Exploring Gender Differences in Media's Portrayal of Chefs

EXPLORING GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MEDIA’S PORTRAYAL

OF CHEFS

A Project

Presented to the

Faculty of

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

In Partial Fulfilment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science

Hospitality Management

Kyoung Min (Debi) Min

2019

SIGNATURE PAGE

PROJECT: EXPLORING GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MEDIA’S PORTRAYAL OF CHEFS

AUTHOR: Kyoung Min (Debi) Min

DATE SUBMITTED: Summer 2019

The Collins College of Hospitality Management

Neha Singh Project Committee Chair The Collins College of Hospitality Management

Sheree Mooney Chef-Lecturer The Collins College of Hospitality Management

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my committee chair, Dr.

Neha Singh for being a huge mentor for the years that I have spent in Collins College for undergraduate studies and for graduate studies. Many things I have learned from the classes I took with Dr. Neha Singh have helped me grow outside of school. I also want to thank Sheree Mooney for being a great role model as a strong chef who have paved a way for many other chefs to follow. She’s been a great inspiration for me at the Prostart as a lead judge and always working hard to be a great motivation for all high school students as well as the judges.

A special thanks goes out to Dr. Kapoor who has been a great mentor throughout my undergraduate and graduate studies. She is the one who helped me start this paper and gave me inspiration to do a study on female chefs.

I would also like to thank Shane, who has been right next to me supporting me throughout this whole entire journey with constant encouragement and love. Shane helped me cope through numerous issues I faced while finishing up my research and the last bit of my masters while working.

Lastly, I would like to express my deepest thanks and sincere appreciation to my mom, my dad and my brother Alex for always being there for me through thick and thin. All of this would’ve been meaningless without knowing that you guys were by my side through every step of the way.

iii

ABSTRACT

The media influences people’s lives on a daily basis through the content that is shared on different platforms like television, radio, print media and the internet. Since people are spending more time absorbing information made available by the media, it has become crucial for various media outlets and publications to be responsible in terms of the images, opinions and portrayals they spread. The culinary industry is a high- pressure, fast-paced and challenging environment in which many talented chefs have found success and fame. Notable celebrity chefs have received great exposure through

the Food Network, among other platforms, allowing them to grow into a wealthy restaurant owner and the author of numerous food-related publications. The problem is that many talented chefs who have worked hard and proven their skills and capabilities in the culinary field are not afforded the same kinds of opportunities and are, thus, not likely to achieve the same kind of success simply because they are female. The professional kitchen has come to be viewed as a masculine place that is not suitable for women. It is important to understand the ways in which female chefs experience this gender stereotyping and how it impacts their careers. It is also important to understand how the media has contributed to this condition in order to gain an understanding as to how current and future initiatives can most effectively work to correct the gender inequality in the hospitality field.

Keywords: Gender, Stereotyping, Inequality, Media, Glass Ceiling

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SIGNATURE PAGE ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ...... v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Problem Statement ...... 1 Significance of the Study ...... 2

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 5

Gender Specific Awards...... 5 Gender guessing experiment ...... 6 Glass Ceiling ...... 7

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...... 9

Data Collection ...... 9 1. Literature ...... 9 2. James Beard Awards ...... 9 3. American Culinary Federation Magazines ...... 9 4. Michelin Star Restaurants ...... 10 Data Analysis ...... 10 Interpretation of Results ...... 11

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS ...... 12

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ...... 17

Qualitative Results ...... 21

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ...... 25

REFERENCES ...... 27

APPENDIX A (American Culinary Federation Magazine)...... 32

APPENDIX B (Breakdown of Michelin Starred Restaurants) ...... 34

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Male and Female James Beard Award Recipients in 4 Categories ...... 12

Figure 2: Male and Female Chefs Featured in the ACF Review ...... 13

Figure 3: Male and Female Pastry Chef Award Recipients ...... 14

Figure 4: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in Chicago ...... 15

Figure 5: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in New York ...... 15

Figure 6: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in Washinton D.C...... 16

Figure 7: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in San Francisco ...... 16

vii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

With 96.7% of American families owning a TV and 96% owning a cellphone, it follows that media plays a large role in the lives of American people and in creating social norms (Lantagne, 2014). Although the acceptance or rejection of the notion of gender roles and stereotypes is subject to an individual’s perception, it is undeniable that the media contributes greatly in perpetuating the idea in people’s minds – both consciously and subconsciously – that gender is a factor in the culinary world

(Druckman, 2010).

Problem Statement

With a staggeringly low percentage of women employed as chefs (19%) compared to men (81%), only 7% as executive chef positions as compared to 93% to their male counterparts (Hartke, 2018), it is necessary to investigate the correlation between the media’s portrayal and the various statistics of males and females in the culinary industry.

Media outlets include newspapers, magazines, television, the internet, and radio, however, for the simplification of this study, the focus will be on the percentages of women versus men in competitive media. Positive media attention is critical for a chef’s career, particularly as it draws customers to their restaurant or other business, it attracts investors and it also helps them to obtain nominations for various awards (Cohen, 2013). The problem is not regarding a lack of exposure for women, but rather the way that women are largely depicted as cooks and not as chefs

(Druckman, 2010). While a chef is considered the leader of a professional kitchen and an expert in their occupation, a cook is regarded as more of a blue-collar worker who cooks with their heart and uses instinct. Excellent female chefs are being described by

1 the media using terms such as ‘nurturer’ and ‘caretaker’, words used to express characteristics that are stereotypically female (Druckman, 2010). These stereotypes may be the result of a wide pay gap of 28.1% between male and female chefs in the culinary industry (Fuhrmeister, 2016).

