Integrated Study to Support Skadar Lake of Biosphere Reserve

UNIVERSITY OF MONTENEGRO FACULTY OF SCIENCES AND MATHEMATICS

INTEGRATED STUDY TO SUPPORT THE DESIGNATION OF THE TRANS-BOUNDARY LAKE SKADAR/SHKODRA AS BIOSPHERE RESERVE IN THE FRAME OF THE PROJECT “SUPPORTING THE PROPOSED TRANS-BOUNDARY BIOSPHERE RESERVE OF LAKE SKADAR/SHKODRA AREA THROUGH A PARTICIPATORY APPROACH”

PODGORICA, 2011 Integrated study to support the designation of the trans-boundary Lake Skadar/Shkodra as biosphere reserve in the frame of the project “Supporting the proposed Trans-boundary Biosphere Reserve of Lake Skadar/Shkodra area through a participatory approach”

DR DANILO MRDAK

DR DANKA PETROVIĆ

ANA KATNIĆ

MARIJAN ERCEG

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Integrated study to support the designation of the trans-boundary Lake Skadar/Shkodra as biosphere reserve in the frame of the project “Supporting the proposed Trans-boundary Biosphere Reserve of Lake Skadar/Shkodra area through a participatory approach”

1. LOCATION AND AREA CHARACTERISTICS

Description of the project area:

Lake Skadar and its surrounding:

It is situated in Zeta-Skadar valley and it stretches 7 km from the sea, located in south-east part of Montenegro and covers northwestern part of Albania. It is linked with the Adriatic Sea through the River Bojana. It was separated from the Sea by the chain of the high mountains in the distant past. The slopes of the mountain Prokletije spread over northern-east side, while on the southeastern side there are mountains Taraboš and Rumija. The south part covers mountain Sutorman and Sozina and northern- western slopes of Lovćen. Two thirds of the Lake belongs to Montenegro, while one third is on the territory of Albania. Lake’s coasts are indented and rich in numerous bays, peninsulas (islets) and capes, mostly swampy and overgrown with a wide rattan belt. It has very rich and diverse flora. Only the southern part of the coast is rocky with the relicts of the chestnut woods. There are numerous small islands, so called “gorice”. They are low, rocky and overgrown with laurels, ivies, wild pomegranate and shrubbery (CEED 2010).

Lake itself:

Surface of the Lake size oscillates between 370 km2 of water quantity in summer and 540 km2 in winter season. Surface of the Lake is 475 km2 on average water quantity. Surface of the watershed: 5,490 km2 (80% in Montenegro, 20% in Albania) Length of the coast is 168 kilometers; 110.5 km on the Montenegrin side, 57.5 km in Albania Altitude: 5m above sea level Average depth is 5m; maximum depth is 8.3m Water volumes 1,890. 95x106m3. The Lake features a crypto-depression: some parts of its bottom are lower than the sea level. Those places are called sub-lacustric springs or eyes (”oko“). There are about thirty such places. The deepest measured “eye” is Raduš, 60 m deep. The largest inflow comes from the Moraca River (Montenegro), providing more than 62% of the Lake’s water, while Bojana River (Montenegro and Albania) flows out from the south to the estuary in the Adriatic Sea.

1.1 Lake position and main parameters

Skadar Lake is located on the Montenegro-Albanian border, between 42°21’54’’ and 19°09’52’’ in the north (Malo Blato, Sinjac), 42°0315’’ and 19°30’00’’ in the south (Bojana/Buna spring), 42°0315’’ and 19°30’00’’ in the east (near Shkodra), 42°21’19’’ and 19°01’28’’ (near Rijeka Crnojevica). It is the largest of the Balkan Lakes and has a surface area which fluctuates seasonally from approximately 354 to 505,8 km². About 2/3 of Lake is placed in Montengro while 1/3 belong to Albania. The Albanian part of Skadar Lake have less flooded area regarding more steep surrounding terrain (Burić & Radulović, 1983). In terms of water level fluctuation on yearly scale Sakadar Lake water goes from 4,7 to 10m (about six meter in vertical plane). Average depth of Lake is about 5m while maximal length and width is 44 km

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and 14 km respectively. During lowest water level condition coastal line is 156 km while including islands it goes up to 207 km.

Mountains rise steeply from the Lake's southwestern shores (Taraboš, Rumija, Sutorman, Lovćen), while its northern and north-eastern shores are flat providing an extensive semi-littoral zone. The Lake's south nearshore zone is characterized by a series of islands and bays. Many of the islands along southwestern coast remain disconnected from surrounding lend even during lowest water level while some of them during this event become kind of peninsula. The islands are mainly grouped above Rumija mountain slopes so toward southeast we have following islands: Grmožur, Starčevo, Beška, Moračnik, Gradac, Tophala, Gorica, Gljat, and many smaller ones. In this zone it occurs Lakebays of which bigger ones are: Štitara, Bobovišta, Bljaca, Murići and Raduš. The biggest bay of Skadar Lake is Hotski bay which is almost symmetrically shared among Albania and Montenegro. During high water level Malo blato is also one of the Lake bays while during lover water level it is isolated water body connected with Skadar Lake water mass via river Karatuna. The shore length of Malo balto is about 10 km (Burić & Radulović, 1983).

Picture 1. Skadar Lake view toward south

1.2 Hydrology

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The Scadar Lake receive it water directly from rainfall on its surface, numerous temporary and constant inflows, springs from coastal zone as well as from strong sublacustral wells known under name “oka” (vrulja).

The surface of SkadarLake direct drainage area is 5490 km2 of which 4460 km2 is in Montenegro. Under some specific hydrological conditions Skadar Lake receive water from river Drim (when water level of Drim River is higher than water level of Bojana River and Sakadar Lake) so the drainage are of this river which is 14 000 km2 is indirect and temporary drainage are of Skadar Lake (Radulović, 1983).

Most important inflows of Sakadar Lake come from their northern part: Morača River, River Crnojevića, Orahovštica River, Karatuna River, Gostiljska River, Zetica River, Big and Small Mrka River and Plavnica River. Morača River is most important tributary that in total water balance contributes with 62%. Regarding this fact Morača River play most important role during changing of Lakesurface, water mass volume and surface. Most important inflows on Albanian side are: Hotski potok, Proni Tat, Sića, Proni Rjolit and Proni Vraka.

Significant amount of Sakdar Lake water comes from sub terrestrial and sub lacustrine wells. Unfortunately data about amount, their consistency, their number and depths are still missing. On northeastern Lakecoast there are three noticed wells (vrulja Funija, Vitoja and Ploče) while in zone of Malo blato and along southern coastal line they are numerous. The most important ones in Malo blato and surrounding area are: Kaluđerovo oko, Krakala, Velja Šuica, Mala Šuica, Bivo, Crno oko, Karuč and Volač. Sub-lacustrine wells of southern part of the Skadar Lake are: Raduš, Krnjice, Šestani, Mrčiluka, Bobovišta, Sijerača and Gradac (Radulović, 1983) .Among them, the best known is Raduš Oko, which has a depth of 60 m at mean-water level. As the Lake is 5 m above sea level, , the oko floor is 55 m below sea level. Water entering the Lake via the okos is substantially harder than river water, probably owing to its direct limestone source (Lasca et al., 1981).

Bojana River is the only outflow of Skadar Lake which runs in to the Adriatic Sea and sometimes outflow of Lakewater is stopped with high water level of river Drim that cause floods of this area. During autumn of 2010th and in the end of the winter of this year (2011th) strong and massive floods happened due to extreme precipitation in those periods of year.

1.3 Geology and geomorphology

The basin of Skadar Lake is located in the Dinaric mountain system, in one of the tectonic depressions paralleling the mountain range at the foot of the Dinaric Alps and in the foothills of the Prokletija massif. Rumija mountain rise s 1595 m from the southwestern shore of the Lake. While to the north and northeast the Lake bottom gradually slopes upward into the Zeta Plain and the flat area of the Zeta- Skadar depression in Albania. The Lake is surrounded by Paleozoic, Mezozoic and Tertiary rocks. Much of the rock is limestone or dolomite and forms tipical karst topography. Quaternary sediments overlie the

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bedrock and consist of various alluvial and colluvial deposits which are generally a few meters thick, and are underlain by Lake and fluvial sediments which range in thickness from 10 to over 350 m (Lasca et al., 1981).

The geological and morphological structure of Skadar Lake drainage area is highly complex built of several zones. Lake Skadr's basin and the major part of its drainage are located in the High-Karst Zone. The rock of High-Karst are composed of (1) minor amounts of Upper-Paleozoic limestone and conglomerate and (2) major outcrops of Mezozoic rock in which carbonate rocks dominate. There are also clastic and flysch deposits of the Lower and Middle Triassic and Middle Jurassic in which Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone occurs. In addition, there are eruptive rocks of the Middle Triassic and in the northeastern part of the Zone Upper Cretaceous flysch deposits. Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene sedimentary rocks extend along the middle part of the drainage area.

Picture 2. Skadar Lake, north-western look

The northeastern and northern parts of the System are covered with rocks of the geotectonic unit known as the Cukali Zone. This Zone is composed of a number of stratigraphic-facies, among which Mesozoic and Paleogenic clay, marl, sandstone, conglomerate, breccia, limestone, dolomite, tuff, bentonite, dacite, andesite, trachytic rocks and quartz are found (Lasca et al., 1981).

1.4 Climate

The Mediterranean climate runs in to area of Sakadar Lake trough valley of Bojana River so it is not surprise to find typical Mediterranean floral element the black oak (Quercus ilex) in surrounding area of Virpazar. Generally speaking in this area dominant are Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean type of climate.

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Average yearly temperature of Virpazar is 13,9 °C. Months with highest air temperature are July and August with average monthly value of 24,3 °C while the lowest monthly temperature have January with 4,2 °C averagely. The lowest recorded temperature of – 10,5 °C is recorded in January while the highest (41 °C) is recorded in August. From agricultural point of view this zone is appropriate for all living organisms that inhabit it regarding the fact that all months have averagely monthly temperature above 0 °C. One of the important ecological factors of Skadar Lake area is high solar radiation which is 2054 kw/m2 on yearly level. Average yearly level of cloud coverage is 4,3 (43 %) and December is characterized with highest cloud coverage (7) while in July this coverage is on lowest level (2). Average number of sunny days, on yearly level, is 156 while number of days with totally cloudy sky is 91.

Mean yearly precipitation of Virpazar region is 2401,5 mm. The rain fall is distributed unequally on yearly level. During colder part of the year (September-February period) it drops more than 65 % of yearly precipitation while it is almost without any rain during long summer period (June-August) which is marked as a dry period. The month with lowest level of precipitation is July with 39,7 mm while during November it drop 337,2 mm. The proportion of snow in total precipitation is not even on level of significance. Mean number of days with snow is highest in January (3,9 days) and according to statistical data the maximal number of days with snow ever is detected also for January (23 days).

In Skadar Lake basin it was detected 15 different types of winds while the most common one is northern wind with 10 %. For period of silence (no wind any kind) it goes 47,6 %. In Virpazar area highest number of days with strong wind is detected for January (3), February (3,4) and March (3). The strongest winds (more than 8 Beaufort) are most common for January (2 days) and in February, March, April, November and December (one day each).

Table 1.Climate, water temperature, precipitation and water parameters (chemical) for Skadar Lake. according to Rakočević, 2007.

Value Range Precipitation (mm) 2250 2000 - 2500

Mean winter temperature of 8 4,4-30.1 Lake water [oC] Mean summer temperature of 24,5 Lake water [oC] Mean number of days with 0 temperature below Oo C Mean number of summer 130 days (Tmax ≥25 oC) Dissolved Oxygen, 8,8 5,7 - 14 mean summer value (mg/l) Dissolved Oxygen, 11 mean winter value (mg/l)

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Total Phosphorus, mean 5 5 - 60 winter value (µg /l) Total Phosphorus, mean 20 summer value (µg /l) Total Nitrogen, mean winter 0,1 0,1-1,32 value (mg/l) Total Nitrogen, mean summer 0,45 value (mg/l) pH, mean winter value 7,1 pH, mean summer valu 8,9

1.5 Water characteristics

Factors that affect water quality of a Lake and its basin can be classified as natural and human made. Human intervention is the most important factor influencing water quality, and it must be controlled. Various studies and reports on Skadar Lake basin suggest that during the past decades the basin has experienced significant pollution of its water bodies and the surrounding area, causing losses in aquatic biodiversity; a threat to fisheries, public health and tourism. Most important are industrial pollution and untreated wastewater discharges from the cities and towns. But, according to Purić et al. (2004) Skadar Lake is still relatively clean. Soluble pollutants will spread quickly in the Lake, in particular when entering through the Morača River in the northwestern Lake corner, but will also disappear fast (to sea) because of the short retention time of the water. The Chemistry of the Lake water is similar to the chemistry of the Morača River from October to June, the warm period of the year (Petrović, 1981).

Oxygen - Content of dissolved oxygen in the Lake waters varies 7 mg/l – 12 mg/l in the surface water layers and 5 mg/l – 12 mg/l in the bottom water layers.This implies that the water is abundant with oxygen, which is important for the biota in the Lake. Low content of oxygen, up to 3 mg/l, has been recorded near Crnojevića River. Saturate index is about 80%. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is used as a measure of oxygen requirement of water that is susceptible to oxidation by strong chemical oxidants. The COD was less than 5.25 mg O2/l (K2Cr2O7) and 10.75 mg O2/l (KMnO4). These values are below the limits for safe drinking water.

Transparency and turbidity – Typical sources of turbidity in Lake water include: waste discharges, runoff from watersheds, algae or aquatic weeds and products of their breakdown, humic acids and other organic matters resulting from decay of plants, leaves etc. Turbidity obstructs light, thus reducing the growth of marine plants, eggs and larvae, which are usually found in the lower levels of an aquatic system. With higher levels of turbidity, water loses its ability to support a diversity of aquatic organisms. Suspended solids can clog fish gills, reduce growth rates and decrease resistance to disease. Colour gives an indication of the relative amount of dissolved organic matter in the water. The colour of the Skadar Lake water varies from 5-10 Pt-Co (platinum-cobalt standard or Pt-Co units). At some locations, like

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Virpazar and Vanjina, the colour value is 20 Pt-Co. In general, values between 0-20 Pt-Co are considered clear.

Ph – Available data on chemical analyses show that the pH-value of the Lake water hardly reaches below 6.8, and the alkalinity is less than 0.20 meq/l. In 1975, total alkalinity of the Lake water varied from 1.5 to 4.2 meq/l, while bicarbonate alkalinity varied from 87 to 254 mg/l. This implies that the Lake had and probably still has a good buffer capacity, according to the classification of Sweden and US EPA. The bicarbonate alkalinity of the Lake water reduced to 195 in 1990-1995.

Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) and general chemistry – At present, electrical conductivity (EC) is mostly used as indicator to express salinity (in microSiemens per centimetre or μS/cm) by measuring the conductivity of a water sample and converting its resistance (in micro-mhos) to TDS. Pure water is a poor electric conductor. High EC values may indicate high levels of pollutants. In Skadar Lake EC values in the period 1995-2005 were between 154 to 237 μS/cm.

Organic matter content is typically measured as total organic carbon (TOC). TOC values of the Lake water varied from 0.05 to 1.85 mg/l (maximum value of 2.32 mg/l is found in the right branch of the Moraca River, in 1990-1995, likely indicating the influence of Podgorica's wastewater plant).

Trihalomethanes (THMs) are a by-product of the water treatment process and are used as indicators of total disinfection by-product formation. They are formed when natural organic material, such as the decaying vegetation commonly found in Lakes and reservoirs, reacts with chlorine used to treat the water. THMs in the Lake water are found to be low; in the range of 0.01-12.7 μg/l, which is below the limit prescribed for safe drinking water (0.1 mg/l). Other water quality parameters such as Cl, F, K, Na, Ca, Mg, SO4,CN, and H2S are always within the prescribed limits for safe drinking water.

Phosphorous and nitrogen as nutrients and sources of eutrophication - Trophic status is a useful way of classifying a Lake and describing the Lake processes in terms of the productivity of the system. Basins with infertile soils release little nitrogen and phosphorus leading to less productive Lakes, classified as oligotrophic or mesotrophic. Watersheds with rich organic soils or agricultural regions enriched with fertilizers yield much higher nutrient loads, resulting in a Lake with higher biomass production (eutrophic or even hyper-eutrophic). The mean value of ortho-phosphate concentrations in Lake Shkoder ranged from 0.005 to 0.085 mg/l over the last 30 years. The concentrations vary with season and location. These values suggest that the water is mainly oligotrophic-mesotrophic. However, at some places the water shows eutrophic characteristics. The values are high on the northern and eastern Lakeshore, near to the Moraca mouth and the Zeta Plain. Also on the Albanian side the higher concentrations of nutrients are in the east, where most agricultural activities take place (Beka et al., 2002).

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Nitrate reactions in fresh water can cause oxygen depletion. Nitrites (NO2) can producea serious condition in fish called ‘brown blood disease’. Nitrite/ nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l and nitrate levels below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect on fish. The nitrate and nitrite/nitrogen levels of the Lake are below these levels.

Phosphorus is used as a general indicator of eutrophication, while the quotient between nitrogen and phosphorus (N/P) is used as an indicator of which nutrient is the limiting factor. The nitrogen- phosphorous quotient in the Lake varies from 11 to 15 and is in some places 23. Using the Swedish EPA classification, this means that the Lake is moderately N deficient.

Trace elements and metals – High trace metal content in water is associated with high trace metal content in the sediment. By analyzing Lake sediments it is possible to determine the origin, distribution and also the possible hazards of metal contamination (Petrović, 1981). The total concentration of heavy metals in sediments of Skadar Lake were lower than limits of the EU standards.

The most toxic heavy metals are As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn and Hg. The average values of these heavy metals, measured at 14 different places in the Lake, fall in Class 2 (low concentration) and at some places in Class 3 (moderate to high concentration). Clearly Class 2 concentration of heavy metals have little (risk of) biological effects. Class 3 concentration has more effects in acidic water (promotes metal mobility) and in soft water with low concentration of humus and nutrients (little binding capacity). The mercury (Hg) concentration is low and is within the prescribed limits for safe use for human consumption (HMI Montenegro and CETI).

Data on groundwater in the Lake Shkoder basin is very limited and fragmentary, both in terms of number of parameters and measuring frequency. These data show that the pollution of groundwater is insignificant. However, it is difficult to come to some conclusion on the basis of these data alone.

Bacterial community structure – During 2004th there have been research conducted on bacterial community dynamics of the Skadar Lake as a consequence of anthropogenic impacts (Kostanjšek et al., 2005).

