Mobility Perspective for a Local City in Japan

IATSSR-00078; No of Pages 8 IATSS Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

IATSS Research

1 Mobility perspective for a local city in Japan

2Q1 Hirotaka Koike ⁎

3Q2 Faculty of City Life Studies, Utsunomiya Kyowa University, Japan

4 article info abstract Q3 5 146 Available online xxxx Japan is now heading toward a population decrease and a highly aging society. The nationwide automobile 15 dependency established over the past 50 years has affected the country's road building policy and the formation 167 Keywords: of urban structure based on automobile usage. Now, Japan is facing serious mobility problems, especially among 8 Transportation planning in local cities the elderly. This tendency is more prominent in local cities throughout the country. The solutions to improve 17 9 Public transportation mobility are found in three areas: the promotion of public transportation, bicycles, and compact cities. 18 10 LRT (light rail transit) Utsunomiya City, a regional capital heavily dependent on automobile transportation, suffers from severe traffic 19 11 Networked compact city congestion, a high traffic accident rate, high carbon dioxide emissions, and urban sprawl. In order to achieve 20 12 Bicycle 21 13 Road trafficlaws the long-term objectives of becoming a sustainable city, it launched an ambitious mobility strategy. Utsunomiya City has been one of the front-runners in introducing a new light rail transit (LRT) system. The prospect of 22 building the first modern LRT system in Japan is very promising at present. This paper attempts to look back at 23 the history of LRT planning efforts and analyze the circumstances and background of various stakeholders and 24 the perceptions of citizens. It also attempts to sort out the various issues and challenges that the city needs to 25 solve in order to achieve the objective of becoming the first city to build a new LRT in Japan. 26 Another solution to excessive automobile dependency is bicycles, which are a convenient and inexpensive 27 transportation mode all over the world. In Japan, however, automobile-oriented transportation and urban 28 policies have prevailed, leaving the bicycle long neglected. Still, recent years have seen the bicycle gain 29 recognition as a healthy, environmentally friendly alternative to the automobile, especially after the 30 Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011. Utsunomiya City has been actively pursuing a mobility policy of 31 bicycle utilization since 2003 and is regarded as one of the leaders in its promotion. The potential success 32 in Utsunomiya to overcome automobile dependency will make it a model for many local cities in Japan 33 that suffer from similar problems. 34 © 2014 Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of International Association of Trafficand 35 Safety Sciences. 36 40 3738 39

41 1. Introduction Meanwhile, the world population has increased from 1.6 billion at 48 the beginning of the 20th century to 7.1 billion now. According to the 49 42 Since the emergence of automobiles in the early 20th century, latest UN forecast, the world population will exceed 9 billion by the 50 43 human mobility has changed drastically from an era of walking, mid-21st century. The emerging population has moved to urban areas, 51 44 horse carriages, and streetcars to a generation of automobiles. Starting which now account for over half of the world population. There are 52 45 with the mass production of the Model T Ford in the United States, the now more than two dozens of so-called “megacities” with populations 53 46 proliferation of automobiles has spread all over the world and continues of over 10 million, three quarters of which are in developing countries. 54 47 in developing countries. Economic progress has attracted people to automobiles as symbols 55 of civilization. As the number of automobiles grows worldwide, prob- 56 UNCORRECTEDlems such as traf PROOFfic congestion and traffic accidents worsen, especially 57 ☆ fi Peer review under responsibility of International Association of Traf cand in urban areas. One of the most serious problems is global warming, 58 Safety Sciences. 59 ⁎ Tel.: +81 28 650 6611; fax: +81 28 650 6612. which has resulted in the highest average atmospheric temperatures E-mail address: [email protected]. in history. Climate change has caused severe storms, heavy rains, and 60 Peer review under responsibility of International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences. excessive droughts around the world in recent years. The automobile 61 is responsible for significant amounts of carbon dioxide emissions, 62 a major contributor to global warming and climate change. Although 63 the recent technological development of hybrid and electric vehicles 64 has progressed and helped reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the 65

Please cite this article as: H. Koike, Mobility perspective for a local city in Japan, IATSS Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.iatssr.2014.05.006 2 H. Koike / IATSS Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

