Navigation and Trading Company begin commercial and passenger operations in the Gulf.

1901 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo paints The Fourth Estate, showing workers on strike. The painting will become an icon of the workers’ movement.

1901 Italy Migrations

Comprehensive law on migration creates the Commissariato generale per l’emigrazione and introduces other measures aimed at ensuring migrants’ welfare, such as medical inspections on boats.

1901 - 1910 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giacomo Puccini consolidates his reputation. He develops a very personal language that is deeply rooted in the Italian melodic tradition, despite his attention to international trends and his choice of exotic subjects (Madama Butterfly, La fanciulla del West, Turandot).

1901 - 1914 Italy Political Context Date Country Theme

Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti, who allows more freedom of action to trade unions, introduces some social reforms and makes some openings for Socialists and Catholics.

1901 Italy Travelling

Liguria (the region of Genoa) is the Italian region with the highest number of foreigners (12,000). It has a mild climate that attracts foreigners escaping north Europe’s harsh climate for health reasons. All through the 19th and early 20th centuries, many foreigners affected by tuberculosis and other illness resided in Italy for extended periods.

1901 - 1903 Greece Political Context

Under the leadership of King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, Greece defeats the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria during the Balkan Wars.

1901 Greece Economy And Trade

The Greek Chamber of Commerce is founded in Alexandria, Egypt, with Emmanouil Benakis as its president.

1901 United Kingdom Travelling

Age 42, a young and energetic Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Arab Gulf sheikhdoms to confirm treaties of British protection of them, a policy that prevails until 1970.

1901 United Kingdom Political Context

The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon, visits the sheikhdoms of the Gulf to confirm treaties of protection that exclude other European powers. Iraq and Arabia fall under a British- Indian sphere of influence with the Indian rupee as the principal currency. Curzon’s policy lasts until 1970.

1901 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

Otto Wagner designs and overseas construction of the Viennese metro, the Wiener Stadtbahn.

1901 - 1909 Saudi Arabia Political Context

Under the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid, the Hijaz Railway is built, running from Istanbul to the Medina (Madinah) province.

1901 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)

One of the founders of Macedonian modern art, Lazar Lichenoski (d. 1964) is born in Galichnik. After graduating from Belgrade Art School he attended prestigeous art schools in Paris. He is best known for his landscapes, which reveal Date Country Theme the harmonious beauty of nature through endless views from the peak of Bistra Mountain. Lichenoski introduced expressionism in Macedonian art.

1901 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

31 August: Inauguration of the first electric tram route in Lisbon, connecting Cais do Sodré to Ribamar (Algés). The more efficient electric tramway, with tracks, overhead power lines and the construction of Santos Central Power Station, replaces the popular “Americanos” horse-drawn trams of Lisbon.

1901 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

The Sociedade Promotora de Belas Artes (1861) and the Grémio Artístico (1890) created by the Grupo do Leão (1880) merge into the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) headed by Malhoa Columbano and António Ramalho. In Porto, the Centro Artístico Portuense (CAP) (founded in 1870) did not survive the death of the painter Silva Porto in 1903.

1901 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Posthumous publication of the Livro de Cesário Verde, a compilation of the poetry of Cesário Verde (1855–86) by his friend, Silva Pinto, author of the Preface. An original poet who described a world previously unknown to poetry, Cesário Verde completely modernised the traditional style of the Portuguese lyricism.

1901 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

Izmir Clock Tower is built to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Abdülhamid II’s accession to the throne. It is designed by Levantine French architect Raymond Charles Père.

1902 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral agree by Treaty to prohibit the import of arms into their territories.

1902 Italy International Exhibitions

First International Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts in Turin, featuring the best production of architecture, furniture and applied arts.

1902 - 1903 Italy Rediscovering The Past

The Italian state buys the 15th-century building of Villa Borghese in Rome and the park around it, including the astounding collection of paintings and sculptures that the villa housed. The villa will be transformed into the Borghese Gallery and Museum.

1902 - 1909 Italy Rediscovering The Past

First Italian national laws on the protection of cultural heritage. The new laws establish the principle of inalienability of national heritage and create a state administration (with national and local branches) dedicated to caring for cultural heritage. Date Country Theme

1902 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 12 from working, women from working in mines and under-age women from working at night. First provisions for maternity leave (four weeks after delivery).

1902 - 1920 Saudi Arabia Political Context

In 1902, age 19, King ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman, along with a small army, returns to Riyad to reclaim his family legacy. Managing to take Riyad, ‘Abd al- Rahman then begins to unify modern Saudi Arabia.

1902 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Birth of writer Stale Popov in Melnca, Mariovo Region. He began writing early immortalising tales from Macedonian folk tradition about Itar Pejo (Smart Pejo). He achieved eminence after publication of his first novel Patchwork Life. His talent lay in introducing themes from social life. His other well-known novels are Kalesh Angja and Tole Pasha.

1902 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Opening of Santa Justa Lift, an iconic example of iron architecture. Planned since 1874, it was designed to bridge the 25 metre gap in height between Ouro and Carmo streets, thus making pedestrian traffic between Lisbon’s hills easier. The inauguration of the gangway by King Carlos I is held on 10 July.

1902 Portugal Travelling

Inauguration of the Escola de Medicina Tropical de Lisboa (Lisbon Academy of Tropical Medicine), founded like its European counterparts to provide specialised training, spread knowledge and undertake field research. One of its main subjects was sleeping sickness for whose treatment the Academy undertook five field missions (1904–11) to São Tomé and Mozambique.

1902 Lebanon Rediscovering The Past

Opening of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut. It is the third oldest museum in the Mashriq, after those in Cairo and Istanbul.

1902 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Naz#m Hikmet Ran, famous Turkish poet, playwright and novelist, is born.

1903 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context

British Viceroy and Governor-General of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Trucial sheikhs at Sharjah to reaffirm Britain’s commitment to “guardianship and protection” and the British Government’s position as “your overlords and protectors”. Curzon asserts that continued British control of India depends on maintaining British supremacy in the Gulf. Date Country Theme

1903 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Wiener Werkstätte, an association of designers such as Joseph Hofmann and Koloman Moser is founded, covering all aspects of design from fashion to furniture.