Thus, the objective of this study is to determine how the media represents female chefs versus male chefs by identifying the application of specific words that are generally commonly used to typecast women. Investigations into how many female chefs are represented versus male chefs in the media outlets, award programs and in Michelin guide will also be conducted. The persistent use of these stereotyped words such as nurturer, caretaker, homey, comforting are affecting social norms and has created a barrier in the real-life professional kitchen setting as far as women are concerned. As viewers are continuously seeing the same chefs appearing on television and being acknowledged at the culinary award ceremonies, society has accepted the definition of a ‘chef’ to be that of someone who is presented to us repeatedly

(Druckman, 2012). As Charlotte Druckman states, “We need a broader, more expansive definition of a chef.” In more recent years, the traditional combination of specific training, experience, and behavioral traits as being the definitive measure of a chef has been re-evaluated. It is essential for society to expand on and redefine the standards for a ‘great chef’ as well as to reevaluate and reassess the requirements for eligibility (Druckman, 2010).

Significance of the Study

According to a Statista report, 42.07 million viewers tuned in to the Food

Network in the space of 7 days during the spring of 2016. The Food Network has been on American televisions since April 19, 1993, and has birthed many celebrity chefs such as Anthony Bourdain, Rachel Ray, Paula Dean, Jamie Oliver, and Emeril

Lagasee. Many of these chefs have become comparable to movie stars in recent years, with the iconic Jamie Oliver being reported to have an estimated net worth of $172 million. These high viewership numbers make it imperative for the Food Network’s representation of chefs to be thoroughly examined (Lantagne, 2014). There is a myriad of possible reasons for the existence of the widely held view among male chefs that women cannot perform competitively in the high-pressure environment that is the professional kitchen. It is surprising that this stereotype is held because one of the most famous labels places women in the kitchen as opposed to the business environment. Therefore, women are more associated with cooking in the home than men, but in a professional setting, men seem to be dominating (Broyles, 2011). Most of us have grown up seeing our mothers and grandmothers in the kitchen preparing meals for the family. In the past few decades, women have evolved from being based in the home to having careers within industries that were previously thought to be unsuitable. With today’s women refuting many of these past beliefs, society’s view of female professionals has remained archaic. So, it begs the question: if it is natural for women to uphold their domestic roles in the kitchen, why are there so few notable women in professional kitchens as compared to men? It is simply because women are viewed as ‘cooks’ in the domestic kitchen, while men are regarded as ‘chefs’ in the professional kitchen (Druckman, 2010). The media essentially propagates this misconception by portraying female professionals in the culinary industry as possessing ‘homey’, ‘comforting’ or ‘maternal’ qualities while male chefs are depicted as ‘fearless mavericks who are challenging.’ The prime example for this is

Lidia Bastianich and Alice Waters, who are both seem as the

“mother” of American slow food and as a “nurturer (Druckman, 2010).” In comparison to men, women appear less frequently in the role of experts in many

3 television programs and are ‘more likely to be scantily clad, suggestively dressed, and posed in sexually exploitative and submissive postures’ (Galdi, Maass,

& Candinu, 2013). The persistent perpetuation of this stereotype by the media is encouraging the societal beliefs that are causing women to continue to be seen in secondary roles to men in the culinary industry. Therefore, the findings from this research will provide a better understanding of why society generally accepts the current distinctions between male and female chefs and raise awareness in terms of the concept of ‘chefs’ that is being communicated through the media.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Gender-Specific Awards

For the past five years, Veuve Clicquot has sponsored a World’s Best Female

Chef Award. This award created a separate designation for men and women chefs and created controversy among other chefs and influential food writers. They believe that reserving a special categorized award for women is “divisive, and implies women have to be evaluated differently, and, it is often suggested, less stringently, than their male peers. (Harris, 2015)” Another example is given in the World’s Best Female

Chef from the World’s 50 best awards. The group editor of World’s 50 Best, William

Drew also quoted “We believe the existence of this gender-specific category actually helps to redress an imbalance, while simultaneously recognizing that the world of restaurant kitchens remains a male-dominated sphere.” For the Best Chef Awards in

Warsaw, there is a category of The Best Chef Lady and it also singles out women in a different category. In 2009, the James Beard Awards Gala was held with theme

“Women in Food” as a chosen motif. Despite the theme, there were only sixteen

women of the evening’s ninety-six nominees and only two of those sixteen went

home as a winner out of nineteen total winners.

Margot Janse, who is an award-winning chef also states that “By highlighting

female chefs, you’re actually damaging what we want. It’s only valid if there’s also a

category for Best Male Chef. As long as women keep accepting these awards, we’re

saying we’re not equal. The idea needs to be rejected.” In other award categories for

chefs, there isn’t one that has a separate category for men; instead, they are

categorized as chef only. (e.g. the best chef, outstanding chef, outstanding pastry chef, rising star chef, etc.) The awards shouldn’t have separate categories because it should

5 be focused on the chef’s palate, the way they run their kitchen, and how their mind works (September, 2018). Having a gender-specific qualifier means that the awardees are only getting compared within that qualifier even when being a chef is not gender- specific.

Gender guessing experiment

At a panel discussion on “Gender Confusion: Unraveling the Myths of Gender in the Restaurant Kitchen,” the event decided to conduct an experiment that included a meal of six courses, each represented by two dishes sharing a theme ingredient. The panel of judges had to guess which of the dishes were prepared by a female chef and which by a male chef, based merely on how they looked and tasted (Druckman,

2010). The judges predicted and then proved, having some of them correct and some not. The judges then realized that determining which dish was made by female chefs or male chefs was not the most interesting question. Instead, they started to come to a question, “Why did they assume that certain flourishes or flavors were feminine?”

The experiment’s message was that “men and women don’t really cook differently; we just judge their food in different ways.” Druckman also stated the following:

“This prejudice operates on two levels. Edible flowers on a plate can be said to

signify “female,” while precisely stacked layers and drizzled sauces can be

deemed “male.” But when a chef’s gender is known, we can also describe his

or her seemingly neutral dish with different vocabularies.”

