Banana Production Methods

Centro Ecológico

Banana production methods

A comparative study

André Luiz Gonçalves and Jim R. Kernaghan

July 2014

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Acknowledgements

Centro Ecológico and the authors of this study wish to thank all organizations that contributed to its completion. We include in our appreciation the various ecological farmers’ associations in Brazil which provided information about organic banana production. In the Dominican Republic we wish to thank the Institute for Development of Associative Economy (IDEAC – Instituto de Desarrollo de la Economía Asociativa) and the COOPPROBATA banana producers´ cooperative. We thank also the indispensable participation of Dr. Eduardo Salas, an agronomist who helped us in our field visits to banana production farms in Costa Rica. And finally, we would like to express our deep appreciation and gratitude to the many farmers of the three countries that were visited, people who patiently provided us with relevant information concerning banana production.

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Index

Acknowledgements ...... 1

I. Background and Context ...... 3

I.1. Some basic elements of banana cultivation ...... 6 I.2. Methodological Strategy ...... 9

II. Banana conventional production ...... 10

ll.1. Establishing the crop ...... 10 II.2. Crop management ...... 12 II.3. Harvesting, transport, and processing...... 17 II.4. Marketing/distribution...... 20

III. Organic banana production ...... 21

III.1. Establishing the crop ...... 21 III.2. Crop management ...... 22 III.3. Collection, transport, and processing ...... 30 III.4. Marketing/distribution ...... 33

IV. Final remarks ...... 35

V. Main references ...... 37

Appendix ...... 38

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

I. Background and Context

The banana is one of the most produced and commercialized fruits in the world. According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) the area harvested in 2012 was approximately five million hectares, and production was roughly 102 million tons. Brazil, India, and the Philippines are the principal countries in terms of cultivated area, representing 722, 481 and 454 thousand hectares respectively. In 2011, international commercialization of banana embodied approximately 19 million tons of product. The main exporting countries were Ecuador, the Philippines, Costa Rica, and Colombia, while the main importers of the fruit were United States, Belgium, and the Russian Federation. Table 01 summarizes the international marketing patterns of bananas.

Table 1. World trade – major importers and exporters of bananas in 2011 (source: FAO 2014)1

Major importing Major exporting Volume (x 1,000 t) Volume (x 1,000 t) countries countries

United States of 4,122 Ecuador 5,778 America Belgium 1,340 Philippines 2,046 Russian Federation 1,306 Costa Rica 1,913 Germany 1,288 Colombia 1,828 Japan 1,064 Guatemala 1,425 United Kingdom 1,019 Belgium 1,272 United States of China, mainland 818 516 America Italy 661 Honduras 489 Iran (Islamic 615 Germany 366 Republic of)

France 567 Dominican Republic 330

Others 6,114 Others 275 World imports World exports 18,919 18,721 (Total) (Total)

Thus the crop is important to millions of families, most notably in various countries in Latin America and the Caribbean such as Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Dominican Republic, and Guatemala where exportation of the product represents a significant source of income. In Brazil, the fruit is cultivated in all regions of the country, from north to south, and covers an area of approximately 480,000 hectares. Several production methods characterize the banana culture, including the simplest manner of cultivation in which farmers merely collect the fruit, to highly sophisticated

1Some countries such as Belgium, United States, and Germany appear in the statistics as exporters even though they are not banana producers. This is characteristic of the banana trade and is not necessarily related with production. 3

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 production systems designed to produce the banana for the external market using intensive labor, advanced technology, and a wide number of chemical inputs. To respond to the increasing demand and the expectations imposed by a competitive market, farmers are compelled to use substantial amounts of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and other technologies which can cause serious and negative impact upon both the environment and the health of millions of people, including farmers, workers and consumers. Taking all this into consideration, there is a growing interest from consumers, especially in northern countries, for responsible production and more equitable ways of marketing and distributing the product. Considering this potential negative impact, while believing that it’s possible to establish commercial relationships that promote social and environmental advancement, the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC) requested a study comparing the two banana production systems – the organic and the conventional. For the purposes of this paper, then, an organic system is that which refrains from using chemical fertilizers or pesticides, while the conventional systems analyzed here are those that employ highly intensive inputs and that are oriented toward servicing external markets. The main thrust of this work, then, is to compare these two systems – the organic to the conventional. The description of the organic production system presented in this paper has been based upon a form of cultivation adopted by farmers in two specific geographical regions: the northern coast of Rio Grande do Sul, in southern Brazil (also known as the Torres Region), and the province of Azua de Compostela in the Dominican Republic. In these two areas several small-producer families, supported by civil society organizations, have successfully adopted organic banana cultivation practices. In the case of the Brazilian farmers, production is completely focused upon the internal/domestic market, while the banana yield produced by the members of COOPROBATA in the Dominican Republic is mainly destined for export to the U.S. and European markets. An analysis of these two different processes has allowed us to draw certain broad generalizations concerning the organic banana production chain – from production to marketing procedures for both the local and the international markets. Brief descriptions of these two approaches are presented in the paragraphs below. The Torres Region, as implied above, is located on the northern coast of the state of Rio Grande do Sul bordering the state of Santa Catarina. This region is also considered the southern boundary of the Atlantic Forest Biome. The climate is subtropical, with average temperatures ranging between 12 °C in the winter and 27 °C in the summer. Rainfall is around 1,200 mm and is well distributed throughout the year. This rural area is characterized by a predominance of family farms where the average land-holding is approximately ten hectares. Banana, the main crop of this area, is grown upon the steep sides of slopes while the flat lands are typically devoted to pasture, sugar cane, cassava, and a wide variety of other vegetables. Along the river bottom-lands, paddy rice is the predominant crop. The first organic production systems emerged in the early 1990’s, as a response to the widespread use of chemical inputs and other modern technologies adopted by local producers. Centro Ecológico, a local non-governmental organization (NGO) devoted to promoting ecological agriculture, together with some other local leaders, encouraged farmers to use production systems founded upon organic farming methods. The approach was initially based upon agroecological production, organizations of farmers in small associations, who directly marketed their organic produce at street fairs. After 23 years of working in the region, Centro Ecológico has recognized a gradual consolidation of a significant number of smallholders (approximately 400 families) who have organized into several

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 production associations and cooperatives – organizations that have been marketing their products through a variety of distribution channels. The province of Azua in Dominican Republic is located in the southern portion of the island, at a distance of approximately 100 km from the capital, Santo Domingo. The climate of the region is typically tropical, with the temperature at an average of 26 °C, and with an annual rainfall of approximately 600 mm. The main economic activity of the region is agriculture, a pursuit that occupies an area of approximately 70,000 hectares. The main crops are coffee, sugar cane, bananas, and a wide variety of vegetables. The majority of farmers work on small to medium-sized holdings – one to ten hectares – frequently on a subsistence regime. Properties that are considered large in the region possess an area greater than 800 tarefas (one tarefa = 620.83 m2), that is, an area covering approximately 50 hectares in size. The COOPPROBATA – Cooperativa Agrícola Los Taínos was initially created in 1997 as a small-holders’ association and was ultimately transformed into a cooperative in 2005. The cooperative itself has as its main objective the exportation of organic bananas to international markets and was designed for direct sales by excluding middlemen. Currently the organization has 223 associated producers, and the average size of the production area of each member varies from between five and twenty-five tarefas, i.e., between 0.3 hectares to 1.7 hectares. According to the registrar of the Coop, in 2013 the total banana production was 4,275 tarefas or 265.4 hectares. Currently, the Coop exports on a weekly basis six containers (one container is equal to 1,080 boxes of 18.1 kg), mainly to the European market. In order to characterize and define the conventional banana cultivation and exportation system, Costa Rica production areas were also visited. These areas are located in Sarapiquí and Guapiles, close to the Caribbean region of the country. Costa Rica is one of the main banana exporting countries and is highly productive in employing intensive use of sophisticated technology and chemical inputs. All production is concentrated on large producing farms, with an average of 250 hectares of planted area per farm. Bananas produced here are exclusively destined for the external/export markets, and it is very common to have the presence of large international companies involved in the production chain – companies such as Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes. With the objective of broadening the study’s scope, the intensive production process, oriented as it is to the external market, and the conventional banana production systems in the Torres region were also analyzed. The table below summarizes the sites studied.

