ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT RESEARCH PROGRAM
TECHNICAL REPORT EL-89-1O
SPECIESPROFILES:LIFEHISTORIESAND ENVIRONMENTALREQUIREMENTSOF COASTAL VERTEBRATESANDINVERTEBRATES PACIFICOCEANREGION
Report 1 GREEN TURTLE, Chelonia mydas
by Robert G. Forsyth, George H. Balazs Southwest Fisheries Center Honolulu Laboratory National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Hon o IuI , Hawai i 96822-2396
July 1989
Report 1 of a Series
Approved For Public Release; Distribution Unlimited Library NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service SWFCHonolulu Laboratory F/SWC2 2570 Dole Street Honolulu, HI 96822-2396
Prepared for DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY US Army Corps of Engineers Washington, DC 20314-1000 Monitored by Environmental Laboratory US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station P0 Box 631, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39181-0631 ______
Utrn1ag:H ff ci SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS P4 I Form Approved REPORT DOCUMENTATiON PAGE 0MBNo O7O4O788 Exp. Date Jun30. 7986 la. REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION lb. RESTRICTIVEMARKINGS Unclassified 2a. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION AUTHORITY 3 DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY OF REPORT Approved for public release; 2b. DECLASSIFICATION I DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE d stn but i on unl Imited.
4. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER(S) 5. MONITORING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER(S) Technical Report EL-89—1O
6a. NAME OF PERFORMING ORGANIZATiON 6b. OFFICE SYMBOL 7a. NAME OF MONITORING ORGANIZATION (If applicable) USAEWES See reverse. Environmental Laboratory 6c. ADDRESS (City, State, and ZIP Code) 7b. ADDRESS (City,State, and ZIP Code) See reverse. P0 Box 631 Vicksburg, MS 39181-0631
Ba. NAME OF FUNDING/SPONSORING 8b. OFFICE SYMBOL 9. PROCUREMENT INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION NUMBER ORGANIZATION (If applicable) US Army Corps of Engineers 8c. ADDRESS(City, State,andZlPCode) 10. SOURCE OF FUNDING NUMBERS PROGRAM PROJECT TASK WORK UNIT Washington, DC 20314-1000 ELEMENT NO. NO. NO. ACCESSION NO
11 . TITLE (lnclue Secyrity Classifiçaion) • . Species Profiles: Lite Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Vertebrates and Invertebrates, Pacific Ocean Region; Report 1, Green Turtle, Chelonia mj’das
12J’ERSONAL AJTHOR(S) Forsyth, Robert G.; Balazs, George H. 13a TYPE OF REPORT 13b. TIME COVERED 14. DATE OF REPORT (YearMonth,Day) 115.PAGE COUNT Report 1 of a series 1989 25 FROM TO July I 76. SUPLEMEJJTAY NOTAJION . . . . Avai aiie trom National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
17. COSATI CODES 18. SUBJECT TERMS (Continue on reverse if necessary and identify by block number) FIELD GROUP SUB-GROUP Environmental requirements Geographic range Ecological role Morphology
19. ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse if necessary and identity by block number) Species profiles are literature summaries of the taxonomy, morphology, distribution, life history, and environmental requirements of aquatic species. They are designed to assist in environmental impact assessments. The green turtle, Chelonia ydas, is found throughout the Pacific Ocean region. Its status is listed as endangered by the Inter- national Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and as threatened in the U.S. Endangered Species Act and is included in Appendix 1 of the Convention on Interna tional Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Females nest on a 2-, 3-, or 4-year cycle, laying one to six clutches per season and averaging between 100 and 110 eggs per clutch. Nesting normally takes place in the summer months. Hatching mortal- ity from predation in the marine environment is thought to be high. After an initial 3-year carnivorouspelagic stage, green turtles become primarily herbivores, residing in (Continued) iC(
20. DISTRIBUTION I AVAILABILITY OF ABSTRACT 2 1 . ABSTRACT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION UNCLASSIFIED/UNLIMITED D SAME AS RPT DTIC USERS Unclassified 22a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE INDIVIDUAL 22b TELEPHONE (Include Area Code) 22c. OFFICE SYMBOL
OD FORM 1473, 84 MAR 83 APR edition may be used until exhaustea. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE All other editions are obsolete. Unclassified Library $OAA, National Marine Fisheries Service SWFCHonolulu Laboratory F/SWC2 2?O Dole Street Horo1u1u, HI 96822-2396
of
The
the
to
PAGE
laws
THIS
man.
maturity
debris,
future
OP
appear
habitats,
the
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conservation
other
Unclassified
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foraging
other
affecting
Growth
to
local or
and
of
SECURITYCLAS5IFICATION
predators
years
algae.
problems
few
25
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of
disregard
have Other
and/or
average
‘cs
nesting
the
and
AAOi
grass
Vs’1dA.j
of
and
‘1
ingestion
sea
(Continued).
jeopardy.
Turtles
the
on
JiuLof
in
£*flDLSK
long-lived
Laboratory
turtles
NOAA
2•sz2
alteration
slow.
feed
are
debris.
‘flL14k
they
ORGANIZATION
hunting Honolulu
, Service,
,
include
populations
i•’ieida1
in
turtles
generally
marine
where
fibropapillomas, SAGE
Center
are
of
turtle
green
THIS
with
PERFORMING
areas
Fisheries
op
and
(Continued).
equipment
96322-2396
OF
populations
many
Adult
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NAME
Marine
incidence
coastal
modern
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placed
with
ABSTRACT
c.
entanglement
C.*ulFICATtOw
of
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&
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and
green
growing
have
in
use
19.
vary
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Honolulu,
Southwest
National
6a
-‘- sgcuiry PREFACE
This report was published as part of the Environmental Impact Research Program (EIRP), sponsored by Headquarters, US Army Corps of Engineers (HQUSACE). Technical Monitors were Dr. John Bushman, Mr. David P. Buelow, and Mr. Dave Mathis of HQUSACE. Dr. Roger T. Saucier, Environmental Laboratory (EL), US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (WES), was EIRP Program Manager. This report is designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and bi ologists with a brief comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental requirements of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, and to describe how populations of the species in the Hawaiian waters may be expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. The report has sections on taxonomy, life history, ecological role, environmental re quirements, growth, exploitation, and management. The report was prepared by Robert G. Forsyth and George H. Balazs of the Southwest Fisheries Center, Hon olulu Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, under the support agree- ment WESCW88-188.
The authors gratefully acknowledge reviews by Messrs. Michael T. Lee, US Army Engineer District, Honolulu; Earl E. Possardt, US Fish and Wildlife Service; Richard E. Brock, University of Hawaii; and Ms. Karen Bjorndal, Uni versity of Florida.
Mr. Edward J. Pullen, Coastal Ecology Group, served as contract monitor for this study under the general supervision of Dr. C. J. Kirby, Chief, En- vironmental Resources Division, EL, WES, and Dr. John Harrison, Chief, EL, WES.
During the preparation of this profile, COLDwayne G. Lee, EN, was the Commander and Director of WES. Dr. Robert W. Whalin was Technical Director.