One of the panelists Gwen Hyman also reminded the audience that “Women cook with the heart; men cook with their brains.” When a male chef serves a plate of

Spaghetti Bolognese, it is revered as “rich,” “intense,” “bold,” flavors, while when female chef serves a same plate, it is indicated as “homey,” “comforting,” and was

“prepared with love.”

Glass Ceiling

Women are the minority in the highest levels of executive leadership, which is a phenomenon associated with workplace barriers collectively termed the glass ceiling. According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, the term glass ceiling is “an intangible barrier within a hierarchy that prevents women or minorities from obtaining upper-level positions.” Another author states that a glass ceiling is a

“transparent barrier that prevents women rising above a certain level in an organization (Powell and Butterfield, 2015 as cited in Balasubramanian and

Lathabhavan, 2017).” Newer research finds that the term glass ceiling also implicates self-imposed barriers to women’s advancement in their careers (Boone et al., 2013).

Some of these self-imposed barriers include family and household responsibilities holding a higher priority and work-life balance. For the workplace barriers, there were factors such as “lack of mentoring, lack of careful career planning, stereotyping, and perception of feminine traits (Boone et al., 2013).”

In 2012, there were no women who had CEO title of the thirteen hospitality- related companies on the Fortune 500 list. After 7 years, in 2019, there was only one woman who had CEO title of the 11 hospitality-related companies on the Fortune

500. Boone et al., (2013) conducted an interview on 15 women holding top executive level positions in the hospitality industry and found that the two main areas were women hold back from advancing up the ranks are family-personal issues and the timing of the promotions to higher ranks that occur (Brizendine 2008; Reddy 2007 as cited in Boone et al., 2013), and the self-imposed barriers such as “unwillingness to relocate, concessions made within a spousal partnership, and traditional gender roles

(Fischlmayr, 2002 as cited in Boone et al.,2013). When women are faced with these barriers, they tend to either “exit, voice concern, or rationalize remaining on a plateau

(Hamel, 2009 as cited in Boone, et al., 2013).” During the research Boone et al.,

(2013) also conducted a study on 99 executive-level respondents consisting of 54 men and 45 women and found that both women and men have similar ambitions in their careers, but women have different personal circumstances than men. More women have spouses that work outside of their homes which makes it harder for women to spend more time at their work climbing the corporate ladder while managing their family and household (Boone et al., 2013).

The summary of the study finds that most women are held by their self- imposed barriers, which largely involves the choices that they make about their family and household duties. It is important to make these invisible barriers visible and to implement appropriate solutions and help for women. McCarthy (2004) suggested the following:

“that government could provide tax incentives (payroll tax breaks) for

employers that hire well-qualified women who are interested in more family

or work-life flexibility such that if these women are working part-time, the

business will receive a tax incentive in the form of a payroll tax break or

health insurance policy reimbursement so that it does not cost a business any

more to employ someone part-time.”

McRoy and Tsangari (2011) also suggested the following:

“Civic and business organizations can provide women with resources to

navigate the obstacle course in a number of ways. Government should increase

awareness about issues that women face in the workplace, as well as push for

equal opportunity policies in the private sector.”

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Data Collection

1. Literature

The focus of the research was on published literature that addressed gender inequalities in the food industry. Information was collected from 5 books and 28 articles to give a better understanding of the differences between male and female chefs in terms of how they are regarded by society and portrayed by the media.

2. James Beard Awards

For the purposes of this investigation, a comparison was done on the percentages of male versus female recipients of the James Beard Awards over the past

21 years. The James Beard Awards were established in 1990 and, as the most recognized awards in the culinary world, they have been called ‘The Oscars of Food’.

These awards, which are voted on by more than 600 culinary professionals, have played a key role in establishing fame and success for many chefs who have been recognized for their excellence through this platform. Since the James Beard Awards have numerous categories, to simplify the process, the categories were narrowed down to only those that had a winner every year for the past 21 years. These categories include Outstanding Chef, Rising Star Chef, Best Chef of California, Best

Chef of New York and Outstanding Pastry Chef.

3. American Culinary Federation Magazines

Additionally, the percentages of male versus female chefs represented in the

Salut column of the American Culinary Federation’s monthly magazine were

analyzed. The magazine is named the National Culinary Review and is the official

magazine of the American Culinary Federation (ACF). For the data collection, 23

9 issues of this magazine were randomly selected for analysis from publications released in the last 8 years. Salut recognizes chefs who have received an award or a promotion and have been recommended to the ACF by their colleagues (See

Appendix A for example of Salut). Since the number of featured chefs differs from edition to edition, the percentage of women featured out of the total number of chefs featured was analyzed instead. For example, in February of 2012, there were 4 female chefs featured out of a total number of 20 chefs, which means that 20% of chefs featured in that issue were women. In May of 2016, 2 female chefs (out of a total of 8) were featured, bringing the representation of women to 25%.

4. Michelin Star Restaurants

Lastly, the data for Michelin star restaurants were collected and from that, a comparison of the numbers of male versus female chefs was done to determine the representation of female chefs in the top restaurants. Four main areas from the United

States where the Michelin starred restaurants are most accumulated were chosen, including Chicago, New York, San Francisco, and Washington D.C. Then it was broken down to how many stars and how many of these restaurants are run by women/male/co executive chefs. 25 restaurants were examined for Chicago, 71 for

New York, 34 for San Francisco and 13 for Washington D.C.

Data Analysis

For each research area described above, once the data had been collected, it was analyzed to identify key relationships between different sets of data to be able to relate them to the objectives. As there was a combination of qualitative and qualitative data, the analysis was divided into two parts depending on the type of data that was being dealt with. For the qualitative analysis, the research gathered from various

10 literary sources was analyzed to determine the key factors influencing the general societal perceptions of gender roles in the professional kitchen environment.