Table 2. Synthesis of the regions visited

Banana cultivated Country Production method Country area (x 1,000 ha) production Region visited in the country* (x 1,000 t)* Organic Conventional

Torres Region, Family farming and production oriented Brazil 481.1 6,902.2 Brazil to domestic market Sarapiquí and Big farms and Costa Rica 41.4 2,136.4 Guapiles, Costa production oriented Rica to external market Family farming Azua Province, Dominican and production 53.3 871.9 Dominican Republic oriented to Republic external market *Year 2012 Source: FAO 2014

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

I.1. Some basic elements of banana cultivation

Banana (Musa acuminata or Musa balbisiana) is a giant herbaceous plant and is complete in its morphological characteristics, i.e., it has roots, an underground stem (rhizome), leaves, flowers, fruit, and seeds (Figure 01). Despite its having seeds, these are not usually viable, and therefore the multiplication of bananas commonly occurs by vegetative processes. The natural cycle of the banana plant begins when the shoot (the sucker) that grows alongside the main plant (mother) appears at the ground level. The shoot grows, emitting leaves until flowering, and then the inflorescence develops forming the banana bunch. After the bunch is harvested the banana leaves dry up and the plant dies. The next shoot (“the daughter”), which always appears next to the mother plant, will replace the dead tree, thereby maintaining the process on a continuous basis. The whole cycle, from the appearance of the sucker at the ground level until the harvesting of the bunch takes approximately one year. Figure 1. Morphological characteristics of the banana plant (adapted from Epagri 2002)

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Each banana tree produces a single bunch, formed by many banana fruits (or “fingers”) and clustered in several hands (Figure 2). The banana flesh is yellowish, sweet, and soft. In the middle of the fruit it is possible to have tiny black specks, which in fact are unviable seeds (without an ability to germinate). Figure 2.Banana bunch with hands and fruit (Source: FAO 2014)

In general the banana is cultivated in sunny regions with plenty of water, heat, air, humidity, and light. The culture is considerably vulnerable to strong winds, as the large leaves are very sensitive to the effects of wind surges and may be damaged thereby reducing the capacity of the plant to make photosynthesis. Soils should be rich in organic matter, with a capacity to drain quickly, as the plant doesn’t tolerate saturated or flooded areas. Commonly, for commercial purposes, the banana is cultivated in areas where rainfall is near 1,200 mm/year, the temperature is around 25 °C, and in nutrient-rich soils. Most of the international exporting areas are found in Central and South America. For domestic consumption, however, banana trees can be found in all tropical regions. In Africa, for instance, banana production plays a fundamental role in food security as it is a staple food for millions of people. After established, a banana plantation can remain viable for a lengthy duration, for new shoots are constantly emerging and growing. In some regions, it is possible to find banana plantations more than 50 years old. However, on commercial banana plantations it is common to renew the plants after a period of between seven and ten years. Significantly, the main purpose of replanting is to control pests and diseases that usually appear during conventional cultivation. There are hundreds (perhaps even a thousand) of banana varieties in the world. However, one very broad division is to classify those bananas as either to be eaten raw or else to be cooked as plantains2. The first classification is also known as the “dessert banana” and is the type that is sweet, soft, and not very mealy. Such fruit are grown on commercial plantations chiefly for export, but for domestic consumption as well. Plantains, though, are grown mainly as a food crop, particularly in forest regions. The fruit are very large, not sweet, and are typically not very mealy. Therefore these should be cooked prior to eating.

2 One of the sources consulted for this report, A tribute to the work of Paul H. Allen: a catalogue of wild and cultivated bananas (INIBAP, 1999) contains data on 337 types of banana. However, it is estimated that the number of different varieties of bananas can well be closer to a thousand.

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Figure 3. Banana varieties (Source: http://www.fruitlovers.com/BananaPoster)

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Among the dessert bananas are two main types and these, in turn, are divided in two subgroups that are particularly important for this study. The first one, the Cavendish subgroup, is the most important in world trade and encompasses the majority of exporting varieties such as the Williams and Grand Nain. These are the bananas to be found in most supermarkets in European countries. The second is the Silk subgroup, which is very important for the local market in Brazil and includes some varieties such as Apple, Silk Fig, and Silver. Figure 4. The two main types of banana

2. Subgroup Cavendish banana 1. Silver banana

I.2. Methodological Strategy

The methodological strategy for conducting this study was based, principally, on interviews with technicians and banana producers in the three visited countries – Brazil, Costa Rica, and the Dominican Republic. For the organic production in Brazil, four farmers were interviewed as well as the agricultural technicians who work for Centro Ecológico – the local NGO responsible for promoting organic agriculture in the region. In the Dominican Republic the source of information was four farmers associated with COOPPROBATA. In addition, managers and field technicians of the Coop also cooperated in our endeavor. Information collection characterizing the conventional production systems was performed with a conventional smallholder in Brazil and the field managers of two exporting farms in Costa Rica. In total, four organic production areas were visited in the Dominican Republic, as were two conventional areas in Costa Rica. In conjunction with this direct information, the study’s senior author drew upon his more than twenty years of experience in organic banana production in and around the Torres Region. Complementing the primary data, several bibliographic sources and internet pages were consulted with the aim of filling in any elusive information gaps. This study is organized into three consecutive parts. In the first section, the conventional banana production chain is discussed. In the second part the main characteristics of the organic process are highlighted. The study is then concluded with a brief comparison between the two systems. As a way of organizing the information, four large segments of the banana production were explored: 1. Establishing the crop; 2. Managing the crop; 3. Harvesting and transporting; 4. Marketing/distribution. In the diagram below, the main stages are highlighted, as is the sequence of activities – from production to marketing.

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Diagram 1. Banana production stages

Harvest and Establishing the crop Managing the crop Marketing transporting

Each stage of the two production methods – conventional or organic – is characterized below, highlighting the key elements relevant to this study. Given the very nature and purpose of the work, it was not possible to deeply detail the main activities associated with farming. Moreover, as was mentioned above, there is an uncountable diversity of banana production systems, which reveals the limitations of the study. To conclude the study and to illustrate the production chain and its integral parts, the final section of the report provides examples of conventional and organic production that are summarized and compared.

II. Banana conventional production ll.1. Establishing the crop

The methods used for establishing conventional banana plantations vary widely depending on the type of business interested in establishing such an enterprise. Among small farmers of the northern coast of Rio Grande do Sul, the land preparation is accomplished by eliminating the more bushy vegetation (capoeira) by cutting with a sickle, and often by applying an herbicide to suppress undergrowth – mainly grasses. A very general recommendation for this process is one liter per hectare of glyphosate herbicide before planting. This amount will vary depending on terrain and initial weed infestation. Then holes are opened that have an average size of 20 cm in width and 20 cm in depth, depending on the available propagation material. Many farmers apply a systemic insecticide, carbofuran, in the pits to control the weevil borer (Cosmopolites sordidus). In Brazil this product is sold under the trade name, “Furadan,” and the manufacturer's recommendation is three to five grams of the product, in its granular form, 30 days before planting, applied on baits prepared from pieces of rhizome. In general, it is necessary to apply an average of 50 baits per hectare (therefore, 1.5 to 2.5 kg/hectare). However, as this method is considered labor intensive, farmers often simply apply it directly into the pits. The planting material (the rhizomes) is taken directly from established banana plantations. As bananas are usually spread by vegetative means, farmers remove the suckers of a plant, which can be from either his own crop or else from those of a neighboring plantation. For plants of the Silver variety (the most widely grown in the region), the spacing adopted is 3.0 m X 3.5 m, providing a population of approximately 1,000 productive units per hectare3. Another commonly used spacing is 4.0 m X 4.0 m (when the plantation is initially established), and 3.0 m X 3.0 m, for farmers who prefer

3 Each production unit, commonly called a clump, has three plants at different growth stages: the oldest, where the bunch is in development, is called the “mother”; the second, which will be the next to produce a bunch, is called the “daughter”; and a third, which is the subsequently produced bunch, is typically called a “granddaughter”. The three names are used in the text – productive unit, clump, and plant – to refer to a productive unit. 10

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 to work with the more densely packed populations. These variations are based merely on farmers’ preference, and are not necessarily the result of any official recommendation. When the banana plants are beginning to take hold, a topdressing is sometimes made with a generic fertilizer formulation of 5-20-20 (NPK). In general, 100 to 150 grams of fertilizer are used per plant, or roughly 100 kg per hectare (5 kg of nitrogen, 20 kg of phosphorous, and 20 kg of potassium). Until the bananas are fully formed, which usually occurs within a year, approximately four herbicide applications are needed (one liter of glyphosate per application), because the area exposed to sunlight typically favors the growth of weeds. For more intensified plantations (where larger amounts of chemical inputs are employed), such as those occurring in the banana plantations of Costa Rica, the adoption of technologies recommended by traditional research institutions is even greater. At first, all planting material are clones developed from various Cavendish cultivars, always with the goal of generating productive plants, midsized and resistant to black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) – the major disease threat to banana cultivation and export4. The seedlings are propagated in laboratories from tissue cultures, a micropropagation technique that ensures the maintenance and genetic identity of individuals when generating a large number of plants. Then, before planting in the field, the seedlings are transferred to a nursery until they reach a size suitable for transplanting. Soil tillage is done by a mechanized method, by plowing and harrowing, until all vegetation is removed. In conjunction with such mechanical methods, it is also common to use an average of one liter/ha of herbicides, glyphosate, or paraquat, to eliminate underbrush. Fertilization during both pre- planting as well as that carried out by the establishment of cultures follows recommendations determined through soil analysis. It is also common to use pesticides for the initial control of pests, especially nematodes. The amount of chemical fertilizers and pesticides varies considerably among planting areas, depending principally on the type of soil, the banana variety, and upon the spacing between plants. However, a very general recommendation is around 180 kg N/ha, 200 kg P/ha, and 260 kg K/ha in the first year (during the establishment of a plantation), and three applications of a nematicide (carbamate or organophosphorous), 3 gr/plant per application (around 16 kg of nematicide/ha/year). Recommended plant spacing range from 2.0m X 2.0m to 2.0m X 3.0m, generating a density ranging from between 1,800 to 2,100 units per hectare. Specified in the table below are the main features for establishing a plantation in the regions studied.