1903 Serbia Political Context

A military coup brings about restitution of the Kara#or#evi# Dynasty.

1903 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

The House of Arab Antiquities opens on 28 December 1903, located on Bab al- Khalq Square which is famous for its Islamic infrastructure: the mosques of Ahmad ibn Tulun and Muhammad ‘Ali, and the Citadel of Saladin. The Museum is only the second concrete-iron building to be constructed after the Egyptian Museum.

1903 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)

A founder of contemporary Macedonian art, Nikola Martinoski is born in Krushevo (d. 1973). He learned painting in the Skopje workshop of the icon painter Dimitar Andonov, and in Bucharest and Paris. His distinctive expressionist style depicts social themes and portraits, influenced by Macedonian frescos and the modern Parisian school. His outstanding work is the painting "Mother and Child".

1903 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

The Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary Society, also known as the St Petersburg Colony, is established. It plays an important role in the national awakening of Macedonians and raising the issue of the independence of Macedonia within the international community.

1903 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

Publication in Sofia of On Macedonian Matters by Krste Petkov Misirkov (1874– 1926). This book was a starting point in explaining factors about Macedonian people as a distinct nation and laid the foundations of the Macedonian modern language and grammar.

1903 Germany Rediscovering The Past

A large part of the richly ornamented south facade of Qasr al-Mushatta – one of the most important works of early Islamic architecture – was presented as a gift from the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II to Emperor Wilhelm II and transported from Jordan to Berlin via rail and sea.

1903 Austria Political Context

The young King Alexander of Serbia is brutally murdered in an officers’ conspiracy in June. The replacement of the pro-Austrian Obrenovi# Dynasty by the pro- Date Country Theme Russian House of Kara#or#evi# under Peter I, changes the balance of power in the Balkans.

1904 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Theodor Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, dies.

1904 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936), Italian dramatist, novelist, poet and short story writer, publishes the novel Il fu Mattia Pascal. In 1934, he will be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

1904 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Law on free distribution of quinine to peasants and workers in malaria-infested areas.

1904 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

First general strike at a national level held as a protest at police violence against workers (in repeated instances, the police had opened fire against workers on strike, killing several of them).

1904 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

First performance of Leoš Janá#ek’s (1854–1928) opera Janufa.

1904 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

The Egyptian Geological Museum (EGM) is established and opened to the public as part of the Egyptian Geological Survey (EGS), founded earlier in 1896. The Museum supports the theses that Egyptians are pioneers in extraction and utilization of metals and stones, the essential basics of civilization, and that they were the first to discover gold and copper and mine them from the Eastern Desert and Sinai.

1904 - 1912 Spain Political Context

After the loss of its last colonies, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, Spain focuses on North Africa in the framework of the colonial interests of other European powers such as France, the UK and Germany. After different international talks and agreements – Spanish–French Agreement (1904), Algeciras Conference (1906), Cartagena Declarations (1907) – Spain and France sign in November 1912 the Treaty establishing the French and Spanish Protectorates in Morocco.

1904 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Avenida Ressano Garcia, a main residential area and development axis opens in the north of Lisbon as part of the “Avenidas Novas” plan. Part of a later phase of the Lisbon Improvements Plan, led by Frederico Ressano Garcia, it also included sanitation improvement. Today the street is known as Avenida da República. Date Country Theme

Around 1914 - 1918 Germany Economy And Trade

In 1914 Germany becomes the biggest industrial nation within Europe as a result of munitions production before and during World War I.

1904 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Publication of Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber is known as the originator of social science.

1905 - 1907 Romania Travelling

The construction of the seaside resort Mamaia, on the shore of the Black Sea, which became and remains one of the most popular Romanian resorts.

1905 France Reforms And Social Changes

On 29 June, the working day for minors is reduced to eight hours.

1905 Italy Economy And Trade

Nationalisation of the railways.

1905 Italy Travelling

The Automobile Club d’Italia is founded.

1905 Morocco Political Context

Emperor Wilhelm II visits Tangiers on 3 March 1905, keen to prevent diplomatic isolation of his country and to safeguard Germany’s economic interests.

1905 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

The Egyptian Olympic Athletes Club is built in Alexandria.

1905 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)

The first film in the Balkans is shot by the Manaki brothers. Pioneers of Macedonian film, Janaki (1878–1945) and Milton (1880–1964) shot their first film only 10 years after the Lumiere Brothers. It shows their grandmother Despina spinning wool. Their first film of ethnographic value was shot soon after. It documents celebration of the feast of Sts Cyril and Methodius in front of the church devoted to these saints in Bitola.

1905 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

Publication of the journal Autonomous Macedonia begins in Belgrade. This attempt to propagate the idea of an independent state initiated by Grigorie Tashkovic ends after only a few issues. Date Country Theme

1905 - 1916 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Physician Albert Einstein formulates his Theory and publishes Relativity: The Special and General Theory.

1905 Germany Migrations

Foundation of the German field-workers central office (Deutsche Feldarbeiter Zentralstelle; later Deutsche Arbeitszentrale), initiated by the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture, in order to control work-based migration to Germany.

1906 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past

The Archaeological Museum of Sfax is established in one of the city’s hotels.

1906 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The German Hamburg–America Line offers a steamer service between Europe and the Gulf.

1906 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

18 March: Romanian pilot and inventor Traian Vuia tests in France (near Paris) his heavier-than-air, fully self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft. The plane leaves the ground and flies at a height of 1 m for a distance of about 12 m, but the engine cuts out and it comes down.

1906 France Reforms And Social Changes

Introduction of a compulsory weekly rest period of 24 hours (voted on 3 July).

1906 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Simplon Tunnel between Domodossola (Italy) and Brig (Switzerland) inaugurated. The construction works had started in 1898. At the time, it was the longest tunnel in the world (19.7 km).

1906 Italy International Exhibitions

International Exhibition in Milan to celebrate the opening of the Simplon Tunnel. The main focus is on transport. There are 35,000 exhibitors, coming from dozens of different countries, and more than 5 million visitors.