Information collected from some media sources was also analyzed. The qualitative analysis was made up of discussions around data that was collected from some media sources and publications, comparing percentages of male and female representation in various areas of the culinary world.

Interpretation of Results

Using the information obtained from qualitative analyses, the interpretation of the results involved identifying trends and key relationships from the data that was collected and analyzed. This ultimately informed the conclusions that were drawn from this study as outlined in the summary section of this report, thereby making it possible to forecast future trends and make recommendations accordingly.

CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS

The first set of data that was collected was focused on the recognition of chefs

through the bestowing of culinary-related awards. The recipients of various James

Beard Awards over a period of 21 years (from 1997 to 2017) were analyzed. The

chart depicted in Figure 1 below compares the proportion of female winners in

relation to male winners across 4 categories, namely Outstanding Chef, Rising Star

Chef, Best Chef of California and Best Chef of New York. Out of a total of 84

awards, only 15 have been given to women in the industry. Since in 2015 there were

two chefs nominated for Best Chef California, and only one was a female chef, there

is a .5.

4.5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3.5 t-- 3 3 3 3 3 3 t-- t-- 3 3 3 f- 3 t-- ~~ f- Male 2.5 t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t--2 t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- 2 2 f- 2 t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- f- Female 1.5 t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f- 1 t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- t-- f-

~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ f- □ 0.5 0 F F F F F F F F F

Figure 1: Male and Female James Beard Award Recipients in 4 Categories The next set of data collected was in relation to features in the Salut section of

the National Culinary Review. The data is based on a random selection of 23 editions

as follows: October 2011, November 2011, February 2012, July 2012, October 2012,

November 2012, July 2013, February 2013, February 2015, March 2015, January

2016, March 2016, May 2016, July 2016, November 2016, January 2017, July 2017,

September 2017, October 2017, December 2017, January 2018, February 2018 and

April 2018. The reason for spreading the data across 8 years was to give a more

12 accurate picture of the trends over an extended period of time rather than only looking at recent issues. The chart shown in Figure 2 illustrates the results. Evidently, the number of women featured on this page is significantly less than the men, with only

44 female chefs features as compared to the 191 male chefs who have received recognition through this publication. This translates to an 18.72% representation of women versus the 81.28% exposure for men.

18 16 14 12 -~ f-- 10 -~ f-- - f-- f-- - Male 8 - ~ f-- - - f-- f-- - - - Female 6 - f-- f-- - - f-- f-- - - ~ - - f-- D f-- - 4 - f-- f-- f-- - f-- f-- - - f-- f-- f-- - ~ f-- - - f- 2 - f-- f-- - f-- - f-- - f-- f-- - I t I r I I t r r r r I I t I 0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Figure 2: Male and Female Chefs Featured in the ACF Review

Figure 3 below shows the percentages of male and female winners of the

Outstanding Pastry Chef Award. In the last 21 years, the award has been received by

14 female chefs out of a total of 21. Therefore, there are more female pastry chefs who have received this award as compared to males. This data can be compared to the

James Beard Awards for Best Female Chef, which represents the largest percentage of female award recipients. Since only females are eligible for that particular award, it is not surprising that they would show higher numbers in that category. The data for the

Best Pastry Chef Award is not consistent with any other information obtained through media research or literary publications pertaining to the comparison of male and female chefs. Therefore, it is safe to assume that women are dominating the pastry industry, which would explain the higher percentage of female award winners. These numbers serve to further highlight the concerning disparities between men and women in the professional cooking industry seeing as, for a period spanning 21 years, very few changes have taken place. This is based on the uniformity of the data and applies also to the charts illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2 above.

Oustanding Pastry Chef Award (1997-2017)

33.30%

■ Female

66.70% ■ Male

Figure 3: Male and Female Pastry Chef Award Recipients

The last set of data to be analyzed concerned Michelin Star chefs in 4

American cities, namely Chicago, New York, San Francisco, and Washington D.C.

The information was collected by identifying all the Michelin Star restaurants in each city and the associated Michelin Star chefs for each. It was then possible to determine the number of males versus female Michelin Star chefs for each city. There are

14 similarities in the data and it can be assumed that it is representative of the culinary industry in the USA.

Michelin Star Chefs in Chicago

~ ~ 20 ~ ~

15 ~ ~

~ 10

~ ~ 5 ~ ~

~ ..,, 0 3 Stars 2 Stars 1 Star

■ Male ■ Female

Figure 4: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in Chicago

Michelin Star Chefs in New York

0 3 Stars 2 Stars 1 Star

■ Male ■ Female

Figure 5: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in New York

Michelin Star Chefs in Washington DC

12 \', \ ' 10 ' 8 \_ \

6 ' \' 4 \_

'· 2 ' ' 0 \\ 3 Stars 2 Stars 1 Star

■ Male ■ Female

Figure 7: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in Washinton D.C.

Michelin Star Chefs in San Francisco \ ' 25 ' \ 20 ' ~. 15 ' \ \

10 \ ' 5 '\ I ,,\ ' 0 ' 3 Stars 2 Stars 1 Star

■ Male ■ Female

Figure 6: Male and Female Michelin Star Chefs in San Francisco

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

This section provides an analysis of the data that has been collected around the subject of gender roles in the industry to ultimately give a comprehensive description of the factors that have led to the current conditions in the culinary world based on research that has been previously conducted. The literature also helps to describe the consequences of this environment and the challenges that female chefs face on a daily basis.

The professional cooking environment is described by many authors as a masculine place, where only the strong survive (Bryoles, 2011; Druckman, 2010).