66 majority of automobiles in developing countries use conventional and damage to roads immediately after the earthquake. All nuclear 130 67 gasoline engines. Another recent change is the shale gas revolution, power plants in Japan stopped operations after the disaster, replaced 131 68 which began in North America and has started spreading to other by decrepit thermal power plants that had been out of operation 132 69 countries, enabling the production of cheap, abundant fossil fuel. for years. It is feared that burning fossil fuels such as LNG or oil will ex- 133 70 The population increase and its concurrent economic development acerbate global warming. As for automobiles, excessive automobile 134 71 will increase the number of automobiles to two or three times its usage imposes serious economic and environmental problems while 135 72 current level in several decades, which will further increase carbon crude oil prices soar from the possibility of conflict in the Middle East. 136 73 dioxide emissions. A low birth rate and an aging population have been growing trends 137 74 Another problematic byproduct of excessive automobile dependen- for some time in Japan. We have now entered an era of population 138 75 cy is urban sprawl, a phenomenon evident in many North American and decrease for the first time in history. In contrast to the past trends of 139 76 Australian cities. Because of the capability of automobiles to travel long population growth and economic development, which led to Japan be- 140 77 distances, many city dwellers move to suburban areas where they can coming the second-largest economic power, the era of the so-called 141 78 acquire spacious residential land inexpensively. The famous diagram “shrinking society” has begun. According to population projections 142 79 of urban density and transportation-related energy created by Newman from the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research 143 80 and Kenworthy [1] indicates that many cities in the United States show [4], the population of Japan in 2050 will be 95 million, or a decrease of 144 81 high energy consumption per capita per year and low urban population about 33 million (26%) from the current level. The elderly population 145 82 density per hectare, followed by Australian cities. In comparison, cities (65 years or older) will account for 40% of the total population in 146 83 in Europe and Asia have much higher population density and lower en- 2050. These trends will not be uniform throughout Japan. Population 147 84 ergy consumption per capita. They argue that, in order to shift toward a decreases and higher elderly population rates are more prominent in 148 85 sustainable city, excessive automobile dependency must be rectified. rural areas than in metropolitan districts. 149 86 Many efforts to overcome automobile dependency are in progress in The adverse effects of broad urban sprawl and low density caused by 150 87 various cities around the world, ranging from the introduction of public motorization are becoming increasingly prominent. The suburbaniza- 151 88 transportation such as LRT (light rail transit) or BRT (bus rapid transit), tion of residential, commercial, and business functions has resulted in 152 89 and the promotion of bicycles to the restructuring of the city itself. The the hollowing-out phenomena of city centers, with once-crowded 153 90 former are transportation mode alternatives to automobiles, and the downtown shopping districts becoming blighted areas. The population 154 91 latter includes compact cities and transit-oriented development decrease in rural areas, meanwhile, further accelerates motorization 155 92 (TOD). There are also other “softer” measures such as transportation de- and a subsequent decline in public transportation. However, many peo- 156 93 mand management (TDM) and mobility management. In recent years, ple find it difficult to live a car-dependent lifestyle as they grow older. 157 94 there have been numerous reports of cities successfully alleviating Fatal traffic accidents among those over 65 represented more than 158 95 excessive automobile use [2,3]. For example, European cities like half of the total for the first time in 2011. Elderly people who can no lon- 159 96 Strasbourg, Freiburg, and Karlsruhe, as well as American cities such as ger drive due to a decline in mental or physical abilities are the so-called 160 97 Portland, have adopted LRT or trams. BRT, having proved a successful “transportation poor”—–public transportation systems to take them 161 98 public transportation mode in Curitiba and Bogota, is now spreading shopping or to the hospital do not exist. They are forced to stay home 162 99 to other countries. Bicycles have been a very popular mode of transpor- without physical or social mobility. The Economist [5] in the United 163 100 tation in northern Europe, especially in the Netherlands and Denmark, Kingdom has termed the current state of aging societies with declining 164 101 and many cities around the world have recently begun to pay attention populations and sliding economies the “Japan Syndrome.” It is no exag- 165 102 to this mode. I will discuss the recent mobility issues in Japan below, geration to say that the rest of the world may very well face the same 166 103 paying special attention to local cities. Unlike large cities such situation sometime soon in future, and the world watches with strong 167 104 as Tokyo and Osaka, where public transportation systems are well interest as to how Japan can cope with the issue. 168 105 established, local cities face many problems due to excessive In terms of urban mobility, which is the subject of this paper, 169 106 automobile dependency. These problems have worsened in the the Great East Japan Earthquake was a turning point—it has provided 170 107 last couple decades, but signs of improvement are emerging. the opportunity for a paradigm shift away from the conventional 171 108 I have been involved in the planning of LRT in Utsunomiya for automobile-dependent society toward a new mobility society, 172 109 the last two decades and served as the chairman of the committee for a movement to switch from automobiles to public transportation 173 110 preparing the New Transportation System Introduction Basic Plan and bicycles. 174 111 (to be discussed later). After playing a central role in the early stage of In recent years, the movement to introduce LRT or BRT has spread in 175 112 the current LRT project in Utsunomiya, I am currently observing the many cities in Europe, the United States, and even developing countries. 176 113 development and changes of the project. I have also been interested The main intention is to provide public transportation service as an 177 114 in bicycle transportation since 2000, and I am currently the chairman alternative mode to the automobile. In the first half of the 20th century, 178 115 of the committee to promote bicycle transportation in Utsunomiya. streetcars were widely used in Japan, as they were in the United States 179 116 Based on these experiences and background, this paper will discuss and Europe, but they were steadily overtaken by the wave of motor- 180 117 my observations of mobility issues in Utsunomiya and other local ization that quickly built momentum after World War II. However, 181 118 cities in Japan. excessive automobile dependency has resulted in noticeable negative 182 UNCORRECTEDeffects, including trafPROOFfic congestion, traffic accidents, and environmental 183 119 2. Recent mobility issues in Japan burden. In addition, the urban sprawl of residential and commercial 184 facilities to the suburbs and the hollowing out of the CBD has worsened, 185 120 Three years have passed since the Great East Japan Earthquake creating major concerns about aggravated financial burdens on many 186 121 struck on March 11, 2011. The tsunami caused by the earthquake municipalities. With the number of elderly people incapable of driving 187 122 resulted in the most unprecedented damages in Japanese history and increasing rapidly, there is also an urgent need to secure mobility 188 123 put the number of dead or missing at over 18,600. The aftermath of using public transportation and bicycles. 189 124 the nuclear accident in Fukushima poses an uncertainty about future Success stories of LRT-based community development in Europe and 190 125 energy policy for the country and leaves the enormous task of decon- North America are well known, but no similar developments have been 191 126 tamination over a wide area in addition to the decommissioning of nu- seen in Japan until recently. The success of Toyama Light Rail in 2006 192 127 clear reactor which will take more than 40 years. As for transportation, finally led several cities to explore the possibility of introducing LRT. 193 128 many residents faced situations that they had never experienced in Among them, Utsunomiya City is the front-runner to build a new LRT. 194 129 everyday life, such as restricted vehicle use due to gasoline shortages Almost two decades have passed since the inception of the move to 195