This report should be cited as follows:
Forsyth, Robert G., and Balazs, George H. 1989. ‘Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Vertebrates and Invertebrates, Pacific Ocean Region; Report 1, Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas,” Technical Report EL-89-1O, prepared by National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Honolulu, HI, for the US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
111
units
degrees
degrees
miles
thermal
tons
tons
kilometers
miles
meters
Obtain
feet
meters
miles
meters
tons
feet
meters
feet
igrams
imeters
To
1
ograms
ometers
ometers
1
1
1
kilocalories
Celsius
ki
metric
grams metric
liters
mil
cubic
cubic
hectares
square
square
nches ki
nches ki
centi meters
meters
mill
Fahrenheit
short British
pounds pounds
çunces
ounces
acre-
cubic
gallons
square
acres
square
nautical
statute
fathoms
i feet
I 32)
-
32
Metric
+
(°F
to
TABLE
Customary
2520
9072
00045
35
4536
02831
0929 4047
3048
54
iv
03527
00003527
0008110
2642
3861
5396
5468 6214
3937
03937
0.5556
0.
0.
0.
0.
3.785
0.
0.
2.590
1.852 0.
1.609
1.829
U.S.
0.
2.
1.8(°C)
3.968
1.102
2.205
0.
0.
0.
0.
28.
2.471
0.
0. 0.
3.281 0.
0.
0.
25.40
35.31
10.76
1233.0
to
2205.0
28350.0
Customary
CONVERSION
U.S.
Metric
(Btu)
(°F)
(km2)
units
(°C)
(nmi)
(mi)
(m2)
mi2)
(kcal)
(m3) (m3)
(It2)
(t)
(t)
degrees
(ton)
(It3)
(cm)
(mm)
(mg)
(km)
(km)
(kg)
miles
thermal
(ha)
(gal)
miles
degrees
(lb)
(lb)
(oz)
(oz)
feet
miles
tons tons
(1)
kilometers
tons
(m) (m) feet
meters
(g)
meters
meters
feet
(It)
Multiply
Fahrenheit
short
British
pounds
pounds
ounces
ounces
acre-
cubic
gallons
acres
square
square
nautical
statute
fathoms
inches inches feet
kilocalories
Celsius
kilograms
metric
grams metric
liters
cubic milligrams
cubic
square hectares
square
kilometers
kilometers
centimeters meters
meters millimeters CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE iii CONVERSIONTABLE iv NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY 1 GEOGRAPHICRANGE 1 REASONFOR INCLUSIONIN SERIES 2 MORPHOLOGYANDIDENTIFICATIONAIDS 4 LIFE HISTORY 5 Mating 5 Reproductive Cycle 5 Nesting 5 Eggs 6 Hatchlings 6 Longevity 7 Basking 7 Migration and Navigation 8 GROWTHCHARACTERISTICS 8 FISHERY 10 ECOLOGICALROLE 11 Food 11 Behavior in Foraging Pastures 11 Predation 13 Eggs 13 Hatchlings 13 Juveniles, Subadults, and Adults 13 Parasites, Symbionts, and Diseases 13 ENVIRONMENTALREQUIREMENTS 14 Beaches 14 Internesting Habitat 14 Foraging Pastures 15 Pelagic 16 LITERATURECITED 17
V GREEN TURTLE, Chelonia mydas
NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY GEOGRAPHICRANGE
Scientific name . . . Chelonia mvdas Chelonia mydas can be found in (Linnaeus) 1758 all tropical and temperate seas Preferred common name Green between lat. 35°N and 35S and in turtle waters remaining above 20°C in the Other comon names . . . Hawali--Honu; coldest month of the year (King 1982). Tonga--Fonu, Fonu Tu’a’uli, Fonu Although the green turtle is a circum Tu’akula, Fonu Tu’apolata, Tual global species, it should not be Fonu; Society Islands--French: regarded as a single interbreeding Tortue, Tahitian: Honu; Guam--hagan, assemblage, but as discrete popula kame; Western Samoa--laumei; tions genetically isolated from each Tokelau--fonu; Fiji--vonu damu, vonu other (Groombridge 1982). ba, mako ba, ika damu Class Reptilia Order Testudinata Family Cheloniidae
1
in
in
it
on
in
for
the
are
the
Asia
some
Until
reli
1982),
Flora.
Endan
endan
so
impor
season.
Conven
Species
popula
protein
of
in
Surinam
turtle.
Natural
of
for
European
in
in
also
as
Union
and
(alive)
of
was
short-term
the
and
,
and
more
currently
the
parts
1986). part
.
populations
of
turtle
Trade
They
nesting
green
Pauna
in
for
are
1
listed
far stored
-
historically,
practices
turtle
Endangered
and
amounts
(Groombridge
settlement
the
Japan,
Nature
is
%4..
NWHI. Wild
1979).
are
stable
green
role
reservations
U.S.
of
International
of
green
easily
(Johannes
important
Pacific
and
large
Nesting
FFS,
for
Appendix
(IUCN).
the
They
listing
although
be
during
the
Italy,
an
the
the
major
ceremonial
1
the
number
in
International
Hemisphere
1.
in
a
times
by
Species
in
entered
(Pritchard
commercially;
and
on
Except
play
could
and
Island,
supplying
.4
(France,
have
Appendix
gered
listed tion
Resources
Conservation Act
tions gered
jeopardy.
ships
that Australia,
by
exploration
Western
played
tant
recently,
former
cultures,
also
gious
East
Painted
resighting Figure
-
r
2
of
are
of
in
in
of
New
of
are
the
They
and
the
many
Rose
for
the
off
Group
Manus
read- over-
there
Saudi
South
Ocean 1971);
Verde
Costa
Scilly
in
(Spring
reside
islands (Balazs
in
Frigate
on Some
through-
eggs
Guiana;
and
offshore for
Thailand
nestings
of
of
not
of
areas
important
the
sites
Australia
Island
been
coasts
numbers
islands
Cape
and
coasts
Northwestern
of
region.
Reef
an
2).
the
(Hirth
Islands
Islands;
SERIES
Phoenix
are
Cay,
their
Tanzania,
Africa,
not
1982);
Guinea
Most
Pacific
coast
is
French French
beaches
the
the
coast coast
(NWHI)
IN
source
large
in
nest
1983);
Europa
villagers
nesting
nesting and
Group,
1979).
the
New
Ocean
in
have
uninhabited
Samoa
coasts
several
which
and
and
American
and
(Figure
the
vast
1).
and
east
mid-Atlantic;
Society
in
3)
Pandora
food
have
as
and
Somalia,
Channel
Caribbean
include
especially
Fleay
on
Both
island
Galapagos
man
Papua
small
Caribbean
Gulf.
the
turtles
INCLUSION
Islands
Bunker
turtles
the
(Pritchard
the
in
the
South
Pacific
beaches
Island
by
worldwide
well
important
on
1975);
American
of
still
and
and
Guyana,
and
(Pritchard
d’Entrecasteaux
the
the
Island
in
(Figure
in
colony,
(Figure
FOR
and
Island,
Ocean
as
in
the
are
Green
the
turtles
Green
important
more
Major
Persian
accessible
Malaysia,
Mozambique
remote
nesting
out
an
coastal
REASON
1982c).