4 The black sigatoka or black leaf streak is caused by a fungus called Mycosphaerella fijiensis which causes necrosis on the leaves, affecting plant photosynthesis, which ultimately leads to reduced yields and premature ripening of bunches. Losses caused by the disease can reach up to 50%. 11

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Table 3. Key features for establishing a plantation in the region of Torres and Costa Rica

Stages Torres Region Costa Rica Soil preparation Chop the bush Plowing and harrowing Weed control Herbicide Herbicide Pest control Insecticide (weevil borer) Nematicide (nematodes) Plant material Buds from own plantation Seedlings from laboratories Varieties Silk Cavendish Several until plant Fertilization Only one establishment Spacing 3.0m X 3.0m 2.0m X 3.0m

II.2. Crop management

Fertilization

Among farmers in the region of Torres, chemical fertilization is employed following the recommendations of the public extension service. The quantity and form of fertilizer is determined by soil analysis. In general, farmers spread approximately twelve bags (600 kg) of NPK fertilizer per hectare, distributed over three applications. The common formula used in the region is 5-20-20 – that is, a total application of 30 kg of N, 120 kg of P, and 120 kg of K in a year. There is no special time for fertilizing the plantation, but in general farmers like to distribute the applications evenly (three applications of 200 kg each). Some farmers also apply lime and organic fertilizer. The quantities vary widely, but as a rule the amounts suggested per application are approximately two tons of limestone and five tons of organic matter (such as cattle manure). Despite being recommended by extension services so as to improve soil fertility, weed control, and general nutritional enhancement, the use of green manures is rare among producers who adopt conventional methods. In banana-producing farms in Costa Rica, nutrient management is more intensive and includes substantial applications of chemical fertilizers. All nutrient recommendations are provided by CORBANA, the public agency that fosters the development of the banana industry in the country. Through analyses of soil and leaves as a means of evaluating soil fertility and plant nutritional status, technicians are able to prescribe the fertilizer formulation, the amount, and the frequency of applications for a given area. Recommendations can vary widely from 1,500 to 2,000 kg/ha/year of NPK, and may even reach up to three tons per hectare per year of fertilizers. On one of the visited farms fertilizer application was performed by introducing 60 grams of NPK fertilizer per plant every two weeks. For a population of 1,650 production units per hectare, the total amount of NPK fertilizer used in a year is about 2,400 kg. In the second case, the management of nutrients was even more intensively enhanced. The chemical fertilization was accomplished by applying 50 grams of NPK fertilizer per plant every fifteen days all year round. As the population of banana plants ranges between 1,800 and 2,100 plants per hectare, 12

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 the amount of fertilizer is between 2,100 and 2,500 kg per hectare per year. In addition, twice a year each productive unit receives 3.0 kg of organic matter – a mixture of cattle manure, straw, and sawdust produced on the farm itself – i.e., between nine and twelve tons of organic fertilizer per hectare each year. Additional biological fertilizer and organic manure is applied every month in the form of 150 ml of a liquid biofertilizer which is also produced on the property. These applications achieve a total ranging from between 3,200 and 3,700 liters per hectare. Table 4. Synthesis of nutrient management

Torres Region Limon Province Input Observation Brazil Costa Rica

Recommendations depending on Lime Up to 3,0 t/ha Up to 3.0 t/ha soil analysis Up to 600 kg/ha Up to 3,000 kg/ha/year, Recommendations and Chemical distributed in distributed in bi-weekly formulations depending on soil fertilizer (NPK) three applications applications. analysis and production (3 X 200 kg) Recommendations depending on Micronutrients No application Undetermined soil analysis Depending on the availability of Organic fertilizer Up o 10 t/ha Up to 10 t/ha organic matter but in general it is not utilized

Pests and diseases control

The main banana pest in Central America is the nematodes. These small worms living in the soil and roots penetrate the plant, destroying its root system, and hindering the absorption of water and nutrients by the organism. The control of this pest is preventively accomplished during planting by selecting seedlings free of nematodes. In crops already established, the control is done through a periodic application of nematicides, usually at a frequency of three applications of approximately 5.0 kg/ha of a carbamate or organophosphorous product per year (15.0 kg/ha/year). For small producers in the region of Torres, as was mentioned above, the main pest is the weevil borer (Cosmopolites sordidus), which is controlled by applying insecticides. The general recommendation is the same when planting, that is, 1.5 to 2.5 kg/ha/year of carbofuran applied once. Among the banana diseases, one that has greatest prominence and causes widespread damage is the destructive black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis), particularly in exporting countries such as Costa Rica. However, this disease can be controlled with frequent applications of fungicides. Among the producers of Costa Rica, the decision to apply the fungicide is determined by a professional in the area called a “pisquero,” who is able to evaluate and determine the level of possible attack by the disease. In most unfavorable years, according to the reports of the directors’ own farms, one comes to expect more than 50 fungicide aerial pulverizations (sprayings), applied with the aid of mineral oil. Generally recommended amounts are 8.0 liters per hectare of systemic fungicides and 4.0 liters of protective ones.5 Thus, in a year when conditions are conducive to the spread of the disease on

5 Fungicides are generally classified as systemic and protective. The first acts on the plant, since the active ingredient is absorbed and translocated to the site of infection in the plant. Protective fungicides, on the other hand, act directly on pathogens, preventing or reducing the chances of disease. 13

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 some farms, one can assume applying approximately 300 liters per hectare of different fungicides. The most common ones and their recommended doses are delineated in the table below. Because production is less intensive and climatic conditions are less favorable to the spread of disease, among the small producers in Torres the use of fungicides is not as frequent as that cited above. A common recommendation, which is adopted by the majority of conventional producers in the region, is three applications during the hottest period of the year – November to March. The most widely used products is “Tilt” – a systemic product whose active ingredient is propiconazole and Dithane – and whose active ingredient is made up of dithiocarbamate fungicides. The doses may vary, but in general, about 500 ml of product is used per hectare and is mixed with 10 liters of mineral oil. In the table below the main pesticides used in banana production are listed with their recommended dosage.

Table 5. Main pesticides utilized in banana cultivation6

Technical and Recommended commercial Frequency Purpose Main side-effects doses names

Herbicides

4 to 6 Glyphosate Moderate toxicity to crustaceans. 0.5 – 6.0 L/ha applications per Weed control (Roundup) Potential groundwater contaminant year 4 to 6 Paraquat Acute toxicity. Mortality of amphibians, 1.5 – 3.0 L/ha applications per Weed control (Gramoxone) insects, and aquatic organisms. year

Systemic fungicides

Up to 30 Black and Moderately toxicity to fish, insects and Propicolazole 0.5 L/ha applications per yellow sigatoka mollusks. Possible carcinogen and (Tilt) year control developmental or reproductive toxin

Up to 30 Black and Possible carcinogen, developmental Benomyl 150 ml/ha applications per yellow sigatoka or reproductive toxin, and suspect of (Benlate) year control endocrine disruptor

Up to 30 Black and Mortality of amphibians and insects. Thiabenzadole 400 – 600 ml/ha applications per yellow sigatoka Carcinogen and developmental or (Cercobin) year control reproductive toxin

Black and Mortality of amphibians, crustaceans, Up to 30 Metiltiofanato yellow sigatoka fish, and insect. Carcinogen, 125 – 150 ml/ha applications per (Cycosin) control developmental or reproductive toxin, year and potential groundwater

6Observations: a) This is a very general list of main pesticides utilized in banana cultivation. In fact, the list of products that may be used in growing bananas is much more extensive; b) the number of pesticide applications may vary substantially, depending upon several factors associated with weather conditions, cultural management of the crop, etc. In one year pesticide pulverization to control black sigatoka in some areas of Cost Rica can reach up 50 applications, that is, more than 300 kg/ha. For main side-effects and a detailed information on pesticides effects see www.pesticideinfo.org 14

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

contaminant.