Please cite this article as: H. Koike, Mobility perspective for a local city in Japan, IATSS Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.iatssr.2014.05.006 H. Koike / IATSS Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 3

Tochigi Prefecture

Nikko World Heritage

Utsunomiya

Fig. 1. Location of Tochigi Prefecture and Utsunomiya City.

196 build LRT. It is worthwhile to look back at the history of the introduction 4. Historical review of the Utsunomiya LRT project 232 197 of LRT in Utsunomiya and discuss issues and solutions. 4.1. The need for a new transportation system in Utsunomiya 233

198 3. General overview of Utsunomiya City In the 1970s, Tochigi Prefecture and Utsunomiya City jointly 234 developed the 338 ha Kiyohara Industrial Park on the east bank 235 199 Utsunomiya City, the capital of Tochigi Prefecture, has a population of the Kinugawa River, making it the largest inland industrial park 236 200 of over half a million. It is located about 100 km north of Tokyo in in Japan at that time. This was followed by Haga Industrial Park (248 237 201 the northern part of the Kanto Plains, where the terrain is generally ha) and Haga-Takanezawa Industrial Park (226 ha), where Honda 238 202 flat (Fig. 1). The eastern part of the city is home to one of the largest R&D Co., Ltd. and their affiliates were located. These developments 239 203 inland industrial parks in Japan. Congested commutes in the morning have led to increases in the number of car commuters crossing the 240 204 and evening peak hours have created big problems for the city. Kinugawa River and made chronic traffic congestion a major problem. 241 205 Motorization began in the 1960s as the population increased and The Honda R&D Tochigi Office introduced a flextime system in 1989 242 206 housing developments started to transform the suburban areas. to reduce traffic congestion and achieved some improvements, but 243 207 After the population decentralized to the suburbs, the relocation traffic congestion has worsened since then because of the increase of 244 208 of commercial activities accelerated the hollowing out of the city companies in these industrial parks. 245 209 center. In addition, many large-scale stores have moved to suburbs The Second Utsunomiya Person Trip Survey, carried out in 1992, 246 210 because of the enactment of the Large-Scale Retail Store Location pointed out that the east-west traffic network was weak. It also showed 247 211 Law in 2000, leaving many vacant stores in the central city area. that commuter-based congestion to and from the industrial areas on the 248 212 There were five department stores in the Utsunomiya CBD two east bank of the Kinugawa River had worsened because there was not 249 213 decades ago; all were forced to move out or close except for one enough road capacity and the number of the bridges crossing the 250 214 situated adjacent to a railway terminal. Meanwhile, the number of Kinugawa River failed to meet the traffic demand. Therefore, a major 251 215 pedestrians in the city center has dropped to a quarter of what it east-west transportation connector was recommended. 252 216 used to be in 1987. The 34.4-km Utsunomiya Ring Road, which is 217 about the same length as Japan Railway Yamanote Line in Tokyo, 4.2. New transportation system introduction basic plan 253 218 opened in 1996. Surrounding the entire city, the Ring Road is the 219 first full ring road withUNCORRECTED four lanes in Japan and was expected to A study to developPROOF a basic plan to introduce a new transportation 254 220 reduce traffic congestion. However, trafficcongestionworsenedon system was launched by Tochigi Prefecture and Utsunomiya City in 255 221 the ring road and access roads. Many commercial facilities have 2001 and a report was published in May 2003 [6]. The report revealed 256 222 also relocated to the roadside of the ring road, pushing the decline three major objectives for consideration: reinforcement of the city 257 223 of the CBD even further. transportation axis, revitalization of the downtown area, and promotion 258 224 Utsunomiya has the highest annual gasoline consumption per of a less auto-dependent lifestyle. In order to achieve these three 259 225 capita and carbon dioxide emission levels due to a car ownership objectives, the study recommended the introduction of a new LRT 260 226 rate of 1.2 per household—the second-highest ownership rate in system integral to the general transportation improvement policies for 261 227 Japan. As motorization has progressed, bus ridership has dropped Utsunomiya City. This decision to adopt LRT was influenced by the 262 228 to 40% of the peak level in 1982. Although about 2000 buses travel fact-finding mission of city officials who visited European cities and 263 229 Odori Main Street, suburb-bound buses run only once or less per saw how newly introduced LRTs had contributed to the successful 264 230 hour. Deteriorating service levels further reduces bus ridership, revitalization of city centers in cities such as Strasbourg and Orleans, 265 231 perpetuating a vicious cycle. the sister city of Utsunomiya. 266