(Balazs
Island Hawaiian
Shoals
(Limpus Canton
1982a);
Caledonia
Atoll
District
Raine Capricorn
ily
the
exploited
or
today
region
islands, throughout
nestings
is
and
Mozambique.
nesting
Indian
the
the
Islands
Yemen;
Arabia
Ecuador; Rica; Surinam,
Pacific Ascension
Mexico; green 13
1 Lu I 9
MARSHALL 1 HELEFS REEF 9 BIKAR GUAM ISLANDS 8 2 MANUS DISTRICT 10 FUNAFUTI (5 SEPARATE NESTING SITES) 11 ROSE ATOLL PAIAU AP 3 BRAMBLE CAY I 12 VATOA 1UK 4 RAINE ISLAND; PANDORA CAY PONP 13 FRENQI FRIGATE SHOALS 5 BOUNTIFUL AND PISONIA ISLANDS 14 RAKAHANGA 6 CAPRICORN BUNKER GROUPS 15 PALMERSTON U- 7 D’ENTRECASTEAUX REEF 2. 16 SCILLY 8 UJELANG 17 RAROIA PAPtM %. A NEW SOWMON U GUNEA IC ISLANDS 14 C,) j3 11 WES ERN Iv)4 •SAI 15 16 L SEA ® : 7 0 12 FIJI SOCIETY 200_ ISLANDS
AUSTRALIA DALEDONIA
Important by r•ason of Iarg. population size. NEW ZEALAND ® €: Important by reason of isolation or uniqu. ecology. c Locally important. 400 tit I I I I 140° 160° 180° 160° 140°
Figure 2. Distribution of notable nesting sites of green turtles in the Pacific Ocean region.
a
a
by
or
in
as
in
the
the
4).
The
and
the
been
same
gray
four
of
with
scale
is
green
cm
green
during
hatch-
ending
chang of
smaller
olive,
radical
by
streaks
usually
by
elongate
not
carapace
plastron
carapace
plastron
and
variable
size
13
a pigmenta
black a
orange
typically
the
posthatch
pectoral,
Behind
these
coloration
variations
followed
of
in
is
has
reported
Free-ranging
until
hatchlings,
(Figure
side
consist
The
or
by
by
anal,
of
the
scutes.
same
and
away,
carapace
green, black
5.8-cm
observed
cm
in
Hawaiian
have
pair
this
variability
carapace
through
and
rear
been
hatchling,
radiating
followed
adult,
the
plastron
At
8
each
of
undergo
because
old)
the
to
a
old),
yellow
scutes
frontoparietal
go
pattern
with
scales.
to
old).
1986b).
of
been
humeral,
fades
of
an
scalation
the
brown,
to
On
the
of
preceded
not
black.
less
as
white
single
stage,
intensifies
postanal.
supraocular,
completely
7 it
to
As
mature.
pale
in
or
a
not
This
is
weeks
colors a
large
front
weeks
femoral,
has
a
weeks
head
inframarginal
however,
uncommon
gold,
a
black
(Balazs
This
pattern
plastral
turtles
is
and
(4
numbers.
presumably
diffused crown,
gular,
(2
to
intergular
single
hatchlings
have
a reach
buff,
from
of
pelagic
somewhat
(20
postocular
populations.
change
not
that
The
a
for
The
blue
Coloration
turtles
the
to
buff,
connected
is
scute
four
frontal
includes
frontal
prefrontals.
on
lings verified
their
changes;
less
turtles
length
lings disappearing
Thereafter,
pigment.
becomes
length
other
tion
color
is turtle
the
turning
pairs coloration
abdominal,
brown,
shows
background single paired
with
population.
ing turtle
even
It
in of
juveniles.
dark
4
)
5
is
is
is
this
ante-
long,
move-
green
Island
scutes, photo).
pattern
largest
head
ateral
scutes,
body
involves
an
carapace
turtles,
AIDS
Hawaiian
(postcen
are
scute,
(1
anteriorly forelimbs.
progression
the
carapace
The
East
in
its
the
scute
land
cover
Largest
of
is
the
of
withdrew
cm
efficient
in
Its
on
marine
marginal
and
includes
of costal
flippers
(central)
front
of
and
for
125
smooth;
view
water.
mode
supracaudal
NWHI.
of
kg.
carapace
turtle
IDENTIFICATION
colony
(precentral)
turtle
to
front
(see
and
small
the
sweeps
of
recently
pairs
water
the
230
AND
Aerial
up
The
normal
green
normal
pairs
11
hard-shelled
in
green
the vertebral
pair
and
nesting
scutes
3.
shaped
4
nuchal
streamlined
in
through
The
1
the
The
Japan
the
the
FF5
scutes, and
tral)
for nor
simultaneous
median with
both
and
relatively rounded.
heart very
length
ment
of
measuring
MORPHOLOGY
option.)
but
Islands.
Figure at turtle : season, and females do not copulate , :.. after laying their first clutch of eggs (Balazs 1980b). There is some uncertainty as to when fertilization actually takes place. Some researchers believe that fertilization is delayed until the following nesting season. This hypothesis raises the question of when the eggs of virgin females are fertilized, as well as the process by which spermatozoa would be stored for 2, 3, or at least 4 years between nestings. Most authorities now believe that fertilization is of the current season’s eggs. This would still require the short-term storage of spermatozoa because most green turtles Figure 4. Four-week-old Hawaiian green lay multiple clutches of eggs (Ehrhart turtle showing dark pigmentation phase 1982). of plastron.
Reproducti ye Cycl e supraocular is a temporal, and situ- ated behind the frontoparietal is a Adult females that remigrate to pair of parietals with an additional nesting beaches tend to do so on 2-, temporal on the outer margins of each 3-, or 4-year cycles or longer. How- parietal. ever, low recovery rates of remigrat ing females suggest that many females Sex is externally indeterminate may nest only once in their lifetime. before the onset of maturity. Females A 21-year study involving 12,000 are a minimum of 80—cm straight-line tagged females at Tortuguero showed carapace length at maturity; males are only a 16.4% remigration rate (Hughes slightly smaller. At or just before 1982). High tag loss may account for maturity, the tail of the male elon this low number, but high mortality gates and thickens at the base. The from fishing pressure and other tail of the male reaches a short impacts is certainly a possibility. distance beyond its hind flippers, whereas the female’s tail barely extends beyond the posterior end of Nesting the carapace. Nesting normally takes place throughout the summer months (seasons LIFE HISTORY reverse for the Southern and Northern Hemispheres) in the Pacific islands, with strong seasonal peaks that vary with location. Nesting occurs at Courtship and copulation take night on sandy beaches above the high place in shallow water in the general watermark. Once the female locates a vicinity of the nesting beaches. Most suitable area to deposit her eggs, she copulations occur early in the mating digs a body pit by using her fore- 5
I I
a
as
or
to
for
are the
The
al.
the
and
also
that
from
also
once
they
dif
when
from
joint
lower
high-
up
after
1°
days,
higher
(Hirth
(NWHI)
showed
higher
et terres
cloaca
a
females
(greater
and
(Balazs surface.
days
clutches
8$
nightfall
free
of
usually
the
tended
a
eliminates
and,
hatch
7
fertilized
is
toward
sexual
nests
shorter
the
to
temperature
the
ratio;
for
diameter
high
(NWHI)
slightly
respectively.
surfaces
Island to
in
days
surface,
not
40
more
diurnal
break
54 whereas
later
eggs (Limpus
Also,
were
3
1982).
night
night,
change
to
If
the
hatchlings
sex
the
do
g, of
predators
to
to
temperatures
temperatures
wait
of a
affect
inhibiting
leave
East
in
is
the
sunset,
sand
at
at
surface
64.5
from
Island
eggs temperatures.
another.
varies
quickly
dig
the
50
the
takes
to
Average or
at
34°C.
eggs
and
yield
males,
result
Yntema
to
Even
of
hot
sand
the
near
they
the
to
East
size
and
and
marine
groups.