Restaurant kitchens are described as “testosterone-fueled, aggressive, male-dominated spaces” (Bourdain, 2014). After analyzing over 2,200 pieces of recent food media and conducting interviews with 33 women chefs, Dr. Harris has found that due to the lack of women’s presence for many years in culinary schools, cooking competitions and in restaurants, the workplace culture in the culinary world has become hyper-masculine

(Harris, 2015). Most of the kitchen is catered to male chefs, requiring heavy lifting, working long hours, exposure to heat and equipment that stacked high up (Druckman,

2010). Most women are born with less muscle mass, shorter height and less physical strength than men. With these conditions seemingly catering to the male profile, it is needless to say that women fear to even think about a career in the kitchen

(Druckman, 2010). These environments cause women to constantly have to prove that they are mentally and emotionally tough enough to fit in (Harris, 2017). Apart from gender, the kitchen is also a high-stress environment and staff members often feel undervalued and unheard when attempting to voice their grievances while “bullying and threats of violence were present for some” (Murray-Gibbons, 2007 & Gibbons,

2007). Furthermore, according to a 2014 Restaurant Opportunities Center’s report,

90% of female restaurant workers report being sexually harassed at their jobs (Henry,

2016). Most kitchens are built upon a brigade system, which is extremely hierarchical, and many have experienced hazing and bullying in the kitchen (Druckman, 2010).

With many of the kitchen’s conditions working against women, it is common for the women who want to be taken more seriously to appear androgynous. “They are generally unfeminine, they wear their short-haired, and makeup free, often quite muscular, even manly, in appearance” (Druckman, 2010). This is also noted in the book, The Story of Sushi, in which a female sushi chef meets the only other female in the sushi competition. The other female chef is a hardened veteran of the sushi world and explains that in order for her to survive; she had “cut her hair short and obliterated any hint of femininity in her appearance and personality.” She also says that “I have become both physically and mentally a man” (Corson, 2008). This defeminization is a byproduct of the frat-like culture that exists in most kitchens (Druckman, 2010).

Therefore, many women find themselves needing to become more masculine to break the glass ceiling and be able to advance in their culinary careers. Therefore, although women are not legally bound to present themselves in an androgynous nature, those women who wish to succeed in the kitchen widely feel compelled to transform their apparent sexuality (Druckman, 2010).

Another factor that has hindered many women from ascending to the executive chef level is the long hours coupled with the labor-intensive work. Women, being the ones to bear children, will at some point most likely have to take time off work to give birth, raise newborn babies or even tend to sick children. For most occupations, there will be policies put in place to support women in balancing their work and family lives. The culinary workplace, however, does not accommodate

18 maternity leave or make allowances for women to work shorter hours when the need arises. The majority of chefs have 60 to 80-hour work weeks and the busiest times are during dinner service and around the weekends and holidays. Also, most of the restaurants will only give two weeks’ maternity leave (Ortega, 2015). In addition to this, these restaurants usually do not offer health care benefits to their employees, making it difficult for women to successfully balance their professional responsibilities and their maternal duties. When women take maternity leave, this slows down their ascent up the culinary ladder, making it a greater challenge for women to become executive chefs as compared to men. Looking at various awards and recognitions, it is clear that most accolades only go to the executive level of chefs. For most culinary professionals, at the age when they are sous chefs and ready to transition to an executive level chef, they are at their prime age of 27, 28 or 29. For the female chefs, once they decide to have children, they are no longer in a position to put in the long hours that are required to perform at the level of an executive chef

(Sutton, 2014). Ultimately, this means that, in the 21st century, women in the kitchen are expected to choose between a successful career in the food industry or having a family, which is prehistoric, to say the least.

The media seems to only reinforce these hardships that women have to endure.

Different academics and publications have been found to give out most accolades to male chefs, particularly the big awards such as the Best Chef of the Year. Recently, during the 2016 James Beard Awards, the most prominent awards in the food world, there were only 30 female finalists out of a total of 211(Fuhrmeister, 2016).

Moreover, in the November 18, 2013 issue of Time Magazine, which included a feature on the 13 “Gods of Food”, there were no female chefs that made the list

(Dixler, 2013). The editor of Time Magazine, Chua-Eoan was quoted as saying, “If

19 the chefs talk about it, then we can cover it. If the female chefs talk about it, we’ll cover it… If there had been someone who had made a huge stir this year about how terrible it is, then perhaps we would have covered it.” (Dixler, 2013). Since the Best

New Chef of the Year Award was first presented in 1988, a mere 44 women out of a total of 287 recipients have been given an award (Wettenstein, 2016). Although there is no category for Best Male Chef, most of the awards that go to females are in the category of Best Female Chef. Anthony Bourdain, one of the biggest celebrity chefs of this era, stated, “Why – at this point in history – do we need a Best Female Chef special designation? As if they are curiosities?” (Bourdain, 2013). Most chefs are more interested in getting recognition for being the best chef, not for being a certain gender or color or race (Henry, 2016). The fact that women are given this “special” attention is proof (and an indirect admission by the broader culinary institution) that there is a significant difference between male and female chefs in terms of how they are treated. When Dr. Harris and her team analyzed 2,206 restaurant reviews and chef profiles (2004-2009) in the New York Times, San Francisco Chronicle, Gourmet, and

Food&Wine, they discovered that female chefs were featured only 10% of the time.

The total number of women highlighted in these publications, even when combined with the number of articles that feature male and female chefs together, is still as low as 22% (Harris, 2015). During Dr.Harris’s focus group, female chefs described the challenges of securing investors for the launching of their own restaurants or expand into multiple establishments. Even those female chefs “with established track records of great cooking” have a hard time achieving sufficient support from investors because of the lack of media support and recognition (Harris, 2007).

The general impression is that women are only acknowledged in articles when they seem to be “bucking the norm.” Women should be recognized for qualifying a

20 norm status and not be measured by the male status quo (Druckman, 2010).

Dominique Crenn who opened a fine dining restaurant in San Francisco, Atelier

Crenn, was introduced in many articles as well as on the Netflix hit show, Chef’s

Table, as “the first female chef in the U.S. with two Michelin Stars” (Henry, 2016).