Please cite this article as: H. Koike, Mobility perspective for a local city in Japan, IATSS Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.iatssr.2014.05.006 4 H. Koike / IATSS Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

267 The recommended LRT plan took several factors into consideration. 4.4. Economic feasibility of the LRT project 307 268 In addition to accounting for the symbolic characteristics of LRT on 269 a city landscape, the plan also incorporated barrier-free mobility The largest point of controversy in the pros and cons of LRT was 308 270 for all users, smooth transfers to the JR and Tobu railways, smooth the economic feasibility of the project. In the original plan report, 309 271 connections with feeder buses, park and ride facilities around fringe provisional estimates based on subsidies at the time were pessimistic. 310 272 stations, and the revitalization of CBD areas with a future transit mall However, the national government greatly expanded its subsidy 311 273 for pedestrians and bicycles. grants in 2007. The introduction of a vertical railway separation 312 274 The proposed plan was a 15-km route. The initial stage is the 12-km between infrastructure and operation/services completely changed 313 275 east section linking the industrial parks on the east bank of the the financial perspective. A new social and economic environment rec- 314 276 Kinugawa River to the central city via JR Utsunomiya Station, followed ognized the importance of public transportation, and the government 315 277 by second stage—the western 3-km section going through the CBD as established a new vertical separation system to support the public 316 278 an extension. In addition, the future plan proposed extending the LRT transportation business: public sector provides infrastructure and 317 279 network to neighboring municipalities by connecting to existing equipment, while the private sector operates and manages the public 318 280 railways so that the LRT might function as an intercity mode like transportation system. This greatly reduced the burden on transporta- 319 281 the systems in Karlsruhe, Germany, and Portland, Oregon, do. tion companies and improved profitability prospects. However, the 320 results of the provisional calculations in the 2003 report continue to 321 give many people false impressions that LRT project will pile up deficits. 322 282 4.3. The proposed LRT plan: pros, cons, and political conditions On the contrary, recent estimates actually indicate that the project will 323 be profitable from the outset. 324 283 After the plan report was released in 2003, the project became the I consider it necessary to expand the concept of cost–benefit analysis 325 284 center of political controversy. The then governor expressed concern beyond an approach that confines profitability to a comparison 326 285 that the project would be too costly and not economically feasible. The of passenger revenue versus transportation service expenses [8]. 327 286 mayor of Utsunomiya City was in favor of the plan, insisting that a public In other words, it is necessary to consider the direct and indirect 328 287 transportation system based on LRT would be a must for a sustainable benefits that a public transportation network provides to a city 329 288 city in an aging society. In the gubernatorial election race in 2004, the and citizens. For example, a shift from automobiles to public trans- 330 289 LRT project became a major election issue. In the end, the pro-LRT portation results in the reduction of traffic congestion, traffic acci- 331 290 mayor of Utsunomiya was elected as the new governor, and his succes- dents, parking facility costs, and road maintenance costs, curbs 332 291 sor, also pro-LRT, was elected as the new mayor. However, the political global warming by reducing gasoline consumption, and liberates 333 292 controversy over the LRT project continued for another eight years. the community from long-time driving pressure burdens, to name 334 293 Vukan, R. Vuchic, a professor emeritus of Pennsylvania University, visited a few. In addition, public transportation provides mobility to those 335 294 Utsunomiya in 2006 and made a lecture about LRT to prefectural and who cannot afford to own a car or cannot drive. Furthermore, the 336 295 municipal officials. His teaching was instrumental in the subsequent indirect benefits of shifting from automobile dependency to public 337 296 urban planning process utilizing LRT in Utsunomiya [7]. The city hall transportation include efficient land use, the added value of a 338 297 held many public meetings explaining the need for the LRT. The city an- compact city or TOD (Transit-Oriented Development), and the 339 298 nounced a new comprehensive long-range city plan called “Networked revitalization of CBD. 340 299 Compact City,” a framework through which they planned to reverse In Europe and North America, fare revenues from public transpor- 341 300 the trend of urban sprawl toward denser population concentrations tation represent only 20% to 60% of average total operating costs; 342 301 in the CBD and sub-centers and connect them with a public transpor- taxes and subsidies cover the remaining deficits. Public transporta- 343 302 tation network (Fig. 2). The city also tried to get support from the tion systems like LRT enhance the attractiveness of the city as a 344 303 business communities such as the chamber of commerce and com- valuable sightseeing resource, expand city tourism, and boost citizen 345 304 munity development promotion organizations. Light Rail Tochigi, a pride—these benefits are apparent in many European and American 346 305 citizen advocacy group formed in 2004, has been actively promoting cities. The example of Toyama City's success deserves attention 347 306 the introduction of LRT. in Japan. 348

Present City Image Future City Image

Low density sprawl with High density TOD with public automobile dependency transport network

CBD CBD UNCORRECTED TODsPROOF Local Hubs

Regional expressway LRT Network

Fig. 2. Utsunomiya networked compact city concept.