1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Italian poet Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907) is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Sibilla Aleramo (pseudonym of Rina Faccio, 1876–1960) publishes Una donna (A woman), a fictionalised memoir that describes a woman’s desperate struggle Date Country Theme to assert her individuality in a male-dominated society. The book is considered a feminist manifesto.

1906 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Ethnographer Lamberto Loria (1855–1913) creates an Ethnography Museum in Florence.

1906 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The Confederazione Generale del Lavoro (CGL – national confederation of trade unions) is founded. Argentina Altobelli becomes Secretary General of the Farm Workers Union (the first woman to become national union leader).

1906 Greece Travelling

The Intercalated or Olympic Games are held in Athens. An international multi-sport event, many people consider them to be the Olympic Games. The International Olympic Committee refers to them as the “Second International Olympic Games in Athens”.

1906 Morocco Political Context

The Algeciras Conference of 1906 endorses the intervention of Western powers in Morocco, granting special rights to both Spain and France.

1906 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Opening of the Lyceu Maria Pia, Lisbon, the first secondary school for girls. Though planned since 1887, female access to secondary level education faced lengthy resistance from Parliament. In 1888 the government was authorised to set up girls’ secondary schools run by district, municipal and charitable entities in Lisbon, Porto and Coimbra.

1906 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Alois Alzheimer describes a type of dementia, Alzheimer’s, for the first time.

1906 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

In celebration of the 30th year of ‘Abd al-Hamid II as sultan of the Ottoman Empire, the Tell Clock Tower is erected in Tripoli as a gift to the city. It is similar to the Jaffa Clock Tower and many others throughout the Empire.

1906 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Hotel Kadri is built in Zahlé. In 1914 it is taken over by the Turkish army and used as a military headquarters.

1906 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme

The Ottoman government decides to build the Electric Tramway Station in Beirut. The electric tramway passes through Beirut on seven tram lines built in 1891 heading to the coast and linking Beirut and Mameltein.

1906 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The second railway in Lebanon is opened connecting with the first line at Riyaq and running to Aleppo, connecting it with Beirut.

1907 - 1912 Tunisia Political Context

The Young Tunisians found the first French-language newspaper Le Tunisien. Echoes of their militant action are seen in the riots of Djellaz on 11 November 2011 and the tramway accident on 8 February 1912.

1907 Lebanon Travelling

Khalil Pasha (1864–1923), commander of the Turkish Sixth Army during World War I orders the creation of the Hamidi Public Garden, which later becomes the Sanayeh Garden. It is one of the oldest public open-air spaces in the capital.

1907 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Introduction of the general equal franchise means that all Austrian male citizens have the right to vote for members of the parliament; prior to 1907 only males paying a minimum amount of tax were allowed a vote.

1907 Morocco Political Context

Colonial rivalries: the Moroccan crisis brings about a new raft of trade agreements between the English and the French, with the participation of the Spanish, sharing out Morocco and Egypt, which is greeted with dismay by Moroccans.

1907 - 1912 Morocco Political Context

A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army when in August 1907 the French land in Casablanca and occupy Oujda, Casablanca and Fez, despite opposition from Germany.

1907 Spain International Exhibitions

Colonial Exhibition in Paris. After the success of the first international exhibition known as the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, international exhibitions become more specialised as colonial exhibitions from 1866. These exhibitions, held in European cities until 1948, depict life in the colonial territories.

1907 Spain Reforms And Social Changes

Creation of the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas (JAE) (Board for Advanced Studies and Research), a public institution founded to provide scholarships for Spanish university students to attend European universities. Intended to promote contact with European culture and science, this public programme created a basis for reforms needed in education, culture and science. The JAE, ideologically related to the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Date Country Theme Institution for Education), was abolished by Franco’s government in 1938 and replaced by the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC – Higher Council for Scientific Research) in 1939.

1907 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)

Gjorgji Zografski paints what is considered to be the earliest depiction of an actual historic event. It shows the plundering raid on the village of Papradishte near Veles that occurred in 1884.

1907 - 1920 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

In Aveiro, art nouveau buildings are associated with a local middle class looking for cultural and social status. Some are “brasileiros”, coming back from Brazil to their homeland, and investors in trade and industrial businesses, thus contributing to local economic development. The art nouveau of Aveiro is inspired by French patterns.

1908 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes

The School of Pasha Street, the first school for Muslim girls, opens in Tunis.

1908 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces

The population of Sharjah has reached around 19,000 inhabitants. The suq boasts some 200 shops, with a multicultural mix of local and resident merchants, pearl traders, and trade-related professionals originating from as far away as India and East Africa. The Emirate of Sharjah as a whole is estimated as having around 45,500 inhabitants at this time.

1908 France Reforms And Social Changes

Manifestation of French suffragettes for women’s right to vote.

1908 Greece Fine And Applied Arts

An exhibition by members of the Omada Technis (Art Group), which includes Nikolaos Lytras, Konstantinos Parthenis, Konstantinos Malea and others, reacts to the conservative academicism of the Munich school.

1908 Portugal Political Context

1 February: The assassination of King Carlos I and his heir-apparent Prince Royal Luis Filipe in Terreiro do Paço in central Lisbon, fomented by, among other things, the King’s appointment of João Franco as head of government in 1906; with the King’s consent he set up a dictatorship one year later. Queen Amelia and Prince Manuel escape and the prince is enthroned as King Manuel II.

1908 Germany Political Context

Austria-Hungary annexes the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following international protests, Germany shows solidarity with Austria. Date Country Theme

Since 1908 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Women are admitted to study at German universities.

1908 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Hijaz Railway is opened.

1908 Turkey Political Context

4 July: Young Turk Revolution.

1908 Turkey Political Context

23 July: The Constitution of 1876 is restored and the Committee of the Union and Congress (CUP) takes control over the administration.

1908 Austria Political Context

The Austrian Government proclaims the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the evacuation of Austrian troops from the Sanjak on 6 October. The Austrian annexation then escalates into a major international crisis, which sees Serbia’s future hope to establish a Yugoslav empire shattered.

