The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

AN ANALYSIS OF COASTAL WETLAND ECOSYSTEM AND CLIMATE CHANGE : WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO WILDLIFE BIRD SANCTUARY IN DISTRICT

M. Sakthivel* S. Vijayakumar** J. Priyadharshini** * Associate Professor, Department of Geography, University of Madras. ** Research Scholar, Department of Geography, University of Madras. Corresponding author: [email protected] ABSTRACT Climate dynamics is one of the major troubles of Coastal wetland ecosystem for increasing several meteorological disturbances such as Saltwater intrusion, Sea level rise (SLR), drought, Precipitation, flooding, estuary, hydrological changes, salinity condition, and water quality situation of the global ecological system. Wetlands are tremendously at risk due to the effects of climate change. Wetlands provide huge ecological, economic and social benefits to the people especially those who are predominantly depending upon coastal ecosystems for their livelihood. This aim of the study is focused on spatial distribution of coastal wetland sites and classification as well as impact of climate change on coastal resources in global and Indian scenarios. This research has been conducted in of especially Point Calimere wildlife bird Sanctuary, in southeast coastal region of . The present study deals with Spatiotemporal changes of coastal wetlands using multi-temporal Remote sensing data for the period of 1997 to 2017. Furthermore, this paper used the Wetland inventory of India, from the Ramsar conservation report as well as remote sensing data and analysed the broad aspects of climate change on different wetland categories in the Indian context. This paper highlights the results of wetland area changes, loss or gains in the study area, especially Point Calimere wildlife bird sanctuary and the surrounding ecosystems that have been lost due to climate change events. In addition, the wetland area is 46 sq. km in 1997 and has drastically declined to 38 sq. km in 2017. Keywords: Coastal Wetlands, Climate Change, Ramsar Conservation, GIS, AWiFS, Nagapattinam. 1. Introduction Coastal wetlands are one of the pristine ecosystems on earth as they supply many environmental services for coastal protection and also play an essential function for climate change adaptation. Wetlands is an area of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters (Ramsar Conservation 1971). Coastal Wetlands are along the coastlines of mid to high latitude areas worldwide. Wetlands, as the name suggests, refer to such a landscape that is saturated with water or covered by water either perennially or for a major part of the year.

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2185 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

There are numerous definitions of wetlands but all essentially agree to the abovecriterion (Ambasht et al, 1990; Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Coastal wetlands are the most useful ecosystems on the globe as it offers many significant services to societies. In addition, wetlands play a major role as it is a transition zone between land and the sea. Coastal wetlands like estuaries, , swamp, marsh, sand, beach, bogs, lagoon support fishery, and coastal development. Wetland is of great importance to man and nature as it purifies water, reduces flood, stores water, prevents soil erosion, and support varied biodiversity. (Smith et al., 1994; Massel et. al., 1999; Katharesan and Rajendran, 2005). Wetlands are a habit of some rare species which play a vital role in the ecosystem and the food chain (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). Wetlands retain nutrients by storing entropic parameters like nitrogen and phosphorus and accumulating them in the sub-soil, thereby decreasing the potential for eutrophication. Moreover, significant socio-economic values like constant water supply, fisheries, fuelwood, medicinal plants, livestock grazing, agriculture, energy resource, wildlife resource, transport, recreation, and tourism are noteworthy. Wetlands offer many ecosystem services to humankind, including water quality improvement, flood mitigation, coastal protection, and wildlife protection (Mitra et al. 2005). Wetlands are a productive area for plant life, animals and agriculture. Wetlands are one of the main resources in the world’s habitat for water and migratory species; in addition, coastal marshlands are providers of all water-related ecosystem services for the global environments which all are things mainly very useful for coastal communities. Wetland is mainly categorized based on water-related base ecology which is peculiar among land as well as water are formed through the presence of hydro phyteplants, hydric soils, bacteria and animals in static or flowing water. According to the geographical site, Wetlands has a different water regime, Geochemistry, dominant plants, soil and sediment description subsequently water patterns, frequency, length of flooding, relation to upland areas and water bodies give rise to different types of wetlands. 2. Aim & Objectives The aim of the present research work is to study the coastal wetland ecosystem and climate change in Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu, India.  To study the spatial distribution of Coastal Wetlands Ecosystem in Global, Indian, Tamil Nadu, and Regional Level.  To assess Climate Change and its Impact on the Coastal Wetlands ecosystem.  To examine the spatial and temporal variation of coastal wetlands with the long-term strategy in Nagapattinam district from 1997 to 2017.

