February 2007

Executive Summary

Introduction to Confronting Climate Change Three years ago, Sigma Xi was invited by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs to convene an international panel of scien- tists to prepare a report outlining the best measures for mitigating and adapting to global climate change. Chaired by Sigma Xi Past-President Peter H. Raven, director of the Missouri Botanical Garden, the 18-member Scientific Expert Group on Climate Change and Sustainable Development held its first meeting at the Sigma Xi Center in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, in December of 2004 and presented its final report in New York on February 27, 2007. The non-profit United Nations Foundation co-sponsored the study. “This report gives very clear recommendations,” Raven said, “for what the international community and nations themselves must do to mitigate and adapt to climate change.” The following is an executive summary, and the full report can be found at www.sigmaxi.org.

CONFRONTING CLIMATE CHANGE: AVOIDING THE UNMANAGEABLE AND MANAGING THE UNAVOIDABLE Executive Summary. Scientific Expert Group Report on Climate Change and Sustainable Development. Prepared for the 15th Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development.

Global climate change, driven largely by the combustion of fossil fuels and by deforestation, is a growing threat to human well-be- ing in developing and industrialized nations alike. Significant harm from climate change is already occurring, and further damages are a certainty. The challenge now is to keep climate change from becoming a catastrophe. There is still a good chance of succeeding in this, and of doing so by means that create economic opportunities that are greater than the costs and that advance rather than impede other societal goals. But seizing this chance requires an immediate and major acceleration of efforts on two fronts: mitigation measures (such as reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases and black soot) to prevent the degree of climate change from becom- ing unmanageable; and adaptation measures (such as building dikes and adjusting agricultural practices) to reduce the harm from climate change that proves unavoidable.

Avoiding the Unmanageable The largest of all of the human and natu- large reductions in the extent of summer Human activities have changed the cli- ral influences on climate over the past 250 sea ice in the Arctic, large increases in sum- mate of the Earth, with significant im- years has been the increase in the atmo- mer melting on the Greenland Ice Sheet, pacts on ecosystems and human society, spheric CO2 concentration resulting from signs of instability in the West Antarctic and the pace of change is increasing. The deforestation and fossil-fuel burning. The Ice Sheet, and movement in the geographic global-average surface temperature is now CO2 emissions in recent decades (Figure and altitudinal ranges of large numbers of about 0.8°C1 above its level in 1750, with ES.1), which have been responsible for plant and animal species. most of the increase having occurred the largest part of this buildup, have come Even if human emissions could be in- in the 20th century and the most rapid 75% to 85% from fossil fuels (largely in stantaneously stopped, the world would not rise occurring since 1970. Temperature the industrialized countries) and 15% to escape further climatic change. The slow changes over the continents have been 25% from deforestation and other land- equilibration of the oceans with changes greater than the global average and the cover change (largely from developing in atmospheric composition means that a changes over the continents at high lati- countries in the tropics). further 0.4°C to 0.5°C rise in global-aver- tudes have been greater still. The seemingly modest changes in aver- age surface temperature will take place as a The pattern of the observed changes age temperature experienced over the 20th result of the current atmospheric concentra- matches closely what climate science pre- century have been accompanied by signifi- tions of greenhouse gases and particles. dicts from the buildup in the atmospheric cant increases in the incidence of floods, If CO2 emissions and concentrations concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), droughts, heat waves, and wildfires, par- grow according to mid-range projec- methane (CH4), and other greenhouse ticularly since 1970. It now appears that tions, moreover, the global average sur- gases (GHGs), taking into account other the intensity of tropical storms has been face temperature is expected to rise by known influences on the temperature. increasing as well. There have also been 0.2°C to 0.4°C per decade throughout