Bacterial community structure among five differently polluted sites of Lake Skadar collected in two seasons of the same year. Results on the bacterial community structure, revealed that the locations Raduš (site 1), middle of the Lake (site 2), and Kamenik (site 5) can be considered as sites that have not shown any pollution degradation as determined by this method, due to the similar structure of bacterial community at these sampling sites. On the other hand, significant shifts in bacterial community structure in the mouth of the river Morača (site 3) and Plavnica (site 4) were shown (Kostanjšek et al., 2005). Changes in bacterial community structure can be explained as an effect of antropogenic pollution on the Lake ecosystem by inflowing waters of the river Morača and the stream Plavnica. The waters gathered in the stream Plavnica cover a wider, mainly agricultural area.

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Differences in bacterial genetic diversity between water and sediments were observed as well. In contrast to sediments, no evident difference in bacterial community structure between differently polluted sites was observed in water samples. Greater bacterial diversity was observed in the sediment samples, which provide substrate for bacterial colonization and nutrients for bacterial growth. Sediments play a significant role in aquatic systems as a sink and source of organic and inorganic materials, as a place where the majority of decomposition processes occurs, and also where most chemicals of anthropogenic origin sorb. Therefore, they have proven to be a reliable source for the detection of longterm pollution effects on the ecosystem.

The phytoplankton community and chlorophyll-based trophic state indices (Rakočevic-Nedović, Hollert 2005) calculated for 10 investigated stations of Skadar Lake show that the Lake is on a betamesosaprobic level of saprobity, which means moderately polluted with organic compounds. Although all sampling stations were within a range of betamesosaprobity, only the influence of sewage water from the cities Virpazar and Cetinje resulted in higher values of the saprobic index, whereas the saprobic indices of the mouth of Morača and Plavnica were in the same range compared to other locations.

On the other hand, a qualitative-quantitative analysis of the macrozoobenthos of Skadar Lake was carried out (Šundic et al. 2005). Presence of pollution-tolerant organisms (Oligochaeta, Chironomida, Gastropoda) and absence of organisms sensitive to pollution (Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Plecoptera, etc.) indicate a certain level of pollution in the Lake. The ecological relevance of organic pollutants could be shown by elevated values of FBI (Family Biotic Index), BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party) and ASPT (Average Score per Taxon) indices. The highest values could be found at the mouth of the river Morača (FBI = 8.20, BMWP = 6.00, ASPT = 2.00), indicating a severe in situ degradation with the high presence of organic pollutants (Kostanjšek et al., 2005).

1.6 Soils

Most important factors that effect on formation of soil in Skadar Lake area are: geological base, relief, climate, human activity and vegetation. As geological fundaments there are present different types of rocks and this is fundamental for different types of soils we can find in this region. Most dominant are calcareous and dolomite substrates.

In drainage area of Skadar Lake there are present following types of soils: alluvium, diluvium, swamp soil, brown soil, red soil, brown acid soil, black soil and rendzina (Fuštić, 1997). In coastal area most dominant are alluvium and swamp soils.

Alluvium type are young and undeveloped soils with heterogeneous compounds in it. Those types of soils, the ones present in Ćemovsko field and in flooding are of Sakdar Lake as well as in Crmničko field,

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are thick and favorable chemical and physical characteristics. Regarding this those soils are mainly under agriculture usage.

Swamp soils types are present on coastal are of Skadar Lake and Malo blato under 6 m of elevation. Mineral-organic swamp soils are constantly under water and covered with swamp vegetation with the dominance of cane. With accumulation of dead cane remains under deficiency of oxygen (underwater condition) new type of swamp soil appear – the peat.

Brown soil occupies wide space in Ćemovsko field, along Morača river banks and in wide area of Podgorica. Red soils forms on calcareous ground-base up to 600 m of latitude while on southern lopes it goes up to 700 m of altitude. The thickness of red soil depends on relief type and on vegetation. On few localities in Crmnica there are ticker layer of red soil formed by human activities and those are the best soil areas in Karst region of Montenegro (Fuštić, 1997)

3. BIOGEOGRAPHICALLY REGION

By geographical position Skadar Lake belongs to the Mediterranean region, the vast intercontinental zone comprising the Mediterranean Sea. This zone separates the Euriasiatic from the Indoafrican continental block and is a meeting point of twodifferent climatic and biogeographic regions (Crnobrnja-Isailović, Džukić, 1995).

On proposed territory biogeographist Matvejev and fitocenologist Puncer (Matvejev, Puncer,, 1989) have separated 6 landscape types or biomes together with 7 ecotonic biomes (Table 2). For comparison, there are only 3 landscape types in Northern Europe and 4 in Central Europe. According to Jovanović et al (1986), 15 different potential communities of natural vegetation are distributed within the Region.

Tabele 2. Landscape types (bionics) which characteristic habitats are distributed in the Skadar Lake Region (by Matvejev, Puncer 1989).

BIOME characteristic vegetation units (by Jovanović et al., 1996) Biome of evergreen Orno-Quercetum ilicis Mediterraneanmaritime woodlands and maquis Biome of Submediterranean Adriatic mostly Ouerco-Carpinetum orientaliss lat. Oak woodlands Quercetum trojanae s.lat. Osiryo-Quercetum pubescentis Quercetum frainello adriaticum Biome of South European, mostly Fagelum montanum s. lat. deciduous woodlands Seslerio-Fagetum s. lat.

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Periploco-Quercetum roboris Biome of European, mostly coniferous Picaetum excelsae montamun boreal type woodlands Pinetum mugi Abieti-Fagetum Fagelum subalpinum Pinetum peucis Pinetum heldreichii Biome of Alpine and High Nordic rock- grounds, pastures and snow patches Biome of rocky grounds, pastures and Oxytropidion dinariacea woodlands on rocky grounds of (oro) Mediterranean mountains

From a zoogeographic perspective, the Shkoder Lake region is located in a zone where two major zoogeographic areas meet: the Palaearctic region (Europe, Asia, the Mediterranean and North Africa) and the Palaetropic region (Africa). Their linkage and influences can be seen among bird fauna, with incidences of African species (e.g. African cuckoo, African black heron, flamingo) and winter migratory species of West Siberia (ducks, geese).

Picture 3. Biogeographical regions of Europe

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2.PAST AND PRESENT LAND USE

The Lake Skadar has been providing human civilization with the great development opportunities for centuries, both due to its convenient position and due to the good access to its natural resources. In time, the development resulted in impoverishment of the Lake resources, while intensity of the pressures and factors endangering the resources has been growing all the time.

The region of Lake Skadar is facing the structural changes in peoples’ way of living in the past two decades. Development and transition periods brought some cultural and structural changes in the people’s lifes related to environmental and natural protection on the Lake with different resource management practices. Indigenous resource management based on the sustainable fishing, agriculture, harvesting has been seriously changed in the last 50 years. Apart from the endangerment of the natural resources, Lake Skadar also went through significant physical changes, which had an additional impact on the ecological balance and stability of this important ecosystem (REC, 2008).

In the last twenty years the issue about biodiversity conservation and pressure by human activity on it is done by the proclamation of protected areas as a strategy to slow down degradation and ecosystem loss (Perunicic, 2010). However, the newly theories and systems of protections are trying to consider strong implications on the livelihoods of people inhabiting the protected areas and the implementation of sustainable tourism and other similar practices as profitable measure that local community can adopt to contribute to the protection of the biodiversity, as a win-win solution.

This component of the study therefore will try to present current situation in a rural area of Lake Skadar capturing institutional, socio-economic and natural resource situation as well as the development directions and interdependance and conectiones that existe between sectors and institutions, with a tone of critical review, as a support to preparation of the integrated study for designation of the Biosphere Reserve. The aim is to evaluate the potentials of the area for the rural development, links between the communities and the long-term management possibilities and actions and initiatives that are to be taken to improve the standard of living in non-Urban Lake Skadar region.

2.1. Main activities in region of Skadar Lake

Agriculture

Agriculture was a basic activity for the population of the Lake Skadar area for centuries. It is the other main source of income for the residents in this area, along with the fishing and tourism.

The Lake’s hinterland has modest agricultural potentials; it consists of small land parcels in slews formed on the thin substratum. The Zeta Valley region has the best quality agricultural fields with alluvial soils,

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in an area of 17,000ha, and only settlements on this territory produce agricultural products for the market. The other residents from the region produce agricultural products only for their personal consumption. For villages in the middle of the NP like Vranjina, Rijeka Crnojevica and small places along the lake coast don’t have opportunity to have an agricultural production. There is no suitable agricultural land for production and the interest for this activity is reduced in the last transitional period (CEED, 2010). However, for 30% of respondents in the study conducted by CEED 2010, agriculture is still main occupation. Having in mind results about incomes during the last 2009, for more then 50% respondent agriculture or animal products are not the main source of revenues and this was not changed during the last five years. Agriculture is second activity used for additional filling of budget (CEED, 2010). Most of these people live from salary gained from employment in the urban areas and have fishery as a second occupation.

Agriculture has always been the main industry and framework of development of this area, particularly in rural areas. By time, this situation has significantly changed. Number of inhabitants in rural areas had considerably decreased and hence reduced the interest to occupy with this activity. This was largely contributed by increasing orientation of population towards other activities, thus the agriculture in small percentage represents the main and the only activity of local population and the condition of their existence.

Development of agriculture differs from area to area, which greatly depends on natural predispositions of particular areas. For this reason, here is provided the overview of agriculture presence by individual socio-economic areas in the Lake Skadar region with the data taken from the CEED study 2010:

Area of Krajina is significantly oriented towards agricultural activity. However, one should be aware of the fact that there is a small number of active populations in these settlements. All this have affected the decrease of interest in agriculture, and one should bear in mind that this area is characterized by fragmented properties. In settlements of Krajina, the production of fruit (figs, pears, cherries), early fruit was the most present and as far as crops are concerned, tobacco is the most raised.

Crmnica and Riječka nahija – In settlements belonging to the Crmnica region number of active population is decreasing. Such situation has contributed to poor presence of both agriculture and other activities. The size of average poperty is small and thus the production is oriented only to personal needs. Aging of population has caused the lagging in development of agriculture and other activities (fishery) that used to be a framework of development of this area.

Natural predispositions for development of this industry exits, but the main reason is poor presence of young population that does not either attach their future for staying in this area or agriculture.

Zeta – Zeta region is known for its agricultural production, particularly owing to large percentage of arable land. One of major problems is flooding of one part of arable lands, which reduces the production

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capacity. This is one of the crucial arguments brought to light when discussing activities on reducing water level, which could result in providing additional arable land. Complexes of the land are relatively large, thus by using modern mechanization great results are achieved, especially in vegetable growing. However, it should be mentioned that despite good preconditions for agriculture, during the last few years other activities are present as well (processing industry, trade, transport, etc.).

Apart from CEED study and mentioned agricultural activities there are significant increase in product development used for trade and tourism from natural heritage that this region offers. In this sense specifics are reflected in the fact that this area produces high quality wine, cheese, honey, grapes, olives, chestnuts, aromatic and medicinal herbs, pomegranates, etc. These products are generally valorised on the domestic market and during the tourist season by restaurants and local markets, most in the Lake Skadar region.

Olives for what this region is furthermore known, covers a third of the area under fruit trees, dominated though by older trees and native varieties, which are mainly used for oil production, but also the production of conservated fruit in the traditional way.

Production and processing of olives is typical for communities that belong to the coastal region such as Ostros, Murici, and Limljani where olive trees are mainly distributed. The Lake Skadar region has a registered association of olive growers.

Also, although there is a possibility for the processing and sale of aromatic and medicinal plants, there is no organized purchase and production. Ostros locals are interested in activating the old processing plant, which once was in this community.

Wine production is almost the oldest and most dominant economic activity in this area. Wine is produced in the region of Crmnica, as almost the most famous wine known Crmničko, but also it is grown and produced in other parts of the lake. There are two active winemakers associations Crmnica and Drušići. At the same time, wine growers' associations are working on a marketing presentation of their products, but mainly in the domestic market.

In the Lake Skadar region there is an association of beekeepers who, through education and provision of equipment at affordable prices, has good production and no major problems as far as marketing and sale of their products.

Farming

In the area of the Lake Skadar to some extent it is present growing of larger and smaller livestock. Individual households grow cows, sheep, goats or chickens. It is usually grown as livestock as it is sufficient to meet the needs of households or earn a living from the sale of productive livestock markets in the neighborhood.

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Livestock is still just a side activity. Trends in the numbers of cattle were negative and the fund is reduced to the minimum needs of households and below it, which is directly linked with reducing the number of household members.

The conditions for livestock are good, but some households do not have enough opportunities to get better equipment for that activity.

Fishery

Fish are the lake’s most significant natural resource in terms of contribution to the local economies. It has been traditional way of living and sustaining, with the evidence of nowadays abandoned and inhabited fishermen settlements Raduš, Krnjice, Poseljani, Karuč.

However fish populations, including commercially valuable migratory species, are declining, perhaps due in part to increasing numbers of active fishermen since 1990, particularly on the Albanian side (many using illegal methods such as electrical shock and fish traps), and in part due to localized pollution and habitat destruction.

Some of the lake’s most valuable fish species are threatened by over-exploitation and habitat degradation. The governments has institutions and personnel in place to regulate fishing but lack information, mechanisms, and capacity to manage the fisheries on a lake-wide basis. Excessive tree cutting, over-grazing, and destructive construction practices have eliminated or degraded the vegetative buffer that helps to protect Lake Skadar-Shkoder from non-point-source pollution and siltation from adjacent and upstream agricultural areas (PAD, 2008).

Fishery as an industry used to be the main and only source of food and a mainstay for a majority of the local population of the Lake Skadar area (CEED, 2006). During the Balkan crises in the nineties most of the people from the region who were left jobless in the public sector, turned to the fishing. They found the fishing as an additional source of income, especially in the period of November and December (feasting period due to religious practices), when the fish market significantly increases (WWF, 2009). Today, fishing industry is no longer the primary resource, but moreover it is present as an additional source of income for most of the families and as a sport and recreation for the tourist in general (Perunicic, 2010).

High percentage of the households in Vranjina derives their monthly income from this activity (CEED, 2006). The average income in a single family depends of the number of holders per family, which usually is one professional (full-time) fisherman per family (Mrdak, 2009).

Based on the Law on Freshwater Fishing, the fishing refers to catching fish and other water fauna with appropriate fishing tools and devices. Fishing, in Lake Skadar area, for a small number of households is the main activity, while for others it is an additional one. In the settlements of the Lake Skadar area the

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number of people who do not have the permanent residence but cottages has been increased. For them, the fihing is neither the main nor additional activity, but only a type of recreation or additional income. What type of activity, either primary or secondary, the popularion of certain area would engage in depend greatly on natural resources and characteristics of that particular area they living in. The fishing is traditional activity the population living in this area occupies with either for their own or further sale purpose. The fishing and agriculture are most often refered as secondary activity and the form of filling in the household budget. The exact number of people dealing with fishing is not known. The reason for such situation should be sought in the fact that the commercial fisherment status has not been yet regulated which would regulate the status of fishermen engaged in fishing as their main activity and require them to register with the Commercial Court and receive pension and social care insurance pursuant to the law. The fishing within the NP Lake Skadar is regulated by different acts, but primarily by the Law on Freshwater Fishing. Even though the Law was adopted in 2007, the Rulebook for applying this law in practice has not been passed yet (CEED 2010).

However, the Lake Skadar is severely threatened by several activities connected with this source of income for the local population. Overfishing activities; usage of forbidden assets for fishing; introducing alien species and expansion of non-native species represent the main threats for the Lake. The problem with the overfishing, especially by the illegal fisherman is present as a main pressure of the fish resources in the Lake. In the last few years, the Lake Skadar National Park has been trying to re-establish the control over Lake Skadar and regulate these illegal activities, by obtaining fishing licenses for the commercial and sport fishing needs. According to the available data of NPLS (number of issued licenses for 2005 and 2006), there are about 200 “full-time” fisherman on the Lake. This number still includes some of the illegal fishing activities, since there is no correct or available data (Saveljic, 2009).

According to the CEED study, the fishery presents an occupation for 2% of the population in overall, but this percentage depends on various aspects of settlements. Vranjina settlement, situated in the middle of Lake, has 163 households and for 73 of them, fishery is the primary activity and they are socially endangered. During the interviews respondents claimed that more than 80% of the population in local settlements on the Lake Skadar regard fishery as their first or additional activity. According to the data National Park has large number of the inhabitants of the rural area of Lake Skadar, around 168 deals with catching and processing of fish.

However, fishery constitutes to be a vital activity in the Lake Skadar area and fish productivity has always been high. From the collected data the following trends are deducted: Significant decline of migratory fish in the overall production; Decline of autochthonous fish in the 1980s, but a recovery since then; Increase in exotic species, especially after 1980 (preparation doc for SAP, 2007).

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However, data to support conclusions on recent developments are hardly available: little information was collected since 1987 in Montenegro and between 1992 and 2002 in Albania, apart from the WB, CEED study 2010 for the Montenegro part which will be the bulk part of this paragraph.

Regarding the catches of migratory fish, the catches of Twaide shad (Alosa alosa) show a sharp decline from 1980 onwards. Among the migratory species also the Mugilidae are of economic importance. They also suffered a decrease in the catches, although not as drastic as Twaide shad. Eel catches seem to be related to hydro-meteorological conditions, but in general the production is stable. Among the autochthonous fish, catches of carp intensified, but bleak catches were less. Low value species like Rutilussp.and Pachychilon sp. are not exploited any more since about 1990. Among the exotic fish, the catches of Carassius show a significant increase and lately also the catches of Perca and Stisostedion increased. During the last years, also large fishes, herbivores and planktivores like grass carp and big head carp, showed an increase.

In general, both primary and secondary productivity in Lake Skadar is good as it is a shallow lake with sufficient food supply. Probably the main reason for the above-mentioned decline in the catches of some species (especially Twaide shad) is caused by uncontrolled fishing during 1992-2002. Since then the two governments have increased their influence on fishery through organisation of the fishermen and improved licensing. However, law enforcement is minimal due to a lack of funding for fishery inspectors and equipment. To relate catch quantities (number of fishermen/ licenses) to sustainable levels for the various fish species, strict fish catch monitoring is required (including estimates of illegal catches). Only then a realistic policy can be established.

After detailed analysis of all potential and shortcomings in this area, one can make the next section of the current situation and opinions which are manly made during territorial diagnostic (not published) of the Lake Skadar region, within workin groups (consisted of government, NGO, private representatives...), and as part of the office for Pilot project for development of local communities of Lake Skadar work:

Professional associations (unions) do not exist or are underdeveloped in the region of Lake Skadar. Neither farmers nor the fishermen have the adequate associations which would gather them together to jointly solve problems. In order that associations could professionally functioned thay must be registered as a cooperative, so that they are eligible to use the EU pre-accession funds in the coming period for their projects, with whose implementation they would be able to solve most of the problems and to recognize the environmental standards in environmental protection.

Distribution and purchase of products and fish are highlighted as major problems to fishermen and farmers. In this section it is necessary to do expert analysis on the quantity and category of agricultural products and fish to be placed through the purchase in the future. In addition, the association of winemakers need to use the opportunity to present their products legally in shops and restaurants, for

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what in the future it is necessary to educate their members and to register themselves under the new Wine Act (Official Gazette No. 36/07).