sand after
of
move
period
emerge
outside
exposure
and
eggs
ranges
of
shown
to
to
at
excavation
slightly
fertility lethal
hatchlings
Emerging
affect
24°
turtle
Egg
usually
mm mean
temperature,
Incubation
19$Ob).
two
bringing
when
and
1971).
eggs
for
activity
33°C)
be
ings
of
The
a
It
been
hours
lower
Sea
88.5%
44 can
or
that
population
the
eliminates
few beach. trial
could
and hatchlings exposure
oriented,
than encountered cease
one
(Mrosovsky effort
their
Chelonia
Movement
Hatchl
1983).
incubation
temperatures
incubated ferentiation. 2°C temperatures percentage
have
(Balazs
range
er
(Hirth Incubation
1980b). and
emergence that
decrease
are
one
with
weight
mucous
6
a
9
13
is
al.
are
are The
The
the
she the
mm
with
fol
same
col
Time
once
hind pit,
eggs
Ovi
her.
reach
NWHI,
of
return
ranges
et
actual
alter-
cavity
motion
from
nesting
30 facili
turtles
of
the
nesting.
and
but
the
turtle
spherical
olfactory
the
than
alternate
in
data
cavity
to
commences body
mean
the
110.
they
egg
time.
to
the
numbers
they
in
covered
by
hypothesis,
in
a
Owens
behind
Island
green
are
an
foreflippers,
with
20
hatchlings
islands.
of
recorded.
to
the
completed,
whole
more
and
the
number
clutches.
are
with
“social
sweeping
completion,
in
that
clutches
once
systems.
widely,
These
is the
after
this
with
return
that
East
encounter
the
eggs
sand
in
that
Island
100
been
fixity
flippers
so
1.8
On
The
“learn”
nest
takes
Once
front
eggs
In
egg
at
1971).
adults
Pacific
with
this
is
vary
time
strong
filled
in
beach
the
days,
termed
shows
East
have
flask-shaped
described
hind
site
they
1980b).
oviposition
lowers six
Most
fills
a
females exjsts
turtle
is
nesters
18
1979).
between
At
consistent
Then
Once
can
navigation
pit
females
other
(Hirth
the
her
in
as
normally
same
beach
imprinted
1980b).
to
have
nestings
a model.”
is
which
actions.
at
female
however,
strong
in.
Green
(Balazs
11
Research
out
Most
process
turtle
experienced
white.
other
throwing
the
chamber
many
using
18
season.
and
(1982)
and
first-time beach,
low
explanation,
tation
somehow
to
possibility
Remigrating
have nesting maturity
lected
from
single between
as generally
a
days
mean,
(Balazs
(Pritchard
leaving
nest.
flippers. the
egg
finished, average position
by
nating deposited
flippers and
to digs This a in for for and the East been
time “4 be 1926) limit bask- popu night place 1988). at (NWHI) in beaches turtles now breeding uncommon to has behavior, the the for Galapagos Kam groups al. common major out temperature overzealous longer (Whittow the of not cool takes green and et into turtles the is no Shoals haul appears observed body still thermoregulation, basking island 1980b; it escape - in ashore during may NWHI basking, is in green hypotheses in “bask” to basking been also but Forsyth all normally and relatively stay only for the of include Frigate and to NWHI. not on (Balazs radiation characteristic day, i in Basking Basking Basking current that they then 19$Ob; increase has years possibly 6). invested FFS, 1982). the 5. c: solar Basking and evening The chain an selected turtles French behavior time
- :rt not 4
:. : (Balazs (Figure ing is Islands for and at are from Balazs season, several lation. late bask behavioral the revealed the Chelonia during Observations Island, documented males. Figure 7 9 in of in is to and 5). has the al. Zug are the the old. been they habit aging esti being rela green feed- later Costa oldest Canada et period by of females (Balazs natural turtles captive Gulf out of Cape results in skeleto has maturity exceed the in to Oahu, are are growth caretta. two originally a 12 Zug were enter years (Figure aging until and contact the the behavior Two Islands, information only on late West coastal of areas by in The years sent have age 81 Early female all are work success Hawaii 19-year in using bask this Park about initiated and turtles 32 of Caretta males) This used vigorously and in in a skeletal to North 8 this rnydas. remote Tortuguero Life time, observations Galapagos turtles hatchlings where been was Hawaii. known juveniles nesting hatchlings turtles, of Australia, green 135 technique in after growth recoveries swim and apparent . at and in is over Sea few Chelonia. juveniles the (1985) In turtles, adults ashore documented the as has be this Estimates of green areas 1980b). that a Tag Once to green as aged slow of and with tagged marks as they long-lived. alive to At through 1 well In technique with Little Work NWHI. only 1956 Balazs turtles females coming grounds. Pacific, been the Carpentaria Basking of (1986), The Australia, (Balazs (4 loggerhead suggest for humeri 1983a). turtles suggests and chronological cyclic This in turtles. tively mated Rica, resighted Longevity still tagged made lifespan returned Hawaiian years, 1971). ing sea. lost reappear
water, hi,
in
at
no
to
of
of
and
but
not
this
can
when
from
wave
These
from
when
site
time,
this
guid
mini-
mdi-
1971).
sense,
turtle celes
pelagic
excess been
size
Basin;
Scilly
turtles
carapace
oceano
and does
Coriolis
straight-
longest raised
time
a
are a
currents.
of
cm.
Caledonia
this
in even
assumption
required
a
referred
at
from
a
of
immediately
during
turtles
unknown
have
emerges
and
composite
(Hirth 35
At
in
from
the
and
capture approximately
Islands
New
is
inertial
the
Pacific
a
day,
is
subtle
are
of
calculated
invertebrates
most
reach
of currents
reaches
Chelonia
in
a
are
there
cm.
1982b).
migrate
the
the
tagged
bicoordinate
this
with
turtles
as
it
5
to
prevailing
light-compass
captured
hypotheses
Generally
km factors
living
diet
in
sense,
straight-line
hatchlings
show
weighs
perception
at
hatchling small
Society
some
length
speeds
perhaps
distances
of
a
sense,
Since
the
40
is
are
made such
over
it “disappears”
be
recorded
Hawaiian
(Meylan
until
recovery
turtles
from
these
include
the
data
the
and
months
to
years,”
cues,
turtles
has
their
more.
long
tagged
current
to
km
of
cues
1982b).
just
CHARACTERISTICS
19
in
magnetic
sonar
The
20
or
arrival
calculations
carapace
that
eggs.
and
against
turtle
When
nest,
navigation,
turtles
turtle
The
Migratory
been
averages
“lost
return
cm
g
green
4,000
line
least
fish
captivity
assumed
period,
observations
environment.
as
the
“reappear”
35
length the
30
the
GROWTH
several
patterns,
ance,
force,
(Meylan
graphic
olfactory
tial
navigation
after
that
traveling
mum
These
Island tag travel going
of
cated
area. of
recoveries
have nevertheless,
8
to
of
of
for
al.
that
when
FFS,
with
modes
(Hirth
migra
tagged
behav Pacific
turtles
et
(Hirth
nesting
epizoic
foraging
available
of
and
conserva
even
shown
turtle
few
the
and
purpose
turtle
Island,
are
periodically
difficult
social
unknown
in
the
synthesis
from
have
Garnett
rates
energy
documented
it
East
routes,
predators
beaches
Australia.
green
sites
the
still
eliminating
foraging
in
Relatively
1982b).
principal
turtles
freeing
that
in
made
shows
migrate
are
recovery
or
Navigation
1980b).
turtles
seal.