349 4.5. Coordination between bus and LRT The exclusive right of way is an indispensable advantage for LRT over 397 buses. Because the exclusive right of way for LRT eliminates mixing 398 350 Among the opponents to the LRT project were three bus companies with automobile traffic, high running speeds and punctual operation 399 351 operating in Utsunomiya. Their resistance stemmed from fears of the schedules are possible. Once built, LRT rail tracks and stations also 400 352 competition and lost revenue that an LRT operating on Odori Main become permanent fixtures and enable TOD around LRT stations. 401 353 Street would create. It is understandable that existing bus companies In contrast, bus routes are always subject to change or discontinuation 402 354 would feel threatened by the LRT if they were competing for market should they become unprofitable. 403 355 share on the same route. A notorious example was the Supertram in In response to concerns about profitability issues for bus companies, 404 356 Sheffield, which opened in 1994 as the first modern LRT in the United Germany and other European countries have used the Verkehrsverbund 405 357 Kingdom and suffered fierce competition from buses operating on the system to offer a practical solution to the problem of providing integrat- 406 358 same route. ed public transportation service on a regional scale [10].Byorganizinga 407 359 However, the true rival for the bus companies is not the LRT but coalition of several public transportation companies in the region, the 408 360 rather automobiles that take passengers away from buses. The LRT in entire public transportation network can integrate administration, 409 361 Utsunomiya is only a 15-km-long line in its initial plan. At present, as management and operations. The careful coordination of fares and ser- 410 362 many as 2000 buses a day run on the Odori Main Street, and most of vices for all public transportation (including buses and LRT) and other 411 363 them depart from the terminals around the JR station. However, the modes for all routes in the metropolitan region, as well as the simplified 412 364 frequency of bus service drops to less than one or two per hour in sub- fare structures and streamlined transfers between modes, increase 413 365 urban areas. The area with inconvenient public transportation, where passenger satisfaction and improve the quality of a public transportation 414 366 no bus stops exist within a walking distance of 250 m, represents 60% alternative vis-à-vis the automobile. Verkehrsverbund enables financial 415 367 of the habitable land and 30% of the population in Utsunomiya City. In success by pooling revenues of group companies and redistributing 416 368 order to provide public transportation access to these areas, it is vitally profits fairly. Provided that the necessary governmental subsidies are 417 369 important to develop a bus-LRT coordinated network to regain passen- available, success stories are common in many European cities. 418 370 gers from automobiles. Vukan R. Vuchic stressed the importance of There is no equivalent system of integrating several transportation 419 371 coordination between LRT trunk line and bus feeder lines in his lecture companies in Japan yet, but it is critically important to develop a similar 420 372 in Utsunomiya [9]. It is possible to improve city-wide bus service by system in Utsunomiya in order to get bus companies on board. The fair 421 373 reorganizing the existing bus route network into a “fishbone” structure redistribution of collected fare revenue is technically possible with 422 374 where the LRT line is the backbone and buses form the feeder lines. This the current common bus card system among the three major bus com- 423 375 will eliminate areas underserved by public transportation with the panies, not to mention the SUICA, PASMO and other non-contact IC 424 376 same number of buses and, as a result, can facilitate the shift from cards used nationwide. 425 377 automobiles to public transportation by providing improved mobility Bus companies and LRT in Utsunomiya City are capable of forming an 426 378 services (Fig. 3). integrated public transportation management organization similar to 427 379 In Orleans, France, a sister city of Utsunomiya, an 18-km LRT opened Verkehrsverbund to offer improved service enhancements such as 428 380 in 2000. The integration of the LRT and bus network is well organized, convenience, fare structures, ease of transfer, and increase in mobility sat- 429 381 and drivers drive both LRT and buses. In Portland, Oregon, and Houston, isfaction levels, leading to a shift from the automobile to public transpor- 430 382 Texas, public transportation passengers increased after the introduction tation and a resultant increase in profitability. The cooperation between 431 383 of LRT thanks to the close coordination with the reorganized bus bus companies and LRT would result in the kind of win–win relationship 432 384 networks in the communities. commonly found in many European and North American cities. 433 385 Some argue that bus service improvements are sufficient in estab- 386 lishing a trunk public transportation system. BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) 387 can achieve high-volume, high-speed, and punctual passenger trans- 4.6. Recent development and future issues 434 388 portation on exclusive bus lanes. BRT has proved successful in Curitiba, 389 Brazil, and Bogota, Colombia, and has attracted attention in many devel- After the last decade of controversy about the pros and cons of the 435 390 oping countries. However, BRT has not enjoyed success in developed LRT project, both the incumbent governor and mayor ran for election 436 391 countries because it is difficult to secure exclusive bus lanes on car- in 2012 pledging to build an LRT. Both were reelected with large 437 392 clogged roads. In addition, the psychological resistance to transfer margins. Since then, the move toward the realization of LRT has become 438 393 from BRT to feeder buses is stronger than between LRT and feeder a realistic target. In April 2012, a new deputy mayor from the Ministry of 439 394 buses. The Key Route Bus system introduced in Nagoya city in 1985 is Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism was appointed. The mayor 440 395 considered a form of BRT in Japan, but no other similar BRT system and city officials are actively working toward the realization of the LRT 441 396 has been adopted in other areas to date. project, and detailed planning is in progress. 442