Cooperation with the National Park Lake Skadar, is featured as necesity, but also as one of the biggest problems, given that the current cooperation is inadequate. That is the most common address of local producers and fishermen looking for help in solving their problems. Regardless of the situation where in many cases Park Authority does not come to meet local actors, often though, they truly are not able to come out to meet them, because many questions do not fall within the jurisdiction of the Park. At the same time the National Park are required to strengthen control mechanisms and punitive ones, when it comes to poaching, and other illicit activities that deplete local resources.

Tourism

Tourism is seen as an important factor for revitalization of rural areas, creating infrastructure developing, opportunity for new working places, decreasing migrations, income growth and protection of cultural heritage (Lorio and Corsale, 2010).

Lake Skadar region, taking into account its water size, large number of islands and mountain surounding as well as the richness of flora and fauna, climate characteristics, cultural heritage, authentic architecture and traditional landscape as well as closnes to the Adriatic see has a great potential for all the types of tourism. However, according to the international and national regulative, National Park can have revenues from tourism based on a sustainable and non-invasive usage of the resources. There are two types of tourism which are especially attractive in the central part of the Lake Skadar: excursions (most of which on day tour on the boath, than historical and botanical tours, bird watching (stil not fully developed as a product), cave exploring (spelunking) and sport and recreative tourism such as hiking and biking, windsurfing, fishing, kayaking, etc. In the last five years, numerous tourists from the Montenegrin seacoast visited the Lake through more activities: mostly trought boat tours, visits of the reservations (despite the limitation), kayking, windsurfuing, sailing, hiking, sport fisheries, business tourism, etc.

There are potentials for development of eco-tourism offer of the lake such as bird watching; historical and botanical tours; cave exploration; biking and hiking tours, educational tours, gastro and etno tours, etc, many of wich National Park, different national and international ogranisations are already shaping into sucesiful further products.

There are several opstacles for tourisam and tourist products development such as weak cooperation between tourist subject and therefore weak information sharing and development of the area as a region, undeveloped accommodation structure, not fuly developed products (already advertisided), scattered activities not linked and combined in a tourism offer, huge problem of waste, etc.

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Picture 4. Kayaking on Skadar Lake

In the previous years, National Park and especially the local population were oriented towards exploitation of natural resources, primarily fish and birds, but nowadays, according to the official policy, National park is more oriented to the tourism. The number of tourist visitors of the NP has increased from 2004 to 2010, according to the recorded data of the National Park and it was approximately 7,000 tourists for 2004 to 40,242 for 2010. The total number of tourist visited the NP is not presented because there is no official gate for entrance into the park. Visiotrs enter the Park on two informative-control points: Virpazar and Vranjina. The administration of Lake Skadar National Park does not have the actual number of tickets issued for the specific groups of tourists such as bird watchers for example, but they have the exact number of sold tickets for boats (Saveljic, 2009) and for the people visiting visitor centre in Vranjina. The tickets to Park were charged exclusively in segment of excursion tourism, i.e. cruising along the lake. Total number of tourists who in this way visited the Lake in the period from 2005-2009 was 134.399.

In order to deal with excursion tourism in Lake Skadar waters, legal and physical entities providing transport service at the lake were under obligation to conclude the Contract with the National Park.

The excuraion tourism was mostly organized in the form of one-day tours that include lake cruising and siteseeing of natural and cultural-historical values. During the period 2007 – 2009, the Park signed the

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agreement with 50 owners of vessels for passenger transport, and from 2005-2009 24 contracts with owners of catering facilities (CEED 2010). It is the most extensive and prosperous tourist activity at the moment, also because it does not rquire many suportiv facilities such as accommodation and related.

Boat and fishing trips are available on the Lake Skadar, but presently this is a small scale activity. Employment creation is likely to have a positive effect on the local economy. However, it is imperative to ensoure trainings and educations for the quality of service and products.

Initial private initiatives are beginning to take advantage of the opportunities afforded by tourism in the Lake Skadar region, although growth has occurred from a relatively low base. Additionally, some of the activities taking place around Skadar Lake are considered to be largely unprofessional and not always environmentally sound.

However, according to the positive trend in the number of tourists in the last five years, and having in mind that entrance for NP in some years costed 4, 00 Euro per person, tourism could be profitable at least for management of the park and for some owners of boats, as well as for owners of the restaurants in the area. CEED 2010 study gathered some data about the income that population generate from tourism, please see ANNEX II.

Besides excursion tourism, in the Park exist to less extent other forms of tourism such as recreational fishing, hiking, biking, cruising, riding, birdwatching, some of which promoted but not fully developed, bring unsatisfaction of the tourists that visit the area.

National Park Lake Skadar also offers several thematic excursions, but not to the extent that it would constitute a serious tourist offer of this region. Multi-day packages on the Lake Skadar are rare and availability of existing capacity is very small.

The role of National Park is very important in cooperating for tourism development basis as well as for setting up milestones for changings and regulations. The park has been active in strengthening the place and cultural identities of some places and established the Day of the Lake (2nd June) making tourism even more important than it is revealed in the employment statistics.

Regarding the tourist offer of the National Park Lake Skadar, it is important to mention some of the infrastructure that NP Lake Skadar provide most of which are made as a product of international organisations presence and cooperation.

Educational tours facilities: There are four Visitor’s Centres in the National Park Skadar Lake. They are established as educational and informative points serving functions of education, as well as marketing and promotion of the parks, but also generate revenue for National parks. The main and oldest Centre where all national parks of Montenegro are presented is located in Vranjine. The Centre is designed in a way to present cultural and natural values of parks by its amenities (exhibition room, ethno room,

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presentation hall), interactive presentations. It also contains additional supportive parts, visitor souvenir shop, information pull, meeting hall, etc. The Centre is the first step of visitors towards national parks of Montenegro, where they obtain information on National Parks basic facts, their attractiveness and heritage, and tourist information such as tourist products, accommodation facilities, etc. The newest and on the most frequent location in the Park is Visitor centre in Virpazar, where visitor have the opportunity to get information on the Park and about tourist offers of facilities. Thematic centres are in Murići and Rijeka Crnojevića and they present ethno-heritage, olive growing and fishing of the region. The Centres are located in lake dwellings that represent remains of the architecture of this area. However they are not frequently visited by tourist due to its position, and no modalities of park to introduce them as connection points of the bigger and more complex offer, but present potential for further development of tourism.

In National Park Lake Skadar there are two education paths, equipped with educational, interactive and resting accessories, as a new product and function that national parks try to establish. Educational workshops for children are organized on Education Path Lipovik. Other one is in Plavnica.

As a part of educational tourist offer in Skadar Lake area we can also estimate the Educative Eco-Centre although placed in Virpazar. With the well-equipped laboratories and with full accommodation facilities it is place of so called “summer schools” for children in high school and for students. So far those schools were mainly thematic and international by their character.

Hiking and biking facilities: The National Park Skadar Lake has nine hiking pathswith total length of 30km. The paths are equipped with horizontal and vertical signalization. By the level of difficulty, these paths are mostly medium-level ones. Five biking paths 140km long mostly have medium-level of difficulty. The park has two paths 20km long for mountain biking. These paths, as well as mountain biking paths are not equipped with appropriate signalization, because majority of them uses horizontal and vertical signalization of hiking paths. In addition, signalization does not contain so called pictograms, which is a standard for such type of marking. Some hiking paths lack signalization (CEED 2010). In the five year program of NP LS there is a plan for increasing information level available for the tourists, as well as tourist security level increasing.

Bird watching facilities:Observation Towers – Lake Skadar contains four facilities (observation towers 5m high and lifting capacity 10 people), which represent the elements of infrastructure specialized for tourist product – birdwatching. They are located at the most attractive locations and are designed in a way that visitors can use them either individually or with guides. In the vicinity of towers there are no information boards containing focus bird species. Also, some towers have worn out wood constructions. The design is not the best so some of them need to be reshaped to correspond to the need of towers. Also boats and equipment is in hands of NP LS.

Picture 5. Bird-watching on Skadar Lake (source www.npskadarlake.org)

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Wine tours infrastructure:Wine roads are formed as well. In some villages of Crmnica and Riječka area belonging to the lake or in contact zone of Park, wine roads have been established with adequate signalization.

General conclusion of the facilities NP offers in tourism purposes is that it does not enhense in satisfying lelvel enterprenership and involvement of other actors, most importantly local community and private sector. Some of the cooperation level and willingness exist when it comes to the festivals and its organisation, support and promotion what is one of good modalities for exploring posibilities for further development and improuvement of interaction between private, NGO and governmental... Without giving clear directions for development, without indicators for monitoring, NP Lake Skadar is not in possibilities to set up measures for control and prevention of tourist pressure on the protected area.

It is obvious that tourism offer is currently in development in terms of number of tourist who came, the proportion of villagers and organisations involved and investments included. In order to accommodate the increasing number of visitors, tourism enterprises, such as restaurants, boats for cruising were established.

People of the Lake Skadar region are more and more active in tourism offer of the area. Most of them, rent out rooms, make handicrafts, home-made traditional food, vine and honey, souvenirs and sell them mostly or only during the summer season.

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In the recent years it is noticed the development of sailing and rowing activities. In order to develop different aspects of sports tourism, in the beginning it is necessary support, whether from the National Park Lake Skadar or from other institutions in order to make this kind of tourism came to life.

In addition, activities such as nature and culture festival, which is implemented by the Office of the pilot project for the development of the Lake Skadar, as well as many smaller types of events organized by local community in cooperation with NGOs led to the popularization of the lake population, products and attractions, in the cities where people have no culture for going to lake neither for tourist nor for recreational reasons.

Also, in recent years, the lake has recorded significant visit by the so-called ''weekend'' tourists, who had made the innovations of old houses with the aim of staying in on weekends. Their main activity is sport fishing.

At this point, offer of food and drinks is probably the best and most attractive part of tourist services around the lake, and it can be expected further development of the hospitality industry as part of the service sector, typically based on private initiative. Restaurants in the local environment have a reputation for quality leads, typical cuisine, for example, fish dishes and they are a favorite place for locals and tourists. About 10 restaurants, generally offer local cuisine. These objects, with a pleasant ambience, are usually located on the lake (Vranjina, Karuč, Crnojevica, Virpazar, Murici).

Tourist valorization of the lake lies in the great cultural and historical heritage that exists on the lake. All monuments and monumental buildings on the lake are protected by law, and recently have begun to occur and funds to finance their recovery (eg, above the fort Besac Virpazar obtained the funds to complete restoration and bringing destinies).

Accommodation on the lake is quite modest. There are about 30 hotel rooms, with a total of 75 beds. The existing accommodation is mostly found in Virpazar (hotel July 13 and Pelikan, apartments Labeatis). Accommodation has been expanded by opening the facility in Plavnica with about 30-odd rooms and 6 suites. Hotels and accommodations, like Gazivoda are not usable and need to be renovated.

The offer of private accommodation is organized, but there are local people who offer a decent accommodation at very affordable prices. Some of what is not well organized, presented and registerd.

Infrastructure, apart from the main conectiones with the railway, main road and airport is badly developed.

Dominant entrepreneurs in this region are transport providers and excursion organizers as well as accomodation providers as main problems mentioned: Waste and waste water disposal; It is necessary to establish an association that would work on integrated tourist offer of the region; Boost promotion of

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Lake Skadar tourist offer and include it in ovderall tourist offer of Montenegro; There are 8 registered wineries in this region, thus is is necessary to pefrom better promotion of degustation of these wines, etc.

3. INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS

3.1. National government

In Montenegro, the following institutions at the national level are responsible for dealing with issues of development of the NP Lake Skadar region: Ministry of Sustainable development and tourism, Ministry of Economy, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Internal Affairs and European integrations, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development.

Ministry of Sustainable development and tourism, merged previous Ministry of environment and spatial planning and Ministry of tourism,is responsible for the formulation and execution of the national sustainable development and tourism policy. It has a supervisory, and coordinating function in the work of nature protection institutions such as Public Enterprise for National Parks of Montenegro in charge for managing the National Park and it has a key role in protecting biodiversity and managing of protected areas. Its environmental responsibilities include nature protection, biodiversity and protected area management and its legislation. In addition to these, it has a regulatory and coordinating role in communal and spatial planing issues, including waste and wastewater management. Efforts are also focused on the economic development of certain areas, and especially on the assessment of tourism development and conservation of natural values of the Lake Skadar. The sector for tourism of this ministry is inter alia responsible for the promotion of National Parks.

Apart from the institution that is supervised and coordinated by the Ministry in area of protection and management of protected areas, namely Public Enterprise for National Parks of Montenegro (JPNPCG), other institutions involved in the process of monitoring the environmental status and supervised by this ministry too are: Hydrometeorological Institute and the Public Company Center for Ecotoxicological Testing, as well as the Institute for Nature protection and related.

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development is responsible for, among others, the management of water resources (including their protection against pollution), agricultural land, forests, hunting and fishing, economic development in these fields. Several other ministries play a role in the environment of the Lake and its basin, depending on the issue.

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Relevant laws include:

o The Law on National Parks

o The Law on Environment

o The Law on Nature protectione

o The Law on Waters,

o The Law on Freshwater Fishery,

o The Law on Forests,

o The Law on Agricultural Land,

o The Law on tourism,

o The Law on Waste Management,

o The Law on Environmental Impact Assessment

o The Law on Strategic Environmental Assessment

o The Law on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control

o The Law on Waste Management

o The Law on Spatial Planning and Development The Environmental Law regulates relations between human and nature, protection of nature, preventing its from destroying, as well as providing conditions for permanent use of nature. Prohibitions and licencing are also defined by this Law.

Law on Nature Protection defines categories of protection of natural areas in Montenegro.

By Law on National Parks, most of activities are restricted at the Lake Skadar region. If certain activity is planned to be carried out in the region of the Shkoder Lake, it is subject to development of an Environment Intervention Impact Assessment and this assessment includes an intervention analysis and expert reports that are forwarded to the Ministry of Sustainable development and Tourism for approval. The Ministry is in charge of approving or rejecting the intervention.

Also, Law on National Parks provides managing, using, protection and improvement of National Parks.

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Montenegro is a signatory to a large number of international agreements which form the foundation to long term sustainable development. Also, accession to the EU is a long-term goal within Montenegro’s overall development strategy. Harmonisation with EU Legislation, particular those relating to environmental protection, is therefore of importance to the Ministry of Sustainable development and tourism. Some of the agreements and Directives are listed in the annex III of this document.

Public Company for National Parks of Montenegro was founded in 1993 pursuant to the Law on National Parks, as the management body that manages natural and cultural resources of a protected area of the National Parks. The Public Enterprise for National Parks is responsible for protecting, promoting and managing the four Montenegrin national parks: Biogradska Gora, Lovcen, Durmitor and Lake Skadar. Two basic functions of the National Parks are: (i) protection of natural and cultural resources, i.e. physical protection in a form of the monitoring service which operates on the field and which records and report to the inspections all types of illegal activities (illegal construction, illegal fishing, felling trees, etc.) and (ii) development, in terms of education, increase of awareness and implementation of specific projects related to tourism, focusing on nature – oriented tourism (walking, cycling, bird watching) and in accordance with the protection of the environment, as well as promotion and education: educational campaigns, educational workshops, etc. There are two main documents in the purpose of managing NP are: Spatial plan for NPs and Five year program of protection and development. Chart of their structure is given in the Annex I.

NPss revenue is partly generated by the collection of fees and charges levied on fishing, wood cutting, sand extraction (Lake Skadar) and other economic activities such as tourism, some from the taxes, some from the ticket entery fees, some as a subsidy for the government, etc.

National Park Lake Skadar is the organizational unit of the Public Company National Park of Montenegro. It management authority is directly involved in the protection and management of the Lake and its shores. The NPLS has a 5 year programme (2011-2015) and annual plans for the conservation and development of the park.

Given that the Lake Skadar is of a particular interest for Montenegro, it is under the jurisdiction of the institutions at the national level. National Park Lake Skadar, as a key institution in the management and protection of the Lake, operates within the Ministry of Sustainable development and tourism. However, there is a need for a clear cooperation and coordination between relevant ministries, as well as between national and local institutions that have an impact on the Lake Skadar as well as the clearer division of the roles and responsabilities (CEED 2010). Also NPs are structures that function on the top down level approach, and therefore local communities are neglected in the desidion, plans and program making ans well as in the activities, leaving local issues aside as a constant conflict and confrontation to the protection authorities. Among others reasons this is why there is a need for bottom up systemintroduction and involvement of local communities.

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Moreover, there is indication and willingness from the national level authorities to form regional organizational management body for Lake Skadar together with Cetinje region (eg. Destination Management Organisation; Regional Agency, or relevant) as a cluster system, noted in the Tourism Master Plan of 2020, as a form of a new organizational set up.

Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro and Albania in the area of Lake Skadar has been formalized by signing two Memoranda from the side of two relevant ministries. The first is a Memorandum of Understanding on environmental protection and implementation of the principle of sustainable development between Montenegro and Albania. The agreement was designed with the support of the REC and signed in 2003 by the Ministry of Environment of Montenegro and Albania. By doing so, the two countries commit to conserve the natural resources of Lake Skadar in a coordinated and integrated manner and to improve the relevant national level regulatory and institutional capacities. Both governments show their willingness to cooperate in improving the protection and management of the Lake and its resources. Taking that opportunity crossborder forum has been formed with representatives of different institutions relevant for the mentioned issues.

A development in bilateral co-operation was the joint inauguration by the Prime-ministers of the two countries of the international workshop on “Lake Skadar international designations for territorial development” on 18-19 October 2005 in Vranjina (Montenegro) and Shkodra, conducted by international organizations like UNDP, UNESCO, IUCN and others.

Last, the two Ministers of environment signed Declaration of Lake Day, precising that third week of June will be every year celebrated as Skadar Lake Day.

The second agreement is a memorandum on cooperation in protection and sustainable development of the Lake Skadar, signed between the ministries in February 2008 (CEED 2010).

3.2. Local government

Local governments play an important role because of their direct involvement in physical planning and implementation of urban development, and in acts that regulate the use of areas adjacent to the National Parks. They can have considerable impact in the Park management by controlling (and monitoring) illegal construction of buildings that are considered as a huge issue nowdays. Institutions at the local level in Montenegro recognized the issue of illegal construction and take steps for its resolution. Further, their responsibilities and authorities extend to the management and operation of public utility services such as municipal (solid) waste, water supply and sanitation. The inspectorates for these public utilities are organized within local administration.