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2186 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

3. Data & Methods The background of wetlands ecosystem details has been derived from the Ramsar conservation official website and temperature data have been collected from world claim data. The climate variable of temperature data was spatially distributed worldwide such as maximum temperature, average temperature, and minimum temperature. Secondary data of coastal wetlands identified spot by the Ramsar conservation were used for this research paper. The area under coverage of wetland classes at a global level collected from the center for international forestry research. Subsequently, the global level of wetland data has been analyzed using geographical information systems (GIS). For this paper have used Multi- temporal satellite imageries for the years 1997 and 2017 which is LANDSAT 5 (TM – Thematic Mapper), LANDSAT 8 (OLI- Operational Land Imager) all imageries 30-meter spatial resolution. In addition, from the satellite imaginaries digitized coastal wetlands for the period of 1997 to 2017 in Nagapattinam district. Furthermore, spatiotemporal changes of nature and extent of coastal wetland using remote sensing data. 4. Global Level of Coastal Wetlands The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment estimates conservatively that wetlands cover seven percent of the earth’s surface and deliver 45% of the world’s natural productivity and ecosystem services provide benefits estimated at $20 trillion a year. (MEA, 2005). Wetlands cover about 6% of the land surface and are often found at the interface between terrestrial ecosystems, such as forests and grasslands, and water, such as rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). In the last century, over 50% of wetlands in the world have been lost, and the remaining wetlands have degraded to different degrees because of adverse anthropogenic activities (Fraser & Keddy 2005). Globally, the area extent of wetland ecosystems ranges from 917 million hectares (m ha) (Lehner and Doll, 2004) to more than 1275 m ha (Finlayson and Spiers, 1999). Furthermore, wetlands are classified into three types such as Inland Wetlands, Marine or Coastal wetlands and manmade wetlands. Ramsar conservation has reported in 2019 up to August a totally 3,707 wetland sites have been identified world-wise from Inland wetlands sites represents 1,909, Marine or Coastal wetlands are 983 sites, and manmade wetland sites 815. (Diagram-3 & Table-2). The Africa continent having more wetlands area which is around 43 percent in the global scenario. (Fig No: 1). Similarly, Latin America and the Caribbean 24 %, North America 9%, Europe 11%, Asia 9%, and Oceania or Australia 4% distributed worldwide. In addition, worldwide more number of wetland sites has-been identified in European countries because of wetlands sites recognition have stated from Eran in the year of 1971. (Fig No: 2).

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2187 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

SI.No Region Area in (Hec) Ramsar site 1 Africa 10,89,96,171.45 408 2 Asia 2,13,06,257.24 340 3 Europe 2,79,63,894.14 1103 4 Latin America and the Caribbean 6,14,94,711.39 204 5 North America 2,36,05,426.96 218 6 Oceania 91,71,912.60 82 Total Number of Wetlands Ramsar Site 2355 Table- 1 Shows the Ramsar Recognised total Number of Wetlands Place in Worldwide

Diagram No:1 Diagram No:2

Globally 2355 Wetland ecosystem sites have been recognized through Ramsar conservation out of overall number of wetlands locations which is 3,707 up to Aug 22nd 2019. The wetlands area has been categorized in hectares and an increasing number of wetlands place highlighted the international level. Moreover, the number of wetland sites has been pointed such as Europe 1103, Africa 408, Asia 340, Latin America and the Caribbean North America 204, Oceania or Australia 82. Furthermore, the total Geographical Wetlands area covered overall countries occupied 25,25,38,373.8 hectares worldwide. (Table-1 & Diagram- 1&2).

Classification of Wetlands Number of Sites Inland wetlands 1909 Marine or coastal wetlands 983 Human-made wetlands 815 Total 3707

Table -2 Total number of Wetlands Location and Types up to (Aug 22nd 2019).