Present Bus Network Future LRT and Bus Network

New line UNCORRECTEDNew linePROOF

New line LRT

New line

New line Public Transport Void Area Feeder bus line Public Transport Inconvenient Area * Line thickness shows bus frequency

Fig. 3. Present and future public transportation network.

Please cite this article as: H. Koike, Mobility perspective for a local city in Japan, IATSS Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.iatssr.2014.05.006 6 H. Koike / IATSS Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Original Plan of 15 km

First Stage Section of 12 km

Haga-Takanezawa Industrial Park Haga Industrial Park

Technopolis Center District Prefecture Office JR Station Planned Extension Future Expansion Green Stadium

Tobu Station Future Expansion City Hall

Future Expansion Bell Mall Shopping Center Kiyohara Industrial Park

Sakushin Univ. Tochigi Sports Zone

Original Route

Planned Extension

Future Expansion

Fig. 4. Planned LRT route and future expansion.

443 Already a decade has passed since the original LRT plan of 2003. Development on the east side of the JR station has been a long- 460 444 There have been many social and economic changes since then in standing issue. A project for a vital transit center that will facilitate 461 445 Utsunomiya and across the country. Therefore, the original plan that I transfers to the JR Shinkansen lines and local trains has 7.3 hectares of 462 446 helped develop needs review and revision to incorporate changes that land reserved for future development. Tentative plans are in place to 463 447 have occurred since then. Future issues to be considered will be use the site for a convention center or other highly concentrated land 464 448 discussed based on personal view. Of the two sections of the original use functions, and LRT access to the site will eliminate or minimize 465 449 15-km route, the eastern section from the JR station to Technopolis the parking space requirements by encouraging park and ride mode in 466 450 Center District is to be constructed initially. This will alleviate the the suburban stations. Another big issue is how to cross the JR rail 467 451 chronic trafﬁc congestion from commuters to the industrial parks in lines. The current prospect is to go through the open space between 468 452 the morning and evening peak periods. It also fulﬁlls the promise to the local line on the ground and Shinkansen vertically. The question is 469 453 the residents in Kiyohara district. An increase in ridership is likely where to cross horizontally. The most desirable alignment is to connect 470 454 among students commuting to Utsunomiya and Sakushin universities the JR station and the LRT station directly on or near the existing 471 455 and visitors to sports facilities and shopping centers along the route. concourse (Fig. 5). 472 456 The latest plan is to extend the eastern end to connect with Honda As for the western section, the long-awaited link between the JR 473 457 R&D Center. This is a good move for many car commuters who are Station and Tobu Utsunomiya Station is of high priority, especially 474 458 expected to shift to LRT and thus increase its ridership. The latest as Tochigi Prefecture will host the National Sports Games in 2022. 475 459 route plan with future expansion is shown in Fig. 4. Organizers are planning to develop a comprehensive sports zone 476

Shinkansen UNCORRECTEDLevel 3 PROOF

LRT

Level 2 West side East side

Level 1 Local Train

Fig. 5. Image of LRT crossing at JR station.