1 A given temperature change in degrees Celsius (°C) can be converted into a change in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) by multiplying by 1.8. Thus, a change of 0.8°C cor- responds to a change of 0.8 x 1.8 = 1.44°F. 1 CONFRONTING CLIMATE CHANGE: AVOIDING THE UNMANAGEABLE AND MANAGING THE UNAVOIDABLE the 21st century and would continue to rise thereafter. The cumulative warming by 2100 would be approximately 3°C to 5°C over preindustrial conditions. Accu- mulating scientific evidence suggests that changes in the average temperature of this magnitude are likely to be associated with large and perhaps abrupt changes in climatic patterns that, far more than average temperature alone, will adversely impact agriculture, forestry, fisheries, the availability of fresh water, the geography of disease, the livability of human settle- CO emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production, ments, and more (see Figure ES.2). Even 2 including land use change (Mt C per year from 1950 - 2003) over the next decade, the growing impacts of climate change will make it difficult to 1 - 10 50 - 100 meet the UN’s Millennium Development 10 - 50 100 - 1000 Goals (MDGs). No one can yet say for certain what in- 1000 - 1500 crease in global-average surface temperature Figure ES.1. The annual emissions of CO2 by country, averaged over the period 1950 to 2003, in millions of above the 1750 value is “too much,” in tonnes of carbon per year (MtC/year). the sense that the consequences become truly unmanageable. In our judgment and be to hold the increase to 2°C if possible and man health, and settlements, resulting in that of a growing number of other analysts in no event more than 2.5°C. increased loss of life and property. and groups, however, increases beyond 2°C to 2.5°C above the 1750 level will entail Managing the Unavoidable • Some sectors in some locations may ben- sharply rising risks of crossing a climate Even with greatly increased efforts to miti- efit from the initial changes in climate. “tipping point” that could lead to intoler- gate future changes in climate, the magni- Most impacts are expected to be negative, able impacts on human well-being, in spite tude of local, regional, and global changes however, with the social and economic of all feasible attempts at adaptation. in climatic patterns experienced in the 21st consequences disproportionately affecting century will be substantial. the poorest nations, those in water-scarce Ramping up mitigation efforts quick- regions, and vulnerable coastal commu- ly enough to avoid an increase of 2°C to • A 2°C increase in the global-average sur- nities in affluent countries. 2.5°C would not be easy. Doing so would face temperature above its 1750 value require very rapid success in reducing emis- is likely, for example, to result in up to Managing the unavoidable changes in cli- sions of CH4 and black soot worldwide, a 4°C warming in the middle of large mate, both by promoting adaptation and by and it would require that global CO2 emis- continents and even larger increases in building capacity for recovery from extreme sions level off by 2015 or 2020 at not much the polar regions. Regional changes will events, will be a challenge. International, na- above their current amount, before begin- be even more extreme if global average tional, and regional institutions are, in many ning a decline to no more than a third of temperatures rise by 3°C or higher. senses, ill prepared to cope with current that level by 2100. (The stringency of this weather-related disasters, let alone poten- trajectory and the difficulty of getting onto • Climate change during the 21st century tial problems such as an increasing number it are consequences, above all, of the emis- is likely to entail increased frequency and of refugees fleeing environmental damages sion levels already attained, the long time intensity of extreme weather, increases spawned by climate change. Society will scale for removal of CO2 from the atmo- in sea level and the acidity of the oceans need to improve management of natural re- sphere by natural processes, and the long that will not be reversible for centuries to sources and preparedness/response strategies operating lifetimes of CO2-emitting energy millennia, large-scale shifts in vegetation to cope with future climatic conditions that technologies that today are being deployed that cause major losses of sensitive plant will be fundamentally different from those around the world at an increasing pace.) and animal species, and significant shifts experienced for the last 100 years. But the challenge of halting climate in the geographic ranges of disease vec- change is one to which civilization must rise. tors and pathogens. Integrating Adaptation and Given what is currently known and suspect- Mitigation to Achieve Multiple ed about how the impacts of climate change • These changes have the potential to lead Benefits are likely to grow as the global-average sur- to large local-to-regional disruptions in The simultaneous tasks of starting to drasti- face temperature increases, we conclude that ecosystems and to adverse impacts on cally reduce GHG emissions, continuing to the goal of society’s mitigation efforts should food security, fresh water resources, hu- adapt to intensifying climate change, and