7
recoveries
the
nesting
facilitating
nesting
Basking
migratory
Low
and
avoiding
green
have
will
be
1982b).
between (Meylan
Tag
monk
D,
behavior
aiding
to
believe
6.
ecdysis,
Balazs
of
and
Figure
Green may
*.
navigation
I.
(Balazs
tions
locally
“suitable11
1971). areas
turtles
of
establish
beaches. turtles
migrate
Migration
(1985)
basking
1971;
ior,
tion
algae, vitamin
aiding
ectoparasites
Figure
NWH Hawaiian - .
200 - ?::‘ JOHNSTON _ ATOLL , MARSHALL GUAM ISLANDS 4--
-— Y;LP I I!LP( • PALAU PONAPE
V
: ::::::: : , (0 44% • rt !rD 4b bVAN ATU , “1 ti ] LY %%,J/ CORAL —— .-.—z= NEW • ——. - SEA 4 —— —— • EDOA •::/ 200_ s’ :r _- — 4. CAPRIC RN %% AUSTRALIA I BUNK R , GRO S BRISBANE
ZEALAND
6O-- ;;;:
: tN-I 140° 160° 180° 160° 140°
Figure 7. Migrations of green turtles in the Pacific Ocean region, as shown by recaptures of tagged individuals. Arrows do not necessarily show routes of travel.
be
a
be
as
use
cm
the
the
the
easy
and
the
then
with
the
This
spear
nest-
when that
Fleay
areas
leads
their
large-
these
green
can
in
engines
growth
adults
matur
legally
growth
with
turtles
legally Johannes
in
of could
on
nesting
have
and
106.2
capturing
Bjorndal
and
listed
on
be
(Carr
different
of
assess
that Endangered
be
with
that
other
slow
to
of
of
islanders
beaches
areas
reach
They
green
to
are
at
deposit
believe
1980b).
data
turtles
throughout
taking
length,
before
1982b;
outboard
use
maturity,
and
people
harpooning
and still
detachable
(Limpus
the
80.8
of
with
to
restrictions.
to
decline
range
the
dependent
species.
cannot
other
areas
is
or
netting
the
can
that
methods
with
concluded
Pacific
nesting
growth
turtles
net,
diet
turtles
(Balazs
varies
some
is
and
turtles.
jurisdiction
Hawaii
habitat.
(Spring
and
carapace
maturing
this
under
ashore
at
size
most
reaching
rates
coupled
Australia,
cm
boats
the
Most
areas
fixed
In
allow
Hawaii
indigenous
(1988) mesh
the
with
green
importance
turtles
for green
Today,
In
include
subsistence
Act
are
In
hand,
green
92
a
different
The
to
come
of
U.S.
in
of
growth
by
fishery
after
researchers
by
in
Traditional
females
for
range,
of
will growth
The
1970).
Once
gathered
a
hunt
Bolten
access
1986).
ing
high-speed to
tip,
either
diameter
turtles
1983).
Pacific,
harvested
only
taken
Species taken.
Pacific,
threatened
Pacific.
under
as
FISHERY
sizes.
some
turtles
rates
straight-line
females
wide
ity, eggs. mean
females
are
Carr
rates
quality
and quality data
turtle
estimated
10
a
of
69
cm
of
by
in
8.7
the
much
but
fact
(the
and
were
were
that
from
1980)
were
long-
they
fish
years
long.
sites
sizes
study
forag
green
(81
end
growth take archi
growth
on
months.
nesting
All
(1982a)
foraging
a
range
28°25’N, (Bjorndal
the
Australia
they
and
pelleted
foraging
previously
of
recapture
cm,
area, study
juveniles 37
areas
47.9
Atoll
In
assume
rates
the
capillacea.
study
Walter
obtained in
turtles
other
by showed
of
District
would
to
turtle
towards
40
to
which
size
these
(lat.
19°08’N,
and
The
the is
in
where
Balazs
than
opposite
this
2
Kure
rates
to
maturity
and
squid,
made.
it
District
immature
at
at
to
Kau
Bahamas
seven
also
diet
turtles
in
by
at
Extrapolating
coastal
existence.
area
growth
full
the
area
of
backed
studies
Once
Atoll
Archipelago, Kau
a
(lat. from
35
rate not
though
the
estimates
rapid
a
rates
in
size
at
found
sexual Hawaii)
for
tendency
Limpus
frozen
Pterocladia study,
1982a).
of
in
from
environment.
the
same
fed
recapturing
1988),
Kure
tagged.
a
be
in turtle
Inagua,
are
area,
on
most
information
migrations
even
included
rates
These
ranged
Hawaii
to
this
the
reach
growth
fresh
1979;
appear
recaptured can
growth
size
and
from
undertaken
Hawaiian
1980b).
The
minimum
were
one
herbivorous
of
(Balazs
in
35-cm
in residency,
turtle
place
to
shows
varied
178°1O’W)
generally
Independent
a
to
Great
natural
recorded Bolten
a
areas
study
archipelago.
Growth
a
the
the
food,
growth
(Limpus slower
and
and
sites
intervals turtles
term that
ing found This
originally
long-range turtles
slowest
pelago).
is for
takes
Island
155°30’W) rates 35-cm
long. the
years
ranging
extensively This
in varied.
consistent
were
rates
within
turtles
of
their
tagging
(Balazs
start
begin
reach
turtles dry
cm
by
of
of
(3)
few
eat
are
the
are the
the
food
food
fish
tur
They
Com
their
35
a
would
Fish-
Cale
These
(South
matter
to
facing
direct
of
(Balazs
turtles
of
Pacific
discuss
jointly
on
of
and
harvest-
on
from
eggs
primarily
New
providing
1).
these
Fisheries
fishermen
turtles
sampling
(1)
that
analysis
to
sea
tube
turtles,
Captive
diet
Marine
the
Pacific digested
most
and,
a
by
(4)
few
(2)
are
people.
problems
reported
to
habitats
live
when
tropical
their
Pastures
dead
eat
a
Noumea,
populations approximately
experts
1980).
fed
1981).
spend
South
and
of
the
plastic
included 1978)
Information
the
Laboratory)
of
gathered
been
Australia,
and
in
National
(Southwest
will
regarding
in
only
the
island
obtained
turtles
Foraging
incompletely
turtle
the
length
have
turtles
but
preferred
Turtle
ROLE
(Fritts
by
protection jellyfish
recommendations
address
laws
normally
1986). (Limpus
in
pellets,
is
of
contents
flexible
in
islands for
contents
observations,
1979,
squid.
turtles
Commission
and States,
Honolulu
workshop
to
turtles
a
Service
eat
are
Green
eggs
Green
secure
a
In
their
make
of
fecal more
Palau,
1980a).
in or
Behavior
stomach
using
feeding stomach recovery
sources
and/or
fish
abundant ties
occasions,
herbivores
Food opportunistically(Table
ECOLOGICAL will
increased Pacific
and
recommendations
region
Pacific help
islands. and
United
(Johannes
held
Center marine
In eries donia,
ing
respected mission
11
a
In is
be
In
on
to
of be
by
it
is
to
has
and
the
the
the
how
and
and The
the
and
the
“off
num
with
many
Even
rope
wait
then
Older
prac
to
except
year.
by
future
1983b).
and
attach
eggs
collec
of
of
of
may
as
in
1982b).
guns
Atafu
the
impact
and tell
collected
notice
eggs.
depending
float turtle
gun,
caught
of
1982).