1909 France Reforms And Social Changes

On 7 December the law is passed guaranteeing the payment of wages at regular intervals (every 15 days for workers, every month for employees).

1909 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Filippo Marinetti publishes the Futurist Manifesto in Le Figaro.

1909 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (b. Alexandria, Egypt, 1876, d. Bellagio, Italy, 1944) publishes the Futurist Manifesto. The Futurist artistic movement emphasised speed, energy, vitality, and the power of machine and technology. Marinetti also glorified violence and war, which he considered “the world’s only hygiene”.

1909 United Kingdom International Exhibitions

Heliopolis, Egypt, in this year, sees one of the first aviation exhibitions with an “Aviation Week”. While, initially, aviation was a sport, during World War I it became a weapon. It is only after the end of the war that aviation starts to be used as a form of “mass” transport for the wealthy.

1909 Egypt Economy And Trade

Trading had hardly started that day (30 April) at Shari‘ al-Borsa al-Jadida or New Bourse Street when it was announced that Raphael Suares, the leading laissez- faire banker-industrialist in Egypt, had passed away. The Bourse closed for the rest of the day. It was largely thanks to Saures’ efforts that Cairo had a bourse in the Date Country Theme first place. His unexpected and early death meant that Suares missed by only a few months the imposition of the first ever bourse regulations.

1909 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

A Turkish group of painters, Association of Ottoman Painters, is founded by students from the Fine Arts Academy in #stanbul.

1909 Turkey Political Context

The 31 March Incident (31 Mart Vakas#/Olay# or Hadisesi) is a rebellion on 13 April (31 March in official Rumi calendar) in Constantinople against restoration of the constitutional system. It is the culmination of the Ottoman countercoup that attempted to end the Second Constitutional Era in the empire and the newly established influence of the Committee of Union and Progress in order to reaffirm Abdülhamid II as absolute monarch.

1909 Turkey Political Context

27 April: Unseating of Sultan Abdülhamid II and accession of Sultan Mehmed V.

1910 Romania Rediscovering The Past

27 April: the establishment of the Historical Commission of Romania, which is intended to publish critical editions of the Romanian medieval chronicles.

1910 - 1920 France Migrations

The Spanish community is France’s most important.

1910 France Reforms And Social Changes

On 28 December, the Act establishing the Labour Code is passed.

1910 - 1912 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Maternity fund for female workers established. Voluntary pension fund established.

1910 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

When Adolf Loos designs the Michaelaplatz in Vienna for the textile company Goldman & Salatsch, unusually, there is no ornamentation around the windows.

1910 Spain International Exhibitions

“Meisterwerke muhammedanischer Kunst” (Masterpieces of Islamic Art) exhibition in Munich displaying more than 3,600 artefacts. The exhibition gives Islamic art and archaeology a new push in the academic world and is considered a turning point in the orientalist view of and romantic passion for Islamic art and culture.

1910 Portugal Political Context Date Country Theme

The Republic is proclaimed in Lisbon on 5 October. King Manuel II is forced to exile in England together with his mother Queen Amelia who ends up in her homeland France. A Provisional Government is set up, headed by Teófilo Braga, a well- known respected jurist and writer. The new cabinet ruled until the first republican Constitution was enacted.

1910 - 1919 Italy Migrations

Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 44,000; USA 157,000; Argentina 32,000; Brazil 13,000.

1910 Germany International Exhibitions

A groundbreaking exhibition on Islamic art opens in Munich, “Ausstellung von Meisterwerken Muhammedanischer Kunst”.

1911 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral sign a Treaty with the British that enjoins them to request permission from the British Resident in the Arabian Gulf prior to responding to foreign requests for pearling or sponge-fishing rights along the Trucial Coast.

1911 Lebanon Travelling

A private residence in Beirut’s Zokak el-Blat quarter is turned into the Robert Muawad private museum, presenting precious collection of fine arts and antique pieces.

1911 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

In Rome, inauguration of the neoclassical monument to King Victor Emanuel II (built after clearing the Capitol Hill area of medieval buildings) and of the new building for the National Gallery of Modern Art, built for the Fine Arts International Exhibitions, combining elements of different styles (neoclassical, neo-Renaissance, Liberty).

1911 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Italy is the first country to use a plane in war (the Italo-Turkish war, for the conquest of Libya). Planes cannot carry heavy weights, so the pilot carries in his pocket 1 kg bombs that he drops manually.

1911 Italy International Exhibitions

To celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of Italian unification, international exhibitions are organized in Rome, Florence and Turin.

1911 - 1912 Italy Political Context

Italo-Turkish war: Italy gains possession of Libya and the Dodecanese Islands.

1911 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The Alexandrian poet Constantine P. Cavafy publishes his poem Ithaca.

1911 Portugal Political Context

April: First Republican Constitution enacted. Manuel de Arriaga is elected as the first President. It is believed that the Republic will address the economic crisis and promote progress. Though bringing together political forces, the regime is too vague to achieve the necessary economic and social reforms and soon ends up in political fragmentation and infighting.

1911 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

The painters Dórdio Gomes (1890–1976) and Guilherme de Santa Rita (1889– 1918) introduce modernism in Portugal. Largely unaccepted by the critics, as was happening in other European countries, the main focus of the modernists was to fight against the conservatism of techniques and themes still cherished by Portuguese art consumers.

1911 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

28 May: Carolina Beatriz Angelo (1878–1911), a gynaecologist, succeeds in voting in the 1911 elections. Challenged at the poll because she is a woman and therefore ineligible to vote, she insists, replying that she is “a doctor, over 21 and head of a family” and therefore she fulfils all the conditions required to vote. The electoral law is revised soon after this event.

1911 Portugal Travelling

12–20 May: The 4th International Congress of Tourism is held in Lisbon organised in collaboration with the Sociedade de Propaganda (founded 1906). Before the end of the meeting (18 May), the provisional government of the newly proclaimed Portuguese Republic (5 October 1910) creates a Bureau of Tourism at the Ministério do Fomento (Ministry of Development).

1911 - 1913 Germany Rediscovering The Past

The international reputations of the Orientalist, archaeologist and investigator of inscriptions Ernst Herzfeld and art historian Friedrich Sarre were assured when they found 8,000-year old (6th-century) painted pottery known as Samarra-Ware. Some of these finds from Samarra are in the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin.