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and ethnic entities, where entity is representing a wider socio-economic area consisting of more settlements: Krajina and Crmnica in the municipality of Bar; Rijeka entity in the municipality of Cetinje; Ljesanska entity, Zeta and Malesija in the municipality of Podgorica in the north side of Lake Skadar. The most important role of local authorities is related to the management of communal waste and wastewaters, through their public companies, which is regulated by the Law on Waste Management (Official Gazette 80/05). The Capital of Cetinje, the Capital Podgorica and the Municipality Bar by improper waste water treatment and waste management directly affect the quality of water of the Lake Skadar and hence its ecosystem. In addition, there are also Municipality of Niksic and Danilovgrad that significantly contribute to the amount of wastewaters which thorugh the river of Moraca get at the water of the Lake Skadar (CEED 2010). Three municipalities, Podgorica, Cetinje and Bar, have two levels in the management of the NP Lake Skadar. They act as protection institutions as well as resource users (SAP 2007). These local bodies are directly related to the park management and preservation because of their responsibility for managing municipal solid waste and wastewater (through Public Enterprises). They are also the sources of funding for the Public Enterprises. However, they have limited budget and, as a consequence, shifts their interests towards the use of the Lake’s resources through different economic activities.

A disharmony within a decision-making process was noticed and a competence over certain decisions was questioned between authorities at national and local level. However, all institutions have shown willingness to include development of this area into their development plans (CEED 2010). The intersection of problems between NP Lake Skadar and Municipalities roughly sometimes ends on the level where when requested NP authorities gives opinion to the development plans and programmes of municipalities, supervised by Ministry of Economy.

Important to note is establishment of Local tourist organizations in each municipality. According to Law of tourism organizations, LTOs are established to improve and promote tourist products in relationship with Strategy of Promotion Montenegrin Tourism on the local and republic level and to support its inclusion in Europe and world tourist trends and market. They should be responsible for: (i) improving of general conditions for tourist staying trough forming complete tourist offer, raising quality of tourist and other complementary services, preserving and making recognizable and attractive tourist ambient of site that they are established for; (ii) awareness development, regarding the importance of tourism, and economical, socio and other tourism effects, about the need and importance of preserving and improving all the tourist product elements of the certain place, especially environment protection;and (iii) enhancing development of tourist infrastructure and providing information for tourists.

The problem the region with this institutional set up is facing is micro orientation of the LTO in territorial and functional aspects, where the competences and work is finish with the promotional activities.

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3.3. Other stakeholders

Agency for Environment Protection is the administration body responsible for activities related to environmental protection. Within its authorities, the Agency: issues licenses, monitors, prepare analysis and reports, perform inspection activities, establishes communication with the relevant national and international bodies and organizations, as well as with the public and also execute other tasks stipulated by law and regulations.

Agency for Environmental Protection within its regular activities carries out regular physical-chemical and instrumental analysis of water and air in the Ecological Laboratory of a Business Unit “Quality Control” in KAP. It also monitors the quality of surface and groundwater within KAP and its surroundings (CEED 2010).

Institute for Protection of Nature is institution whose mission is the protection and conservation of protected natural objects (i.e. natural monuments, nature reservates and protected plant and animal species). The Institute is responsible for implementing nature protection policies and its function is executed through: keeping a record on an inventory of the protected natural goods; proposing measures for protection of nature to relevant authorities; identification of natural resources in need for a special protection status; conducting research and monitoring projects for protection and preservation of nature; preparation of plans and programs for improvement in protected natural objects, providing expert opinions on the project documentation and spatial plans, etc. With regard to the Lake Skadar, the Institute had activities related to the placement under protection, making the study for spatial plans and programs for protection and development of the Lake what is now under the responsibility of Public Enterprise for NP. They should conduct research and monitoring of flora and fauna in the NPs, which is under their mandate.

Natural History Museum keeps the extraordinary collection of flora, fauna and geological samples, and provides expertise in the studies of biodiversity. With regard to the Lake Skadar, a Museum’s particularly important activity is a regular winter bird counting.

Center for Eco-toxicological Research (CETI) i Hydrometeorological Institute (HMZ) are key institutions responsible for monitoring the environment in Montenegro through its regular activities, or based on special agreements, these institutions monitor the quality and concentration of pollutants in various elements of the natural environment - air, water and soil. Program of monitoring of water and water resources is especially important regarding the management of the Lake Skadar and therefore CETI has an important role in monitoring pollutions that industries brings into the waters, espetialy KAP. HMZ keeps an electronic database with a series of data on a water quality for a longer period. This database includes options that enable connection and sharing of data, extrapolation and trend analysis. Their reports are shared with NP Lake Skadar authorities.

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Department of Biology at the Faculty of Natural Science has grown from the Institute for Bio-Medical Research. Until 1980s, almost all of the projects that the Institute has worked on referred to the Lake Skadar and from the time onward there have been investigated other mainland and water ecosystems (natural Lakes, artificial Lakes, river flows) as well, for the Republic of Montenegro’s purposes, i.e. energy sector, fishing households (CEED 2010). The Department is an institution that should define a fish base of the Lake Skadar, which would be considered a base for assessement of the fishing volume from the Lake.

CANU (Montenegrin Academy for science and art) in terms of Lake Skadar intervention, last several years togather with the Albenian academy for science and art has been working on the project “Regulation of water regime of Lake Skadar waters and river bed of Bojana River”.

Goal of CANU at the first phase of the project is to free up about 5.000ha of arable land in the territory of Montenegro by regulation of water of the Skadar Lake and rivers of Drim and Bojana. The idea is to deepen a riverbed and to make a river dam, boat route, fish trace that will enable natural communication with the Lake. So far, the land has been flooded several times and inhabitants of Zeta do have the right to use this land. At the second phase of the project, additional 14.800ha of arable land would be gained (CEED 2010).

Expert services of the Institute for Protection of Cultural Monuments created a number of projects for conservation and presentation of sites on the Lake Skadar. Thirty-three cultural monuments have been legally protected in the close and broad surroundings of the Lake Skadar. Determination of a protected zone is in progress, as well as a creation of rehabilitation program for degraded monuments (CEED 2010).

Office for Sustainable development has been concearn with environment and sustainable development, questions about ecological state of Montenegro on strategic level, nowdays incorporated in Ministry for SD&T

Derectorate for development of small and medium sized enterprise has a mission to give institutional preconditional development educational and promotional support to the SMEs and entrepreneurship development.

3.4. International organizations

During the past few years, a number of international organizations had a significant role in the management of the Lake Skadar. Activities of these organizations ranged from the support to NGOs and technical assistance to institutions for the protection of nature, to financing a number of research, promotion and investment projects. A large number of institutions for the protection of nature and NGOs develop a long-term cooperation with various international organizations. International

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cooperation is particularly important given the global importance of eco-system of the Lake Skadar and a low-level domestic capacity for nature conservation and biodiversity management (CEED 2010).

In the process of European integration, ever more important is the role of the European Commision Delegation in Montenegro. Given that Montenegro and Albania are potential candidates for membership in the European Union, there is a possibility of shared access to EU funds. At this moment, IPA Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro - Albania component of EU IPA funds is active from the following areas: economic development with an emphasis on tourism promotion, protection and improvement of the environment and improvement of a social cohesion through people-to-people activities. Several IPA project are dealing with the issues in the Lake Skadar region, such as this one.

The office for Pilot project for development of local communities of Lake Skadar which is part of the Regional program for cultural and natural heritage of South east Europe is a Councile of Europe.

The most important program for the regon of Lake Skadar at the moment is WB/GEF program, Lake Skadar Integrated Ecosystem Management Project (LSIEMP). The overall objective of the LSIEMP is to assist the governments of Albania and Montenegro in achieving more sustainable use of the natural resources of Lake Skadar and its watershed. The global environment objective of the project is to reduce pollution and conserve Lake and its biodiversity as an internationally important natural habitat, especially for water birds. The project is implemented by World Bank (WB). The main objective of the project is preparation of joint broad-based, integrated, 10-year Strategic Action Plan (SAP) for improving environmental management and supporting sustainable economic use of the natural resources of Skadar Lake and the surrounding watershed area. The SAP is expected to serve as a framework and blueprint to guide and coordinate cross-boundary and cross-sectoral actions of Governments, donors and private sector investors.

This program focuses on the protection of natural resources, thought economic activities are treated in a limited way - as a prevention and control, obviously not supportive, not offering opportunities for income and employment in line with sustainable development. Although called integrated, they still lack the concepts of linking different interests and requirements - both spatially and sectoral - in a coherent way.

REC had a lead a Trans-boundary Management of Shared Natural Resources – Skadar Lake SiteOctober 2000 – 31 December 2006 as already mentioned.

GTZ have made it presence trought The Cross-boundary spatial planning Lake Scutari region, Albania and Montenegro-05/2006 – 10/2007 and Support to Tourism Destinations in the Hinterland of Montenegro- 01/2006-12/2010 projects. At the moment Green management is in focus of their activities on the Lake dealing with Green management for shippers, Green management for restaurant managers and owners and Green Management for wine cellars owners.

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There been several organisation that left the trace in the Lake Skadar region such as: EURONATUR, present in the area and wider as a consultancy body for different documents and plans;USD IRD with several projects for improuving tourist product of the NP Lake Skadar; UNESCO with „Bicucle trought Balcan “initiative and M&B training; as well as the UNDP, SNV, etc.

3.5. Non-governmental organizations, associations and media

NGO sector in general, and particularly NGOs in the field of environment, experienced a great expansion during the last decade. Due to that, both in terms of a number of existing organizations and the scope of their projects, environmental NGOs have become an important actor in the management of the Lake Skadar, and their importance continues to grow. Various projects related to the Lake Skadar, which were implemented in recent years by NGOs (and currently in progress), had a positive effect on the protection and management of the Lake. The most significant outcomes of activities undertaken by the NGO sector are increased general awareness on pressures on the Lake and its resources, improvements in promoting the value of Lake and international cooperation (with Albania and other countries) and specific improvements related to the protection of certain species and habitats. In recent period, the main donors for NGOs’ activities were international organizations, while the share of domestic sources of finance is still quite low (CEED 2010). The most prominent ones are: NGO “Green home”, NGO “Expeditio”, NGO “Centar za zaštitu i proučavanje ptica” (Center for protection and research of birds), which are nationaly presented, than, NGO Educo centar, and local ones: NGO “DANI SKADARSKOG JEZERA” (Days of Lake Skadar), NGO “Godinje”, than, NGO “Eko turističko udruženje Karuč” (Eco- tourist association Karuc), NGO “Crmnicom na konju” (Crmnica on the horse), NGO “Outdoor club”, NGO “Skadarsko jezero” (Lake Skadar) Also there are many association, such as: Agricultural producers, Wine growers, Fisherman, Sport-fisherman club, Sport-fishermen club-Podgorica, Mountain club, Kayak club Moraca, Podgorica, Wind surfing club Pelikan, Baloon club Buducnost, etc.

Media represent another important group of social actors, whose role is particularly important for raising public awareness and promotion of the Lake. Montenegrin print and electronic media devote more attention to the Lake Skadar and are also more and more invited to tackle the problems of the environment. Current projects and initiatives of NGOs and institutions for protection of nature, international cooperation and good practice examples and governance are generally well covered by all local and national level media. The same holds true for reporting on the floods, incidents and every-day management problems as it is staded in the CEED study.

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3.6. Local communities

Pilot project for development of local communities of Lake Skadar activated several local communities such as: Crmnica, Virpazar, Tuzi, Vuksanlekići – Podhum, Rvaši, Vranjina, Rijeka Crnojevića, Ostros, Mrkojevići, Šestani, Dodoši, Drušići, Vranj, Gostilj, Balabani, Donja Zeta, Mataguži and Vukovci Ponari

None of the villages on the shore of the Lake Skadar has documented (other than photo and descriptive), monumental-historical values. The exception is Godinje where NGO EXPEDITIO organized an architectural workshop and published their results. A number of whole setlements and individual buildings have architectural value of traditional architecture authentic objects, and all the villages, whether they are permanent settlements, fishing setlements and mill villages have ambiental value. Also, it is important not to forget that many of them bordering on or in your district have a protected monuments or objects of importance in their vicinity or insaide their borders.

3.7. Private sector

Private enterprises and local businesses such as hotels, handicrafts shops, tourist agencies, fish markets, hunting clubs, restaurants, catering services etc., are another group of stakeholders. Some of them are: “Kings”Companies of travel tourist boats; restorans: “Poslednjaluka”, “Mostina”, “Badanj” ”Venezia” “Stari most”, “Ploče” “Crmnica” “Vidikovac”, Restoran and hotel “Pelikan”, Complex “Plavnica”, etc.

4. INFRASTRUCTURE

4.1. Water Supply, (CEED 2010)

The rural population has several sources of water supply:

- organized by urban waterworks,

- through public rural waterworks,

- through their own waterworks and

- independent sources.

The Area of Krajina – In the whole area of Krajina there are no reliable water springs, not even to supply the amount of 0.5 liters/sec. In these dry areas, the only possible way to provide water is to build

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cisterns on higher ground, while wells are used in lower districts. In the lowlands there are underground springs. An example of these is a household from “Bobovista”, which has dug a well producing approx. 7 liters/sec. for land irrigation.

The Area of Crmnica – The area of Virpazar, which is situated in the National Park, has solved the problem of water supply by accessing the springs of Dobre vode and Josevik (2-3 1/sec) and it draws spring water from a drilled well near the field Orahovsko. Productivity of this well is around 70 l/sec. The capacity of this waterworks is around 10 l/sec, which is accumulated in a built-in aggregate, but all these facilities can produce at a significantly higher capacity. There is a possibility for water supply on a long- term basis, and not just in Virpazar, but in all villages surrounding it. Other districts of this area are supplied with water from smaller local springs and separate cisterns.

The Area of Rijeka Crnojevica, the largest settlement within a broader region, has a constructed system of waterworks. Due to the low productivity of the spring in Studenac, especially during the summer, this system cannot provide for the growing water supply needs. The waterworks system was reconstructed in 1978, which has not significantly improved the water supply in Rijeka Crnojevica, and thus it is necessary to seek better solutions. Other districts of this area are supplied with water from local springs and cisterns, but the level is not satisfactory, because of the low capacity of the existing springs.

The Area of Zeta is rich in underground waters and it is easy to reach by digging shallow wells. However, inappropriate building of cesspits, storage of dung and other similar activities has started to pollute the well waters. According to the bacteriological water analysis conducted, around 70% of wells do not meet the Regulations on Quality of Drinking Water. Water samples show that the water is polluted by a number of sewage sources. The reason for this high percentage of organic contamination is in poor, i.e. inappropriate cesspits, as well as the vicinity of the dump, cowsheds and other sources of contamination. Apart from these organic pollutants, increased Ph value was detected (up to 10.7) in villages of Srpska, Cijevna, Ljajkovici, Mahala, Boljevici, and Bijelo Polje. Disinfection of existing wells for potable water supply, according to submitted changes of pollution (presence of sewage, organic resolution and other), is practically impossible, especially in part of the Zetska Valley, near the Aluminum Plant. For these reasons, the waterworks of Gornja Zeta is under construction and nearing completion.

A waterworks system drawing water from the spring of Mareza, which supplies the city of Podgorica, also supplies the local community of Golubovci. In spite of exerted efforts from the Municipality and organizations such as IRD, Zetska Valley still does not have water supply infrastructure, to a large extent. The local population still uses water from wells for drinking and cooking.

Upon water supply analysis in Skadar Lake region iz is important to consider the fact that almost all respondents - 97.5% lived in houses. Also, in areas where we have conducted research there are houses

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with the traditional method of construction. Almost two fifths of respondents said that the surface of their house ranged between 100 and 130 m2. The average house floor area was 108.5 m2.

When it comes to water supply - Graph 1, about three-quarters (74.5%) of respondents said that their residential facility was not connected to the water supply network. More detailed analysis by local self- governmenst showed that a high percentage of respondents from the area of Lake Skadar, which belong to the capital Podgorica, had no access to water supply network; in contrast, respondents from Bar and Cetinje said they had the connection, as shown on the Graph 2. Out of the total number of respondents who had access to the water supply network, two-thirds paid the bill for water consumed, which on average amounted 7 €.

Graph 1. Connection to the water supply Graph 2. Connection to the water supply network network by municipalities

16,0% Podgorica 84,0% 25,5% Yes 87,5% Cetinje 12,5%

66,7% 74,5% No Bar 33,3%

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Yes No

Water supply issue in the Skadar Lake has not yet been adequately resolved. The smaller places have no developed hydro-technical infrastructure and water is supplied from groundwater sources using pumps, wells, cisterns, etc

In the following areas, all respondents said that they had access to the water supply network: Vranjina, Drešaj, Rijeka Crnojevića, Dodoši, Drušići, Zabljak, Bobija, Boljević, Virpazar, Godinje, Sotonići and Besi.

Less than four fifths of respondents (78.3%) were satisfied with a supply of water and stated that there was sufficient water in any time. The respondents most often were supplied with water from the tap in a house (46.0%), tap in the yard (21.0%) or from the well (17.1%), Graph 3. When it comes to the quality of water, about three fifths of respondents (61.8%, Graph 4) were "concerned" with the quality of drinking water.

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Every second respondent was not sure whether any of the members of the household had a health problem that was caused by a low level quality of drinking water.

Graph 3. Sources of water Graph 4. Satisfaction with the water quality

Taps in household 46,0% Taps outside household 21,0% 61,8% Public taps 2,0% Yes Well 17,1% River/stream 2,0% Lake 0,0% 38,2% Vendor 9,1% No Cisterna 2,8%

0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80

Respondents that said to have no water (7.6%) live in the following settlements: Sukuruć, Kontrabudan, Podhum, Vukovci, Drešaj and Balaban. Most of them supply with water from wells and buy bottled water, while nine respondents (75.0%) were concerned about the quality of drinking water.

Almost all respondents said that had not participated in the discussions that were related to managing of water supply and land.

4.2. Traffic (CEED 2010)

National and regional roads: Main road M-2 Debeli Brijeg-Petrovac-Podgorica- Ribarevina towards Serbia, which is marked as E-65 and E-80 in the European Road Network; Main road M-18 Šćepan polje- Nikšić-Podgorica-Božaj (Albanian border), which in the Europeean Road Network is marked as E-762; Main roads M-2.3 Podgorica–Cetinje-Budva and M-2.4 Petrovac-Ulcinj-Sukobin, European mark E-752; Regional road R-16 Virpazar-Ostros-Vladimir; Main road Bar – tunnel Sozina – Virpazar – Podgorica – Kolašin – Mojkovac – Ribarevina – Bijelo Polje – border with Serbia, this road is Route 4 (Core Network), while in national nomenclature this route is a part of main road M-2, and in European Road Network is E- 65 and E – 80. Railway: Belgrade – Bar which belongs to the international railway network of "E" railways. By AGC Agreement, railway Belgrade-Bar was allocated the international number E-79.

Airport: Airport Podgorica, Golubovci, 190° GEO, 8KM from Railway station Podgorica.

Access to main traffic routes and railway traffic: The Lake Skadar National Park area is well connected with its surroundings, due to the traffic infrastructure and its close vicinity to the Port of Bar and Podgorica Airport. The so-called Adriatic highway or main road passes through this part of the park, i.e.