Even when acknowledged, females are described mostly as “they cook from their heart and are motivated by the caring act of feeding people, not personal ego or financial success” (Bryoles, 2011). Men seem to have a lot more confidence and are eager to flaunt their talents while having more competitive genes (Henry, 2016).

Qualitative Results It is evident from the analysis of the data that there are several factors contributing to the current dominance of male chefs in the food industry. At first glance, one would wonder why such a large proportion of men choose to cook for a living as opposed to viewing the kitchen as a space for women. Some obvious reasons are that the professional kitchen environment requires physical strength in addition to cooking ability. Filled with heavy objects, high temperatures, dangerous equipment, noise and the fast-paced movements that are characteristic of that demanding setting, visually, the kitchen is almost reminiscent of a construction site. It is, therefore, not surprising that the profession attracts more men than women and that the women who do pursue the culinary arts are under immense pressure to prove that they can keep up with the men. This is evident in the suppression of femininity in favor of a more masculine physical appearance and demeanor. This very pressure is most likely what has caused women to be hesitant about the culinary arts, opting instead for other career choices. In addition to the regular workplace challenges, the dominance of males in restaurant kitchens has resulted in female chefs (and other female staff) being predisposed to incidents of sexual harassment. Furthermore, as the restaurant

21 industry does not provide support to women in terms of their families and maternal duties, it has proven highly challenging for women to successfully balance their careers and family responsibilities in this field. The idea that women must either act or look like men to survive in the culinary industry should not be accepted as the norm.

Various media – newspapers, magazines, television, internet, and radio – affect the everyday lives of people in America. The media plays a vital role in influencing the way people see the world and think about different situations. The continued tendency to present men as godly beings while women are only regarded as glorified cooks who are fortunate enough to have good instincts is suppressing the potential that countless females have to make great moves in the restaurant industry.

This data highlights the seriousness of the problem being addressed through this research paper, proving that the media does indeed contribute to the inconsistencies between the two genders.

When looking at the comparison between male and female recipients of the 4 selected categories of the James Beard Awards, it is evident from the graph that there have been significantly fewer female award winners than males in the last 21 years.

For 9 of the years – nearly half – there were no female recipients in any of the 4 categories. Thus, for the period from 1997 to 2017, within the selected data set, only

17.86% of the winners of these awards were female chefs. While these awards may be in line with the overall numbers of men and women in the industry, it serves to confirm that there is a lack of female presence in professional kitchen and that this vast difference in the gender representation also translates to the area of achievements and recognition.

With respect to the media portrayal, the comparison of featured male and female chefs in the Salut section of the American Culinary Federation’s official publication, further supports the previous findings that show that the representation of women in the culinary world is far less than that of their male counterparts. Assessing this information, in conjunction with the literature research that highlighted the stereotypical terms and emotional associations used to describe female chefs in the comparatively few articles written about them, it is clear that women are regarded and portrayed considerably differently to men in the food-related media. The combination of this evidence proves the strong and persistent nature of the gender profiling that exists within this field. With specific reference to the Salut page, the fact that the data is uniform (and in some cases worse) as time progresses is indicative of a failure to make the required changes even as the world becomes more conscious of the need for gender equality, particularly in the workplace. This highlights a greater issue that key players in the field of the culinary arts are simply not addressing.

Looking at the cases relating to the James Beard Awards for Outstanding

Pastry Chef over the last 21 years (together with the qualitative data previously mentioned about the Best Female Chef Award), it becomes apparent that the only opportunities for female chefs to thrive and succeed in their chosen careers is when there is minimal or no competition from men in the industry. This is concerning in an age where women have proven across different fields (including engineering, specialized medicine and technology) that they are just as capable of performing well as the men who came before them. Most concerning is the lack of attention being given to this industry’s lack of equality in respect of gender roles, representation, recognition and opportunities.

Lastly, the exclusive Michelin Star restaurant industry shows the greatest gap in terms of male and female chefs. From the literature studied, it is clear that a lot of hard work and time spent in the high-pressure environment is required if one wishes to achieve career success in the culinary arts. Undoubtedly, the Michelin Star chefs have risen to the very top of the professional cooking game through a lot of sacrifice.

Understanding the challenges that women face in terms of the lack of concessions made regarding family duties, it is not surprising that there is little female representation at this level. In Chicago, there are no executive women chefs for three or two stars, and only 2 out of 19 are one starred. In New York, there are no women executive chefs who are three starred, 1 out of 11 are two starred and 2 out of 55 are one starred. In San Francisco, no women executive chefs are three starred, 2 out of 5 are two starred, and 3 out of 25 are one starred. In Washington D.C, none of the categories are run by women executive chefs. The percentages of Michelin Star women for Chicago, New York, Washington D.C. and San Francisco are 12%, 6%,

0% and 18% respectively. These percentages are extremely low.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

From the research examined through this study, it has become possible to prove that the problem with the lack of female representation is consistent throughout the different areas that are related to the cooking profession. From the information, it is evident that there are a number of factors that have contributed to the professional kitchen being a male-dominated environment. The physical demands of the job, the inability to accommodate and address female concerns as well as the significantly greater number of men compared to women have played a big part in driving the kitchen environment to the point where it is now considered too tough for women to handle. However, with all the strides that women have made in securing their rightful place and obtaining equality in so many other aspects, these perceptions are inaccurate and hold no truth in terms of the ability of women to do well in this field.

They are simply opinions that various groups of people have developed and continue to propagate today.

So, this raises the question as to where exactly these stereotypical opinions come from. Considering the fact that society views women – irrespective of their multitude of other roles – as nurturers and caretakers, it is no wonder that they have struggled to find their fit in the testosterone-driven world of chefs. It is difficult for the various stakeholders (employers, customers, colleagues and the female chefs themselves) to perceive women as competent and equally (if not more) capable of fulfilling their role in a high-paced, cutthroat space. As the media continues to marginalize women in favor of portraying male chefs as being superior, an injustice is being done, not only to the female professionals but to the culinary world as a whole.