Diagram No:3

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2188 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

Fig No: 1 Fig No:2

5. Indian context of Coastal Wetlands India has around 67,429 wetlands, covering an area of about 4.1 million hectares. Out of these, 2,175 are natural and 65,254 are manmade. Wetlands in India excluding rivers account for 18.4% of the country’s geographic area, of which 70% is under paddy cultivation (MoEF 1990; Parekh & Gadhvi 2013). India has great material goods of coastal wetland ecosystems to support diverse and unique habitats. These wetlands provide numerous ecological supplies and services but it is nowadays under tremendous stress due to rapid urbanization, industrialization and agricultural intensification, manifested by the shrinkage in their areal extent, in addition to decline in the hydrological, economic and ecological functions they perform. Wetlands in India provide a unique habitat to much aquatic flora and fauna as well as numerous birds including migratory species. Out of 310 species of wetland birds found in India (Kumar et al. 2005; Kumar & Gupta 2009, 2013). Wetlands in India are distributed in different geographical regions ranging from the Himalayas to the Deccan plateau. The variability in climatic conditions and changing topography is responsible for significant diversity. Coastal wetlands include littoral zones, brackish water, and estuarine regions, lagoons and coral reefs, and constitute 70% of total wetlands of the country (Padma Sorna Subramanian M. et al.2013). In India majority of the wetlands are directly or indirectly associated with major river systems such as the Ganges, Cauvery, Krishna, Godavari, and Tapti. According to the ministry of environment and forest Government of India reported for India has a totally 27, 403 wetlands, of which 23,444 are inland wetlands and 3,959, are coastal wetlands. According to the Directory of Asian Wetlands (1989), wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area (excluding rivers), of which 70 % are under paddy cultivation. In India, out of an estimated 4.1 mha (excluding irrigated agricultural lands, rivers, and streams) of wetlands, 1.5 mha are natural, while 2.6 mha are manmade. India has a wide spectrum of wetlands ranging from high

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2189 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

altitude alpine lakes, littoral swamps in the form of mangroves, corals and numerous types of coastal wetlands.

Diagram No:4 In Indian Context of wetlands area has spatially distributed in hectares such as (1,81,500), (2,13,023), (3201), (15731), (4000), (4,35,500), Punjab (5,648), Jammu & Kashmir (32625), (2873), (90,100), (26,600), (12000), Tamil Nadu (38500), (240), Rajasthan (26,873), (26,590) in total area of wetlands occupied 11,12,131 hectares in Indian scenario. (Diagram No:4). In addition, 27 important wetland sites have been identified through Ramsar conservation up to August 22nd 2019. 6. Coastal Wetlands in Tamil Nadu The wetlands in Tamil Nadu contain lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and seasonally waterlogged areas. According to (SACON 1998) reports show that the wetland area of the state has 1.24% of the total area in 1991. The total number of wetlands of the size 56.25 ha and above for the whole state was estimated at 1,175 covering an area of 1,615.12 sq.kms. 125 species of birds including both migratory and resident depend on coastal wetlands fully or partly. In addition, 28 other species found in the vicinity of wetlands are known in Tamil Nadu. The major Ecologically Sensitive Wetlands Ecosystem such as Pulikat Lake, Point Calimere Wildlife & Bird Sanctuary, Pichavaram ecosystem, Muthupet Mangroves and Gulf of Mannar 21 islands in Ramanathapuram district. Furthermore, Forty-Seven (47) list of coastal wetland ecosystem places in Tamil Nadu which all these identified by Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural History (SACON) in 1998. Out of the 47, two number of Wetlands Ecosystem sites are coming under the study region such as Point Calimere and Ponors.

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2190 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

7. Point Calimere Wildlife & Bird Sanctuary in Nagapattinam District In Nagapattinam district one of the major wetland has been identified by Ramsar Conservation in 2002 which is Point Calimere Wildlife & Bird Sanctuary. It lies in between 79.399 E & 79.884 E longitudes and 10.276 E & 10.826 N latitudes, covering an area of 38,500 hectares from Point Calimere in the east to Adirampattinam in the west. (Fig No:3). The coastal area consisting of shallow waters, shores, and long sand bars, intertidal flats and intertidal forests, chiefly mangrove, and seasonal, often-saline lagoons, as well as human-made salt exploitation sites. Actually, Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary has the total geographical area of 2,147 hectares forms the eastern limit of the Ramsar Site. It is the most well-known constituent of the site and is famous for the large congregations of water birds, particularly the Greater Flamingo. The sanctuary is home to the largest population of the endemic Blackbuck and 364 species of flowering plants including 198 species of medicinal plants have been recorded in the sanctuary. Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary is a major richest element of the Ramsar Site. in addition, it has been listed as one of the important flora and fauna area of the country by the Bombay Natural History Society.

Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary in Nagapattinam District

Fig No:3 8. Climate Change Impact on Coastal Wetlands Climate change is one of the critical issues in the world's environmental system. Climate change is recognized as a major threat to the survival of species and the integrity of ecosystems worldwide (Hulme 2005). However, these wetlands are seriously threatened by accelerated climate change and intensive anthropogenic activities. (Wenting W.U.et al. 2018). Wetland responses to climate change are still poorly understood and are often not included in global models of the effects of climate change. (Clair et al. 1997). Future climate scenarios, the spread of exotics will probably be enhanced, which could increase pressure on watersheds and ecosystems (Root et al. 2003). In a world of global climate change, wetlands are considered

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2191 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

one of the biggest unknowns of the near future regarding element dynamics and matter fluxes. (IPCC 2001; Paul et al. 2006). Climate is of the most valuable factor in the global environment like its support to agriculture and food security for human development. Climate change is usage refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity, in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. (IPCC 2007). The ecological consequences of climate change on wetlands will depend largely on changes in the hydrological regime and water quality. The most pronounced effects will occur through altered hydrological regimes and more frequent or intense extreme weather events (heat waves, droughts, storms and floods) (Bates et al. 2008). According to the IPCC Second Assessment Report, changes in temperature will lead to an alteration of the hydrological cycle and could have major impacts on regional water resources. The temperature may also lead to shifts in the geographical distribution of wetlands. Therefore, the projected changes in climate are likely to affect wetlands, in their spatial extent as well as distribution and function. Wetland responses to climate change are yet to be understood thoroughly and are often not included in global models of the impact of climate change.

Fig No: 4 Fig No: 5 Fig No:6 The figures show the spatial distribution of temperature globally in Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. The temperature data clearly shows the maximum, average and minimum temperature continent wise. Maximum temperature between - 45ºC to 35 ºC has been recorded in South America, Africa, and Australia and in tropical temperature conditions in Asia, North America, Europe. The low-level temperature has been recorded in Antarctica regions only because this area fully dominated by ice and snow cover. (Fig No: 4 to 6). The temperature mainly affects the coastal environments specifically the coastal wetlands ecosystem and its surroundings as per the recent scenarios. The temperature more than 35°C was recorded in the wetlands ecosystem region globally. Due to changes in climate and temperature wetlands are disturbed universally.

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2192 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

9. Spatiotemporal changes of Coastal Wetlands in Nagapattinam District The current study deals with spatiotemporal changes of coastal wetland area have been captured using Remote Sensing Data for the period of 1997 to 2017 in Nagapattinam district. Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary has the total geographical area of 2,147 hectares forms the eastern limit of the Ramsar Site. It is one of the most sensitive ecosystem places in Tamil Nadu which very near to Kodiyakkarai Reserve forest Vedarnyam Taluk in Nagapattinam district.

Fig No: 7

Above the diagram (Fig No: 7) has clearly shown that Spatiotemporal changes in the coastal wetland ecosystem from 1997 to 2017 in Nagapattinam district. This paper has studied the coastal wetland changes using remote sensing data. The results of wetlands in 1997 area covered 46 sq. km in 2017 wetland area is around 38 sq. km in the study area. This research paper clearly exposed the changes in the coastal wetland area of Nagapattinam district between 1997 to 2017 that has drastically declined. When comparing for the past twenty years 1997- 2017 the area of the wetland has reduced from 46 sq. km to 38 sq. km

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2193 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

10. Result and Discussion This research has clearly indicated the global level estimates for the geographic distribution of coastal wetlands as described from different data sources. Wetlands are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including changes in rainfall, temperature, sea- level rise and extreme events. Wetlands can also play an important role in our responses to a changing climate, through capturing and storing carbon to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and by moderating the impact of hazards such as flooding, storm surge and sea-level rise. Coastal wetlands, such as mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass beds, and coral reefs act like shock absorbers, floodplains, rivers, lakes, mud land excess rainfall and reducing flood surges. Throughout dry seasons in arid regions, wetlands release stored water, delaying the onset of droughts and minimizing water shortages.

Diagram No: 5 The result shows the area of wetlands as 46 sq. km in 1997 and in 2017 wetlands area was found to be 38 sq. km which shows that it has drastically declined when compared to 1997 in Nagapattinam district. Subsequently, the research paper clearly exposed that there is a loss of coastal wetland area between 1997 to 2017. (Diagram No: 5). Wetlands also provide vital resources for people and wildlife in times of drought. They reduce the intensity of waves and storm surges, shielding the coastline from flooding, property damage and loss of life. The coastal wetlands root also stabilize shoreline and shrink erosion. In addition, maintaining the coastal wetland network and corridor will be helpful to the plants and animals that are dependent on this type of habitat. Furthermore, coastal wetlands losses are due to climate change and some anthropogenic activities, especially in Nagapattinam district. The coastal