Protective fungicides

Highly toxic to amphibians. Carcinogen, potential groundwater Mancozeb Up to 30 Black and 2.2 – 4.5 kg/ha applications per yellow sigatoka contaminant, developmental or (Dithane) year control reproductive toxin, suspect of endocrine disruptor

Tridemorph Up to 30 Black and Mortality of amphibians and fish. 0.6 L/ha applications per yellow sigatoka (Calixin) Moderate toxicity year control Up to 30 Black and Mortality of amphibians and insects. Chlorothalonil 1.0 – 2.0 L/ha applications per yellow sigatoka Acute toxicity, carcinogen, potential (Bravo) year control ground water contaminant

Insecticides and nematicides

Carbofuran Highly toxic to honeybees. Acute Up to 3 Weevil borer (Furadan) toxicity, cholinesterase inhibitor, 1.5 to 2.5 kg/ha applications per and nematodes potential groundwater contaminant, year control and suspect of endocrine disruptor Oxamyl Up to Mortality of crustaceans and fish, Nematodes (Vydate) 2 – 4 L/ha 4applications moderate toxicity to honeybees. Acute control per year toxicity and cholinesterase inhibitor

Post-harvest products

0,2% solution Spraying the Post-harvest Mortality of fish. Moderate toxicity, Imazalil (20 ml/10 liters bananas with a fungal disease carcinogen and developmental or of water) 0,2% solution control reproductive toxin

Cultural practices There are a number of cultural practices believed necessary to ensure a good crop. Among those recommended practices, thinning is used to keep each production unit to three plants – the mother, daughter, and granddaughter. The thinning is done periodically, by removing the excess sprouts using a tool in the form of a pipe with a sharp edge (Figure 5). The peeling of the banana plant, which consists of removing the old, dried, and sick leaves, should also be a periodic practice. This routine is designed to increase sunlight and aeration of the banana plant thereby reducing the incidence of pest and disease. In regions with more intensive production, as is the case of Costa Rica, there is also a shoring up of banana trees protecting against their tipping over with the weight of the bunches. In shoring, the bananas are tied to each other using nylon cords. It is also a common practice to use bamboo struts to support the plants in production.

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Figure 5.Instrument utilized to remove banana suckers

Protecting the bunch with plastic bag (bagging) is a technique often used to cover the bunches with a covering of low density polyethylene. The aim of bagging is to protect the fruit from pests and diseases as well as from strong winds and any friction with leaves. Simultaneously, the bunches are marked with a ribbon of a certain color indicating the physiological age of the plant. After a period of nine to twelve weeks, depending on the region, all bunches marked with a specifically colored ribbon are ready to be harvested. However, to be certain, there is still a check to be made with a calibrator to ensure that the fruit is at least 40 mm in diameter. Figure 6. Banana bunch covered with a polyethylene bag

Eliminating the heart of the banana tree and pruning the lower banana hands are also everyday practices. These activities allow for better fruit quality and ensure heavier bunches. Weed control is also carried out in a systematic manner by virtue of the application of herbicides. Depending on the geographical area, infestation can occur with a frequency of sometimes eight events a year. The most widely used herbicide is glyphosate, applied directly to the areas of the weed occurrence. In the Torres region, farmers spray approximately 1.0 liters of this pesticide once or twice per hectare/year,

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 while in Costa Rica the applications occur on an average of once every 10 weeks, applying 0.2 liters per hectare of the herbicide. Table 6. Main cultural practices and weeding

Cultural practice Finality Frequency

Improves bunch quality and Sucker management Three times a year productivity Increases sunlight and aeration Leaf removal Three to four times a year of the banana Sustains the plants so they do Bunch management – not tip over with the weight of Permanent propping the bunch Increases the quality of the Permanent. When bunches Bunch management – cover bunch. Protects against pests are with all hands and diseases Bunch management – Registers the physiological age Permanent. When bunches marking with colored ribbons of the plant are with all hands Bunch management – Increases the quality of the Permanent. When bunches trimming the heart bunch are with all hands Bunch management – prune Increases the quality of the Permanent. When bunches bunch hands bunch are with all hands Three to ten applications of Weeding Increases production between 0.2 and 1.0 liter/ha/ year.

II.3. Harvesting, transport, and processing

Contrary to most other crops, the banana is harvested all year round with no intervals between harvests. In the region of Torres, crop harvesting is carried out usually with a frequency ranging somewhere between every fifteen or thirty days. In colder times, when temperatures reach only an average of 10 °C, the interval period between harvesting may be higher, sometimes reaching up to 45 days. Also, during warmer periods, such as those occurring in the summer months, the interval may decrease to every 21 days. The selection of bunches to be cut is made by virtue of visual assessment when those with the fullest fruit (the more rounded) are taken. Another way to select bunches is to harvest a banana, cut it open, and assess its coloring. A more yellowish internal appearance indicates that the fruit is at the ideal moment to be harvested. Harvesting is typically carried out by only one person, partly by cutting the pseudostem with a machete, and lowering the bunches down slowly. Once harvested, the fruit is manually transported to a location where it is collected by truck. At the time of its sale, which usually occurs on the same day of its harvest, the bananas are dehanded (cut to transporting size) and arranged in boxes having a standard weight of 21.0 kg. Some farmers may dehand the bunches into a vat containing cold water or a 0.5% solution of water with some disinfecting product with sanitizing action. One such commonly used disinfecting and sanitizing product is Bacterol (its commercial name).

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

On the large farms in Costa Rica bananas are harvested by teams of three people. One person is responsible for cutting the bunch, and the other two have the responsibility for its transportation. The bunches are placed on the shoulder of a worker, protected by a foam pad so that the fruit is not damaged. A protective polyethylene pad is also placed in the middle of each bunch with the aim of protecting the fruit against possible harm caused by transportation impact. Then the bunches are hung onto a system of steel cables, spread across the banana plantation, designed to carry the fruit crop to the processing plant.

Figure 7.01. Bananas with spots caused by friction, and 02. Steel cables for banana transportation

Upon arriving at the processing plant, still hanging from their steel cables, all bunches are washed with a solution of soapy water in order to remove dirt and stains. Then the floral remnants that persist at the end of the fruit are removed. This step is also done at the same time as a test is conducted – by a selecting and cutting a fruit to verify its state of maturation. If the bunch is in an advanced state of maturation, it is removed, because it will hardly be likely to survive the shipping time necessary to reach the consumer. Then all bunches are dehanded and placed in a water tank with a bactericidal product such as Bacterol aiming in order to sanitize the fruit in addition to coagulating and precipitating the sap7 (so that the latex sap doesn’t ooze out to spoil the appearance of the fruit). The next step is to cut the banana hands into smaller units called “bouquets” (typically containing between five and seven fruit), spraying them with a 0.2 % fungicide solution (usually commercially obtained Imazalil or Bankit), weighing them, and finally placing them in cardboard boxes containing 18.1 kg. Employing a conveyor belt, boxes then go into a container that goes straight to the port for exporting procedures.

7 Sap or banana latex is a sticky liquid compound which is present in the stem and green fruits. 18

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Figure 8. Steps of the fruit-preparation for export

Picture 01. Banana transportation from the field Picture 02. Bunches arriving in the packing house

03. Bananas in the tank for disinfection and sap Picture 04. Bananas in the tray for fungicide precipitation spraying and weighting

Picture 05. Boxes in the conveyor belt Picture 06. Container

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Export bananas are picked green and are usually ripened in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. Fruit ripening is made in chambers with controlled temperature and humidity. To standardize the ripening period, and to increase banana shelf life, the fruit is acclimatized by the use of ethylene gas at a temperature around 16° C and at a relative humidity ranging from between 85 and 95%. The shelf life is increased as all fruit is uniformly ripened at a lower temperature than under natural conditions. The ethylene gas is a natural ripening hormone produced by many fruits such as bananas, apples, and pears. Even though the gas used for ripening commercial bananas is artificially produced, there is no evidence that the process is harmful to human health. In fact, the use of the gas is exclusively employed to bring uniformity to a natural process, thereby allowing and facilitating fruit commercialization. The average period between harvest to a final market destination in either Europe or the United States varies between three and four weeks.

Table 7. Stages of harvesting and processing in a commercial exporting banana farm

Stages of bananas from the field to final consumer

Step 01. Bunch harvested by a team of three people Step 02. Bunch transportation on aerial cables Step 03. Bunches washed with a soap solution to remove dirt and stains Step 04. Removal floral remnants Step 05. Bunches are dehanded and placed in a tank with a solution of bactericidal product to sanitize the fruits and precipitate the sap Step 05. Cut the banana hands into small bouquets (five to seven fruit) and spray with a 0.2 % fungicide solution Step 06. Pack the fruit in a 18.1 kg box Step 07. Boxes go upon a conveyor belt into the container Step 08. Container goes to the port and is shipped to its destination countries (Europe and USA) Step 09. Upon arriving, banana boxes go to distributors (for fruit ripening) Step 10. Distribution to supermarkets and final consumers

II.4. Marketing/distribution

Most of the marketing of conventional bananas produced in the Torres region is conducted through intermediaries until reaching the final consumer. In general, truckers collect the product directly on the farm’s property and deliver it to wholesalers, who in turn sell it to the retail markets. Supermarkets, in turn, have the responsibility of the final marketing of the product. The diagram below characterizes the banana marketing and distribution chain.