(Johannes
the
This the
Fakaofo
atolls
egg
retrieve
butt of
they
eggs,
traditional
to
economy11
compared
turtles.
advantages
and
are
spear caught
dwindling
of
areas of
also
allowed
(Balazs
impacting
for
Yap
still
spear
large
of
Spring
Pacific.
little
end
the
of
really
then
collected
of
clutch
whereas
beaches
a
coral
the
but
and the
are
a
in
subsistence.
are
are
Palau,
to
designated
the
population
nest
to
today
(Kowarsky
difficulty
the
being
some
up,
turtles,
times
“money
are
exist
inhabitants
of
have
of
combination
turtles
islands
other
1982;
tire,
In
When
with
taking
beginning
number
gear in
for
resurfaces.
a coastal
a eggs
overhunting.
of
the
to
rope
are each
dug
way
been
that
with
to
does
Nesting
people,
eggs
The
the
to
occurs
by
the
the
is
of
release
are
whenever
no
turtles
and
local
breakdown
scuba
float
certain
from
because
on
few
in
(McCoy
nesting
villages,
equipment
it
only
prey
turtle on
turtle
have
coupled
is
degree
populations
appears
gun.
they
also
a
Chelonia
turtles
at
turtles.
the
Most
use
of
inhabitants
the
concern
the
the
the
ban
attached
for removed
a
found,
indigenous
Nukunonu,
tion
exploitation
islands Tokelau
ber
Pacific. limits”
areas wild
by
Australia,
threatened
turtle
There
taboos many what
emergence
so, villagers modern
of gradual
1986). decline
on
coastal
the
tice
is shot, for
fish-stringer. once
spear
polypropylene take
reached only
They ii Table 1. Some important food sources recorded for green turtles in the Pacific Ocean region.
Locality Principal food source
Main Hawaiian Islands Pterocladia capillacea, Amansia glomerata, Acanthophora spicifera, Halophila hawaiiana, Codium edule, C. arabicum, C. phasmaticum, jy fasciata, j. reticulata, Ahnfeltia concinna Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Caulerpa racemosa, Codium arabicum, c. phasmaticum, C. edule, jy fasciata, Turbinaria ornata, Spyridia filamentosa Johnston Atoll Caulerpa racemosa, Bryopsis pennata, Halophila ovalis
Tonga Halodule ovalis, HaTophila sp., Syri ngodi urn i soeti fol i urn Tokelau Valonia aegagropila, Turbinaria ornata Fiji Halodule pinifolia, j. ovalis, Syringodi urn i soeti fol i urn
Kerrnadec Islands Pterocladia capillacea Tahiti Algae Palau Seagrass
Truk Seagrass and algae
Torres Strait, Australia Red and green algae
Papua NewGuinea Seagrass Southern Great Barrier Reef, Chlorodesrnis sp., Turbinaria sp., Australia Amansia sp., Enterornorpha sp., Polysiphonia sp., Champia sp., Dictyota sp., Zostera sp., Thalasia sp.
12
A
cm
in is
.
and
the
tur
Reef
main
land
her-
more
Most
known
juve
64
adult
Island
and
hatch-
sharks
Stomach
1980b).
turtles
stomachs
no the
predator
cuvieri,
Adults--
infested
to
However,
Intensive
are
predation
once
predation
difficult
and and
mongooses
months
piscicolid
green
fishes
and
the
in
hatchlings,
Thalassoma
East
Hermes
53
Diseases
and
bilunulatus; Carcharhinus
the
environment.
is
of
turtles.
tiger
five
take
and
the
shark
ignoblis
in
for
and
crabs
widespread
reef
and
it
that,
once
near
beaches
(Balazs
water,
branchiatus;
observed
on
of
captured.
for
1982).
hatching
turtles,
show
hatchling
burrowing
mortality.
Galeocerdo
1980b).
programs
marine
cats,
sharks,
and
most
the
wrasses,
found
Pearl
estimated
of
Bodianus
hatchlings.
Caranx
subadult,
Subadults,
were
probably
impact
checked
peak
the
muricata;
nesting
the
length
16
an
at
the
believe
however,
reef
green
high
species
commonly
conducted
the feral feeding
been
ectoparasites
Symbionts,
shark,
enter and
at
the
but
(Balazs
Islands
sharks
ulua,
(Stancyk
are
were on
groupers.
of
from Ozobranchus
accounted
gray
shark
during
evidence
most
enter
high; have
large
very 101 eradication
include
Known
rats,
5%
survey
Hatchlings--Ghost
tiger
13
found
no
juvenile,
Juveniles,
feed
crabs
carapace
small
large
assess
the
a
(NWHI) Parasites, leech,
Stephanolepas
tles
in
of
niles
to
(NWHI) single ranging
is shark Other
regularly
In but Hawaiian
amblyrhynchos, of Chelonia
1974, and contents
was
purpureum
The
lings
melampvgus;
by to
hatchlings quite
researchers
have
hatchlings
predators
than
with
mit
13
m
2
in
to
to
to
to
al.
the
are
cues
eggs
free
with
have
surf
were
fre
sub-
50
pigs,
as
coral
Small
up
remote
extant
turtle
where
rapid
et
diving
turtles
in
surface
(Balazs bottom.
benthic
avoiding
of
and
effective
three
on
of
pastures,
and
present.
depending
are
beaches
much
rough
m
feral
ledges
most
the
turtles
conducive
20
waters pastures
in
3
restricted
olfactory
as
Balazs
deep
of most
single
to
are
relatively
locating
before turtles
sunlight, times
Resting
thereby
occurs
m
region.
taking
varies
are “sleep”
a
feeding
are
predation
preferred characteristics.
the
nesting
transmitters
are
than
10
mm.
using
areas,
However,
predation.
of
of
feeding
between
coastal
Feeding
mongooses,
15
where are
easily
Active
1980b;
preferences
by
bottom
only
spending
most
Ocean
that
nesting
than
returning
as
in
breaths
more undersides
to islands,
strategy
radio
surface,
turtles
at
currents.
nutrients
seagrasses
dogs
mammal
have
water
habitat
1982).
seagrasses
and
take
sec
amounts
less
Their
such
not
vicinity
protected
depths
1980b).
the
observed
and
(Balazs
deep
or before
in
turtle
to
probably
bottoms
growth.
living 30
small
and
yy--Nonhuman
Pacific
observed
Green
Feeding
h predators,
feral
on
the
strong
minimal
more
(Stancyk
uninhabited effective
is and nests
egg green
the
Predation
1987). mammals
2.5
found
sandy
of
recesses
often with
deep.
(Balazs
general
In
every
eight
been
usually
breath
mm
1980b).
on
Turtles
strate, normally quently
shallow
plant
adequate algae
Jives Algae
as
by
of
by
has
sea.
that
from high most
date,
walls
known
nega
define
moist
water
1984).
areas,
bright
hatch-
such
concen
numbers
between
turtles
a
females
variety
Coston
prevent
beaches.
is the
to
to
jetties,
Increased
crawling
developed
impact
by
are
be
season
the
sand
the
a
artificial
incidental
and
to
substantial in
as
Large
construction
but
have
requirements
to
small
inundated
by
on
may
from
Raymond
is
development
platform
from
1982;
retaining
have
occupied
nesting
beach
1982).
disasters
1982).
can
Females
excluding
such
not
and 1983),
important
nest cause
habitat.
breeding
away
accessibility
and
during
attention
discourage
1983;
enough
(3)
Nesting
that
beach
disoriented
a
activity
is
turtles
is
flooded
diffusion
turtle
to
can
habitat
a
Hoss
vulnerable It
harvesting,
Habitat
(Witham
REQUIREMENTS
and
or
lighting
easy
it
importance.
relatively
fine
Fleay
property
on
(Mortimer
access,
inland
mortality
of
gas
nesting
(Mortimer
activity
turtles
ecological
human
little
barriers
easily
(2)
within
slippage and
types.
in
beaches
its
seawalls,
(1)
them
and
deterrent.
which
or
and
of
that
appear
tides
nest
are
front
below,
Study
nesting
prime
impact
limit
Human
spills.