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2194 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

wetland area is converted to mudflat, swamp, water bodies, and flood liable area. It has been substantiated in this study through findings from the current investigation. 11. Conclusion The results of the coastal wetland ecosystem status in the present study reflect the real condition of coastal resources in Nagapattinam district. In addition, a detailed evaluation of the wetlands assessment system showed real status in the study area. The present study demonstrates the use of geospatial technology in assessing and understanding the spatiotemporal changes of the coastal wetlands ecosystem in the study area. Wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and populations that are representative of wetland benefit contributes to global biological diversity. Coastal Wetland ecosystem area considered the internationally important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend. Furthermore, regularly wetland-dependent subspecies of non-avian animal species also support the individuals in a population of one species. According to this have determined wetland area has been converted to some other illegal activities as well as affected or destroyed by climate change and human interventions in Nagapattinam district. Finally, all the government and non-governmental organizations should address the importance of coastal wetlands to people then create awareness to coastal communities about the resource conservation sustainable development. Efforts should be taken by the government to conserve this coastal wetland as they play a major role in preventing coastal disasters and will be helpful in improving the livelihood condition of the coastal communities. 12. References 1. Ambasht, N.K., Agrawal, M., (1990)., Interactive effects of ozone and ultraviolet-B singly and in combination on physiological and biochemical characteristics of soybean plants. Journal of Plant Biology 30 (1), pp. 37–45. 2. Abbasi S.A, (1997). Wetlands of India - Ecology, and Threats: The Ecology and the Exploitation of Typical South Indian wetlands, Vol.1, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, pp:149. 3. Aselmann I and P.J. Crutzen (1990). ‘A global inventory of wetland distribution and seasonality, net primary productivity, and estimated methane emissions’, in A.F. Bowman, ed. (1990). Soils and the Greenhouse Effect, New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 441-449. 4. Clair, T.A., Warner, B.G., Robarts, R., Murkin, H., Lilley, J., Mortsch, L. and Rubec, C. 1997. Executive summary - Impacts of climate change to inland wetlands: a Canadian perspective. Cited in: Patterson, J. 1999. Wetlands and climate change. Feasibility investigation of giving credit for conserving wetlands as carbon sinks. Wetlands International Special Publication 1, p 35.

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2195 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

5. Coward in, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C. and Laroe, E.T. (1979): Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. US Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service’s Report FWS/UBS, Washington DC, pp. 79-31 6. Cox, KW. and Campbell , L., (1997). Global Climate Change and Wetlands. Canada: Issues and Awareness. 26. 7. Erwin, K.L., (2009). Wetlands and global climate change: the role of wetland restoration in a changing world. Wetl. Ecol. Manage.17 (1), 71–84. 8. Ferrati R., Canziani GA., Moreno DR., (2005) Estero del Ibera: hydro meteorological and hydrological characterization. Ecol Model 186: pp.3–15. 9. Finlayson, C.M., Spiers, A.G. (Eds.), 1999. Global Review of Wetland Resources and Priorities for Wetland Inventory. Supervising Scientist, Canberra, Australia. 10. Fraser, L.H. & P.A. Keddy (2005). The World’s Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 498. 11. Hoozemans, F.M.J., Marchand, M. and Pennekamp H.A.,(1993). A Global Vulnerability Analysis: Vulnerability Assessment for Population, Coastal wetlands and Rice Production on a Global Scale, 2nd edition. Delft Hydraulics, the Netherlands. 12. Hulme,P.E.,(2005) Adapting to climate change: is there scope for ecological management in the face of a global threat Journal of Applied Ecology vol.42, pp.784–794. 13. IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) (2001) Climate change impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Technical summary and summary for policymakers. Third assessment report of working group I of the intergovernmental panel on climatic change, URL: http://www.ipcc.ch. 14. Katharesan K and Rajendran N., (2005). Coastal mangrove forests mitigate tsunami, Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., Vol., 65, pp.601-606. 15. Keddy, PA., Fraser, LH., Solomeshch, AI., Junk, WJ., Campbell, DR., Arroyo, MTK. and Alho, CJR.,(2009).Wet and wonderful: the world’s largest wetlands are conservation priorities. BioSciencie, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 39-51. 16. Kumar, P. & Gupta S.K. (2009). Diversity and abundance of wetland birds around Kurukshetra, India. Our Nature 7: pp.212–217. 17. Kumar, P. & S.K. Gupta (2013). Status of wetland birds of Chhilchhila Wildlife Sanctuary, Haryana, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 5(5): pp.3969–3976. 18. Lehner, B., Döll, P., (2004). Development and validation of a global database of lakes, reservoirs and wetlands. J. Hydrol. 296 (1–4), pp.1–22. 19. Massel S.R, K. Furukaw and Brinkman R.M. (1999). ‘Surface wave propagation in mangrove forests’, Fluid Dyn. Res., 24, pp. 219-249. 20. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. 21. Mitra S., Wassmann R, Vlek PLG (2005). an appraisal of global wetland area and its organic carbon stock. Curr Sci 88, pp.25–35. 22. Mitsch W.J, J.R. Taylor, K.B. Benson and P.L. Hill, Jr. (1983). ‘Atlas of Wetlands in the Principal Coal Surface Mine Region of Western Kentucky’, in Mitsch W.J, and Gosselink J.G. (2007). Wetlands, New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 303-305. 23. Mitsch WJ, Gosselink (2000) Wetlands. John Wiley & Sons Inc, United States of America, pp: 356. 24. Mitsch, W.J., 1977. Energy conservation through interface ecosystems. In: Rocco, A., Fazzolare, R.A., Smith, C.B. (Eds.), Energy Use Management: Proceedings of the International Conference. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 875– 881.