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Debeli Brijeg – Petrovac – Ribarevina - Republic of Serbia. Also, the highway Scepan Field – Niksic – Podgorica – Bozaj (on the border crossing with Albania) passes through the park. One part of the road from Podgorica to Tuzi meets the requirements of a highway, while the part of road from Tuzi to Albania does not, because the asphalt surface of the road is not wide enough.

The highway Virpazar – Ostrog – Vladimir passes through the park, but does not meet technical requirements, because of its insufficient width of asphalt road. Highway Podgorica – Cetinje – Budva runs in the vicinity of the park, as well as the highway Petrovac – Ulcinj – Sukobin. The road from Podgorica to Cetinje and part of the road from Petrovac to Ulcinj meet the requirements of a highway, but part of the road from Ulcinj to Sukobin does not, because of low broad track (5.0 m) and the technical characteristics of the road.

Local roads, which contribute to the interaction of settlements, are:

- Rijeka Crnojevica – Virpazar,

- Virpazar – Bar,

- Golubovci – Plavnica,

- Carev Laz – Rijeka Crnojevica, including connections of this road with Prevlaka and Dodosi,

- Joining of highway Virpazar – Ostrog – Vladimir, towards the settlements of Krnjice, Murici, Boboviste, and Ckla.

Better traffic links are obtained through electrification of the railway route Belgrade – Bar. There are facilities and shelters at the Zeta and Virpazar stations, whereas in Vranjina there is no depot, only a standing platform. The Port of Bar is located 45 km away from Skadar Lake, and can be reached by highway Bar – Petrovac – Virpazar. The Port of Bar is connected with Ancona, Kopra and Drac through regular lines. The Airport “Golubovci” is 15 km away from Skadar Lake, which means that Podgorica is connected with the cities of Europe and the Balkans by airlines.

The most significant fact in the context of traffic connection of the Park is the announced construction investment in Montenegro – highway Bar-Boljare, which one part must go through water aquatory of the park.

Lake Traffic: Navigation on the Skadar Lake, including the mouth and riverbed oftheBojana is as old as the lake itself. It was first mentioned in historical sources during the Illyrian-Roman war. This activity was especially intensive during Venice’s reign over Skadar. Later on, for a long time, navigation was conducted throughout the various conflicts between the Turks and the Montenegrins for hegemony over the Lake. In the second half of the XIX century, in somewhat altered historical circumstances,

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navigation over the Lake was fully affirmed, owing to international navigation routes passing through Skadar Lake and the Bojana River, established in 1878 by the Congress of Berlin. This resulted in the appearance of steamships, building of roads and traffic routes, and, at a later time, the appearance of railway routes (Bar – Vir and Podgorica – Plavnica.

There are regular traffic routes between Rijeka Crnojevica, Ploce, Podkomarna, Virpazar, Plavnica, Krnjica, Murici, Osrosa, Ckla and Skadar. The Contract between FNRY and NR Albania (from 1953) on the prevention and solving of border incidents explicitly prohibited passage over the Yugoslav – Albanian border across the Lake, in civil or military vessels, which connects the Bojana River with the sea. By construction of modern traffic over the Lake, passenger traffic and freight transport lost its importance and in 1981 this traffic was terminated. Since then, sailing routes and facilities have gradually been abandoned. Today, the only way to organize sailing is through seasonal tourist excursion trips over the lake with modern boats. Some trips are done for fishing purposes, with many small boats owned and operated by shoreline residents and with a few boats of the Fishing Company from Rijeka Crnojevica. The condition of sailing routes is dissatisfactory, the lake depth is unreliable (depth was last measured in 1963), and canals are completely or partly filled up. Regarding the security sector, the railway tracks are not fully marked and lighthouses are out of operation.

Nowadays, many tourist ships cruise along the lake organizing sruising tours from Vranjine, Virpazar and Plavnica. The cruising takes place in direction of Krajina making tour of the islands Beška, Moračnik and Starčevo, going further down towards Rijeka Crnojevića.

Ptt Traffic and Telecommunications: The Existing PTT system in the area of the National Park enables maintaining (functioning) in the first line, of telephone traffic in the settlements located inside the borders of the Park. It is important to mention the exchange line in Virpazar, through which most of connections of the park go, as well as some smaller PTT area exchanges (Rijeka Crnojevica, etc.). Speaking of mobile telephony, this area is covered by three mobile providers. The system of radio connections is put in place throughout the park area, which is used for the needs of watch service. This system enables connection with the Park headquarters, and also direct connection with the service on duty in Podgorica.

The existing PTT system in Skadar Lake area enables functioning of telephone traffic in settlements. Majority of respondents (74.5%) has landline in the house, while one third has internet connection, Graph 5.

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Graph 5. Do you have the landline?

74,5% Yes

25,5% No

0 20 40 60 80 100

The largest PTT system station is in Virpazar through which most of the lines for the area go, as well as some minor telephone stations. Nowadays, a large area of Skadar Lake basin was covered by the signal of all three mobile providers, but still, modernizataion of the system with cable and optical transmission system is required.

4.3. Disposal of Waste Waters, (CEED 2010)

Sewage system is set in place by separate system. The filtration system is substandard, not enabling the filtration of communal wastewaters. At this moment, the capacity of the collector covers 20% of wastewaters in the city of Podgorica. Industrial wastewater discharged into the municipal sewage system is not controlled for the Ph value and toxicity. Wastewaters of the Aluminum Plant are not appropriately filtered, which especially refers to the toxic wastewater resulting from aluminum production waste materials, which is discharged into a special pool with mining rubbish.

In research, only 5.7% of respondents said they had sewage system connection.

4.4. Ambience Hygene System (Waste management), (CEED 2010)

In the National Park Lake Skadar operates Ambience Hygene and Infrastructure Maintenance Service, whose main task is to keep clean the most frequent tourist water corridors, hiking abnd biking paths, fortresses. There are 83 locations in Park area where there are either smaller or bigger dumps of heterogeneous waste. The previous Protection and Development Program 2005-2010, waste management measures were not anticipated in 2009. Due to heavy rainfalls that caused emerging of large quantities of waste in the lake area, the inventory of locations containing waste was made as well as Operational Plan for waste removal from endangered locations. Waste management within the Park

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could be established in cooperation with Utility services from Cetinje, Podgorica and Bar. Educational workshops with local population on the importance of preserving ambience hygene are missing.

There are conventional waste water treatment devices in Virpazar and Rijeka crnojevića, as well as biological waste water treatment devices in National Park’s facility in Vranjine and tourst complex Plavnica.

5. HUMAN POPULATION AND STRUCTURE (CEED 2010)

The area of Lake Skadar lies on the territory of three municipalities, namely: Podgorica (capital of Montenegro), Cetinje (old historical capital) and Bar (port). It comprises the following social, economic, and ethnic entities, where entity is representing a wider socio-economic area consisting of more settlements: Krajina and Crmnica in the municipality of Bar; Rijeka entity in the municipality of Cetinje; Ljesanska entity, Zeta and Malesija in the municipality of Podgorica in the north side of Lake Skadar.

Social assessment for Lake Skadar involved 40 settlements, which belong to National Park or its frontier part and according to Census 2003 total number in these settlements are 12,474. The highest number of inhabitants is concentrated in the settlements which belong to municipality Podgorica – 10,288, while the rest belongs to municipalities Bar (1,668) and Cetinje (518) (SAP, 2007).

Settlements Virpazar and Rijeka Crnojevica only had urban characteristics. In the settlements with urban characteristics only live 553 inhabitants or 4% while in rural statements these number is much higher and it is 11,921 or 96%.

Graph6: Structure of inhabitants in the urban and rural settlements in the Skadar Lake area

According to Physical Plan of National Park Skadar Lake from 2001, territory of the Park involved 17 settlements which number of inhabitants is between 6 and 543.

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Analyses of demographic moves, which involved settlements, which administratively belong to the Park, as well as the settlements, which are directly, recline on the Park, indicated absolute decreasing in the number of inhabitants in long-term period. In the last ten years, decrease is slower, what is more result of demographic exhaustion than undertaken actions on consolidation and improvement of Lake and its surrounding.

5.1. Population

Skadar Lake basin has a total surface of about 5,500 km2 inhabited by 500,000 people, mostly located in the following towns of Montenegro: Podgorica, Nikšić, Cetinje and Danilovgrad (65% of inhabitants), and in the city of Skadar in Albania.

The municipalities of Podgorica and Bar have had a growing number of inhabitants in the last 15 years, unlike the municipality of Cetinje, which has had a long period of stagnation and a strong indication towards negative demographic trends. Considering its population, the municipality of Podgorica covers over 70% of the total population of the National Park, and its dominance and influence on demographic trends is evident.

Table 3. Population by municipalities

Municipality 1971 1981 1991 2003 20081

Podgorica 98796 132290 152025 169132 178677

Bar 27580 32535 37321 40037 42214

Cetinje 22024 20213 20307 18482 17715

Ukupno 148400 185038 209653 227651 238606

Crna Gora 529604 584310 615035 620145 628804

Source: Statistical Yearbook 2009

1 Estimation on number of inhabitants in the middle of the year 43 | Page

Table 4.Basic Characteristic of Municipalities

Municipality Surface km2 Number of Number of Population density inhabitants settlements

Podgorica 1441 169.132 143 117,4

Bar 598 40.037 83 67

Cetinje 910 18.482 98 20,3

Source: Census 2003

The study included 40 settlements, belonging to the National Park or its boundary part. According to the 2003 Census, the total number of inhabitants in these settlements is 12.474. The highest concentration of inhabitants is in the city and surrounding towns of the municipality of Podgorica – 10.288, while the rest (1.668) belong to the municipalities of Bar and Cetinje (518). The settlements of Virpazar and Rijeka Crnojevića are the only ones with urban characteristics, with only 553 inhabitants or 4%, while in rural settlements this number is much higher and amounts to 11.921 or 96%.

According to the Physical Plan of Skadar Lake National Park of 2001, the territory of the Park includes 17 settlements having between 6 and 543 inhabitants.

Analyses of demographic trends, which involve settlements that administratively belong to the Park, as well as those directly adjacent to the Park, indicate an absolute decrease in the number of inhabitants on a long-term basis. In the last ten years, the decrease has been slower, which is more a result of demographic exhaustion than actions undertaken to consolidate and improve the lake and its surroundings.

5.2. Socio’economic entities in the Skadar Lake territory

In order to get better insight into the demographics characteristics it is important to consider the settlements of Skadar Lake in terms of the existing social and economic entities. The territory of Skadar Lake comprises the following social, economic, and ethnic entities, where entity represents a wider socio-economic area consisting of several settlements:

· Krajina and Crmnica in the municipality of Bar

· Rijeka entity in the municipality of Cetinje

· Ljesanska entity, Zeta and Malesija in the municipality of Podgorica.

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In each of these entities, settlements differ in terms of size, predominant activity, lifestyle of inhabitants, and also in terms of national and religious affiliation.

Krajina – spreads along the shoreline of the lake. It is consisted of 22 rural settlements (8 in Ostros and 14 in Šestani) with 5444 inhabitants. Settlements are relatively isolated from the municipality of Bar. The local municipality center is Mali Ostros. Settlements Ckla, Martići, Bobovište, Besi, Donji Murići, and Dračevica have indirect contact with the lake, although it is a significant resource for their inhabitants. The number of inhabitants is stable in the settlements of Krajina entity, which allows for an organized quality of life.

Crmnica connects the seacoast with the continental part of Montenegro. It includes 24 settlements with 1.800 inhabitants (the village of Godinje is in this area – a symbol of rural uniqueness, and Poseljani – especially interesting for its large number of mills). The adjoining villages indirectly border on the lake: Krnjice, Seoca, Godinje, Boljevići, Vir, Orahovo, Braćeni, Kruševica and Komarno. The few settlements of the Crmnica entity demonstrate the decrease in the number of inhabitants. Some settlements, such as Krnjice could become uninhabited. Considering the small size of the settlements, it is very difficult to organize certain activities.

Riječka nahija is situated on the west and northwestern shoreline of Skadar Lake. The following settlements are situated in the Park: Dodoši, Donje Selo, Žabljak, Prevlaka, Rijeka Crnojevića, Šinđon and Vranjina. These settlements (apart from Vranjina, which belongs to the municipality of Podgorica) administratively belong to the municipality of Cetnje. Many are located on islands and peninsulas, representing the specific characteristics of this area, in general, too smalland with inadequate infrastructure routes. The area’s major city is Rijeka Crnojevica, which also has urban characteristics and represents the entity’s administrative center. The expansion of the municipality of Podgorica, and to some extent, the municipality of Cetinje, has caused migration from this area. Agriculture and fishing as fundamental activities no longer have priority, and industry is gradually replacing traditional livelihoods.

The Rijeka Entity includes Rijeka Crnojevica, it has 37 village settlements with a total of 1,727 inhabitants. Donja Sela, Dujeva, Riječani, Oćevići, Šindjon, Drušići, Bobija, and especially Rijeka, Prevlaka, Dodoši, Žabljak and Vranjina, are closely linked to the lake. The climate is suitable for planting various fruits (figs, mulberries, grapes, and pomegranates). Apart from agriculture and livestock breeding, inhabitants also engage in trade and fishing; the fish trade is especially important.

Lješanska nahija, is situated in the northwestern side of Skadar Lake with the local community center Barutana. The only coastal settlements in Ljesanska nahija are Begova Glavica, Bridje and Goljemadi. The climate is moderate, which is a good prerequisite for growing various fruits and vegetables. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agriculture, livestock breeding and the production of wine and tobacco.

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Zeta Valley is the only lowland in Montenegro. This entity has 28 settlements and 20,000 inhabitants. All in all, this is the most extensively arable regions of Montenegro and consequently the center of agricultural production. Fertile land along river valleys are ideal for settlements, thus in Zeta valley and Nikšićko field the highest concentration of population in Montenegro, including two largest urban centres - Podgorica and Nikšić. Population mostly occupies with agriculture and cattle breeding.

Every year during the winter season, flooding endangers the settlements in the area of Zeta Valley on the borders of the National Park, including the arable land to a significant extent. This group of settlements relying on the NP includes Ponari, Vukovci, Kurilo, Bistrica, Bijelo Polje, Berislavci, Gostilj, Balabani, Gošići, Mataguži, Vranj, Sukuruć, Kotrabudan, Podhum, Drešaj, and Drume.

Number of inhabitants – Here we will consider certain, specific settlements and try to picture this area in the best way. The number of inhabitants in certain parts varies significantly. The following graph presents the settlements of the existing areas and comparative data from 1991 and 2003, according to methodology used in 2003.

Settlements in Riječka nahija are very small and most of them have less than 50 inhabitants. The central settlement and the one with urban characteristics is Rijeka Crnojevića, with a significantly reduced number of inhabitants over the last ten years. One reason for this is that the most frequented road from Podgorica to Cetinje bypasses Rijeka Crnojevića. Fishing was the traditional activity of this area. Population in those settlements is aging and the elderly portion of the population is increasing. Therefore, the average age in the Rijeka Crnojevića is 45.4.

Unlike the previously mentioned areas and settlements, settlements in the Zeta Valley are characterized by a high concentration of population with a progressively upward trend. The highest numbers of inhabitants live in Golubovci, which is the largest settlement in the Skadar Lake region. The primary reason for this is the favorable conditions for agriculture, which is a dominant activity. Industrialization and nearness to Podgorica as an urban center contributed to the strong development of this area. The share of population between ages 20 and 29 is approximately 14% in the Zeta Valley. This age structure is the same in Golubovci.

Age structure varies from one settlement to another and mostly depends on its position and accessibility. In recent years, not only in the Skadar Lake region but also in general, the younger population is less interested in staying in the villages. In regard to the age structure in the settlements and their aging population, the average age ranges from 36.1 in Balabani (Zeta valley) to 43.2 in Ckli (Krajina). According to MONSTAT data, in rural settlements of the Skadar Lake region, almost 15% of population is older than 65 years of age. The average age in Virpazar is 35.8, while in Rijeka Crnojevića it is 45.4.

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Table 5.Share of old population in the Skadar Lake region

Type of settlement Total population Population 65+ Share Rural 11.854 1.775 14,9% Source: Census 2003

5.4. Ethnic structure of Population

Montenegrins, Serbs and Albanians are the most dominant ethnic groups in the Skadar Lake region. More than three-quarters of the inhabitants (78%) in urban zones are Montenegrins and 58% in rural zones. A smaller percentage of inhabitants (one quarter) in urban and rural zones are Serbs, while 19% of all inhabitants in rural zones are Albanians and only 2% in urban zones.

In Krajina, Albanians of Muslim confession are dominant. This area is gravitated more towards the municipalities of Ulcinj and Bar than to other parts of Skadar Region.

In Malesija Nahija, Albanians of Catholic confession are dominant, and are mainly oriented towards agriculture and livestock farming. Both entities are characterized by an emigration trend towards America and Western Europe. In Malesija the older population depends primarily on financial support from their cousins living abroad. Agriculture represents an additional source of revenue and the characteristic lifestyle.

In the area between Zeta and Malesija, Vracani refugees (from the Vraka area of Albania) of Orthodox confession are in the process of emigrating. There are four nationalities in Zeta Heath, Montenegrins and Serbs being the most dominant.

Crmnica and Ljesanska Nahija are only inhabited by Montenegrins. The situation is different in Rijecka nahija, with all three nationalities represented – Montenegrins (dominant), Serbs and Albanians.

5.5. Population by Gender

The ratio between male and female populationin urban and rural zones is similar. Table 4 shows the total number of males and females living in both urban and rural Skadar Lake settlements.

Table 6.Gender structure of population in Skadar Lake area

Type of settlement Male population Female population Urbano 246 307 Rural 5978 5876 Source: Census 2003

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More than half of the inhabitants are female (56%), while 44.0% are male in urban zone. In rural zones there is a slightly higher percentage of male population (51%).

5.6. Migrations

The migration process from rural to urban zones was caused by poor social and economic living conditions during the last 10 years. This process was intense in settlements within the Skadar Lake region. Some settlements were completely abandoned while in others only the elderly people have stayed, since the younger inhabitants departed for reasons of employment.

In general, the percentage of immigrated population in some settlements of the National Park region is not so high. This percentage is 14% in urban zones, while in rural areas it is 9.6%. The total number increased by 253 inhabitants, if we compare 2003 to 1991. The increase in the number of inhabitants was mainly caused by a positive demographic trend in the settlements of Zeta Heath. Apart from Zeta Heath, other settlements have experienced negative migration trends and a very similar population structure. Migration processes have been recorded in the settlements of Bobovište, Ckla, Komarno and Kruševica, in contrast to rural settlements of the Bar municipality.