2 CONFRONTING CLIMATE CHANGE: AVOIDING THE UNMANAGEABLE AND MANAGING THE UNAVOIDABLE Arctic: Significant retreat of ice; disrupted habitats of polar Europe: More intense winter precipitation, river megafauna; accelerated loss of ice from Greenland Ice Sheet and flooding, and other hazards; increased summer heat mountain glaciers; shifting of fisheries; replacement of most tundra waves and melting of mountain glaciers; greater water North America: Reduced springtime snow- by boreal forest; greater exposure to UV-radiation stress in southern regions; intensifying regional climatic pack; changing river flows; shifting eco- differences; greater biotic stress, causing shifts in flora; systems, with loss of niche environments; tourism shift from Mediterranean region rising sea level and increased intensity and energy of Atlantic hurricanes increase Central and Northern Asia: Widespread melting of coastal flooding and storm damage; more permafrost, disrupting transportation and buildings; frequent and intense heat waves and greater swampiness and ecosystem stress from wildfires; improved agriculture and forest warming; increased release of methane; coastal erosion productivity for a few decades due to sea ice retreat

Southern Asia: Sea level rise and more intense Central America and West Indies: cyclones increase flooding of deltas and coastal Greater likelihood of intense rainfall plains; major loss of mangroves and coral reefs; and more powerful hurricanes; melting of mountain glaciers reduces vital river increased coral bleaching; some flows; increased pressure on water resources with inundation from sea level rise; rising population and need for irrigation; possible biodiversity loss monsoon perturbation

Pacific and Small Islands: Inundation of low-lying Africa: Declining agricultural yields and coral islands as sea level rises; salinization of diminished food security; increased Global Oceans: Made more acidic by increasing CO aquifers; widespread coral bleaching; more 2 occurrence of drought and stresses on powerful typhoons and possible intensification of concentration, deep overturning circulation possibly water supplies; disruption of ecosystems ENSC extremes reduced by warming and freshening in North Atlantic and loss of biodiversity, including some major species; some coastal inundation South America: Disruption of tropical forests and significant loss of biodiversity; melting glaciers Australia and New Zealand: Substantial loss of coral reduce water supplies; increased moisture stress Antarctica and Southern Ocean:Increasing risk of significant ice loss along Great Barrier Reef; significant diminishment of water in agricultural regions; more frequent occurrence of from West Antarctic Ice Sheet, risking much higher sea level in centuries resources; coastal inundation of some settled areas; intense periods of rain, leading to more flash floods ahead; accelerating loss of sea ice, disrupting marine life and penguins increased fire risk; some early benefits to agriculture

Figure ES.2. Significant impacts of climate change that will likely occur across the globe in the 21st century.

achieving the MDGs will require skillful from traditional uses of biomass, and re- money, or that produce immediate co-ben- planning and implementation, all the more duce deforestation and land degradation. efits outweighing the costs of the measures. so because of the interaction of these aims. To move further, government leadership is For example, clean and affordable en- • Combining the sustainable use of bio- required to establish policy frameworks that ergy supplies are essential for achieving the mass for energy (renewable sources of create incentives for energy-system change MDGs in the developing countries and for biomass to produce electricity, liquid and establish public-private partnerships for expanding and sustaining well-being in the fuels, and gaseous fuels) with carbon energy-technology development, deployment, developed ones. Energy’s multiple roles in capture and sequestration, which can and diffusion. Leaders in the private sector these issues provide “win-win” opportuni- power development and remove CO2 also need to seize opportunities to develop, ties as well as challenges, including: already emitted to the atmosphere. commercialize, and deploy low-emitting en- ergy technologies that will also create jobs • Utilizing the most advanced building de- In addition, reversing the unsustainable and enable economic development. Individ- signs, which can provide emissions-free land-use practices that lead to defores- uals, especially in affluent societies, must also space conditioning (cooling and heating) tation and degradation of soil fertility show leadership by consuming responsibly. in ways that greatly reduce energy and will help limit the release of CO2 and water demands and that promote im- CH4 into the atmosphere from the soil. The Elements of a Roadmap proved health and worker performance. Improving sanitation in rural areas can Avoiding the unmanageable and managing reduce emissions of CH4 and provide a the unavoidable will require an immediate • Implementing carbon capture and storage renewable fuel to help reduce dependence and major acceleration of efforts to both from fossil-fueled power plants, which on coal, petroleum, and natural gas. mitigate and adapt to climate change. The reduce impacts on climate while making Projects and programs from around the following are our recommendations for im- available concentrated CO2 that can be world have demonstrated that much prog- mediate attention by the United Nations used in enhanced natural gas and oil re- ress can be made on climate-change miti- (UN) system and governments worldwide. covery and in agricultural applications. gation and adaptation in ways that save money rather than add to costs. Some of 1. Accelerate implementation of win-win • Replacing traditional uses of biomass fuels the measures that will ultimately be required solutions that can moderate climate change for cooking and heating (including agri- are likely to have significant net costs—al- while also moving the world toward a more cultural residues and animal dung burned beit much less, in all likelihood, than the sustainable future energy path and making in inefficient cookstoves) with modern en- climate-change damages averted—but a clear progress on attaining the MDGs. Key steps ergy supplies that can reduce production way forward for immediate application is to must include measures to: of black soot and other aerosols, improve promote much wider adoption of “win-win” the health of women and children other- approaches, such as those described above, • Improve efficiency in the transporta- wise exposed to high indoor air pollution that reduce climate-change risks while saving tion sector through measures such as