Green
sea,
reproductive
shun
beach
the
oil
catch,
Internesting commercial
trated
received of
nestings despite making
(Limpus
from
areas
levels
from
Physical
may
hopelessly groins,
unnatural
lings lights
lighting
Clements
to
obvious
beach
tive
Artificial
of
include facilitates enough excessive
spring
table
enough
the
Beaches of
ENVIRONMENTAL
14
as
et
the
all the
can
and
The
the
and
high
also
that
ova,
mci-
been
neck,
small
green
solar
still
being
in
barna
in
in
marine
results
include
signif
remora,
Recovery
of
Hawaiian
turtles,
feeding.
obstruc
diameter
survival
They
has
fibropap
the give
neoplasm.
of
Hyachelfa
is
from
are
of
parasites,
have
the
almost
in
disorienta
by stress,
the
of
1986a).
to
the
and
to
and
be
identified
cm
green
in
causes
(Glazebrook
size
Turtle
turtles
and
which
of
increase
around
trematode
pollutants
1987).
eyes.
physical
30
number
excessive
1980b).
Team
testudinata
in
cause
include
well
ultimately
Sea
vision,
growths
system, An
to
(Balazs
fnternal
amphfpod,
(tumors)
that
and
and
hirudin
investigation
green
swimming
found
growths
1986,
and
may
turtle
Florida
fibropapillomas
well-being
members
of range
masses
possible
(Ealazs
the
growing death
of
chemical
Spfrorchfdae,
in
Recovery
immune
these
from
the of
Hawaii
hexastylos;
tail,
reduced
viruses,
predisposition
the
population,
Blair
These
Symbfonts
a
but to
huge
normal
(Hawaiian
1986a).
sp.
usually
response
in
believed
impact,
in
of
of
the
Chelonibia
to
number
blindness,
to
growths seen
on
to
1989).
Neoplastic prompted
Turtle
are
talitroidean is
1981;
A
genetic
illomas
(Balazs Team
priority
dence,
incidence has
Sea
been
It instances,
Hawaiian
flippers, tion
tion,
result
impair and
a
immune
secretion These
radiation,
leeches, warts
unknown,
seen
fibropapillomas cause
icance turtles
al.
identified status
Pacific.
Echenefs especially
Platylepas
des,
tortugae. the food sources and resting habitat are available. The nearshore benthic habitat surrounding the main Hawaiian Islands is limited by dramatic drop- offs usually within a few kilometers of the shore. Algae, the main food source in Hawaii, is found in the nearshore waters where sunlight and proper substrate are conducive to growth. Freshwater seepage stimulates algal growth in many areas, which are often popular feeding spots. Most habitat is hard-bottom surface or coral rubble that is required by their major food sources for proper attach- ment. One important turtle foraging area, however, on the south coast of Figure 8. Adult green turtle with radio Molokai has extensive mud flats where transmitter attached to carapace (see seagrass, Halophila hawaiiana, is Dizon and Balazs 1982). Trig Island, present (Balazs et al. 1987). FF5, NWHI. At Johnston Island, a remote these internesting areas and give them atoll located south of the main Hawai appropriate protection (Meylan 1982a). ian islands, green turtles use two feeding areas that exist side by side. Radio tracking of eight green On the south shore is a large field of turtles (four males, four females) at Caulerpa that extends 100 m. Slightly French Frigate Shoals (NWHI) during seaward, in deeper water, Bryopsis is the breeding season showed strong site present on the tops of coral heads. fixity for males and females alike Both areas will normally have several (Figure 8). All eight turtles stayed foraging turtles that can easily be in proximity of the nesting islands monitored from a nearby peninsula. where transmitters were attached, even Johnston Island is of special ecolog though another important nesting ical interest with regard to environ- island was only 9 km away (Dizon and mental contamination because of its Ealazs 1982). use as a storage area for nerve gas, mustard gas, and dioxin. High altitude nuclear testing also took place here Foraging Pastures in 1958 and 1962 (Balazs 1985b; Balazs and Forsyth 1986). Green turtles are unique among sea turtles in being primarily herbi Resting habitat is found in prox vores. They are mainly associated imity to foraging areas, usually with seagrass pastures or areas within 2 km or less. Large turtles abundant in desirable marine algae prefer small caves or protective out- (Hirth 1971). Research in Hawaii on croppings often associated with sub- feeding and resting habitats is the marine cliffs. These usually have most thorough to date in the Pacific fine-grained sand or powdery silt islands. Green turtles in Hawaii can bottoms that the turtles rest on. In be found wherever adequate accessible Hawaii, these sites are found along an 15
L
a
in
of
The
the
I
has
_ from
has
from been
with
ani
(Carr
by
mdi-
major
con-
plas
being
,
Balazs
amount
by
eating
pelagic
turtles
a
problem.
Sciences
of
dead
has
extent
was
canal
to
by
are
accumulated
be
the
and
of
turtles
used
marine up
debris.
problem
entangled
and
is
survival
sea
may
environment
which pollution,
amounts
prone
debris
During
other
entanglement
on
Academy washing .5 turtles
seabirds
alimentary debris
turtle are
ever-increasing
affecting
aesthetic
and
environmental
çs
becoming large
documented
debris .
marine
ocean
from the
• convergences
impact
%*SS. an
debris, The
composition marine
press).
of
sea or S
•
this
t-js:.
of
turtles
f/I*. on
‘f$S
or
the
young National
.
which
in
major
The
scraps
to to the
4& same
only
debris, of
-
‘4 a marine especially
.5
•
41r U.S.
into
Marine dumping
.
the debris. S
S. -;;::. . ‘.
. (1985a).
ingesting
synthetic extensively 1987).
threat impaction
cates plastics
number in
plastic turtles
(Shomura
of exposed period, mals,
changed
marine tic
1973 become The
sidered workshop
16
or
be
of the
This
same the
and
the
than
origi
macro-
rnigra
epipe
in
can
conver
at
protect
feasible
swirnrning
currents
believed
The
rnuch estimates
advection
as
the
the
1987).
on.
waves longer
than
of
within
convergences
by
draw
in now
rnust crevices,
more
shore
1980b).
turtles around
years feed
(Carr
last
in
turtles
current
to
making
are
encounter
large
draw
that
These
longer
areas
borders
and
supposed.
created
turtles
channels
they
with
is
first
(Balazs
years
in
Smaller
Young
also
heads,
closer
from
3
are
drop-off
These
forces
thought,
often
of
that
young
their
stage
eventually
coral
that
27-rn
thought,
of
turtles
currents
more
dwellers
originally
resting
Posthatchlings
flat.
of
eddies. downwelling.
turtles
to excess
coastline. spend in
nally
pelagic
plankton
advection
young than
tions
originally
and occur seaward
gences
and
lagic
to
Pelagic
strong
the
reef vertical-walled base
found 18- the in
Ir
and
the
eds.