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Diagram 2. Banana marketing and distribution chain

Farmers Truckers Wholesalers Supermarkets Final (Production) (Transportation) (Ripening) (Direct selling) consumer

A very common problem in the marketing of bananas in the Torres region concerns the weight of the boxes sold. The pattern box should only hold 21.0 kg of product, but it is common for buyers over- pack with excessive weight, often reaching 24.0 kg, thereby only paying the referral weight of 21.0 kg. Thus, for each eight boxes sold, producers deliver the equivalent of nine banana boxes. And beyond this issue, farmers also face a problem concerning product classification. Buyers, or the truck owners who collect the product, are in the habit of defining whether a certain number of banana boxes will be ranked in the first or second grade categories – the second grade being sold at half the price of the first grade. Generally, the classification criteria are extremely subjective, and are based upon fruit size and appearance, and not necessarily related to the real quality of the product. Therefore, besides the problem of the weight of boxes, farmers can also become victims of a product classification scheme by virtue of truckers who down-grade first tier fruit to second-grade status. In the case of banana farms in Costa Rica, the product is sold in boxes of 18.10 kg, mainly through large multinational production systems, and thus the marketing of fruit is done through such entities as Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes. These companies are highly vertically integrated, controlling the entire production process including transportation, processing, and final product distribution. Some farms, however, are able to export directly to distributers and thus are able to sell to buyers in major consumer markets.

III. Organic banana production

III.1. Establishing the crop

In the organic farming system, the methods for establishing a plantation are somewhat similar to the conventional methodology. The main differences are related to the initial preparation of the land, pest control, and fertilization. In the Torres region farmers merely cut the vegetation where the banana plants will be established, i.e., they lower the brush without performing any soil tillage activities (no plowing and harrowing). If soil fertility is low, some farmers report the need to add a green manure mixture prior to planting. The most commonly species used for this soil improvement approach are the dwarf mucuna (Mucuna deeringiana), the perennial peanut (Arachis pintoi), the lablab (Dolichos lablab), the wild radish (Raphanussativus L.), and oat (Avena strigosa). Dwarf mucuna, lablab and perennial peanut can extract nitrogen directly from the air through the process of biological fixation, as do leguminous species. The cut material is left on the ground to decompose and fertilize the banana trees as they are established. Liming the soil, using no more than two tons of lime per hectare, can also be employed. The pits dug for the seedlings, or “cradles,” as organic farmers prefer to call them, are open depressions approximately 30 cm wide by 20 cm deep depending largely on the size of the seedlings. In general, no fertilizer is used at the time of planting, but some producers put a little cattle manure (one liter) inside each cradle. The planting material, the seedling, is typically taken from already-established banana plantations, but is always carefully acquired from areas free of diseases such as panama (Fusarium oxysporum).

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Those who use this seedling acquisition technique recommend that the rhizomes are thoroughly cleaned and free of insects, especially the weevil borer (Cosmopolitan sordidus). Some treatments utilize a solution of water mixed with wood ash with which to clean the fruit. And even enriched biofertilizer – a liquid fertilizer prepared with cattle manure and micronutrients – may sometimes be used. The main variety of product grown in the Torres region is the locally-known white dwarf banana or Silver, from the group of dessert bananas. This variety is planted in a spacing of 3.0 m X 3.0 m, or in a density of 1,111 plants per hectare. The second variety used in the region, but less so because of its sensitivity to cold, is the banana of the Cavendish group. For this variety, the recommended spacing is 2.5m X 2.5m thereby representing a density of 1,600 plants per hectare. In the case of established conventional bananas, ones that farmers intend to convert to an organic growing system, it is recommended that the transformation process be carried out in stages: incrementally changing methods of pest control, fertilizing, and disease intervention over time. The general guideline is that the farmer puts aside only a portion of his banana crop at a time for organic production – perhaps beginning with those areas that have fewer banana trees per area, or areas that are more isolated. Gradual incorporation can also include a substitution of inputs, especially chemical fertilizers with organic manures. It is common also to slightly reduce production in the first years – around 20% – but in general this reduction is offset by higher gains on the sale of the new product and less costly expenditure on inputs8. As they gain confidence, producers can integrate other organic steps until the entire banana plantation is fully converted to organic production. The conversion time depends largely on the producer and the size of the area, but in general three years are typically demanded to completely change a production system from conventional to organic. In the case of farmers visited in the Dominican Republic, the methods adopted for the initial establishment of a banana plant or the renewal of a plant consists in removing all vegetation and turning the soil with a three-point plow. Then the pits are opened using a shovel or pickaxe, as in other production regions. Each hole has an approximate size of 30 cm in width and depth, depending on the size of the planting material (seedlings). In general pieces of rhizome from old and/or renewal areas plantings are used. As a whole, the production is destined for the foreign market, and consequently the variety used is the Grand Nain from the Cavendish subgroup. The adopted density of plants is 130 productive units for each tarefa (620.83 m²) – an approximate spacing of 2.0m X 2.5m – totaling a population of approximately 2,000 plants per hectare. As in conventional production elsewhere, organic bananas in the Dominican Republic are cultivated in monocultures, and it is common after a period approximating 10 years to renew the plantation in an attempt to increase production by reducing possible infestations of pests and diseases.

III.2. Crop management

Fertilizers

In the Torres region, managing the nutrients of organic banana production varies greatly depending on the specific location of the crop. For example, plantations established in the sunnier and wind-

8. In a study conducted in 2006 to compare conventional and organic banana produced in the Torres region, the author found an average for conventional production of 12.8 tons/ha, while for organic bananas the average was 8.3 tons/ha. However, the net income per hectare was around U$ 2,154 for the conventional producers and U$ 2,570 for the organic farmers. 22

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 sheltered areas tend to be naturally more productive even with less use of organic fertilizers. This is because in the region, the location for a banana plantation is a critical factor for production. Accordingly, plantations located in areas less exposed to the sunlight and unprotected from the southern cold winds require higher nutrient intakes. As a general rule, a wide range of organic materials such as cattle dung can be used as crop fertilizers without any restriction. However such material is not found in sufficient quantities to fertilize the areas of banana, and therefore it is common for farmers to purchase poultry manure from other regions and to spread one to two tons per year over their plantations. Considering that very often such manure comes extremely moist and raw, with high content of soluble nitrogen, it is recommended for farmers to compost it for a few months. After a couple of months the poultry manure composted is ready to be applied and contains approximately 2.4%, 1.15%, 3.7% of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium respectively. It is also well known that ash is rich in potassium and that this mineral is an element of fundamental importance in the nutritional health of bananas. Thus, another source of mineral nutrition used by some farmers is ash from firewood burned in their home stoves, or even from rice husks burned to dry the rice grains. In the Torres region there are many rice fields producing hulls that are used as fuel in the grain drying process. Given adequate availability, this by-product might also be used for fertilizing the banana plants. Also common in the region is sugarcane bagasse, produced by various mills that manufacture liquor and/or brown sugar. Some producers also recommended bagasse use, because of its rich fibrous nature and the time it takes to decompose in the soil. Even though these by-products (rice husks and bagasse) may come from conventional farms they are allowed (and even recommended) for organic farming. When transferred from farm fields, it becomes a way of recycling locally produced nutrients. Green manure cover crops are also widely used for fertilizing the banana plant. As noted above, the most common plants used by producers are dwarf mucuna, peanut forage, lablab, forage turnips, and oats. Among the weeds that occur frequently in the region is the purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.), the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), the amaranth (Amaranthus viridis), and spiderwort (Trades cantia sp.). Contrary to conventional production where weeds are controlled through the spraying of herbicides, management is achieved through the periodic scything of vegetation, but only when such foliage begins to affect the bananas. An organic fertilizer being used by farmers is the locally produced bokashi. This material is made from a mixture of several organic and mineral materials such as bran wheat, castor bean, straw, lime, rock phosphate, ashes, etc., and is fermented by inoculating them with microorganisms. Organic compost bokashi has a nutrient composition depending primarily on the materials originally utilized for its production. It can be expected that 1.0% to 2.0% of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium can be used, as well as small amounts of other nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, boron, manganese, etc. It is recommended to apply up to 1.0 kg of this compound per banana plant each year, that is, around 1,200 kg/ha/year. For less fertile areas in which the banana production is substantially less, it may also be fruitful to use a slightly more concentrated mixture. Among the mineral inputs used by producers, phosphate rock is the most common. Applications range from 100 to 300 kg per hectare every year, as a source of phosphorous. More recently, because of increased availability and the technical recommendations of Centro Ecológico, farmers also apply powdered basaltic rock, which has a slower rate of decomposition. The recommendation is two tons per hectare per year. As most of the soils in Brazil are acid, farmers are recommended to use lime to increase pH and therefore enhance soil fertility. Dolomitic limestone and calcareous shells

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 are recommended and also employed in proportions of up to two tons per hectare in every two or three years. As a source of potassium some farmers are using a product with the trade name K-Mag, which is also rich in sulphur, and magnesium. The amount of this material to be employed is up to 300 kg per hectare per year. The product is made from rocks, and has in its composition 21% potassium, 21% sulphur and 10% magnesium. K-mag is certified for organic production and it is manufactured by a global company devoted to producing phosphate and potassium fertilizers called “Mosaic”. It is noteworthy that the general recommendation for nutrient management in banana production is the use of materials that have a slow solubilization. Unlike agricultural chemical fertilizer, the use of materials with low solubility, thus providing a gradual release of nutrients, is the rule in organic production. For members of COOPPROBATA in the Dominican Republic, the general recommendation for nutrient management is fertilization with approximately 3.0 kg of vermicompost for each banana clump, distributed in three (1.0 kg per application) applications per year. Vermicompost is the product derived from composting organic materials such as manure, vegetables, and food waste while introducing earthworms. The humus is spread around the plants and covered with dead leaves. Bokashi compost is also used by farmers in the cooperative. The recommendation, however, is roughly 2.0 kg per application (amounting 6.0 kg per year) of bokashi also scattered around each plant. All fertilizer is produced by the cooperative and passed on to farmers at a price of U$ 3.40 per bag of 38.5 kilograms of bokashi and U$ 4.60 per bag of vermicompost. Some farmers also spray their plants with an enriched biofertilizer called Biol, a fermented liquid fertilizer prepared with water, fresh cattle manure, brown sugar, and milk. The recommendation of COOPPROBATA technicians is two sprays per year of approximately 10 liters of the product diluted in 200 liters of water (dilution of 5%) per hectare. The biofertilizer is also produced by the cooperative and a plastic vat containing 200 liters of product costs around U$ 50.00. Figure 9. COOPROBATA’s Vermicompost and Biol production plant