1911 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Foundation of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (later Max-Planck-Gesellschaft).

1911 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

In the reign of Yusuf Pasha, the train station in Beirut begins operating and is connected to the Syrian city of Homs with a single track. From the 1920s to the 1940s It formed the terminus of the Orient Express line.

1912 - 1920 Italy Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme

Giorgio de Chirico’s first metaphysical paintings (L’enigma dell’ora, 1912; Le muse inquietanti, 1916; Ettore e Andromaca, 1917; Il Grande Metafisico, 1917).

1912 Italy Economy And Trade

Law establishes state monopoly of life insurance and creates the Istituto nazionale delle assicurazioni (INA).

1912 Italy Political Context

The right to vote is extended to all men above the age of 30 (or aged 21 if they completed primary school). The Pope allows Catholics to vote.

1912 - 1913 Greece Political Context

The Treaty of Sèvres is ratified after the victory of the Balkan Wars and the end of World War I. Consequently, Greece gains administration of the area of Smyrna.

1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Italian writer Scipio Slataper publishes his autobiography in which he describes the multinational character of the Littoral (the countryside around his home in Trieste).

1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Jaroslav Hašek (1883–1923) publishes his parody on the Austrian army, The Good Soldier Švejk.

1912 Morocco Political Context

Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz is deposed and replaced by his brother Mulay ‘Abd al-Hafiz (1908–12), who is proclaimed ruler in Marrakesh on 6 August 1907. He was then obliged to sign the treaty establishing the protectorate in Fez on 20 March 1912.

1912 Morocco Political Context

In November 1912 the Madrid Convention makes northern Morocco a Spanish protectorate.

1912 - 1913 Serbia Political Context

The First Balkan War begins in October 1912 between Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire; Montenegro is accused of igniting it by attacking Skadar. At the request of Turkey, an armistice is concluded in December 1912. Negotiations in London fail and the war continues into 1913. A Peace Treaty is signed in London in May 1913. Turkey surrenders all territories west of the Enos- Midija. The Serbian Navy withdraws from the sea; in November 1912, Albania is formed due to Austrian pressure.

1912 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

Bulaq Abu-l-‘Ala Bridge is inaugurated during the reign of Khedive ‘Abbas Hilmi II. It is seen as an architectural marvel that will link Cairo with Zamalek Island.

1912 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Muhammad Husayn Haykal publishes the first volume of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He intended the book to create a cultural intermarriage between the East and West and hoped it would lead to a new intellectual revolution by providing an example to the West.

1912 Spain Fine And Applied Arts

Foundation of the Museo Nacional de Artes Decorativas, an important step in the progress of applied arts and design, especially because its main objective is the education of workers, students and the public in the styles, decoration and other aspects of the applied arts.

1912 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

First publication of the Macedonian and Russian language journal Makedonski Golos (Macedonian Voice). Krste Petkov Misirkov and Dimitrija Chupovski, central figures of the Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary Society, were largely responsible for its publishing.

1912 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Portuguese experimental psychology laboratory is created in the new Faculty of Humanities of the University of Coimbra by Professor Joaquim Augusto Alves dos Santos (1866–1924). The laboratory enabled the development of research on knowledge and memory and had a major impact on pedagogy and republican didactics.

1912 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

A reaction to academic teaching of the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) emerges in 1911 with the first free exhibition of young modernist painters. This is highlighted in the first Exhibition of the Humoristas of 1912, which includes painters Cristiano Cruz, Almada Negreiros, Eduardo Viana, Stuart de Carvalhais, José Pacheko and Emmerico Nunes and sculptor Diogo de Macedo.

1912 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Paul Claudel's de L'Annonce faite à Marie opens at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre, a Symbolist theatre set up as a reaction to André Antoine’s “Naturalist” Théâtre Libre.

1912 - 1913 Turkey Migrations

Balkan Wars. Large wave of Muslims and Jews flee the Balkans for Ottoman lands to the south. This involuntary migration is estimated to involve 64,000 persons.

1913 Romania Political Context Date Country Theme

In 1913 Romania participates in the Second Balkan War and under the Treaty of Bucharest receives the south of Dobruja from Bulgaria.

1913 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Umberto Boccioni made the sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, considered a masterpiece of Italian Futurism.

1913 Italy Migrations

Italian migration reaches its peak: 870,000 Italians migrate abroad.

1913 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Grazia Deledda (1871–1936) publishes the novel Canne al vento. Thirteen years later, she will be awarded the Nobel Prize (the second woman to be Nobel laureate in literature).

1913 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Average life expectancy, which in 1861 was 30 years, is now 47 years.

1913 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

Egon Schiele (1890–1918) becomes a member of the Bund Österreichischer Künstler (Society of Austrian Artists).

1913 Serbia Political Context

The Second Balkan War begins due to a quarrel between Serbia and Bulgaria over the division of joint conquests. Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece in 1923; the Bulgarians are defeated on both fronts. Subsequently, Turkey and Romania declare war on Bulgaria and the Bulgarians soon request an armistice. The war ends with a Peace Treaty signed in Bucharest in August 1913. During the Balkan Wars, Serbia expands its territory by 39,500 square kilometres.

1913 - 1914 Portugal Political Context

Afonso Costa is appointed Prime Minister. Republican achievements fall short of people’s expectations, fuelling the resistance of monarchists, capitalists and landlords. Inflation, public debt, trade deficit, strikes, the rise of anarcho- syndicalism, middle-class disillusion, and fear of communism will invite the establishment of the 1915 military dictatorship.

1913 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

February–March: Amadeo Sousa Cardoso, at the invitation of Walter Pach (1883– 1958), exhibits eight works at the Armory Show (1st Show of European Art, USA) in New York, Chicago and Boston. The Chicago art collector Arthur J. Eddy acquires three paintings by Cardoso and promotes his work in his book Cubists and Post-Impressionism book, emphasising his colour techniques.

1913 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Publication of Marcel Proust’s Du côté de chez Swann.