Table 7.Overview of the number of inhabitants that moved to urban and rural areas of Skadar Lake region (1991-2003)

Settlement Total number of Number of migrated 1991 – % inhabitants 2003

Urban 553 78 14

Rural 11854 1071 9

Reasons for such low percentage of migrated population must be sought in general economic situation. The situation is particularly bad in rural areas where living conditions are very poor. The interest for immigration to rural areas steadily decreases from year to year. Prospects for employment are bad and mainly oriented around agriculture, tourism and fishing, and additional problems in these branches discourage the younger population from staying in the region. Also, a high percentage of settlements do not meet basic conditions for living (drinking water, electricity, and road infrastructure), which makes any start-ups impossible. In more developed settlements, such as the villages of Drušići and Donje Godinje, pensioners who are dealing in agriculture and viniculture as a sideline have immigrated.

The general demographic situation in the region of Skadar Lake cannot be bright without prospects of positive development. According to the available data, positive demographic trends were recorded only

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in some parts of the Zeta Valley, in contrast to other areas with negative demographic trends. This is especially true of settlements in the Crmnica, Riječke and Lješanska entity, with the rapidly increased aging of the population.

5.7. Trends in human population

Positive demographic trends were recorded only in settlement situated in Zeta Heath, where a positive rate of natural increase amounts to 6.48%, and the number of live-born infants (birth rate of 15.57%) is higher than the number of stillborns (mortality rate of 9.08%) in 2003. The highest birth rate is recorded in the settlement of Golubovci. This settlement has a birth rate of 23% compared to 2004. Unlike Golubovci, which has a stable demographic growth, Rijeka Crnojevica had no record of births during 2004 and 2005. Circumstances are similar in settlements belonging to the municipality of Cetinje, which are situated close to Skadar Lake, with a negative population growth (-15.25%). The 5.08% birth rate is much lower than the 20.33% mortality rate.

In settlements within the Bar municipality, the circumstances are somewhat different. The number of newborns is 50% higher than that of 2004, with the highest percentage in the settlement of Ostros. The death rate was lower in 2005 than in 2004. It is interesting to note that the total number of children born was 86% higher than the total number of deceased in 2005.

A “negative” birth rate (-3.53‰) was recorded in Bar municipality settlements gravitating towards Skadar Lake in 2003 (birth rate was 7.65%, while mortality rate was 11.18%).

5.8. Literacy and Education

In Skadar Lake region there is an adequate number of school for primary education. Also, the tables contain the list of grades that could be attended in specific schools.

Table 8. Pre-school education - kindergardens

Name of institution Instituion’s head office Local institution

JPU "Vukosava Ivanović Bar, Bjeliši Virpazar within the Elementary Mašanović" school "Jovan Tomašević"

JPU "Zagorka Ivanović", Cetinje, Jabučka ulica No local unit in the Skadar Lake area

JPU "Ljubica Popović", Podgorica, Ulica Djura Salaja Tuzi within the Elementary school "Mahmut Lekić"

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Mataguži

Golubovci

Source: Ministry of Education and Science, 2010.

Table 9. Primary Education – schools on the territory of NP Skadar Lake

Name of Elementary Head office of Local unit of institution Grades School institution

Elementary school Bijelo Polje From 1 to 8 "Niko Maraš" (177)

Ponari From 1 to 4

Elementary school Golubovci 1 to 9 "Milan Vukotić" (1496)

Srpska From 1 to 4, I 6 and 7 reformed

Botun From 1 to 4

Vukovci From 1 to 4

Elementary school Mataguži From 1 to 8 "Zarija Vujošević" (400)

Elementary school Bijelo Polje From 1 to 8 "Niko Maraš" (177)

Ponari From 1 to 4

Elementary school Gubovci 1 to 9 "Milan Vukotić" (1496)

Srpska From 1 to 4, I 6 and 7 reformed

Botun From 1 to 4

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Vukovci From 1 to 4

Elementary Mataguži From 1 to 8 school"Zarija Vujošević" (400)

Elementary school Tuzi From 1 to 8 "Mahmut Lekić" (1228)

Vuksanlekići From 1 to 4

Milješ From 1 to 4

Sukuruć From 1 to 4

Elementary school "Jovan Virpazar From 1 to 9 – reformed Tomašević" (125) Elementary school "Đerđ Ostros From 1 to 9 – reformed Kastrioti Skenderbeg" (158) Arbneš From 1 to 5 - reformed Ckla From 1 to 5 -reformed Koštanjica From 1 to 5 - reformed Bobovište From 1 to 5 - reformed Tejani From 1 to 5 - reformed Elementary school "Boro Rijeka Crnojevića From 1 to 8 Vukmirović" (28)

Source: Ministry of Education and Science

There are no secondary schools in the territory of the National Park Skadar Lake. This system works only in Podgorica, Cetije and Bar. Pupils from this are are mostly daily migrants to Podgorica or Bar, due to easy access to railway network, and those from the territory of Zeta go to Podgorica due to good road connections. Area of Podhum gravitates toward Tuzi that is the only settlement out of the municipal centre to have an institution for secondary education.

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6. BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTIC

The Skadar Lake Region represents one of the most important centers of biodiversity and geodiversity for Western Balkan and SE Europe. This region is a unique example of well-preserved freshwater ecosystems with specific geomorphologic, hydrological, geological, soil and climatic feature. It is also characterized by high biodiversity (Radović et al., 2008.). On forming of such biodiversity richness several factors play important role: 1) specific geographical position of the Lake, 2) favorable climate conditions that allow continual life cycle trough whole year around, 3) karst ground base and the phenomenology of karst relief with many variations that are associated with whole range of ecological variation in terms of ecological factors, 4) wide drainage area with numerous terrestrial and sub- terrestrial flows that runs in to the Lake, 5) Lake water change mechanism that decrease possibility of water pollution and eutrophication (Karaman, 1997)

Also, Skadar Valley was one of the most important refugial centers in Dinaric region during cyclic periods of the Ice Ages. Rich drainage area as well as good climate conditions gave the refuge to many species. In this valley many of those species evolved and stood here as endems. Fauna of the animal groups that is systematically investigated gives the proofs for this claim. For example, amphipod fauna counts 10 endemic species in Skadar Valley (Karaman 1981). On the other hand, Skadar Lake itself does not posses so many endems. This is certainly linked to its shallow depth (the average depth is about 5m) and its very high summer temperature (over 30°C)

6.1 Flora and Vegetation

The natural, historic and present day ecological specificities of Skadar Lake Region are reflected in the most striking way in the wealth of flora and the diversity of vegetation.

Flora

Vascular flora: For area of Skadar Lake and it surrounding it is cited 725 species of vascular plants (Hadžiablahović et al., 2001). Of this number 164 are water macrophytae which are grouped in 66 genera and 44 families.

In zone of emerged plants dominant plant species are: Phragmites communis, Scirpus lacuster and Typha angustifolia. Floating macrophytes which are dominant in Skadar Lake are: Nymphaea alba, Nuphar lutea, Nymphoides peltata, Polygonum amphibium-erectum, Potamogeton natans, Lemna minor, Lemna major, Lemna trisulca. The most interesting floating plant of Sakadar Lake is water nut with wide distribution in Lake represented with particular subspecies Trapa longicarpa M. Jank ssp. Scutariensis M.Jank. Fact that this species is relict and endemic for Sakadar Lake point to importance of Skadar lake in terms of this species preservation and protection. Some authors considered Skadar Lake as the most important habitat of this species (Janković, 1983).

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Submerged macrophytes which are dominant in Lake are: Potamogeton perfoliatus, Potamogeton lucens L., Potamogeton crispus L., Potamogeton pectinatus L., Potamogeton pussilus L., Myriophillum spicatum L., Myriophillum verticilatum L., Ceratophyllum demersum L., Ceratophyllum submersum L., Vallisneria spiralis L., Najas major All., and Najas minor.

Among particular regions of Lake Skadar shore are differences in diversity of macrophyte vegetation. Namely, along the eastern lake shore has evidenced great diversity of species. In the southern and southwestern shorelines macrophyte vegetation is very rare, and that which is found is generally limited to the area at the mouth of the Crmnica River at Virpazar, Godinje Bay and other small bays (Talevska et al., 2009.)

Picture 6.Water-lily and reed zone

Algae: According to the most recent data (Dhora, 2005) in the Skadar Lake 1100 taxons of algae has found so far. About 420 species belong to the diatoms, where the most abundant are Navicula, Cymbella, Gomphonema, Fragilaria, Achnanthes, Cyclotella. Species of these genera are found in both plankton and benthos. Chlorophytes are characterized by a high diversity, too. 470 species are known from this group for Skadar Lake, among which Pediastrum, Scenedesmus, Tetraedron, Closterium, Cosmarium and Staurastrum are the most abundant. On Skadaar Lake dominant macrophytae surface it is identified 124 species of silicate algae (Rakočević-Nedović, 2001).

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Algae from the Charophyta group were in focus scientific research that point to their importance. This algae are directly or indirectly important component in feeding of birds, fishes, crustaceans and other components of zoobentos. In their dens underwater meadows fish fry often find a shelter together with while range of other animals. According to geomorphological, hydrological and chemical characteristics those algae could be found on Lake north and north-western parts. On Dabovići locality the Lake is shallow with dens cover of macrophytae such are white and yellow water-lily and water nut. On this zone border it is easy to find Nitellopsis obtusa i Nitella opaca species. Their populations are mosaic with bush like appearance. The Cahrophyta alge are far more abundant and divers on Plavnica locality and in lover flow of Plavnica River. Nearby this river delta Chara fragilis form dens meadows with sporadic occurrence of Chara vulgaris species. On the same locality dens meadows are also formed of Nitellopsis obtuse species. For lake most common are Chara vulgaris and Chara fragilis while rear are Nitellopsis obtuse, Chara rudis, Chara kokeilii, Tolypella glomerata, Nitella mucronata (Blaženčić, 1983).

Skadar lake is also characterized with high phytoplankton species diversity The general species composition of the lake's phytoplankton population is dominated by the green algae with 199 species of Desmidiales or 29 % of all species and 170 species of Chlorophyceae or 24,8 % of all species occurring. Bacillariophyceae account for 19,6 % of the total number of species with 134 species recorded to date. Other contributors to species composition to a lesser extent include: Euglenophyta – 78 species, 11,4 % and Cyanophyta – 59 species, 8,6 % with the remaining 6,56 % or 45 species belonging to the Chrysophyceae, Pyrrophyta, Xanthophyceae, Zygnematales. Of the 134 species of Bacillariophyceae, one genus Cyclotella, appears to characterize the overall lake conditions quite well. C. planctonica, C. comta, C. operculata, C. glomerata and C. ocellata, are the principle although their absolute numbers are restricted by water masses movements. These species occur as major forms in oligotrophic lake. The two branches of Morača River entering the northern portion of the lake are rich both in the number and in the variety of the diatom species, including Cyclotella. The cool rivers waters travel only a short course above ground and are not overly subject to inputs that might disrupt the natural balance. This then allows for the conclusion that the water is oligotrophic is nature, similar to lake Skadar, and can support these indicator species of Cyclotella throughout the year (Petković, 1981).

Due to the abundance of macrophyte vegetation in the lake, especially in its northern and northwestern parts, a disproportion between the primary production by this vegetation and the primary production by planktonic algae occurs. This is due to the fact that shoreline plants use disproportionately high quantities of nutrient salts from the water, thus creating an oligotrophic environment for the plankton. This factor, among others, influences the community of planktonic algae and encourages the dominance of Diatomeae characterisitc of oligotrophic waters. Silicate algae, as a dominant algae group in Shkoder Lake, are also important as bio-indicators. They are very sensitive to environmental changes and are capable of rapidly responding to these changes. Betamesosaprobic organisms and high level saprobic forms (beta-alfa, alfa-beta, alfa) prevail over the low level saprobic forms.

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Moss and Lichens: Diversity of lichens is poorly researched in whole Montenegro so also for Skadar Lake. Of 58 lichen species registered for whole Montenegro only 14 of them are cited for this area (Bilovitz et al., 2008).

In area of Sakadar lake it is noticed 39 species of moss (2 liverworts and 37 mosses) (Höehnel, 1893; Pavletić, Pulević, 1980, Biberdžić et al., 2006.). Following localities are well researched: left and right side of channel near Virpazar, Vranjina village and Vranjina hill and small island in the middle of Morača delta (Dragićević, 2008). On first locality they are reported 19 species while Fontinalis antipyretica i Leucodon sciuroides are common species that grows on bark of trees that grows on lake/river banks. In Vranjina village is reported 18 species from 6 families and 16 genus. Among theme there are some rare species such are Homalothecium philippeanum and Syntrichia laevipila. On third locality there been found 20 species from 9 families and 20 genus. On small island only water-by area was researched (10 m from Lake bank), Hire they found 6 species from 6 families and 6 genus while two was for the first time recorded for whole Montenegro: Physcomitrella patens and Riccia cavernosa (Dragićavić, 2008)

Picture 7.Physcomitrella patens

Vegetation

Aquatic vegetation: Submerged, floating and emerged macrophytae are dominant characteristic of Skadar Lake. They are most important producers of organic matter so they represent an important segment in whole Lake feeding chain as well as they provide specific habitats for numerous Lake

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Inhabitants. Because of small depth of the Lake vertical differentiation of those communities is not sharp and obvious but still we can distinguish several vegetation zones. Zooning is dominantly determined by the available light (light depending zonation) and with thermal stratification which is poorly expressed.

Submerged vegetation in Skadar Lake is represented with the communities of sveze Potamion erosibiricum (W Koch 26) Oberd 56: Najadetum marinae Fuk. 1961 Potameto-Najadetum H i ć et M i ć 60, Potametum perfoliati Lakušić & Pavlović 1976, Potametum lucentis Hueck 31. Potamion communities are distributed in water depth of 3-8 m on different carbonate substrate (calcareous, dolomite, dolomite-calcareous, alluvium sediments). Most important primary producers of those communities are Najas marina i N. minor ( together with algae Chara sp. i Nitella sp.) in deeper water while in more shallow water (3-6 m of depth) most important are Potamogeton perfoliatus, P. crispus, P. lucens, Ceratophyllum submersum, Myrriophyllum spicatum.

Picture 8.Najadetum marinae Fuk. 1961 submerged assotiation (source www. http://commons.wikimedia.org)

Submerged phytocenoses of Sakdar Lake are mostly mono- or oligo-dominant whereby mono dominant communities are characteristic for deeper zones caused by light profundity. Similar situation is with

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inshore zone of Lake but hire it is caused by different and divers micro-locations conditions. Forming of plant communities in shallow zone is mostly driven by intensity of floods, degree of drainage during summer and with duration of such events (Černjavski et al., 1948)

Najadetum marinae F u k. 1961 is assemblage that overgrow Lake bottom in more than 3 m depths zones. This community is the most resistant on light deficiency and moreover this community has preferential for such “shady” habitat. Dominant species is Najas marina but it is also build of Potamogeton perfoliatus, Myriophillum spicatum, Valisneria spiralis while Najas minor occurs only sporadically. All mentioned species are typical hydrophyte and poor diversity of such communities is caused by lack of light. This association continues from Sakadar Lake in to the Adriatic Sea over the brackish water masses of Bojana Delta (Lakušić, R., Pavlović, D., 1981).

Potametum perfoliati Lakušić et Pavlović 1976 is association common in zone 1-3 m of depth and it is characterized with higher species diversity then others in association in Lake. This association inhabits areas with colder water so it is also characteristic for surrounding areas of sublacustral springs and nearby colder inflows. Dominant species is Potamogeton perfoliatus and all other constituents are in hydrophyte type of plants. Constituents are: Myriophyllum spicatum, M. verticillatum, Potamogeton crispus, P. pectinatus, Ceratophyllum demersum…Exception is species Ludwigia palustris which arise along upper edge of this community in water shallow that 1m of depth. Specter of floral elements point out on complexity of this association.

Potametum lucentis H u e c k 31 is community that develops in inshore part of the Lake, present in Crmnička River, and by diversity of floral component is far more indigent comparing to previous community. Dominant species of this community are Potamogeton lucens and Ceratophyllum demersum while others are far less abundant. Species from genera Spirogira and Zygnema have and important place among this association.

Potameto-Najadetum H i ć. et M i c. 60. assemblage appears in shallower inshore and it is characterized by presence of species from genus Potamogeton ( P. crispus, P. pectinatus). Species from genus Chara are also present in this community (Lakušić, R., Pavlović, D., 1981).

Nymphaeion communities underestimate floating vegetation of Lake. The most disseminated association of this community are: Myriophyllo – Nupharetum lutei W. K o c h 26, Nymphoidetum peltatea ( A l l. 26) Oberd et Th. Mull. 60. and Potametum natantis Lakušić et Pavlovic 1976. Those phytocenoses inhabits water zones 1-3m of depth and substratum characterized by low permeability (marl, tertiary clay as well as loam) and type of soils such are sandy-clay, sandy-loam, sandy-marl and loamy-mud.

By their floristic assemblages, floating vegetation communities are clearly differenced. Myriophyllo – Nupharetum lutei include species from Potamion association: Najas marina, N. minor, Potamogeton

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perfoliatus, P. crispus… It is characterized by presence of species Nuphar luteum, as well as by presence of species from genus Nitella. This association inhabits colder water masses in littoral are of Lake in contrast to association Nymphoidetum peltatae that inhabits wormer water masses of littoral. Community Nymphoidetum peltatea includes species from genus Spyrogyra and Zygnema and in some places beside the dominant species (Nymphoides peltata) in high numbers we can find Ceartophyllum demersum. In third phytocenoses (Potametum natantis) there are no elements of submerged vegetation.

Association of Utricularietum vulgaris Lakušić 1969 depends to Nymphaeion communities but in this association there are many elements from other different communities: Potamion, Nympheion, Phragmition. This association is formed of submersed and floating species. The dominant species is Utricularia vulgaris but beside this species common are: Najas minor, Hippuris vulgaris, Myriophllum verticullatum, Ceratophyllum demersum.

Floating vegetation is also represented by the communities Nymphaeetum albo – luteae Nowinski 1928. i Trapetum natantis T h. Mull. Et Gors. 60. In first dominant are white and yellow water-lily and few submerged species such are Myriophyllum spicatum, Ranunculuscircinatus, Potamogeton crispus…. Trapetum natantisi is largely widespread community in Skadar Lake. Water-nut develop his wide population and communities in inner and deeper part of floating macrophyta zones as continuous belt conceting this zone with zone of submerged vegetation. Only on few localities this community has connection with population of Sirpus lacustrus. Towards shallow part of Lake zone of water-nut is connected with floating vegetation of white water – lily but also there are places where this zone is not only conceted but also mixed with population of cane (Phragmites communis). In northern part of Lake, a huge surface is covered with this community, from Rijeka Crnojevića to Albanian border. This association is rare in deeper and rocky bottom southern Lake parts but it is present in bays that are shelter from wind.

Submerged vegetation of Sakdar Lake continues to submerged vegetation of rivers that runs in to the Lake, on communities association Ranunculion fluitans Neuhsl. 59 while floating vegetation continues to emerged vegetation of Phragmitetalia W. Koch 26 and on Phragmation W Koch 26. as well as on Sparganio – Glicerion B r. – B l. et Siss. 42.