NOAA
ocean
1986.
Lab., Fish.
Hono
Atoll. Turtle
on
debris,
ecology
turtles
pp.
Tokelau.
turtles.
of
Entangle-
Honolulu,
387-429
22
and turtles in
Mar.
assessment.
NOAA,
pigmentation Ontogenetic
Yoshida,
green
Honolulu marine
marine
Commer.,
Johnston
Forsyth.
Southwest Sea
workshop
Pages
Impact
1985
of
1924,
usage
NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC at Fibropapillomas Status
of
turtles:
H-86-9,
H.O.
Serv.,
279:1-29.
285:1-46.
the R.G.
Cent.
Dep.
turtles.
1986b. plastron
and
20:280-282. Hawaiian
Rep.
1983b.
of
1985a.
Atoll:
NMFS,
and
Fish.
Bull.
1985b. 1986a.
Bull.
the
ecology
marine
impact
turtles
Fish.
U.S.
ingestion.
green
96822-2396.
G.H. in
November
in
39:1-3. and
G.H.
traditional
G.H.
Res.
Res. Memo. G.H. G.H. Mar.
G.H.,
HI and Admin.
Shomura
and
Johnston
hatchling marine Herpetol.
their Proceedings R.S. fate Atoll debris 26-29 54. ment Hawaii. Tech. of Hawaiian Newsl. Atoll of changes at Status J. Southwest lulu, Natl. Cent.
CITED
Balazs, Balazs,
Balazs,
Balazs, Balazs,
Balazs,
17
A
in
of
of
and
sea
ed.
the
Sea
Dep.
Res.
Fish.
LITERATURE
NMFS,
turtle
mydas.
Aquar
Press,
of
117-125
methods turtles of
in
Pacific
rates
Pacific.
Turtles.
U.S.
turtles components
pp.
Biology Atoll turtles:
Comm.
Synopsis
Institution
green.
Memo.
the
Pages
Bjorndal,
Field
Status
141 Sea
(Waikiki
Growth
Sea
Chelonia
the
Hawaiian
of
Marine
ed.
turtles
Pac.
central
dietary
ands.
K.A.
i’a
Islands.
on
Tech.
of
11:5-6.
Institution
1980b.
Isi
jn
Conservation
D.C.
1980a.
the
1982c.
the
1982a. 1982b.
1975.
1983a.
39:1-3.
South
Kilo
data
green
Smithsonian
turtles, NOAA
Rev.
in
and
Archipelago.
Bjorndal,
resource
Hawaiian
232:22-24.
D.C.
Wash.,
G.H.
G.H.
G.H.
G.H.
243-252
184:1-7.
G.H.
G.H.
G.H.
Phoenix
sampling
Newsl.)
green
K.A.
Canada.
the
islands. immature in
shared in Bull. for Pages ium Biology Press, the biological Newsl. of Smithsonian turtles Herpetol. Commer., Hawaiian Conservation NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-7, Wash., Turtles.
i_fl
Balazs, Balazs, Balazs, Balazs, Balazs, Balazs,
Balazs,
a
J.
FAO
of
N.
for
and
j
data
in IUCN
Nat.
tre
sea
Team.
Con- 1982.
turtle
green
1988.
Reef, Tech.
green
biolog
and
Gerro
D.C.
changes
of 7:4-5.
plan feeding eastern
red
1758.
and
29-38
of
pp. mvdas.
Smithson- by
T.
Nat.
and
NOM
Carpentaria.
the
95
Campbell,
green
turtle.
Hermes
19.
Wash.,
Newsl.
review
Recovery
Pages
of
Pelagic
Observations in
Crowley,
seal
recovery
A
Biology
Spirorchidae)
Synopsis
and
Alcorn, the
Chelonia
Gilmartin.
Turtles. cardiovascular M.
(compiler).
Commer.,
(Linnaeus)
Pathological
R.S.F.
Green
Gulf
Press,
Conserv.
Turtle 151-180.
85:1-8,
ed. emergence
monk
turtles.
on draft
NOM-TM-NMFS-SWFC-107,
G.
Turtle B.
D.J. 1981.
Sea
1982. 1.
91:361-368.
1985.
W.G. Dep.
with the
turtles
1971.
Pearl
pp.
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mydas J.S.,
sea
Amphibia-Reptilia
Mar.
of
Sea
(Digenea: in
Union Final
art
of data
on Synop.
1985:262-264.
S.J.,
and
R.G., NMFS,
U.S.
Path.
sea
L.M.
reproduction.
H.F.
T.H.
IUCN
Hawaiian Bjorndal,
Institution
Blair.
pp.
Fish. ical
Chelonia 1989.
Hawaiian tInt.
Resour.),
book,
The
Comp.
green associated
matodes
D.
Copeia turtles
non-nesting
Goudberg.
Pacific.
habits
1986. 24
Memo. turtle
The ian
dette, servation
K.A.
turtle
Hirth,
Hawaiian
Groombridge,
Glazebrook,
Garnett,
Fritts,
Forsyth,
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18
a
-
sea
the
on
and
the
1982.
green
sub-
in
Hoss.
Biol.
Corn- 1970.
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colony. on
NOM
on
of
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(Platy Commer.,
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Hawaiian
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immature
resident
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35:75-92.
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of
ecology
NOM-TM-SEFC
NMFS,
southeastern
by
data
Dep.
Carr.
nondegradable
of
sea
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colony.
the
Aust.
Microscaphidi
A.B.
and
marine
breeding
pp.
of Zool.
revision
of
the
U.S. 18(6B):352-356.
alteration their of
(Platyhelminthes:
of
the
remigration
in
U.S.
NMFS,
44(5):13-20.
turtles
Memo.
A
G.H.
in
J.
M.H.
1988:555-564.
107 and L.,
Forsyth,
rates
revision
Chelonia on
in
their
nesting and
A
Impact Bull.
and
Preliminary
Rev.
Digenea:
Memo.
and
habitat utilization
R.G. Aust.
Tech.
Chelonia).
outlook
at
around
Microscaphidiinae
marine
Microscaphidiidae)
1986.
2:282-284.
Copeia
Synopsis
K.A.,
pp.
pastures.
grounds
States.
telemetry 1987.
debris
of
Growth
1987.
Octangiinae turtle
Fish. A.E., in
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turtles
turtles,
57
A., Tech.
NOM
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Pollut.
G.H.,
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United turtles
1983. Conserv.
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sitic Chelonia).
Digenea:
family
(Reptilia:
idae)
34:241-277.
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Bahamas. feeding
1988. Dizon,
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Kam.
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19
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j
on
of
sea Mar.
New Con-
marks New
con- 1985.
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D.C. hunt-
turtle Insti
Bjorn
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Bjorn
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Contrib.
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Conservation
emphasis
Wash.,
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in
age
Balazs.
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jj
j
Balazs.
in
jj
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D.C.
the
Biology
and
Pac. Non-human
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and Pages
Status turtles,
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33:9-10.
Age
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291-295
Sea
139-152
Wash., 281-289
incremental and
1982.
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34
Wash.,
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1982.
1982b. and
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1982a.
mydas).
by
A.H.
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sea
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1986.
Newsi.
Pages
populations Turtles.
Pages S.E. influence.
R. 427, Pages
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G.R.,
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Sea
in Zool.
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chel.
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