1913 - 1917 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

The last palace (Cicilienhof) of the House of Hohenzollern (a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings and emperors) was built under Wilhelm II. The palace hosted the Conference of Potsdam in 1945.

1913 Turkey Political Context

23 July: Edirne retaken by the Ottoman Army under the command of Enver Pa#a.

1913 Turkey Political Context

23 January: Bab-# Ali coup d'état in the empire (Turkish: Bâb-# Âlî Bask#n#) results in Grand Vizier Kamil Pa#a being driven from power and replacement of Minister of War Naz#m Pa#a by #smail Enver. Effectively ending the London Peace Conference, it marks a significant point in the Ottoman government's progress towards centralisation, giving de facto power to the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas.

1914 Qatar Economy And Trade

Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim regulates the activity of pearling. He issued and publishes the first written document on pearling activities identifying the start and the end dates of the season and the dividend rates of workers in pearling dhows.

1914s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

Around 1914, 80 per cent of the Trucial Coast’s labour force is involved in the wider pearling sector, including 950 major pearl merchants, 1,300 pearling ship-owners and some 21,000 general employees. The remainder are employed in agriculture, fisheries and other forms of commerce. Gulf pearling exports amount to 2 million pounds sterling.

1914 Romania Political Context

Death of King Carol I. As he only had one daughter, who died at the age of three, Ferdinand, his fraternal nephew, had been designated heir to the Romanian throne in 1880.

1914 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Vasile Pârvan initiates archaeological digs at Histria (Dobruja), the earliest documented city in the territory of Romania, and in 1915 discovers the ruins of the ancient Greek city Istros.

1914 France Reforms And Social Changes

The first French Doctorate in literature, Docteur en lettres, is received by a woman.

1914 - 1918 France Political Context Date Country Theme

The First World War, which left millions dead in France, leaves a lasting impact on society.

1914 United Kingdom Political Context

War catches the people by surprise: British troops are fighting the Ottomans on three fronts. They are repelled at Gallipoli, pushed back in Southern Arabia, and British forces are captured in Iraq. By the end of the war these setbacks are reversed and Britain and her allies occupy Constantinople, Egypt, Iraq and the Levant.

1914 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Austrian expressionist writer Georg Trakl commits suicide following his experiences in battle during World War I.

1914 - 1918 Serbia Political Context

The duration of World War I.

1914 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

Laying of the Foundation Stone of the University of Fuad I.

1914 Egypt Political Context

On 25 July, at the onset of World War I, ‘Abbas Hilmi II is in Constantinople where he suffers wounds to his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November of that same year, when Britain declares war on Turkey, ‘Abbas is accused of deserting his country because he did not return home forthwith. In addition, because the British believe that he has been plotting against their rule, when the Ottoman Empire joins the central powers in the war, Britain declares Egypt an independent Sultanate under British Protectorate on 18 December, and ‘Abbas is deposed.

1914 - 1920 Spain Economy And Trade

Due to Spain's neutrality in World War I, the economy witnesses increased production and industrial growth. The end of the war produces the beginning of a crisis that causes the end of the monarchy in 1931.

1914 Lebanon Political Context

The privileged position enjoyed by Lebanon is ended by the Ottomans in World War I: Lebanon’s semi-automous status is abolished and Mount Lebanon, an important territory at the international level, is put under martial law by the Ottomans. The Turkish commander Jamal Pasha occupies Lebanon militarily.

1914 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Welsh poet and writer Dylan Marlais Thomas is born in Swansea on 27 October 1914. His best known works include the poem “Do not go gentle into that good night” (1951) and the play for voices Under Milk Wood (written 1951, first Date Country Theme broadcast 1954). In later life, Thomas encouraged his reputation as a “roistering, drunken and doomed poet”; dying prematurely in New York in 1953.

1914 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

With the outbreak of World War I, the modernist movement thrives in Portugal with the return from France of a group of avant-garde artists including the painters Manuel Bentes (1885–1961), Eduardo Viana (1881–1967), José Pacheko (1885– 1934) and Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, and the sculptors Diogo de Macedo (1889– 1959), and Francisco Franco (1885–1955).

1914 Germany Political Context

The heir apparent of Austria, Franz Ferdinand, is murdered in Sarajevo by a member of the Serbian intelligence service known as the “Black Hand”. As a consequence, the Austrian government issues an ultimatum to Serbia; Germany declares war on the Russian Empire and on France; and Great Britain declares war on the German Empire.

1914 - 1918 Germany Political Context

World War I is declared and fought.

1914 - 1918 Germany Migrations

One in every ten members of the workforce in the German Empire is foreign (many of them prisoners of war).

1914 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

The School of Fine Arts for female students (#nâs Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) is opened.

1914 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

A school for theatre (Dârülbedayi) is founded.

1914 Austria Political Context

On 28 June the heir-apparent Archduke Francis Ferdinand is shot in Sarajevo by a Bosnian youth of Serb origin.

1914 Austria Political Context

Austria declares war on Serbia in July: she is supported by Russia, France and Britain. Turkey and Bulgaria enter the war on the side of the German–Austrian Alliance.

1914 Turkey Political Context

29 October: German warships, officially designated as Ottoman vessels, shell Russian Black Sea ports, an action that leads the Ottoman Empire to enter World War I. Date Country Theme

1915 Qatar Political Context

The Ottomans suddenly abandon Doha, leaving behind guns, shells and ammunition.

1915 - 1918 Italy Economy And Trade

When the war breaks out, the state takes a leading role in organising industrial production. Dramatic growth of steel, mechanic, chemical and textile productions. Workers in industries of strategic value are submitted to military discipline.

1915 - 1918 Italy Political Context

Italy participates in World War I on the side of the UK, France and Russia, despite widespread opposition to entering the war. On the Austrian front, Italy suffers a crushing defeat at Caporetto in 1917, but wins in 1918. In Libya, Arab revolt: Italy keeps control only of coastal towns. Casualties are 650,000 military deaths, 950,000 wounded, 600,000 prisoners of war or missing.

1915 Lebanon Political Context

Turkish commander Jamal Pasha initiates a blockade of the entire eastern Mediterranean coast. Lebanon witnesses thousands of deaths from widespread famine and plague.