Ranunculetum fluitans All 1922 is association appearing in Rijeka Crnojevića, Zeta River, Morača River (and many other lake tributaries) with dominant species Ranunculus fluitans. In Gostiljska River there are well developed phytocenoses of Potametoperfoliati – Ranunculetum fluitans composed of: Potamogeton perfoliatus, P. fluitans, Myriophyllum verticilatum, Caratophyllum demersum…

The most important emerged vegetation types are: Eleochari – Hippuridetum Passage 1955., Sparagino – Glycerietum fluitantis B r.- B l. 1925. Scrypo –Phragmitetum W Koch 1926., Menthetum – aquatica Lakušić et Pavlović 1976 i Ludwigietum – Palustris Lakušić et Pavlović 1976. In association of Menthetum

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–aquatica dominant are hemycriptophytae (Mentha aquatica, Pulicaria disenterica, Roripasilvestris), while other communities are composed of water plants (Eleocharis palustris, Ranunculus circinatus, Potamogeton sp., Sparganium erectum, Scenoplectus lacustris…).

In terms of bio-production most important Lake community is Scipro –Phragmitetum composed of Phragmites comunis, Typha angustifolia, Scirpus lacuster, Butomus umballatus…

Flooded area of Skadar Lake is characterized by development of shrubbery and forest ecosystems with following species as most dominant ones: Viticetum agni-casti, Salicetum albae, Salicetum albae-fragilis, Periploco-Quercetum scutariensis, Salicetum incanae, Salicetum purpurae, Fraxinetum oxycarpae, Alnetum glutinosae

Vegetation of Skadar Lake surrounding area: One of the most interesting communities of surrounding Lake area are ones described by Černjavski in which dominant species is Skadar oak (Quercus robur ssp. scutariensis). Those associations are: Quercus robur-scutariensis – Periploca graeca Cernj 1949. and Quercis robur-scutariensis-Fraxinus oxicarpa – Periploca graeca Cernj 1948. (Černjavski et al., 1949).

Association Quercus robur-scutariensis – Periploca graeca is developed on flooded area of Skadar Lake and Bojana River. Average yearly temperature is about 15˚C while yearly mean relative humidity is in range 75-90 %. In this community following species are present: Quercus robur ssp. scutariensis, Fraxinus angustifolia, Vitex agnus castus, Tamirix dalmatica, Salix purpurea, Periplonica graeca, Clamatis viticella…

Quercis robur-scutariensis-Fraxinus oxicarpa – Periploca graeca Černj 1948 is community that is also present in Lake surrounding area. Floor of trees is built of: Quercus robur ssp. scutariensis, Ulmus foliacea, Fraxinus oxycarpa, Acer campestre; floor of bushes is represented by: Euonymus europea, Cornus sanguinea, Viburnum opulus, Sambucus nigra…; vine type plants are represented by: Periploca graeca, Rubus ulmifolius, Humulus lupulus, Clematis vitalba, C. viticella…; herbaceous plats: Calystegia silvatica, Althaea officinalis, Mentha aquatica, Lythrum salicaria…

In Skadar Lake surrounding, on terrain that is temporary flooded but in summer are dry, meadows with unclear phytocenology are present. Those meadows are secondary formed and they are developed instead of pure willow forests on terrains above constant soil watering.

Forest vegetation of Sakdar Lake surrounding was represented with dense and hardly accessible forests but due to forest degradation, stony slopes of Skadar lake become barren lend without any trees. Only hire and there we can find an “islands” of forests which are due to different geological substratum different in species composition and fragmented.

Most wide distribution has communities mainly built of white hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis). Rusco- Carpinetum orientalis association has wide range of distribution (in terms of altitude), from lake banks

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till 650 m of height on Rumia mountain slopes. This association is characterized by floristic diversity especially diversity of wooden species. Wide are covered by this association have diverse ecological conditions (climate, humidity, insolation…) as well as different, but negative anthropogenic influence. Those are main reasons for the complex fitocenolgy picture of this association which is additionally complex because of adjoin of several other communites: Rhamno intermediae – Paliuretum, Quercetum trojanae montenegrinum, Carpinetum orientalispunicosum, Quercetum cerridis mediterraneo- montanum, Seslerio-Ostryetum carpinifoliae...Rusco-Carpinetum orientalis subass. Quercetosum is dominant sub-association of Sakdar Lake area. It is mostly represented with bush formation while those with trees are rare (Donji Murići, Dračevica). In floor of bushes most common are: Quercus trojana, Fraxinus ornus, Acer monspessulanum, Cornus sanguineus; while in floor of herbaceous plants common are: : Galanthus nivalis, Primula vulgaris, Veronica chamaedrys, Vicia grandiflora, Viola reichenbachiana (Petrović, 2011).

In inshore zone of Sakadar Lake, up to 100-150 m of altitude in calcareous and dolomite terrain, it is well developed Carpinetum orientalispunicosum Černj 1949 phytocenoses. Relief basis of this association is heterogeneous, huge calcareous blocks are toggled with smaller surface covered with pebble and red- soil so we can find different plants with different ecological needs (forest plants, plants of open areas, plants of stones and rocks…). In past time when this association is firstly described, in their most conserved fragments, threes were dominant. Nowadays it those fragments disappeared and we can notice only individual trees but not higher than 5 m: Quercus pubescens, Quercus cerris, Carpinus orientalis, Pistacia terebrinthus. (Petrović, 2011). In floor of bushes Punica granatum is dominant but there also occur: Paliurus spina christi, Phillyrea media, Carpinus orientalis. Herbaceous plats plants count more than 100 species with 30% of Mediterranean species. Characteristic are: Asphodeline lutea, Tanacetum cinerarifolium, Convolvulus elegantissimus, Euphorbia spinosa…

There is whole series of degradation stages of this association. One of the most common degradation is the one characterized with dominance of Paliurus spina christi, Phillyrea media and Punica granatum. Forest can be regenerated from this stadium but from next stadium with dominance of Paliururs spina Christi, Crataegus monogyna, Pirus amygdaliformis species forest can’t regrow again.

Phytocenoses on rocky slopes and on barren lend are without wooden plants and they represent one of the final degradation stadiums of forest habitats. In area of Skadar Lake they are represented with numerous associations.

Bromo-Chrysopogonetum Grylli Černjavski et al. 1949. is represented with different transitional forms. Characteristically species of this association are: Onosma Javorkae, Asphodelus microcarpus, Chryspopgon gryllus, Festuca vallesiaca…, as well as those representing the remains of under-bush: Salvia officinalis, Rubus ulmifolius, Euphorbia veneta, Ruscus aculeatus…In this association we can also find botanical elements of rocks and cliffs: Asplenium trichomanes, Edrianthus tenuifolius, Silene

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quadrientata, Ceterach officinarum. This association covers vast area of Skadar Lake surrounding, especially southern of Virpazar, surrounding of Malo Blato, Vranjina hill…

Association of Stipo-Salvietum officinalis H-ić (1956) 1958 is also widespread in Skadar Lake area formed by degradation of hornbeam forests and represent most distributed type of rocky pasture in southern part of Montenegro. In this association wooden species are represented with few species. The floor of trees doesn’t exist and some individual but low trees could be found represented by following species: Quercus cerris, Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus. Floor of bush cover up to 35 % and most important species of this floor are: Punica granatum, Pistacia terebrinthus, Carpinus orientalis, Paliurus spina- christi. The most divers is floor of herbaceous plants but great number of species are not constant and jump from surrounding and bordering forest ecosystems.

Association of Asphodelo-Chrysopogonetum grylli (1956) 1958 H-t doesn’t occupy bigger areas. It appears as fragment in mosaic with other association of dray pastures, underbush and massive rock blocks. The most important constituents are: Asphodelus aestivus, Chrysopogon gryllus, Onosma javorkae, Stipa pulcherima, Medicago prostrata, Bromus erectus, Brachypodium pinnatum, Linum tenuifolium, Dorycnium herbaceum.

The vegetation of rocks and cliffs in surrounding area of Skadar Lake are very important due to their high level of endemism. Most common is association of Campanulo-Moltkeetum petraeae H-ić 1963 with developed floor of herbaceous plants only. Some bush-form species are detected on few localities but they are undeveloped and scrubby. Vegetation coverage goes from only few percentage up to 50 % in best developed associations. As we stressed previously, endemism is characteristic of such communities so most frequent species Moltkea petraea is endemic of Balkan peninsula while Campanula pyramidalis is sub-endemic for Balkan and Apennine peninsula.

One more interesting association appears in vegetation of rocks and cliffs with high level of endemism too. This association is built of Balkan endemic species Ramonda serbica and region of Skadar Lake is south-easternmost border of this species distribution. Association is detected in Lake village Murići. Beside Balkan ramonda other species constitute it: Micromeria juliana, Asperula scutellaris, Galium firmum i Campanula pyramidalis (Petrović, 2011).

Vegetation of rocky islands is in fact similar to those occurring on rocky Lake shore but with some characteristic marks. Main difference is in presence of Mediterranean oak (Quercus ilex) and laurel (Laurus nobilus) in islands. By this fact this islands phytocenoses are closer to Quercus ilicis B r. –B i. than those on Lake shores.

On silicate terrain, on washed soils (surrounding of Virpazar, Boljevići and Limljani), there are present forests consisted of chestnut and oak marked as Querceto – Castanetum montenegrinum Černj., Grebens., Pavl., 1949 association. In floor of trees dominant are: Castanea sativa, Quercus conferta,

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Q.macedonica, Fraxinus ornus; in floor of bush hazelnut (Corylus avelana) while other species (Cotinus coggygria, Caprinus orientalis, Corromnila emeroides…) are pretty rare. Floor of herbaceous plants there are present: Pteridium aquillnum, Euphorbia amygdaloides, lathyrus niger, L. venetus etc. In last few years it is observed introgression of acacia (Robinia pseudacacia) in chestnut forest of Boljevići region.

Picture 9.Castanea sativa forest

Importance of chestnut forests is well stressed by Grebenščikov who described those forests as distinct association (Querceto-Castanetum montenegrinum). Grebenščikov highlighted the importance of such forest in preservation of soil erosion especially in areas with silicate substratum that is extremely suitable for decomposition (Černjavski et al, 1949).

6.2 Fauna

Invertebrates

The majority of Skadar Lake invertebrate groups have not been well researched. As invertebrates play an important ecological role, among others as principal food source for many higher level species, the

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lack of knowledge of these groups prevents a thorough understanding of the lake’s ecological functioning (Keukelaar et al., 2006).

Zooplankton of the lake is an important community, which defines the trophic structure of the ecosystem. It plays an important role in the dynamism of nutritive matter in the water and other populations of vertebrates, especially fish. A taxonomic list of all forms of zooplankton and microfauna was established consisting of 355 species and forms classified into 11 divisions. Predominant place, according to the number of species, belongs to the group Rotatoria (205 species) (Petković, 1981b).

Important component of zooplankton is larvae of Dreissena polymorpha (Mollusca, Bivalvia), occur in the plankton of the lake during the entire year and its development cycle have some phases. Individuals of 20-300 microns occur in the plankton from January to June and then the larger individuals fall to the bottom, and attach. The larval phases serves for the nutrition of planktophagous fishes and as a sessil it is food for benthophagous fishes. From June to the end of the year a new generation is formed in the plankton and its individuals are of size 15-300 microns (Petković, 1981b).

Zoobenthos fauna is another important community of invertebrates, relatively rich in the number of species, but weight of organisms per m² is smaller then in those of eutrophic lakes. The dominant groups of organisms in the lake are Oligochaeta and Chironomida which are distributed in the whole lake. Other groups of organisms are much less represented. Gastropoda (Pyrgula species) are very near the sublacustrine springs. Viviparus is present mainly in the northern part of the lake within the macrophyte zone. In the coastal shallow zone of the lake, with stones, numerous Dreissena polymorpha occur, especially in the southwest part of the lake. Unio and Anodonta species are common near the mouth of the rivers on sandy bottom. Within the vegetation in the shallow water are numerous decapods, especially Palaemonetes antennarius. Atyaephyra and Potamon fluviatilis are much less numerous than Palaemonetes. Ostracoda and Copepoda are very numerous in the whole bottom of the lake. No vertical stratification of the bentic fauna in the lake is observed because of very shallow depth of the lake and a large seasonal variation of the lake level.

It is not possible to assign Skadar Lake to any distinct lake-type, because it is a combination of several lake-types together: the deeper, open part of the lake belongs to the oligotrophic type, but the northern shallow part of the lake, covered by macrophytes, has all the characteristic of a eutrophic lake. The number of zoobenthos organisms in partially reduced by very large fish population in the lake. On the other hand some benthic organisms have not one, but several reproductive cycles during the year (amphipods) or the emergence of adult animals occurs during the whole year (Chironomidae). During the summer it was observed that certain benthic organisms migrate from warm lake water towards cold waters on the mouth of the many tributaries of the lake, eg. Potamon fluviatilis. The shallow costal parts of the lake are much richer in the number of benthic species than the open deeper parts of the lake. The high temperature is a limiting factor for the existence of many benthic species; many species occur only

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along the coast of the lake near the sublacustrine springs or at mouths of rivers, and cannot penetrate in the lake itself during the summer. During the winter, when the temperature of the lake is similar to that of the springs and rivers, some of these were found in the lake itself, eg. Gammarus roeseli, Synurella ambulans, Potomon fluviatilis (Karaman, Nedić, 1981).

Picture 10. Palaemonetes antennarius

For area of Skadar Lake and lake itself crustacean group Amphipoda is well researched. As the surrounding drainage area have significant age while the Lake is much younger gives to this area god condition for interesting Amphipoda (Crustaceae, Malacostraca) fauna composition. Fauna of this group is extremely rich in such small area but high fluctuation of Lake water level and temperature (on yearly scale) limited such fauna in Lake itself.

Till present time, for Skadar Lake basin, it was detected 18 species from 9 genera and 5 families. Amphipoda fauna is consist of : 1) widely present species such are Gammarus balcanicus, G. roeseli, Synurella ambulans; 2) west-Balkan (dinaric) endemic species(Typhlogammarus mrazeki); 3) montenegro-herzegovnia endemic species and 4) species that are endemic for Skadar Lake area ((Niphargus asper, N. brevicuspis sketi, N. inclinatus, Synerella intermedia montenegrina, Laurogammarus scutarensis...)

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The discrepancy among number of underground, terrestrial and species that lives in both habitats is obvious (13 sub-terrestrial species from 6 genera and 5 families, 1 semi-terrestrial species and 4 terrestrial species from 3 genera). Of all species only genera Synurellahave both, terrestrial and sub- terrestrial species. Among terrestrial species there is one endemic genus (Laurogammarus) while among sub-terrestrial representatives there are no endemic genera related only for this region. All cosmopolite species are surface from surface waters.

Present Amphipoda fauna from Skadar Lake area is highly endemic composed of tertiary representatives as remains from ancient times. A few species inhabits wider refuge region of western Balkans.

The Lake itself doesn’t have endemic Amphipoda fauna (those endemic species are related to surrounding drainage area) what refer on fact that Sakadar Lake is much younger than surrounding area (Karaman, 1997).

For Skadar Lake region there are 15 species of Ostracodaof which 5 species are described from material that was collected in this area (Karanović, Petkovsi, 1999).The Ostracoda live exclusively in the littoral and they are an important component in the nutrition of lake fishes. Occasionally they can be recorded in the plankton (Petković, 1981b).

Mollusca are highly important group in terms of Lake food chains. They represent important food resource for fishes and birds. According to some research (Janković, 1983), in beginning of summer in total food items of Lake carp Mollusca were represented with 33,3 % (Lymnaea, Valvata, Planorbis, Pyrgula andRadix)

Mollusca fauna is not rich in species diversity but they are rich in abundance (bio-mass). This specifically refers to freshwater shells Dreissena polymorpha and Anodonta cyanea as well as for the snail Viviparus viviparus. According to some recent research Skadar Lake have five endemic species of snails Gyraulus meierbrooki, Bithynia zeta, Bithynia skadarskii (endemic for Skadar Lake), Bithynia radomani (endemic for Montengro) i Valvata montenegrina (endemic for Skadar Lake). During this research it was detected a high abundance of aquatic snails Lymnaea fragilis andLymnaea stagnalis while endangered shell Pseudoanadonta comlanata was found on Vranjina and Grmožur localities.

On 18 localities quantities and qualities research of mollusk fauna were conveyed. The highest numbers of individuals were found near to Grmužur island (129 individuals) on 0,5 m depth. Among them 3 species of Gastropods and 2 species of shell were detected. Highest biodiversity has (8 species) following localities: Virpazar and Vranjina. In vertical plane VAlvata pescinalis vas present in almost all profiles with most dens population on 3,5-5m depths.

Among everywhere present species they are several with narrow dispersal area such are: Balkan, south- Alpine, Dinaric and local endemic species of Skadar Lake.

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Fauna of water insects is highly divers. The highest numbers of species are in following groups: Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera i Diptera. Forty-five species and subspecies of dragonflies (Odonata) were recorted for the Lake Skadar's drainage sistem (Gligorović, Pešić, 2007).

Picture 11. Dragon-flyes (Odonata)

For water mites (Acari, Actinedida), 32 species were collected from Skadar Lake. This is relatively small number for lake of such hydrological and geomorphological characteristics such as Lake Skadar, which is primarily result of insufficient knowledge about water mites fauna and most of other groups of Invertebrate in general. Especially characteristic for Lake Skadar is fauna on locations where sublacustrine springs occur. On those localities there are great temperature differences between surface and bottom (Pešić, 2000).

Fishes

The Tertiary origin of Skadar Lake system ichthyofauna is proven by the fact that there is no non- salmonid predatory species (pike and perch) in this system. Until introduction of perch (during early 1980s) only predatory species in this system were endemic salmonids (Salmo trutta, Salmo marmoratus, Salmothymus obtusirostris zetensis) and eel, which enter in to system from Adriatic Sea through BojanaRiver. The presence of endemic salmonid species indicates to their late Tertiary (Eocene –

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Miocene) isolation from Balkan Peninsula hinterland by Dinaric mountains rising, which is confirmed by presence of other endemic taxa. Nevertheless the presence of similar ichthyofauna in other Adriatic water systems (OhridLake, PrespaLake, NeretvaRiver, etc.) signify the pre-glacial and glacial (Pleistocene) connection between those water systems. This probably results in divergence of common species on subspecies/species level (common for different Adriatic water system and common for Adriatic and Black sea drainage). But the fact that other Adriatic rivers (western Balkan rivers, Neretva, Krka, Soča and rivers with underground flow in Slovenia, Lika, and Herzegovina) have more specific ichthyofauna with higher level of endemism and with significant paleo-endemism, indicate that SkadarLake system for longer time was without of any connection with them. Fauna elements which are common for SkadarLake system and other western Balkan drainage areas (the endemic trout Salmo farioides, Salmo marmoratus, Salmothymus obtusirostris) point to their previous most probably pre- Miocene connection. This connection could exist as Adriatic branch of ancient Thetis sea (the source of present Mediterranean Sea) when ancestral trout taxa were anadromus (like Salmon, migrate from rivers in to marine habitat). In late Miocene the whole Mediterranean basin was desiccated (so called “late Miocene crisis”) and trout stayed captured in terrestrial water systems where they, perhaps, still tried to simulate the habits of “normal” life cycle by performing the interdromus migration from rivers in to lake basins and back to lake tributaries. In present time, two SkadarLake system trout species perform this interdromus migration, Salmo dentex (“strun”) and Salmo marmoratus (“glavatica”).