Picture 01. Vermicompost production Picture 02. Biol production

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Table 8. Nutrient management on organic bananas in the Torres and Dominican Republic regions9

Fertilizer Main finality Torres Region Dominican Republic Organic Organic matter and Cattle manure Up to ten tons ha/year Not available nutrients Organic matter and Poultry manure Up to two tons ha/year Not available nutrients Keen Organic matter and Up to ten tons ha/year Not available Sugarcane nutrients bagasse Organic matter and Up to ten tons ha/year Bokashi Up to 12 tons/ha/year nutrients every two years Organic matter and Annually trimming the Green manure Not common to use nutrients vegetation Organic matter and Vermicompost Not available Up to 6 tons/ha/year nutrients Up to 100 liters ha/year Up to 200 liters/ha/year Biofertilizer Nutrients (5% solution) (5% solution) Minerals Wood and rice Potassium and Up to two tons ha/year Not common to use husk ash micronutrients Phosphorous, calcium and Rock phosphate Up to 300 kg ha/year Not common to use micronutrients Calcium, magnesium, Rock powder phosphorous and Up to two tons ha/year Not common to use micronutrients Dolomitic and Calcium, magnesium and Up to two tons ha/year Not common to use shell lime micronutrients Potassium, magnesium and K-Mag Up to 300 kg ha/year Not common to use sulphur

Pests and diseases control

At the heart of organic management of pests and diseases is the strategy of working with nature toward the health of the entire production system. Plants grown in well-structured and balanced soils, in sunny conditions, and sheltered from adverse winds, are much more likely to flourish and to resist attacks from insects or disease. Thus, the logic of organic production management is founded upon working preventively through the nutritional balance of the plant for the purpose of lessening vulnerability. The recommended treatments are conceived in such a way, then, as to balance the

9As mentioned before, these are only general recommendations. Nutrient management depends upon several factors such as the local of the banana field, availability of inputs (organic or mineral), price, technical extension service, markets for the bananas, and even the preference or comprehension of the producer about banana production. Some farmers are very enthusiastic about using technical inputs, while others are less strict, preferring instead to manage the banana plantation in a less intensive way. 25

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 nutritional status of the plant so that the organism’s natural protective elements can do their work. However, some organic farming treatments can also be used to directly combat insects and fungi. Biological control and the use of natural plant extract that has insecticide and fungicide power – such as tobacco (Nicotianatabacum), neem (Azadirachta indica), rosemary (Lippia microphylla Cham), etc. – are examples of such techniques. In the Dominican Republic for instance, farmers utilize a solution made from a plant locally known as Anamu (Petiveria alliacea L.) to control bugs and thrips. Farmers spray a solution prepared from the extract of this plant along with some garlic (Alliun sativum) and, according to reports, the control is very efficient. The main insect pest of the banana plantations worldwide is known as the rhizome borer or weevil borer (Cosmopolitan sordidus), and can be easily controlled, as was stated above, by pieces of bait containing the fungus Beauveria bassiana which are preventively distributed among the plants. The process consists in spreading infected baits (pieces of rhizome) among the plants – bait that has been sprayed with a solution containing the infectious inoculums of the fungus. The recommended number of treated rhizomes is approximately 150 per hectare or around 1.0 kg of a rice substrate containing the fungus diluted in a water solution. Despite being very efficient in reducing borer infestation, and even though its application is relatively simple, few farmers in the Torres region employ this technique. The most common approach, unfortunately, is doing nothing at all. In the Dominican Republic farmers reported that they have only minor infestations from this pest, and therefore they take no steps to control it. To control diseases, especially the yellow sigatoka (Mycosphaerella musicola, Leach), a fungi disease that creates necrosis on the leaves thus hampering photosynthesis, organic farmers frequently use a solution of water, mineral oil, and enriched biofertilizer. The purpose of adding the biofertilizer is to improve the nutritional state of the plant, thereby enabling the organism to resist the deleterious effects of the disease. The recommended application is five to ten liters of oil per hectare, mixed with 500 ml of biofertilizer applied three to five times a year directly upon the banana leaves. A container with 20 liters is enough to spray an area of one hectare. More recently a number of farmers have also used a compound of mineral extracts, prepared from various rocks, which carries the trademark “Gigamix” (www.gigamix.agr.br). The purpose is the same as applying biofertilizer to improve the nutritional balance of the plant. In the case of the Dominican Republic organic producers, control of black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) is done through cultural methods and spray products such as Timorex Gold permitted by certification companies. Cultural methods as used, initially, to allow good ventilation between the plants so as not to create a favorable microclimate for disease proliferation. Periodic defoliation and removal of leaves showing symptoms of infection are also important cultural practices. Sprays are highly dependent on climatic conditions, which may be conducive to disease development. In very wet years farmers even known to make six applications of palm oil (Elaeis guianeensis) associated with a product that has (as above) the trade name Timorex Gold – a natural, broad-spectrum fungicide made from a plant extract from Australia called Melaleuca alternifolia that can inhibit fungi proliferation. For one hectare of banana plants approximately 500 ml Timorex Gold is recommended, as well as eight liters of organic palm oil, all diluted in water. The general recommendation is approximately 1,000 liters of solution per hectare of bananas for each spraying.

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Table 9. Principal pest and disease control for organic bananas

Control method Pest or disease Main effect Torres Region Dominican Republic

Pest Biological control with approximately 50 pieces of Weevil borer Most damage is done by the extensive tunneling of bait spread in the banana (Comopolitus Not harmful in the region the larvae in the rhizome, plantation containing the sordidus) thus weakening the plant fungus Beauveria bassiana

Destroys the root system Preventively controlled Nematodes and makes plants with green manures susceptible to toppling, Producers don´t control (Radopholus similis) cultivated on the banana especially when fruiting or during strong winds. plantation

Thrips May cause injury to the fruit Control through spraying (Chaetanaphothrips that thereby significantly Not harmful in the region extract of anamu signipennis) affecting marketability (Petiveria alliaceae L.) Diseases Causes necrosis on the Palm oil associated with leaves, affecting plant Black sigatoka Timorex Gold. In general photosynthesis, which (Mycosphaerella Don´t occur in the region 200 liters/ha distributed in ultimately leads to reduced fijensis) two applications during yields and premature the year ripening of bunches Mineral oil associated Causes necrosis on the with biofertilizers. In Same as above. When Yellow sigatoka leaves, affecting plant general 50 liters/ha controlling black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella photosynthesis, which distributed in five it is also controlling the musicola) ultimately leads to reduced applications during the yellow sigatoka yields year

Cultural management and weed control

Banana management practices in the organic production system are also largely similar to the recommended maintenance processes for conventional planting. A most striking difference, though, is how much weed control can be achieved using organic methodologies that, unlike conventional systems, do not to employ herbicides. The organic solution involves periodic mowing at a frequency of up to three times per year. This solution commonly uses costal trimmers because of their practicality and efficiency. For infested areas with grass, which is detrimental to the banana, it is recommended that a green manure be used preferably in conjunction with leguminous species – dwarf mucuna, perennial peanut, lablab, etc. The cleanliness of the banana plants involves periodic removal of old leaves and may be necessary

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 two or three times a year. A practice of removing the suckers, so that the clump becomes only three plants – mother, daughter, and granddaughter – also follows the same custom as conventional cultivation. Other practices common to both systems is covering the bunch with a polyethylene bag, extracting the heart of the banana plant, and removing the “last hand,” so that the fruit has a higher quality (bigger). Many organic farmers in the Torres region manage their banana plantations through the principles of agroforestry. For example, some plant their bananas and combine them with other species of trees, both native and exotic. This technique is reflective of the basic management concept, that is, to mimic nature so that the whole system acts much like a natural forest consisting of a wide variety of plants, insects, and animals. As a consequence, some growing systems come to support more than 40 native species thus contributing to the promotion of several environmental benefits – biodiverse conservation, the production of biomass (carbon sequestration), soil protection, etc. In general the yields are not significantly different from other organic banana systems, and farmers who adopt this management method are compensated with less use of fertilizers and eventually being able to harvest products from the other species of plants.