1915 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

In the 1910s several modernist painters such as Eduardo Viana rejected the current teaching of academic naturalism, still deeply rooted in the national taste. Their focus was the cubism, futurism and Dada movements in Paris, but also the Orphism of French painters Sonia and Robert Delaunay, living in Portugal in 1915– 16.

1915 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the only two issues of Orpheu magazine, thanks to the contribution of the most gifted figures of the modernist group. Without anything specifically programmatic, the magazine shows an iconoclastic irreverence, seeking notoriety by scandalising those holding traditional attitudes and customs.

1915 Germany Migrations

Introduction of the Legitimationszwang in Prussia allows police to tag foreign workers and their German employers.

1915 Turkey Political Context

Allied forces occupy #stanbul (16 March); Greece occupies #zmir (15 May).

1916 Qatar Political Context

Treaty with the UK. This recognises Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim as the ruler of Qatar, and places the sheikhdom under British maritime protection. Date Country Theme

1916 - 1918 Romania Political Context

After two years of neutrality, Romania fights in the World War I on the side of the Triple Entente. At the end of the war, following the dissolution of the Austro- Hungarian monarchy and of the Russian Empire, the national gatherings of Bessarabia, Transylvania, Banat and Bukovina vote for their union with the Romanian kingdom. Greater Romania is thus created.

1916 France Migrations

First Chinese immigration wave to France: 35,000 Chinese workers are recruited to France during World War I.

1916 Jordan Political Context

Sykes–Picot Agreement signed by the British, French and Russian governments on 16 May 1916 concerning the division of Ottoman lands in Greater Syria between the two colonial powers, the UK and France. According to this secret treaty southern Syria (Palestine and Jordan) and Iraq are to fall under British mandate and Syria and Lebanon under the French.

1916 - 1920 Jordan Political Context

Supported by the UK, on 10 June 1916 Husayn ibn ‘Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, declares the Great Arab Revolt against the Turks with the aim of establishing an independent Arab state under his leadership in Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria). Aqaba in Jordan is captured in 1917, becoming the headquarters of the northern army headed by Husayn’s son Prince Faysal, who becomes King of Syria in 1920. British promises to Sharif Husayn have contradicted other secret agreements of the UK with its allies, e.g. Sykes–Picot. These mandates put an end to the Arab Kingdom of Syria under King Faysal on 24 July 1920.

1916 United Kingdom Political Context

British interests in the Middle East are driven partly by the British Indian administration and partly by the strategic alliance with France. Mark Sykes for Britain and George Picot for France come to a diplomatic agreement to divide the Ottoman Levantine possessions for their respective countries. This conflicts with an earlier British promise of independence.

1916 - 1917 Saudi Arabia Political Context

The Arab Revolt begins on 10 June 1916 led by the Governor of Mecca (Makkah), Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali, and his sons, the amirs ‘Ali and Faisal. His forces seize the city of Riyad and force the small Ottoman garrison to seek refuge in the local fortress. Another of Husayn’s sons, Amir Abdallah, manages to surround and then take the town of Ta’if.

1916 - 1917 Saudi Arabia Political Context

Rebel clans allied to Sharif Husayn attack Jeddah (Jidda) and other seaports along the Arabian coast of the Red Sea.

1916 Saudi Arabia Political Context Date Country Theme

By the end of July 1916, the seaports of Jeddah, Yanbu and Rabigh are in Arab hands. This allows the British to increase their supply of arms and equipment to the Arab forces fighting in the Hijaz.

1916 - 1917 Egypt Economy And Trade

More paper currency enters circulation: the 25 piaster together with the five and 10 piaster.

1916 Lebanon Political Context

Turkish authorities publicly execute 21 Syrians and Lebanese in Damascus and Beirut, respectively, for alleged anti-Turkish activities; the place of execution in each city will be renamed Martyrs' Square.

1916 Austria Political Context

Death of Emperor Francis Joseph and accession of Emperor Charles I to the Austro-Hungarian throne.

1916 Austria Political Context

Romania declares war on the Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Bulgaria.

1916 Portugal Political Context

Germany declares war on Portugal. Portugal enters World War I, complying with international commitments in Europe and defending the Portuguese strategic possessions in Africa, mainly Angola and Mozambique. The Portuguese army fought on the western European Front and in the south of Angola (border with Namibia) and the north of Mozambique (Nevala).

1917 - 1920 France Cities And Urban Spaces

The planning and development of several cities in Morocco (Casablanca, Fez, Marrakech, Meknes and Rabat) are carried out by French architects.

1917 - 1918 Saudi Arabia Political Context

In June 1917 the coastal city of Aqaba in Jordan becomes the new base for Faisal’s army, renamed the “Arab Northern Army”. Attacks on the Hijaz Railway continue, extending now as far north as southern Jordan. T. E. Lawrence, “Lawrence of Arabia” himself led reconnaissance parties into Syria and made contact with Arab nationalists in Damascus. The spectacular victory of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) at the Third Battle of Gaza (Beersheba) in October 1917, and the subsequent British advance into the Jordan Valley, gave renewed impetus to Faisal’s “railway war” further east. Meanwhile, Amir Faisal, with Lawrence as his adviser, had captured the seaport of Wejh (al-Wagh) on the Red Sea, 150 km north of Yanbu. From there, Faisal’s men spent most of 1917 attacking the Hijaz Railway. Small raiding parties blew up sections of track, destroyed bridges, water towers and even some weakly defended railway stations. The British, planning to invade Palestine, were keen for the Arab rebels to keep the 12,000 Ottoman troops tied down in Medina (Madinah). Date Country Theme

1917 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Strong cultural pressure at this time puts constraints on female performers. When the singer Munira al-Mahdiyya begins her career, she is the first female Muslim performer to appear onstage.

1917 Germany Political Context

The United States declares war on the German Empire.

1917 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The conservatoire (Dârülelhân) is founded.

1918 Lebanon Migrations

The Lebanese buy homes from the Italians and Jews, who are moving away. They learn about clothes, home improvements, insurance and credit. Businesses are branching out, with dry goods and notions business replaced by grocery stores, butcher shops, coffee houses and sales of farm produce from vehicles.