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2196 The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

25. Mitsch, W.J., Gosselink, J.G., 1993. Wetlands, 2nd ed. John Wiley, New York. Mitsch, W.J., Wu, X., 1995. Wetlands and global change. In: Lal, R., Kimble, J., Levine, E., Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Advances in Soil Science, Soil Management and Greenhouse Effect. CRC Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 205–230. 26. MoEF, (1990). Directory of Wetlands in India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India 27. Nicholls, R.J., (2004). Coastal flooding and wetland loss in the 21st century: Changes under the SRES climate and socio-economic scenarios. Global Environmental Change, 14, pp.69- 86. 28. Padma Sorna Subramanian M. et al., (2013). An assessment of the quality of water in the wetlands of point calimere, Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu,India. Eco., Env. & Cons. 19 (4) : 2013; pp. 167-171. 29. Parekh, H. & Gadhvi I.R., (2013). Water bird diversity at Kumbharvada Marsh Land, Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Life Sciences Leaflets 10: pp.53–59. 30. Paul S, Jusel K, Alewell C (2006). Reduction processes in forest wetlands: tracking down heterogeneity of source/link functions with a combination of methods. Soil Biol Biochem 38, pp.1028–1039. 31. Ramsar Convention (2007). www.ramsar.org 32. RAMSAR, 1971. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 1971. Ramsar. UN Treaty Series No. 14583. 33. Root TL, Price JT, Hall KR, Schneider SH, Rosenzweig C, Pounds JA (2003) Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421: pp.57–60. 34. SACON (1998). Coimbatore: Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History. Retrieved from, www.nilacharal.com. 35. Saravanavel, J., & Kumanan, C. J. (2017). Vulnerability of Coastal Rural Resources to Accelerated Sea-Level Rise , Part of Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu , India - A Geospatial Perspective, (February).,pp.167 – 172. 36. Smith III T.J, M.B. Robblee, H.R. Wanless, T.W. Doyle, (1994). ‘Mangroves, hurricanes and lightning strikes’, Bio sciences, 44, pp. 256-262. 37. Space Applications Centre ((2004).) “Analysis of the distribution pattern of wetlands in India in relation to climate change” pp.282 - 287. 38. Space Applications Centre (2013) “National wetland atlas : wetlands of international importance under”pp.1 - 246. 39. Space Applications Centre (SAC), 2011. National Wetland Atlas. SAC, Indian Space Research Organisation, Ahmedabad. Study Group on Environment, n.d. Report of the study group on environment including tourism, heritage, pollution &disaster management. New Delhi: National Capital Region Planning Board. 40. Stetson, L. (2007). Wetlands and Global Climate Change, (February). 41. Sunil Kumar Singh. A., (2014), Environmental Impact Assessment of ’s Ecosystem in Chennai, Ph.D thesis. Department of Geography, University of Madras. 42. Thorne, K., Macdonald, G., Guntenspergen, G., Ambrose, R., Buffington, K., Dugger, B., Takekawa, J. (2018). U. S. Pacific coastal wetland resilience and vulnerability to sea-level rise, (February), pp.1–11. 43. Turner, K., 1991. Economics and wetland management. Ambio 20, pp.59–63.

Volume XI, Issue X, October/2019 Page No:2197