3 CONFRONTING CLIMATE CHANGE: AVOIDING THE UNMANAGEABLE AND MANAGING THE UNAVOIDABLE vehicle efficiency standards, fuel taxes, • Metrics of performance that enable requirements for those fleeing environ- and registration fees/rebates that favor monitoring of progress towards reduc- mental disasters. purchase of efficient and alternative tions in energy and emissions intensity fuel vehicles, government procurement at a national level. • Avoid new development on coastal standards, and expansion and strength- land that is less than one meter above ening of public transportation and re- • Flexibility in the types of policies, mea- present high tide, as well as within gional planning. sures, and approaches adopted that re- high-risk areas such as floodplains. flect different national levels of develop- • Improve the design and efficiency of ment, needs, and capabilities. • Ensure that the effects of climate commercial and residential buildings change are considered in the design of through building codes, standards for • Mechanisms that establish a price for protected areas and efforts to maintain equipment and appliances, incentives carbon, such as taxes or “cap and trade” biodiversity. for property developers and landlords systems. A carbon price will help provide to build and manage properties effi- incentives to increase energy efficiency, • Enhance early-warning systems to pro- ciently, and financing for energy-ef- encourage use of low-carbon energy- vide improved prediction of weather ficiency investments. supply options, and stimulate research extremes, especially to the most vulner- into alternative technologies. Markets for able countries and regions. • Expand the use of biofuels, especially trading emission allocations will increase in the transportation sector, through economic efficiency. • Bolster existing financial mechanisms energy portfolio standards and incen- (such as the Global Environment Facil- tives to growers and consumers, with • A mechanism to finance incremental costs ity)- and create additional ones-for careful attention to environmental im- of more efficient and lower-emitting ener- helping the most vulnerable countries pacts, biodiversity concerns, and energy gy technologies in low-income countries. cope with unavoidable impacts, pos- and water inputs. sibly using revenues generated from 3. Develop strategies to adapt to ongoing carbon pricing, as planned in the Ad- • Promote reforestation, afforestation, and and future changes in climate by integrat- aptation Fund of the Clean Develop- improved land-use practices in ways that ing the implications of climate change ment Mechanism. enhance overall productivity and delivery into resource management and infrastruc- of ecological services while simultane- ture development, and by committing to • Strengthen adaptation-relevant institu- ously storing more carbon and reducing help the poorest nations and most vulner- tions and build capacity to respond to emissions of smoke and soot. able communities cope with increasing climate change at both national and in- climate-change damages. Taking serious ternational levels. The UN Commission • Beginning immediately, design and de- action to protect people, communities, on Sustainable Development (CSD) ploy only coal-fired power plants that and essential natural systems will involve should request that the UN system will be capable of cost-effective and en- commitments to: evaluate the adequacy of, and improve vironmentally sound retrofits for cap- coordination among, existing organi- ture and sequestration of their carbon • Undertake detailed regional assessments zations such as the CSD, the Frame- emissions. to identify important vulnerabilities work Convention on Climate Change, and establish priorities for increasing the World Health Organization, the 2. Implement a new global policy frame- the adaptive capacity of communities, Food and Agriculture Organization, the work for mitigation that results in sig- infrastructure, and economic activities. UN Refugee Agency, the World Bank, nificant emissions reductions, spurs devel- For example, governments should com- and others to more effectively support opment and deployment of clean energy mit to incorporate adaptation into local achievement of the MDGs and adapta- technologies, and allocates burdens and ben- Agenda 21 action plans and national tion to climate change. efits fairly. Such a framework needs to be in sustainable-development strategies. place before the end of the Kyoto Protocol’s 4. Create and rebuild cities to be cli- first commitment period in 2012. Elements • Develop technologies and adaptive- mate resilient and GHG-friendly, taking of the framework should include: management and disaster-mitigation advantage of the most advanced technolo- strategies for water resources, coastal gies and approaches for using land, fresh • An agreed goal of preventing a global- infrastructure, human health, agri- water, and marine, terrestrial, and energy average temperature increase of more culture, and ecosystems/biodiversity, resources. Crucial action items include than 2°C to 2.5°C above the 1750 which are expected to be challenged in the following elements: value-accompanied by multi-decade virtually every region of the globe, and emission-reduction targets compatible define a new category of “environmen- • Modernize cities and plan land-use with this aim. tal refugee” to better anticipate support and transportation systems, including