1918 - 1919 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

600,000 die in the Spanish influenza pandemic.

1918 Greece Reforms And Social Changes

The General Confederation of Greek Workers (GSEE) is founded.

1918 - 1920 Saudi Arabia Political Context

Squabbling among the allies (those that had betrayed the Arab Revolution) delays the signing of the Peace Treaty with the Ottomans, which is being negotiated at Sèvres in France up until 10 August 1920. The Treaty confirmed French and British possession of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq in the guise of League of Nations mandates. Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali is rewarded for his leadership of the Arab Revolt with international recognition of the Hijaz as an independent kingdom.

1918 Egypt Migrations

George Park begins building work on Alexandria Opera House, known also as Sayyid Darwish Theatre, which opens in 1921.

1918 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Najib al-Rihani introduces a new type of theatre known as Musical Theatre or Operette. Cooperating with the famous Egyptian singer and composer Sayyid Darwish and the actor and writer Badi‘ Khayri, together, they produce several successful Operettes.

1918 Spain Political Context Date Country Theme

Spain's neutrality in World War I brings important economic upturn.

1918 Lebanon Political Context

British General Edmund Allenby and Faysal I, son of Sharif Husayn of Mecca, move into Palestine with British and Arab forces, thus opening the way for the occupation of Lebanon.

1918 Austria Political Context

The Peace (or Treaty) of Bucharest between Romania and Austria.

1918 Austria Political Context

Armistice between Austro-Hungary and the Entente Powers (France, Russia and the United Kingdom).

1918 Austria Political Context

Emperor Charles I renounces his participation to the government of Germany- Austria (Deutsch Österreich). The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna.

1918 Germany Political Context

Woodrow Wilson declares his “14 points” program in front of Congress.

1918 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The so-called November Revolution results in the withdrawal of Emperor Wilhelm II; the Council of People’s Deputies (SPD and USPD members) take over government.

1919 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past

At the Paris Peace conference held after the end of the World War I, the Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad and Mosul are unified into Iraq, governed by Britain, under a League of Nations mandate. Gertrude Bell helps found the Iraq Museum (1926) and draft antiquities laws.

1919 France Reforms And Social Changes

The official working day is recognised as eight hours; the official working week is set at 48 hours.

1919 - 1920 Lebanon Economy And Trade

New currency is adopted when the Lebanese Bank is linked to the Syrian Bank.

1919 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Law 1176/1919 abolishes “marital authorisation” and allows women to practise most professions and to take up public employment. But some limitations on Date Country Theme women working persist: they are still not allowed to become magistrates, diplomats and police officers or reach the highest grades in the civil service.

1919 - 1920 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The “Two Red Years”: 2 million unemployed. Introduction of compulsory old- age, unemployment and disability insurances. High inflation and decrease of salaries. Intense workers’ mobilisation: strikes and occupations of land, factories and shipyards. Trade unions achieve minimum wage, 8-hour working day and recognition of factory commissions.

1919 Italy Political Context

Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation. The Popular Party (antecedent to the Christian Democrats) is founded. Mussolini creates the first Fascio di combattimento (embryo of the Fascist Party).

1919 Italy Travelling

The Ente nazionale per le industrie turistiche (ENIT – a state-funded body aimed at promoting tourism in Italy) is founded. In the last decades of the 19th century, local associations and bodies aimed at promoting tourism started to be created, under public or private initiative.

1919 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Taha Husayn is appointed Professor of History at Fuad I University, where, through his own will and craving for knowledge, he becomes the leader of the Arab cultural renaissance.

1919 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

The 1919 Egyptian Revolution is a milestone, not only in terms of the nationalist struggle, but also in the history of popular revolutions in general. Its overall influence, extending well beyond the politics and political parties of Egypt, exceeds the impact of the earlier ’Urabi Revolution.

1919 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces

The beginning of the Madrid subway system, the first in Spain, heralding a major advance in public transport in cities.

1919 Austria Political Context

Austria signs the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with the Entente Powers.

1919 Germany Political Context

On signature of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany must face up to its responsibility to make reparation payments, abandon territory and let go of its colonies. The League of Nations is founded. Date Country Theme

1919 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Rudolf Steiner, originator of the Waldorfpädagogik, opens the first Steiner School in Stuttgart (the basis of which is human anthropology).

1920 Tunisia Political Context

The first Tunisian political party is established as the Constitutional Liberal Party of Tunisia: “Le destour’’. In a pamphlet published anonymously in Paris, one of its founders, Abdelaziz al-Thalibi, specified the party’s demands.

1920 Italy International Exhibitions

First Milan Fair of industrial products: 1,233 exhibitors (including 224 foreigners) and 360,000 visitors.

1920 United Kingdom Political Context

The letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, to Lord Rothschild in November 1917 offers British support to Zionist aspirations for Palestine to be a national home for Jews. This is internationally confirmed by the League of Nations handing over Palestine to Britain as a Mandate.

1920 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Tal‘at Harb Pasha founds Banque Misr.

1920 Lebanon Political Context

France takes control over Lebanese territory after the San Remo Conference.

1920 Austria Political Context

The population of Carinthia in southernmost Austria votes in favour of remaining within Austria.

1920 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

Although it reproduces a traditional technique, the use of azulejo (ceramic tilework) meets the need for modernisation of shops and public buildings in main cities throughout Portugal at the beginning of the 20th century.

1920 Germany Political Context

Foundation of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP); the party’s first selection for the German Reichstag is on 6 July.

1920 Germany Political Context

The Conference of San Remo was an international meeting convened to decide which parts of its territories the Ottoman Empire would lose, to become the mandated territory under the League of Nations. For example, France received Date Country Theme mandated territory for Syria and Lebanon (and King Faysal of Iraq goes into exile after losing Greater Syria to the French).

1920 Turkey Political Context

23 April: Formation of Turkish National Assembly in Ankara.

1920 Turkey Political Context

10 August: Treaty of Sévres, which divides Anatolia between the Allies, Greeks, Armenians and Kurds.