Figure 10. A banana agroforestry and palm heart (Euterpe edulis) system in the Torres region

Agroforestry management also involves enriching a system that includes the species of interest, either through facilitating natural regeneration or even by planting seedlings that do not occur naturally but that provide for the needs of the species of interest. Periodically the trees are either pruned or otherwise removed, thus facilitating the entry of natural light and promoting nutrient recycling. For some older fields, areas in which the agroforestry system is already consolidated, 28

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 farmers do not use external inputs such as fertilizers or insect sprays; the production of bananas is guaranteed by recycling nutrients derived from the periodic pruning of trees. Using this methodology the farmer almost works solely with the resources of nature. Even though some nutrients are exported from the production system through the harvested fruits, this is compensated by the capacity of certain tree species to extract nutrients from lower soil layers. Contrary to the banana plants the root system of the trees can penetrate into deep soil layers, extracting nutrients from areas which would be not possible for the banana root system to reach. In these agroforestry areas pest and diseases are naturally controlled by their predators, and the whole system is in equilibrium. Among farmers in the Dominican Republic, the management processes of plantations is very similar to the region of Torres, also consisting of defoliation, bagging the bunches, and removal of suckers so that the clump is generated by three plants to ensure production of good fruit. Some practices, however, carried out by Dominicans producers, are different. In this country, all of the banana bunches of a similar age, as was stated above, are marked with a ribbon of one color at the time of bagging to indicate the physiological age of the plant (Figure 11). After nine weeks, all that have been flagged with that particular color of tape are ready to be harvested. Another striking regional difference is in irrigation practices. While the Torres region's farmers depend only on rain as a water source for the banana, among farmers in COOPPROBATA gravity flood irrigation is common. All parcels of land in this area are subdivided into areas separated by small ridges. Through canals and pipelines subplots are completely flooded every twenty days. As the soils are relatively sandy, after some time the water is completely drained. Figure 11. A blue ribbon is affixed to indicate when to harvest the bunch

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

III.3. Collection, transport, and processing

In the Torres region, banana harvesting is carried out and is scaled according to the marketing strategy adopted by the farming family. In the case of farmers who participate in street markets or those who supply the local consumer cooperatives, banana cutting is carried out on a weekly basis. Among the producers who sell to the larger markets, harvesting is enacted on a monthly basis. The selection of the bunches to be harvested is made through the visual mode in which those with the fullest fruit (rounded) is selected. Another way to select bunches is to harvest a fruit, cut it and assess its coloring. If it has a more yellowish appearance, this indicates that the bunch is at the ideal point to be harvested. The bunches are harvested and usually dehanded in their own area, with the fruit transported in boxes of 11 or 20 kg. Some farmers dehand the bunches in a container with cold water or a solution of water mixed with wood ash. The transportation of boxes to the ripening chamber is done with small carts coupled to micro-tractors. Some producers, however, carry each bunch to the local processing plant where the fruit is packed. The ripening process follows the same steps adopted for conventional production. In chambers where the temperature and humidity are controlled, the fruit is acclimatized with the aid ethylene gas. In the Dominican Republic, the bunches are dehanded in the field, discarding the fruits that do not meet optimum marketing conditions. Fruit that has small spots or other imperfections on the skin caused by stain or even friction between the fruit is rejected. The fruit is carefully accommodated in cubatas, or in small buckets – vessels rounded and shaped like tanks – fully lined with banana leaf. Each of these containers has an approximate capacity of 20 kilograms. The buckets are transported to a location where a truck picks them up and takes to the packing house.

Upon arriving at the processing plant the bunches are dumped into large tanks of water so that the fruit is washed and goes through a selection process. Then the selected fruit is cut into smaller bouquets and directed to a second tank where they sit for approximately twenty minutes to allow the sap to coagulate and precipitate. After, the bouquets are placed on a scale for weighing and all are sprayed with a natural fungicide called Biozytron, made from extract of citrus seeds, to prevent crown rot and to increase the shelf life of the fruit. All bunches are then bagged and placed in boxes of 18.1 kg each, then go into containers for export. As are the conventional bananas, the fruit is ripened upon arriving in the destined country.

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Figure 12. Steps from harvesting to processing in the Dominican Republic

Step 01. Farmer cutting the banana bunch Step 02. Farmer filling the cubata

Step 03. Haitian employee transporting the fruit Step 04. Employees filling the truck with bananas

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Step 05. Bananas arriving in the packing house Step 06. Bananas in the water tank and employees cutting the hands in bouquets

Step 07. Banana bouquet

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014

Step 08. Spraying a natural fungicide Step 09. Packing in plastic bags

Step 10. Filling the cardboard boxes Step 11. Carrying the boxes to the patio to await the container

III.4. Marketing/distribution

Organic farmers in the Torres region have adopted different forms of banana marketing. Initially the only strategy was to sell their product through ecological fairs that were held most frequently in Porto Alegre, the capital of Rio Grande do Sul. Later, this practice was expanded to other cities. Over the years, to the extent that new farmers were converting their production systems to the organic approach, it was necessary to seek alternative markets for selling their various products. Consequently, fruit was sold to locations both within the region and in more distant cities. Other local marketing initiatives were organic product consumer cooperatives located in the neighboring municipalities near to Torres and were even sold to school lunch programs. With an expanding demand for organic products, some supermarkets have begun offering organic bananas to their clients. Today, a major supermarket chain, present in the main cities of Rio Grande do Sul, sells a substantial amount of this product to their shoppers. Other initiatives, such as those of the federal government’s school lunch program – The National School Nutrition Program (PNAE) – have also contributed to a significant increase in demand for organic bananas. The PNAE mandates that at least 30% of all food intended for public schools are to come from a family farm. For certified organic products, farmers receive a bonus of 30% over the normal price. Thus, many farmers have 33

Banana report – 2nd draft. July 04, 2014 organized in associations and cooperatives to provide foods to many public schools. Another program, The Food Purchase Program (under the Zero Hunger Program), provides food to people who are considered to be in a condition of food insecurity. Through collective purchases this federal program acquires food directly from farmers and is also organized to provide foodstuffs to day-care institutions, nursing homes, hospitals, etc. These two marketing initiatives – the supermarket chain and institutional purchases – have significantly helped to expand the market for organic bananas. It is estimated that over 70 tons of bananas from the Torres Region are traded monthly through such initiatives. As indicated above, the whole production from the COOPPROBATA in the Dominican Republic is intended for export to the foreign market. The cooperative commercializes every week six containers loaded with 1,080 boxes each. Of this total, only a single container is marketed directly, while the remainder is sold to two companies: Horizon (4 containers) and Banamiel (1 container). Through direct marketing a box of 18.1 kg is sold at a price of U$ 11.00 (approximately U$ 0.60/kg), while the ones sold through companies have the price of U$ 9.70 per box of 18.1 kg. Besides the organic label, part of the output is also marketed under fair trade certification (fair trade). For each box, the producer receives an approximate value of U$ 5.70 if it has the Fair Trade seal and U$ 3.67 if it is only sold as organic. A substantial volume of bananas that reach the processing plant, around 30%, is not sold because of the visual appearance of the fruit and the demands of the foreign market. This remaining fruit is sold on the local market at a price of about U$ 0.46 per box of 18.1 kg. On average a tarefa (620.83 m2) of banana plantation produces 1.5 boxes per week. In one year, a farmer who owns 10 productive tarefas of bananas can market a total volume of 825 boxes, which are sold at an average price of U$ 5.00, thus resulting in a gross annual income of about U$ 4,000. In the table below production and farmers’ income for both conventional and organic banana is presented. Table 10. Banana production and farmers income

Conventional Organic

Costa Rica Torres Dominican Republic Torres Between 1,900 and Between 11.0 and Between 6.0 and 12.0 3,000 boxes of 18.1 16.0 tons/ha/year Average of 20 Production tons/ha/year (average kg/ha/year (34.4 and (average = 12.8 tons/ha/year = 8.3 tons/ha/year) 54.3 tons/ha/year) tons/ha/year) Between U$ 11,400 Income Between U$ 3,500 Average of U$ Between U$2,800 and U$ 18,000/ (gross) and U$ 5,000/ha/year 6,400/ha/year and U$ 5,500/ha/year ha/year.

Considerations about production and income a) Costa Rica has one of the highest banana productivities in the world. This is because of the country’s ecological conditions (volcanic soils, temperature, flat lands, rainfall, etc.) and the use of technological inputs. In 2012 the average productivity was 2,535 boxes/ha/year of conventional bananas – that is 45.8 tons ha/year. b) According to informants, the Dominican Republic productivity is around 1,500 boxes/ ha/year for conventional bananas; that is, around 27.6 tons ha/year. c) The substantial productivity difference between the Torres Region and the other two regions (Costa Rica and Dominican Republic) is explained by the varieties cultivated. Silver bananas,

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the variety most cultivated in Brazil, is less productive than the bananas from the Cavendish group, which is primarily grown in Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic. d) The income reported in the table above is the gross product, that is, the amount earned by farmers without subtracting production and commercialization costs. For the Torres region the net income is approximately U$ 2,154 ha/year for conventional producers and U$ 2,570 for organic farmers (Gonçalves 2008). e) Production costs of conventional bananas in Costa Rica can reach up to U$ 15,000 ha/year while in the Dominican Republic, production cost for organic bananas is around U$ 1,200 ha/year, if farmers labor is not taken into account.