477 including a new multi-purpose stadium or soccer stadium and an 5.2. Promotion of community development using bicycles in Utsunomiya City 539 478 arena in the old Utsunomiya racetrack site in Nishikawada. Buses 479 and private cars will not be enough to transport large numbers of Utsunomiya City has been a leading city in actively promoting 540 480 spectators to such sport events. Even the present Tobu rail line is and incorporating bicycle into its urban development since 2003. 541 481 insufficient. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the conversion of Utsunomiya has a flat topography and sunny weather, especially in 542 482 the Tobu line to LRT, extending it through Odori Main Street, and the winter. These are favorable characteristics suitable for bicycles. 543 483 connecting it to the LRT line at the JR station. The mobility conve- Therefore, the national transportation census of 2000 indicated 544 484 nience for users along the LRT in the downtown area will improve that the bicycle modal share for commuting and school trips was a 545 485 drastically and contribute to the revitalization of CBD. In the future, relatively high 20% in Utsunomiya City compared with a 15% national 546 486 the Odori will be converted to a transit mall, following the pattern average. In order to further encourage bicycle use, Utsunomiya City 547 487 set by many European cities. The potential expansion of a public adopted the Basic Plan to Utilize Bicycles in 2003 and has actively 548 488 transportation network to the wider regions connecting the JR pursued three main measures. One is the formation of a citywide 549 489 Nikko Line, Karasuyama Line, and Moka Line will further enhance bicycle route network that creates exclusive colored bicycle traffic 550 490 mobility in the central region of Tochigi Prefecture. spaces on the left side of roadways. This measure was very effective; 551 before-and-after comparisons showed a 40% reduction in bicycle 552 accidents, a transformation that drew nationwide attention. The 553 491 5. Bicycles: an alternative mode to automobiles second measure was to provide bicycle parking facilities near 554 railway stations and bus stops, as well as short-term parking spots. 555 492 5.1. Recent development of bicycle policy in Japan The third measure was to develop a community rental cycle system. 556 Now, there are several rental cycle depots where one can rent a 557 493 Bicycles are widely used as a convenient and inexpensive bicycle and return it at any other depot for 100 yen or about one 558 494 transportation mode all over the world to alleviate the global US dollar a day. 559 495 warming caused by excessive automobile use. In addition, bicycles 496 are used for health promotion. In recent years, bicycles have 5.3. Utsunomiya Bicycle City Promotion Plan 560 497 enjoyed enormous popularity in many European and US cities as 498 a mode of public transportation. One good example is the Velib Although the Basic Plan to Utilize Bicycles in 2003 was successful, 561 499 system in Paris, where about 14,000 rental cycles are stationed there was a renewed move to revise the plan to be consistent with 562 500 at 1230 stations. Many cities have vigorously pursued the development other transportation and city-planning policy strategies in Utsunomiya 563 501 of exclusive bicycle lanes where bicycles can travel comfortably to promote the modal shift from the automobile to public transportation 564 502 and safely. and bicycles. This revised plan, named the “Utsunomiya Bicycle City 565 503 Bicycles have long been a major fixture in Japanese transportation. Promotion Plan,” was authorized in 2010 [13]. In addition to the con- 566 504 However, motorization over the past half century and automobile- tinuation of previous measures, new aspects such as environment, 567 505 centered urban transportation policies have prevailed in Japan at health, sports, and tourism promotion by bicycle have been added. 568 506 the expense of bicycles and pedestrians. Recently, however, bicycles The new plan aims to help create a city where anyone can cycle safely 569 507 have gained renewed recognition as an environmentally friendly and comfortably, improve their health, and conserve the environment. 570 508 alternative to the automobile. As the number of bicycle users A new catch phrase, “It's fun to ride a bicycle in Utsunomiya,” was 571 509 increases, so does the sharp increase in bicycle accidents, parking adopted to promote the movement. 572 510 problems, bicycle theft, and so on. The national government and local The following three examples are some interim results to date. 573 511 governments are trying to introduce new policies and regulations to In the field of sports and tourism, Utsunomiya has been hosting the 574 512 solve bicycle-related problems. Japan Cup—the major bicycle road race in Asia—since 1992. Professional 575 513 In October 2011, the National Police Agency announced a new order world-class cyclists gather in October every year for the competition, 576 514 to promote new measures for safe and correct bicycle use [11].The which is well known among bicycle lovers as a road race comparable 577 515 order represents a big step toward rectifying the confusion that has to the Tour de France. In 2010, Odori Main Street in downtown 578 516 surrounded bicycle riding in Japan for the past forty years, enforcing Utsunomiya City hosted the first criterium race in Japan. Cyclists 579 517 the Road Traffic Act, and establishing an orderly traffic environment. competed on a road stretch of 1.6 km for 20 rounds. Approximately 580 518 The basic points are: a) bicycles are regarded as light vehicles and as 40,000 spectators gathered along the street to see the race, and the 581 519 such ride on the left side of roadway; and b) pedestrians are to be criterium has been held every year since then to promote the 582 520 given the right of way on the sidewalk. “sport cycling city” of Utsunomiya. 583 521 Based on this new order, Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Another example is the experimental implementation of the 584 522 Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and Traffic Bureau of the National new guideline in collaboration with the Regional Office of the Ministry 585 523 Police Agency jointly issued a guideline entitled “Bicycle Usage of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. National Highway 586 524 Environment Creation Guidelines for Comfort and Safety” in November No. 4 in Utsunomiya is a major highway with daily traffic of more 587 525 2012 [12]. This roughly 250-page guideline comprises four chapters than 20,000 vehicles, but it is narrow and incapable of providing an 588 526 that cover the planningUNCORRECTED of bicycle traffic space, design of bicycle traffic exclusive bicycle PROOF lane. Instead, blue arrow-shaped pavement markings 589 527 space, enforcement of bicycle traffic rules, and comprehensive action are painted on the left side of the roadways at 5- to 10-m intervals to 590 528 to promote bicycle usage. guide bicycles. These blue arrows continue through intersections, too. 591 529 The revolutionary guideline calls for comprehensive action on In approximately one year, the number of bicycles riding on the 592 530 everything from the provision of bicycle traffic space to the rules arrow markings has increased by 2.6 to 3.3 times without any acci- 593 531 and regulations for all road users: cyclists, automobile drivers, and dents. As one of the first attempts to implement the new guideline, 594 532 pedestrians. One of the new points worth noting is how a bicycle Utsunomiya City's effort has drawn much attention nationwide (Fig. 6). 595 533 can cross an intersection. Instead of following pedestrian “walk” The third example is the promotion of bike helmets among senior 596 534 signals and using the bicycle crossing zone next to the pedestrian cyclists. For the last five years, the Tochigi Truck Association has donated 597 535 crossing, a bicycle can follow car traffic and go straight across the 1000 bike helmets every year. The helmets are given to elderly cyclists 598 536 intersection on the roadway. This is based on the findings that the free of charge. This may be one of the reasons that bicycle accidents 599 537 majority of bicycle traffic accidents occur at intersections between per 100 thousand people dropped from 110.5 in 2007 to 65.2 in 2012, 600 538 turning automobiles and bicycles from sidewalks. a 41% drop in seven years in Tochigi Prefecture. 601