4 CONFRONTING CLIMATE CHANGE: AVOIDING THE UNMANAGEABLE AND MANAGING THE UNAVOIDABLE greater use of public transit, to reduce advanced technologies for carbon cap- 6. Improve communication to accelerate energy use and GHG intensity and in- ture and sequestration. adaptation and mitigation by increasing crease the quality of life and economic education efforts and creating forums for success of a region’s inhabitants. • Promote a comparable increase in dialogue, technology assessment, and plan- public and private investments-with ning. The full range of public- and private- • Construct all new buildings using de- particular emphasis on public-private sector participants should be engaged to en- signs appropriate to local climate. partnerships-focused on demonstra- courage partnerships across industrial and tion and accelerated commercial de- academic experts, the financial community, • Upgrade existing buildings to reduce ployment of energy technologies with and public and private organizations. Na- energy demand and slow the need for large mitigation benefits. tional governments and the UN system additional power generation. should take the following steps: • Use UN institutions and other spe- • Promote lifestyles, adaptations, and cialized organizations to promote pub- • Develop an international process to as- choices that require less energy and de- lic-private partnerships that increase sess technologies and refine sectoral targets mand for non-renewable resources. private-sector financing for energy-ef- for mitigation that brings together experts ficiency and renewable-energy invest- from industry, nongovernmental organiza- 5. Increase investments and cooperation ments, drawing upon limited public tions, the financial community, and gov- in energy-technology innovation to de- resources to provide loan guarantees ernment. The Technology and Economic velop the new systems and practices that and interest rate buy-downs. Assessment Panel of the Montreal Proto- are needed to avoid the most damaging col provides an effective model for assess- consequences of climate change. Current • Increase energy-technology research, de- ing technological potential and effective, levels of public and private investment in velopment, and demonstration across realistic sectoral mitigation targets. energy-technology research, development, the developing regions of the world. Po- demonstration, and pre-commercial de- tential options for achieving this goal • Enhance national programs for public and ployment are not even close to commen- include twinning arrangements between corporate education on the needs, paths, surate with the size of the challenge and developed and developing countries and opportunities, and benefits of a transition the extent of the opportunities. We rec- strengthening the network of regional to a low-emission energy future. ommend that national governments and centers for energy-technology research. the UN system: • Enlist the educational and capacity- • Over the next two years, complete a building capabilities of UN institutions • Advocate and achieve a tripling to qua- study on how to better plan, finance, to provide information about climate drupling of global public and private and deploy climate-friendly energy change and the opportunities for adapta- investments in energy-technology re- technologies using the resources of UN tion and mitigation. Under the leader- search, emphasizing energy efficiency and other international agencies such ship of the Department of Economic in transportation, buildings, and the as the UN Development Programme, and Social Affairs, the UN should com- industrial sector; biofuels, solar, wind, the World Bank, and the Global Envi- plete an internal study to more effectively and other renewable technologies; and ronment Facility. engage relevant UN agencies.