IV. Final remarks

As observed in the field there are significant differences between the two production methods – organic and conventional. However, one of the marking conclusions is that both production systems can be improved significantly by incorporating some practices that are already established as good production rules. Initially, while conventional systems rely on revolving the soil through plowing and harrowing, organic plantations just open the holes for planting the seedlings. It is well accepted that the less soil is revolved it is better for improving its fertility. In addition, green manure such as the ones utilized by organic farmers in the Torres region is recommended for nematode control. Instead of spending considerable resources in controlling the pest through pesticides, threatening environmental quality, green manures can be cheaper and also an efficient way of enhancing soil quality. In terms of nutrient management one of the striking particularities was the lack of using organic matter for fertilizing conventional banana plantations. It is well known that organic materials such as cattle manure, bokashi, or any other organic compound improve soil vitality. Moreover, it is a way of improving the overall production system health and to increase productivity. Banana plantations properly fertilized requires less use of chemical inputs for pest and disease control. Herewith, the number of pesticide applications can be reduced dramatically. Some other practices with scientific evidence can also contribute to decrease pesticide use. It is well determined that banana plantations under partial tree shade are less likely to develop black sigatoka disease. Instead of applying fungicides up to 50 times during one production cycle, conventional banana plantations in Costa Rica could test this ecological solution. Apart from improving environmental conditions and the health of thousands of workers, it can also contribute to save substantial financial resources. Commercialization is perhaps the key aspect to improve the overall quality of the banana production chain. As attested in the Torres region, good marketing channels can stimulate farmers to improve their plantations, and even inducing them to adopt better practices. On the other hand, commercialization systems based on exploitation practices, such as the one where the products are downgraded, can prevent farmers to have higher incomes.

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Table 11. Chronogram of main activities in conventional and organic banana cultivation

Activity Month Conventional (Costa Rica) Organic (Dominican Republic)

Establishing the crop (year 01)

Plowing and harrowing the soil; opening the pits. Weeding with 1 L/ha of Glyphosate or Paraquat. Cutting the vegetation; plowing Planting the seedlings. Initial September (Month 01) with a three-point plow; opening chemical fertilization: 150 gr/plant the pits. Planting the seedlings = 100 kg/ha NPK (5 kg N, 20 kg P, and 20 kg K). Nematicide application 04 L/ha of Oxamyl February (Month 06) Suckers removal Suckers removal

Weed control with 1 L/ha of March (Month 07) Hand weed control (hoeing) Glyphosate August (Month 12) Harvest first bunches Harvest first bunches Crop maintenance (year 02 onward)

Fertilizer application = every 15 days 50 gr/plat of NPK (100 kg every 15 days). Pesticide Fertilization = 2.000 kg/ha of September (Month 13) application = in general a weekly vermicompost or 4.000kg/ha of application of 10 l/ha of mineral oil bokashi associated with 0,5 l/ha of Propicolazole for instance Nematicide application 04 L/ha of October (Month 14) Leaf and sucker removal Oxamyl

December (Month 15) Leaf and sucker removal Fertilization = 2.000 kg/ha of Nematicide application 04 L/ha of February (Month 17) vermicompost or 4.000kg/ha of Oxamyl bokashi

March (Month 18) Leaf and sucker removal April (Month 19) Leaf and sucker removal

Fertilization = 2.000 kg/ha of Nematicide application 04 L/ha of June (Month 21) vermicompost or 4.000kg/ha of Oxamyl bokashi July (Month 22) Leaf and sucker removal

Biol application = 200 L/ha (5% August (Month 23) Leaf and sucker removal solution)

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V. Main references

Internet sites http://www.coopprobata.com.do/ https://www.corbana.co.cr/ http://faostat.fao.org/ http://www.pesticideinfo.org/

Key informants Brazil: Célio Schwanck, Cristiano Motter, Dirceu Schwanck Borges, Irineu José Carlos, João Evaldt Borges, Leandro Silva da Costa, and Mauro Fernandes Martins Costa Rica: Eduardo Salas Dominican Republic: Adalgisa Encarnación, Alcedo Beltre, Angel Augusto Silverio, Carlito Veriguet, Cristian Sanchez, Dani Manuel Ramirez Mendes, Donal Alfredo, Elbis Ramirez, Elizandro Mendes, José Gomez, Juan Felipe Arvelo, Luca Ferrera, Luis de la Cruz, Luis Ramon Sanchez, and Reyita Minyetty

Literature EPAGRI. XIV Curso de Bananicultura. Itajaí, 2002 Gonçalves A.L. Ecological agriculture in the Torres Region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: tradeoffs or synergies? PhD dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca 2008 Robinson J.C. Bananas and Plantains. Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops. CAB International, Wallingford, 1996

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Appendix

Table 12. Main activities in banana cultivation

Conventional Organic Operation Costa Rica Torres Dominican Republic Torres Establishing the crop Bushy vegetation chopped with a Soil aeration with a three-point Bushy vegetation chopped with a Plowing and harrowing. Use of Soil sickle and use of herbicide plow. Weed control by sickle. Weed control by herbicide glyphosate (1 liter/ha) preparation glyphosate (1 liter/ha) to clear mechanical methods (hoeing and mechanical methods (hoeing and to clear underbrush underbrush trimming) trimming) Seedlings from laboratories, Plant material (suckers and Plant material (suckers and Plant material (suckers and Plant reproduced through micro- rhizomes) removed from rhizomes) removed from rhizomes) removed from material propagation techniques established plantations established plantations established plantations Clones compounded by a mix of Varieties Silk (dessert banana) Gran Nain (Cavendish subgroup) Silver (dessert banana) varieties, Cavendish subgroup Between 1,800 and 2,100 plants Plan spacing Around 1,100 plants per hectare Around 2,000 plants per hectare Around 1,100 plants per hectare per hectare

Fertilization Up to 1,000 kg/ha and three 100 to 150 kg/ha of NPK and 2.0 No initial fertilization and pest Eventually (when available) up to and pest applications of nematicide (2-4 kg of insecticide Carbofuran control 2 tons/ha of cattle manure control liters/ha/year)

Between four and eight Weed control by mechanical Weed control by mechanical applications of herbicide Around four applications of methods (hoeing and trimming), methods (hoeing and trimming), Initial weed glyphosate (1 liter/ha) until herbicide glyphosate (1 liter/ha) around three times until around three times until control plantation is fully formed (one until plantation is fully formed plantation is fully formed (one plantation is fully formed (one year) year) year)

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Table 13. Main activities in banana cultivation (cont.)

Conventional Organic Operation Costa Rica Torres Dominican Republic Torres Managing the crop (main practices) Up to 3,000 kg/ha/year of NPK Up to five tons/ha/year of Green manure; up to distributed in biweekly Up to 600 kg kg/ha/year of NPK vermicompost or up to 10 300kg/ha/year of rock phosphate; Fertilization applications (around 50 applied in three applications tons/ha/year of bokashi compost, up to 300 kg/ha/year of lime and grams/plant) distributed in three applications up to 2 tons/ha/year of compost Between four and eight Around four applications of Weed control by mechanical Weed control by mechanical applications of herbicide Weeding herbicide glyphosate (1 liter/ha) methods only in infested areas methods only in infested areas glyphosate (1 liter/ha), only in only in infested areas (once a year) (once a year) infested areas Up to 50 applications of fungicides (4 to 8 Up to four applications of Up to six applications of mineral Control of liters/ha/application) associated Up to five applications of mineral fungicide (0.5 liters oil (8 liters/ha/application) pests and with mineral oil (eight oil (8 liters/ha/application) ha/application) associated with associated with 500 ml of a diseases liters/application) and up to three associated with biofertilizer 10 liters of mineral oil natural fungicide (Timorex Gold) applications of Nematicide (04 L/ha of Oxamyl) Sucker Three times a year Three times a year Three times a year Three times a year management Leaf removal Three to four times a year Three times a year Three times a year Three times a year

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Table 14. Main activities in banana cultivation (cont.)

Conventional Organic Operation Costa Rica Torres Dominican Republic Torres Managing the crop (bunch management) Cover with Some farmers, others don´t Common practice, all farms Common practice, all farms Common practice, all farms plastic bag cover the bunch Marking with Common practice, all farms Common practice, all farms ribbons Harvesting, transportation and packing Harvesting Varies between every 15 to 45 Varies between every week to Every week, by a team of three days, depending on the period of Every week, by the farmer once a month, depending on the employees the year marketing strategy Transporting In wooden or plastic boxes (11 or In small buckets (cubetas) of In wooden or plastic boxes (11 or In system of aerial cables 20 kg) approximately 20 kg 20 kg) Packing Depends on the marketing Packing house, in cartoon boxes Packing house, in cartoon boxes strategy, but in general wooden of 18.1 kg of 18.1 kg and plastic boxes Marketing Domestic market, several Domestic market, through marketing strategies (street Strategy External market External market middleman markets, consumers Coops, governmental programs, etc.)