Please cite this article as: H. Koike, Mobility perspective for a local city in Japan, IATSS Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.iatssr.2014.05.006 8 H. Koike / IATSS Research xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Fig. 6. Arrow markings for bicycles in intersection.

602 By adopting these measures, Utsunomiya City plans to increase In the latter part of this paper, I discussed bicycles as another major 634 603 the bicycle modal share from 20% (the current level) to 25% and alternative to automobiles. The world is seeing bicycles in a fresh light as 635 604 the citizenry's satisfaction with the usability of bicycles from 30% tools for coping with global warming and maintaining health. The same 636 605 (the current level) to 50% in 10 years [14]. tide is spreading in Japan. Utsunomiya City adopted a transportation 637 and city-planning policy based on bicycles and public transportation— 638 606 6. Conclusion including LRT—more than a decade ago in order to weaken automobile 639 dependency. I hope that efforts in Utsunomiya City will serve as a model 640 607 Since its beginnings in the latter half of 20th century in Japan, motor- to many other local cities in Japan that are suffering from the 641 608 ization has led to the decline of public bus and streetcar transportation, same problems of automobile dependency, urban sprawl, population 642 609 expansion of urban sprawl, and increased automobile dependency. decreases, and aging populations. 643 610 Aging, soaring gasoline prices, worsening trafficcongestion,increasing 611 number of traffic accidents among the elderly, and concerns about 612 environmental and health issues, however, are gradually shifting the References 644 613 public away from automobile dependency and toward more human- 645 614 [1] Peter W.G. Newman, Jeffrey R. Kenworthy, Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming centered alternatives like public transportation and bicycles. In addition, Automobile Dependence, Island Press, Washington, D.C., 1999 646 615 with the deterioration of local financial health, automobile-oriented in- [2] Robert Cervero, The Transit Metropolis—A Global Inquiry, Island Press, 1998. 647 616 frastructures are being replaced by the “compact city” concept—anew [3] H. Ieda (Ed.), Sustainable Urban Transport in an Asian Context, Springer, 2010. 648 649 617 [4] National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, Population Projections approach beginning to emerge in many cities that want to revitalize for Japan, January 2012. 650 618 their central districts and restore a more human-oriented type of [5] Economist, Nov. 18th, 2010. 651 619 urban life. It is important to reassess the significance of introducing [6] Tochigi Prefecture and Utsunomiya City, New Transportation System Introduction 652 653 620 the LRT in Utsunomiya City in conjunction with the timing of these Basic Plan Study Report, 2003. [7] Vukan R. Vuchic, Transportation for Livable Cities, Center for Urban Policy 654 621 shifts. I once called Utsunomiya “the Houston of Japan.” My real Research, 1999. 655 622 intention was to express an envy of a city that, despite having the [8] Hirotaka Koike, A Challenge of Utsunomiya, an Auto-dependent Local City, IATSS 656 – 657 623 highest gasoline consumption per capita in the world, succeeded in Rev. 34 (2) (2009) 213 221. [9] Vukan R. Vuchic, Urban Transit—Operations, Planning, and Economics, John Wiley & 658 624 the revitalization of its city center by introducing LRT in 2004. There Sons, Inc., 2005. 208–2012. 659 625 are many cities in Japan trying to introduce LRT. If we are successful in [10] John Pucher, Stefan Kurth, Verkehrsverbund: the success of regional public 660 UNCORRECTED PROOF 661 626 introducing it in Utsunomiya City, the most automobile-dependent transport in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, Transp. Policy 2 (4) (1995) 279–291. 662 627 city in Japan and a community that has never had streetcars, I believe [11] National Police Agency, On Promotion of Comprehensive Measures for Better 663 628 that an LRT boom will occur in many cities around the country. As Bicycle TrafficOrder,2011. 664 629 discussed above, the path toward the realization of LRT has been [12] Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, National Police Agency, Bicycle Usage 665 666 630 fi Environment Creation Guidelines for Comfort and Safety, 2012. long and dif cult. I strongly hope that prefectural and municipal [13] Utsunomiya City, Utsunomiya Bicycle City Promotion Plan, 2010. 667 631 governments, citizens, business communities, and transportation [14] Hirotaka Koike, Community revitalization and bicycle utilization in regional 668 632 operators will take bold steps toward building consensus to achieve metropolitan area, Environ. Pollut. Iwanami 41 (3) (2012) 14–19. 669 633 sustainable cities that will last well into the future. 670

Please cite this article as: H. Koike, Mobility perspective for a local city in Japan, IATSS Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.iatssr.2014.05.006