The Time for Collective Action is Now

Governments, corporations, and individuals must act now to forge a new path to a sustainable future with a stable climate and a robust environment. There are many opportunities for taking effective early action at little or no cost. Many of these opportunities also have other environmental or societal benefits. Even if some of the subsequent steps required are more difficult and expensive, their costs are virtually certain to be smaller than the costs of the climate-change damages these measures would avert. Two starkly different futures diverge from this time forward. Society’s current path leads to increasingly serious climate-change im- pacts, including potentially catastrophic changes in climate that will compromise efforts to achieve development objectives where there is poverty and will threaten standards of living where there is affluence. The other path leads to a transformation in the way society generates and uses energy as well as to improvements in management of the world’s soils and forests. This path will reduce dangerous emissions, create economic opportunity, help to reduce global poverty, reduce degradation of and carbon emissions from ecosystems, and contribute to the sustainability of productive economies capable of meeting the needs of the world’s growing population.

Humanity must act collectively and urgently to change course through leadership at all levels of society. There is no more time for delay.

5 CONFRONTING CLIMATE CHANGE: AVOIDING THE UNMANAGEABLE AND MANAGING THE UNAVOIDABLE UNITED NATIONS–SIGMA XI SCIENTIFIC EXPERT GROUP ON CLIMATE CHANGE Authors, Reviewers, and Contributors

Coordinating Lead Authors Rosina Bierbaum, Professor and Dean, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, United States John P. Holdren, Director, The Woods Hole Research Center, and Teresa and John Heinz Professor of Environmental Policy, Harvard University, United States Michael MacCracken, Chief Scientist for Climate Change Programs, Climate Institute, United States Richard H. Moss, Senior Director, Climate and Energy, United Nations Foundation and University of Maryland, United States Peter H. Raven, President, Missouri Botanical Garden, United States

Lead Authors Special Technical Advisor Ulisses Confalonieri, Professor, National School of Public Health James Edmonds, Senior Staff Scientist, Joint Global Change Research and Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Institute at University of Maryland College Park, United States Jacques “Jack” Dubois, Member of the Executive Board, Swiss Re, United States Research Assistant Alexander Ginzburg, Deputy Director, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Nathan L. Engle, School of Natural Resources and Environment, Russian Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation University of Michigan, United States Peter H. Gleick, President, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security, United States Reviewers at the AAAS Annual Meeting, 2006 Zara Khatib , Technology Marketing Manager, Shell International, United Anthony Arguez, NOAA National Climatic Data Center, United States Arab Emirates Ann Bartuska, USDA Forest Service, United States Janice Lough, Principal Research Scientist, Australian Institute of Sally Benson Marine Science, Australia , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, United States Norm Christensen Ajay Mathur, President, Senergy Global Private Limited, India , Duke University, United States William Clark Mario Molina, Professor, University of California, San Diego, United , Harvard University, United States States, and President, Mario Molina Center, Mexico Robert Corell, The Heinz Center, United States Keto Mshigeni, Vice Chancellor, The Hubert Kairuki Memorial Gladys Cotter, US Geological Survey, United States University, Tanzania Partha Dasgupta, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom Nebojsa “Naki” Nakicenovic , Professor, Vienna University of Geoff Hawtin, Global Crop Diversity Trust, United Kingdom Technology, and Program Leader, International Institute for Applied Daniel Kammen Systems Analysis, Austria , University of California, Berkeley, United States Edward Miles Taikan Oki, Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, The University , University of Washington, United States of Tokyo, Japan Per Pinstrup-Andersen, Cornell University, United States Hans Joachim “John” Schellnhuber, Professor and Director, Richard Thomas, International Center for Agricultural Research in Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Germany the Dry Areas, Syrian Arab Republic Diana Ürge-Vorsatz, Professor, Central European University, Hungary Thomas Wilbanks, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, United States

Sigma Xi Sponsors Special thanks to: James F. Baur Jeff Bielicki and Dave Thompson, Harvard University Philip B. Carter (since September 2006) Ko Barrett, NOAA Patrick D. Sculley (until September 2006) John Rintoul, Sigma Xi Cosy Simon, Swiss Re UN Liaisons Naja Davis, David Harwood, Ryan Hobert, JoAnne DiSano, Peter Mak, Walter Shearer, Katherine Miller, and Tripta Singh, Division for Sustainable Development, Department of UN Foundation Economic & Social Affairs, United Nations Lelani Arris, Copy Editor

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