The research proves that the media’s role in perpetuating the misconceptions about

25 certain gender roles through publications, TV shows, and popular award ceremonies is undeniable. It can thus be concluded that in order to effectively address this issue and make the necessary progress that will ultimately reflect equality and fairness in the culinary environment, the media is a key point of departure.

It is recommended that key players in the hospitality industry should join forces to tackle this problem together. As an example, authority figures such as the board of the James Beard Awards as well as well-known figures in the food industry and on television screens (including celebrity chefs and restaurateurs) should consider areas where they can make amendments to policies and public portrayals to improve the working conditions and career prospects for female chefs. Business investors should be encouraged to consider the individual chef’s merit rather than putting the focus on their gender. Addressing different aspects of the problem – even through small steps – can ultimately add up to make a significant difference overall.

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APPENDIX A

Example 1. American Culinary Federation Magazine

to you, outstanding culinarians salut!

Jess Barbosa, CEC, AAC, HHOF, Tom Hannum, C EC , AAC, chef/ was honored with the American Academy of owner, Buckley's Tavern, Wilmington, Delaware, Chefs Ufetime Achievement Award, Sept. 24, a member of ACF First State Chefs Association, at the Downtown Kansas City Marriott, Kansas was promoted to Conseiller Culinaire et City, Missouri. He has worked tirelessly on des Professionne!s Provincial Mid-Atlantic; behalf of the Academy, ACF Greater Kansas City Thomas Macrina, CEC, CCA, Chefs Association and the industry. His career AAC, Food Fanatic chef, US Foods. Bridgeport. spanned more th an 60 years, and he recently New Jersey, a member of ACF Ph iladelphia retired. He is the eighth chef to receive the Delaware Valley Chefs Association, was promoted prestigious AAC L1fet1me Achievement Award. to Vice Conseil!er Culinaire et des Professionnels Barbosa was joined by a hundred friends and des Etats-Unis, Hoteliers; and Rein1und colleagues at the dinner. Pitz, CEC, CCE, AAC, executive chef and co-owner with wife Sandy of Le Coq au Vin, Andy Chlebana, CEPC , professor of Orlando, Florida, a member of ACF Central Florida culinary arts/pastry chef at Joliet Junior College, Chapter, who holds the position of Consei ller Joliet, Illinois, is one of eight bakers competing Culinaire et des Professionnels des Etats-Unis for $25,000 in Food Network's "Best Baker in and Director, was promoted to become a member America" contest, which began Sept. 27 on the of the Conseil Magistral (Paris}, the international Food Network cable channel. The competition is governing council for the worldwide Chaine des split between three elimination challenges, and R6t isseurs, the only U.S. chef to receive the one contestant 1s eliminated each week. "Best red ribbon. The Grand Induction & Elevat ion Baker in America" airs Wednesdays through Nov. Ceremony took place at the Art lnstltute of 15. Chlebana, a member of ACF Louis Joliet Chicago, Oct. 13, with Baill i Delegue des Etats Chapter, was 2008 Pastry Chef of the Year. Unis/U.S. National Pres ident Harold Small, HBOT, HAAC, JD, presiding. Three chefs passed the certified master chef (CMC) exam held Sept. 30-0ct. 7 at Schoolcraft Laurie Hartfelder, a culinary student at College, Livonia, M1ch1gan: Gerald Ford, Nashville State Community College, Nashville, CMC, sen ior sous chef, The Everglades Club, Tennessee, won the $5,000 grand prize in the Pa lm Beach, Florida, a member of ACF Palm student division of the 2017 Maple Leaf Farms Beach County Chefs Association; Joseph Discover Duck Chef Rec ipe Contest in September. Leonardi Leonardi, CMC, director of culinary Recipes that used duck legs or a duck leg product operations/executive chef, The Country Club, were judged on flavor, creativity, accuracy and Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, a member of ACF cooking methodology. Hartfelder's winning recipe Rhode Island Chapter; and Shawn Loving, was duck poblano/ja!apefio chili sausage on sweet C~1C, culinary arts department chair/ potato waffles with mango/pepper relish. She is a instructor, Schoolcraft College, a member of ACF member of ACF Middle Tennessee Chapter. Michigan Chefs de Cuisine Assoc iation. They bring the number of CMCs in the nation to 70. John Johnson, CEC, CCE, Macrina CMC is the highest level of certification a chef AAC, a chef instructor at Anne Arundel can receive in the U.S. Community College-Hotel, Culinary Arts & Maryland. Johnson, a member of ACF Greater Tourism Institute, Glen Burnie, Maryland, won Baltimore Chapter. won with his roasted Three ACF members were part of the elevation the Chesapeake Chef's Challenge Culinary duck breast wrapped m sausage with Minor's of new officers during the 2017 Chaine des Competition, Sept. 26-27, during the Mid garlic baste, rhubarb sauce, white bean ragu ROtisseurs Grand Chapitre Ch icago, Oct. Atlantic Food , Beverage & Lodging Expo held at Broccolini with crispy lemon breadcrumbs, and 12-15, at Intercontinental Hotel Chicago. Timonium Fairgrounds, Lutherville Timonium, smoked carrot puree glazed carrots.

ACFC HEFS.ORG 61

Example 2. Salut! Page of ACF where the Male vs. Female was counted

APPENDIX B

Michelin Star restaurant break down - Microsoft Excel

X Cut ~ AutoSum~ u Ca libri ~ 11 ~ A• A,, S s • ~ ~ Wrap Text Normal Bad ~Copy 6 Conditional Format Good Pa:te <:$ FormatPainter B J U ~ 83 ~ & ~ .i, ~ ~ ~ ~ :~ :~ W Merge&Center~ $ ~ % ' Neutral ~ :ill::r ~ s:rt & F Formatting~ as Table~ Filter~ S. Clipboard Alignment Editin A23

1 Michelin Starred Restaurants source: (www.viamichelin.com)

3 Chicago 4 3 Stars (2) Y!m 2 Stars( 4) Y!m 1 Star (19) 5 Ali nea Ma le: GrantAchatz Sixteen Ma le: Nick Dosta l Everest Ma le: J.J oho 6 Grace Ma le: Curtis Duffy Oriole Ma le: Noah Sandova l Topolobampo Ma le: Rick Bay less Smyth Ma le: John B.Sh ields Sepia Ma le: Andrew Zimmerman Acadia Ma le: Ryan Mccaskey NAHA Fema le: Carrie Nahabedian Blackbird Ma le: Pau l Kahan 10 Green River Ma le: Aaron Lirette 11 Roister Ma le: Andrew Brochu 12 Spiaggia Ma le: Tony Mantuano 13 Elske Co Chef: Anna and David Posey 14 Dusek's (Board & Beer) Ma le: Ph il Rubino 15 Baka Ma le: Lee Walen 16 Schwa Ma le: Wilson Bauer 17 EL Ideas Ma le: Ph illip Foss 18 North Pond Ma le: Bruce Sherman 19 Entente Ma le: Brian Fisher 20 Parachute Co Chef: Bever ly Kim and John Clark 21 Band of Bohem ia Ma le: Ian Davis 22 Eliza beth Fema le: Iliana Regan 23 Goosefoot Ma le: Chris Nugent ~eady Example 1. Breakdown of Male versus Female for Michelin Star Restaurants in Chicago.

New York City 3 Stars(5) QJfl. 2 Stars (11) Q]fl_ 1 Star (55) Chef's Table at Brooklyn Fa re Male: Cesar Ramirez Atera Male: Ronny Embo rg L'Appart IMale: Nicolas Abella Eleven Madison Park Male: Daniel Humm Jungsik Male: Jung Sik Yim Batard Male: John W interman l e Bernardin Male: Eric Ripert Ko Male: Sean Gray Hirohisa Male: Hirohisa Hayashi Per Se Male: Corey Chow As ka Male: Fredrik Berselius Uncle Boons Co Chef: Matt Danzer and Ann Redding Masa Male: Masa Takayama Sushi Ginza Onodera Male: Maski Sa ito The Rive r Cafe Male: Brad Steelman The Modern Male: Gabriel Dreuther The Musket Room Male: Matt Lambert Aquavit Female: Emma Bengtsson Contra Male: Fab ian von Hauske Blanca Male: Carlo M irarchi U..'s Clam Bar Male: Jeff Zala znick Marea Male: Michael W hite Ba r Uch u Male: Eiji lchimura Jean-Georges Male: Jean-Georges Vongerichten Carbone Male: Jonah Resnick Daniel Male: Jean-Francois Bruel Minetta Tavern Male: Dan Silverman Sushi Zo Male: Keizo Seki Jew el Bako Male: Mitsunori lsoda Blue Hill Male: Dan Barber Babbo Male: Frank Langella Kyo Ya Male: Shuji Furukawa Wallse Male: Kurt Gutenbrunner Nix Male: John Fra ser Kajitsu Male: Hiraki Abe Gotham Ba r and Grill Male: Alfred Po rta le Washin ton D.C Example 2. Breakdown of Male versus Female for Michelin Star Restaurants in New York City.

D24 Name Box B C ------D ~ San Francisco 3 Stars (4) Chef 2 Stars (5) Chef 1 Star (25} Chef Saison Male: Joshua Skenes Acquerello Female: Suzette Gresham Rich Table Co-Chef: Evan Rich & Sara h Rich Benu Male: Corey Lee Lazy Bear Male: David Brazelay Octavia Female: Melissa Perello Quince Male: M ichael Tusk Atelier Crenn Female: Domin ique Crenn Kin Khao Female: Pim Techam uanviv it Coi M ale: Erik Anderson Californios Male: Va l Cantu Hashiri Male: Ta kashi Saito Com m is Male: James Syhabout The Progress Male: Raj Dixit State Bird Provisions Male : Stuart Brioza Luce Male: Daniel Corey SPQR Male : Matthew Accarrino Sons & Daughters Male: Teague Moriarty Keiko a Nob Hill Female: Keiko Takahashi Campton Place Male: Sr ijith Gopinathan Ju·ni Male: Geoffrey Lee Lord Stanley Co-Chef : Rupert Blease & Ca rrie Blease In Situ Male: Bra ndon Rodgers Omakase Male: Tokunori M ekaru Kinjo Male: takatoshi Toshi M ister Jiu's Male: Bra ndon Jew Mourad Male: M ou rad La h lou Commonwealth Male: Jason Fox ~------M ichael M ina Male: M ichael M i na 1 ► ►I Chica o New York San Francisco Washin ton D.C Example 3. Breakdown of Male versus Female for Michelin Star Restaurants in San Francisco.

A B C D 1 2 Washington D.C 3 2 Stars (2) Chef 1 Star (11) Chef 4 m inibar Male: Jose Andres Blue Duck Tavern Male: Troy Knapp 5 Pineapple and Pearls Male: Aaron Silverman ..IF- io_l_a______l Male: Stefano Frigerio 6 Kinship Male: Eric Ziebold 7 Komi Male: Johnny Manis 8 Masseria Male: Nick Stefanelli 9 Plume Male: Ra lf Schlegel 10 Rose's Luxury Male: Seth Wells 11 Sushi Taro Male: Nobu Yamazaki 12 Ta il Up Goat Male: John Sybert 13 M etier Male: Eric Ziebold 14 The Dabney Male: Jeremiah Langhorne 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 I ◄ ◄ ► ►I Chica o New York San Francisco Example 4. Breakdown of Male versus Female for Michelin Star Restaurants in Washington D.C.