The other hypothetical reason of ichthyofauna similarity between Skadar Lake system and other western-Balkan river systems is possibility of connection through one central river basin in period of Adriatic bay regression. It is highly possible that similarity of present endemic fauna (for example Alburnus alburnus alborella, Rutilus basak…) is consequence of early Pliocene Thetis regression. The sea level decreased to 200 m and regression disappeared to present Jabuka Depth in Adriatic basin. In such condition river Po (Italy) became central river basin for Adriatic region and its tributaries were precursors of present rivers in Balkan and Apennine peninsula.

Third, but less possible hypothesis, is based on fact that with rising of Dinaric mountains (from Oligocene to the end of Neogene) basins of numerous Balkan rivers changed their flow direction or water simply disappeared in numerous profundities. The evidence of those events are numerous karstic fields that once were bottom of lakes. Such karstic fields are present in Lika, Herzegovina and in Montenegro. It is highly possible that in those times, binding water-flows that connect those lakes basins were present which gives opportunity for ichthyofauna migration and mixing.

According to different types of endemism (paleo- and neo-endemism) and different taxonomical level of endemism (sub-species, species or genus level) the most possible situation is that all of those three scenarios (in different moments of geological history of Mediterranean basin) were affective on present Skadar lake basin zoogeographical status.

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The number of fish species in Skadar Lake system rose in last 40 years because of uncontrolled stocking of allochthonous fish species which were originally from Black Sea drainage area (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Thymallus thymallus, Carassius auratus gibelio, Perca fluviatilis). But beside those introductions, the Skadar lake system (SakadarLake and rivers in this water basin) is home to several endemic species from families Salmonidae, Cyprinidae, Gobiidae and Cobitidae. The Lake is also spawning and growing zone for several andromus and katadromus (migratory) fish species (e.g. Alosa falax nilotica, Anguilla anguilla) as well as for estuary fish species (Dicentrarchus labarx, Saprus aurata, Platichthys flessus). The taxonomical, faunistical and ecological structure of the Lake and whole system is unique in Mediterranean region thus this System, with a fish assemblage combined with wide range of all kind of water habitats, is area of high importance for biodiversity conservation in whole eastern Adriatic region.

According to list of fish species that inhabit Skadar Lake system (Knežević, 1981.) there are 17 families, 38 genus and 45 fish species. Marić (1995) emphasizes two newly-described species: Chondrostoma scodrensis and Rutilus prespensis vukovici. The latest literature data, three newly-described species (Pomatoschistus montenegrensis, Miller & Šanda, 2008.; Knipowitschia montenegrina, Kovačić & Šanda, 2007.; Scardinius knezevici, Bianco & Kottelat, 2005.), indicate the final (present) number of species: number of families – 17, number of genus 38, number of species 50 (Table 10.)

Table 10. Ichthyic-fauna of Skadar Lake and its drainage area, according to Knežević (1981), modified.

FAMILY SPECES - SUBSPECIES

Petromyzonidae Petromyzon marinus

Lampertra fluviatilis

Lampetra planeri

Acienseridae Acipenser sturio

Acipenser naccarii

Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla

Clupeidae Alosa fallax nilotica

Salmonidae Salmo farioides

Salmo dentex

Salmo marmoratus

Salmo montenegrinus

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Salmothymus obtusirostris zetensis

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Thymallidae Thymallus thymallus

Cyprinidae Rutilus basak

Rutilus prespensis vukovici

Pachychilon pictum

Leuciscus cephalus albus

Leuciscus souffia montenegrinus

Phoxinus phoxinus

Scardinius erythrohthalmus scardafa

Scardinius knezevici

Chondrostoma nasus ohridanum

Chondrostoma scodrensis

Gobio gobio lepidolaemus

Alburnus alburnus alborella

Alburnoides bipunctatus ohridanus

Megalobrama terminalis

Hypophthalmichthys mollitrix

Aristichthys nobilis

Ctenoharyngodon idella

Carassius auratus gibelio

Pseudorasbora parva

Rhodeus sericeus amarus

Cyprinus carpio

Cobitidae Barbatula barbatula sturanyi

Cobitis taenia ohridana

Ictaluridae Ictalurus nebulosus

Gasterosteidae Gasterosteus aculeatus

Poecilidae Gambusia affinis holbrooki

Mugilidae Mugil cephalus

Liza ramada

Percidae Perca fluviatilis

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Moronidae Dicentrarchus labrax

Blennnidae Blennius fluviatilis

Gobiidae Padogbius pannizai

Pomatoschistus montenegrensis

Knipowitschia montenegrina

Pleuronectidae Platichthys flessus

Cithatidae Citharus linguatula

Of these 50 species, 31 of them are endemic species with Adriatic – Ionian distribution (Table 4.), endemic for Adriatic – Ionian sub-province of Mediterranean zoo-geographical province (Banarescu, 1992). This shows that 62 % of species in Skadar lake system are endemic (Figure 3) and if we exclude the introduced species (thirteen of them, table 5.) and analyze the original fish fauna of this area, 84 % of species are endemic for Adriatic – Ionian region. Of this 31 endemic species, 8 of them are endemic for SakdarLake system (they inhabit only this water system) what makes 16 % of ichthyic-fauna endemic only for this area (if we exclude the introduced species, the original percentage of endemic ichthyic- fauna endemic only for this system is 22 %).

Table 11. An overview of endemic fish taxa with different level of endemism, according to Marić (1995), supplemented with a newly-described fish taxa (the star “*” marks taxa with narrow geographical dissemination within Skadar Lake drainage area)

SPECIES – SUBSPECIES

Petromyzon marinus

Lampetra fluviatilis

Lampetra planeri

Acipenser naccarii

Acipenser sturio

Allosa fallax nilotica

Salmo dentex

Salmo farioides

Salmo marmoratus

Salmo montenegrinus*

Salmothymus obtusirostris zetensis*

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Alburnoides bipunctatus ohridanus

Alburnus alburnus alborella

Barbus peloponnesius

Chondrostoma nasus ohridanus

Chondrostoma scodrensis*

Gobio gobio lepidolaemus

Leuciscus cephalus albus

Leuciscus souffia montenegrinus*

Pachychilon pictum

Phoxinellus stimphalicus montenegrinus*

Rutilus basak ohridanus

Rutilus prespensis vukovici

Scardinius erythrophthalmus scardafa

Scardinius knezevici*

Cobitis taenia ohridana

Barbatula barbatula sturanyi

Blennius fluviatilis

Padogobius panizzai

Pomatoschistus montenegrensis*

Knipowitschia montenegrina*

Table 12. An overview of introduced fish species in Skadar Lake system, according to Knežević (1981), modified.

SPECIES - SUBSPECIES

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Thymallus thymallus

Salmo trutta (Black sea and Atlantic linage)

Megalobrama terminalis

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Hypophthalmichthys mollitrix

Aristichthys nobilis

Ctenoharyngodon idella

Carassius auratus gibelio

Pseudorasbora parva

Ictalurus nebulosus

Gambusia affinis holbrooki

Perca fluviatilis

Graph 7. The composition of Skadar lake system fish fauna

From biodiversity point of view, it is hard to say which are the most important fish species from Skadar Lake system. The potential candidates are, with no doubt, the endemic species but the fact is that in this system lives species with different level of endemism (local endemic species, species that are endemic for Adriatic-Ionian region, species that are endemic for eastern Mediterranean). The second parameter should be the level of threat for individual taxa according to IUCN red list classification, and the third parameter can be the size of SakdarLake system compared with whole living area of each endemic species.

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Picture 12.Acipenser naccarii (source - http://www.blublog.net)

Of thirty one endemic species, eight are exclusively endemic only for this area. Two of those eight species have unclear systematic status and their presence (after finding and description) has never been confirmed again (Salmo montenegrinus and Chondrostoma scodrensis). Two of three newly-described species (Pomatoschistus montenegrensis andKnipowitschia montenegrina) are small fish species that inhabits lake shore and shallow part of lake tributaries (flooded areas). The following species are potential candidates for most important fish species from biodiversity point of view: Salmothymus obtusirostris zetensis, Leuciscus souffia montenegrinus, Phoxinellus stimphalicus montenegrinus, Scardinius knezevici (Skadar lake system endemism), Acipenser naccarii, Acipenser sturio, Allosa fallax nilotica, Salmo dentex, Salmo marmoratus, Alburnoides bipunctatus ohridanus , Alburnus alburnus alborella, Barbus peloponnesius, Chondrostoma nasus ohridanus, Pachychilon pictum, Rutilus basak ohridanus, Scardinius erythrophthalmus scardafa, Barbatula barbatula sturanyi and Padogobius panizzai (Adriatic-Ionian endemisam).

Amphibians and Reptiles

The Skadar Lake and his surrounding, which is characterized by high level of humidity (looded meadows, humid forests) and Mediterranean climate, gives almost perfect environmental condition for living for the majority of the amphibians: the Ranidae (frogs), in particular the Shkoder green frog (Rana shqiperica). This species is restricted to western Albania and southern Montenegro at elevations below 500m asl. It has been reported from heavily vegetated aquatic habitats including ditches, swamps, marshes, the edges of slow-flowing rivers and the shoreline of Skadar Lake. Breeding, and larval development, takes place in these wetland habitats.

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The population of green frogs is an important link in the lake’s food chain; on the one hand insects are their main food, on the other hand they are the main food for some reptiles (e.g. water snakes) and birds (heron and some ducks) (Keukelaar et al., 2006).

In Skadar Lake area there are 15 species of amphibians detected so far. (Ćirović, Haxhiu, 2001.)

No complete list of reptiles of Lake Skadar exists, but according to the previous results we can suppose that there is a high biological richness associated with the herpetofauna inhabiting coastal region as well as islands of the lake. Some preliminary list for Skadar lake region sows 28 species of reptiles. Those taxa belong to the different biogeographical entities, and for some of them Skadar Lake Region presents edge of the total distribution area or contact zone of different subspecies (Crnobrnja-Isailović, J., Džukić, G., 1995). This area is also border area of distribution for endemic species sharp-snouted rock lizard (Lacerta oxycephala, Dumeril & Bibron, 1839). It is a endemic species of Balkan peninsula, restricted in its range to a narrow zone along the Adriatic coast It is distributed along the southeastern region of Adriatic coast, including some islands, from Krka River in Dalmacia, to Lake Skadar Region in Montenegro. Lacerta oxycephala is distributed at the mediterranean and submediterranean part of Montenegro (Bejaković et al., 1996). High importance of this area for lizards and amphibians comes from fact that on relatively small area there are present numerous habitats and we can find divers faunal elements: mediterranean, oro-mediterranean, middle Europe and even boreal and pontial (Crnobrna-Isailović, J., Džukić G., 1997).

Speaking on herpeto-fauna, lacertid lizards are best researched group in wider area of Skadar Lake.Out of 19 species that can be encountered throughout the Balkans, nine species compose the lacertid lizard community of the Lake Skadar region (Crnobrnja-Isailovic, Džukic,1995). Island lizard fauna is most interesting. The shore region of the lake has two distinct zones with respect to lizard distribution, but on the islands there are species in various combinations of allotopic and syntopico ccurrence (Crnobrnja- Isailovic& Dzukic, 1995). Podarcis muralis and Lacerta oxycephala appear to be the most common species, probably due to their better colonizing abilities. They are the only species with allotopicald istributions. L.oxycephala occurs as the only lizard on 19, and P. muralis on 10, of the 40 islands. These islands are the most densely populated (up to one individual per 2 m2).W hen species are syntopic, spatial partitioningo ccurs; in such cases they generally follow their prefered habitats. Thus, P. melisellensis is mostly encountered in vegetated areas, P. muralis and L. oxycephala incline to shoreline rocky zones, while Algyroides nigropunctatas show habitat preferences between these two groups Malo Starčevo is a small island (0.9 ha) with dense populations of P. muralis only. Beška Velja is one of the biggest islands (15.9 ha), with L. orycephala as the only lizard species. The island Malo Beško (1.7 ha) is characterized by a dense tree vegetation and grassy patches with boulders of various sizes, inhabited by a relatively robust population of P. melisellensis. In nearby waters, mainly on rocks, many P. muralis individuals can be encountered. Mali Moračnik is a moderate-size island( 0.7 ha), with a sparse tree vegetation and grassy fields among large stony patches. Here the large P. melisellensri population

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inhabits grassy areas syntopically with L. orycephala. A few individuals of P. muralis were noticed on this island as well. Bisage is an island of 2.8 ha, with P. melisellensis and A. nigropunctatls as the lizard inhabitants (Bejaković et al., 1996).

Picture 13. Algyroides nigropunctatas

Decline of amphibian and reptilian species within Skadar Lake Region is reality. Causes are various, but they all are connected with development of industry, agriculture and tourism. In the lowland part of the Region, agricultural intensification is one of the most complex factors of threat for amphibians and reptiles. It include afforestation by burning or clearing natural vegetation, drainage of meadows and marshes around Lake Skadar, as well as pollution by use of agricultural fertilizers. The impact of industry is evident through pollution derived from iron plant, brewery, hog raising station, milkproduct, dry cleaning plant, slaughterhouse, tannery and, most important, aluminium plant from Podgorica, whose wastewaters directly influence the Skadar Lak drainage area. In the mountainous part, the main threats could be afforestation, overgrazing and tourism development. Intensive tourism development (including new road and piste constructing and following urbanization) could be the most dangerous factor of threat for whole Skadar Lake Region. Under present political and economical conditions, it is attractive way for improvement of an area without significant investment. But, it is always followed by uncontrolled sale and exploitation of natural rarities and destruction of habitats important for diversity maintaining (Crnobrnja-Isailović, J., Džukić, G., 1995).

Some amphibians and reptiles are also of direct benefit for humans. The frog Rana ridibunda is used for consumption and is an export product. The poison of the vipers (Viperidae) is extracted for serums.

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Birds

Skadar Lake represents one of the largest and most important areas for swamp birds in this part of Europe. Large innundated area overgrown by abundant swamp vegetation with the abundance of food, favorable geographical conditions, have made a real paradise for birds (Vizi, 1981). On Skadar Lake 282 bird species have been registered so far. Among theme most dominant are migratory species (90 %) so Lake is well known as “European bird airport”. Those species hire spent winter or thy come during spring-autumn migrations (Saveljić et al., 2006). Around 73 species of migratory nesting birds inhabit the lake in spring and summer and leaving in autumn. About 18 species fly over the area during autumn and spring, 45 species are regular winter guests and 12 species spend summers on the lake, while their populations nest in the north. In addition, there are some 90 species that visit the lake irregularly, including those that fly over or visit the lake during the winter or summer season. Lake is extremely important wintering area for Fulica atra that represent 60-80% of all birds which comes in this area for wintering. In some years 250 000 birds comes on Lake for wintering which make Skadar Lake one of the most important wintering are in whole Europe (Saveljić et al., 2006).

Ornithology reserve Pančeva oka, Crni žar and Manastirska tapija, have extraordinary condition for nesting. More than 80 bird species nests in Lake area but the most important are “fendak” (Phalacrocorax pygmeus) and Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus). Colony of “fendak” has more than 2200 nesting pairs and it is one of the biggest colonies of this bird in whole world. The presence of Dalmatian Pelicans at Skadar Lake were firstly recorded by Brusina (1891), but in the period from 1993 to 2001 nesting of Dalmatian Pelican has not been recorded on Skadar lake. Recent record of nesting pelicans on Skadar lake has been confirmed on 11th of July 2002 when 5 pairs leading 2 fledged youngs were seen while flying with a small airplane on the hight of 900 feet over the hardly accessible colony in Pančeva oka. In 2007 7 to 15 breeding pairs have produced 13 to 16 fledged youngs. Dalmatian Pelicans have bred on three ecologically different places on Skadar Lake: 1) the most frequented nesting locality is Pančeva oka, which is a vast complex of dead and live flooding vegetation a base of which is formed by up to 11 m deep layers of Sphagnum peat-moss; 2) Crni žar which cover a few km² and lies south to the Pančeva oka. It is a complex of mostly live floating vegetation most of which is formed by Nupharluteum, Nymphea alba, Phragmites australis and Trapa natans; 3) the rocky island close to the NW coast of the lake, between Virpazar and Seoca settlements. The island is not more than a few hectares big, mostly bare. Pelicans’ nests were situated close to the water, only a few meters from the coast (Saveljić, Rubinić, 2008).

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Picture 14.Phalacrocorax pygmeus

Bird abundance was one of the main reasons for claiming Skadar Lake as an internationally important wetland and waterfowl habitat (Ramsar site) in Montenegro (since 1995) and Albania (since 2005). Skadar Lake is also IBA area (Important Birds Area) till 1989th. For proclaiming Lake to IBA area there have been used following criteria: A1, A3, A4i, A4iii, B1i, B2 (Saveljić, Rubinić, 2008).

There are numerous platforms in Skadar Lake dedicated to bird watching and 5 of them are the most important, those that are in ornithology reserves: Manastiskaj tapija, Grmožur, Omerova gorica, Crni žar andi Pančeva oka.

Mammals

Unfortunately, the Mammal fauna in whole Montenegro haven’t been seriously and continuously investigated yet. The same situation is with mammals of Skadar lake. Some preliminary list for whole Skadar lake region sows 57 species of mammals, belongs to six orders, (Bušković at all, 2001) which is almost the complete number of mammals for whole Montenegro. Mammals are less bonded to water habitats then other animal groups but exception is otter (Lutra lutra). This is rare and protected species in Montenegro so in National Park “Skadar lake” in 2011th action “We are looking for otter” is lunched

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with aim to research occurrence and population status (monitoring) for this species. According to results of this project management of NP will apply conservations measures.

Picture 15.Lutra lutra

The other mammals live mainly in the forested areas, predominantly located on the south-western shore of the lake and in the mountainous areas. Following wildlife mammals can be found in this are: Lepuseuropeus, Canis aureus, Vulpes vulpes, Martes martes, Erinaceuseuropeus, Sciurus vulgaris, and Sus scrofa (numerous population) and Talpa europaea. One of the characteristic of Lake area is divers fauna of small forest rodents including rare and endemic dinaric mice – Dolomys sp.

The only group of mammals which were seriously investigated in this area are the bats, which are especially abundant around the lake. Detailed researches of twelve caves in Skadar Lake area have been conducted so far and in every one bats were found. For Lake area 9 bat species is detected (of 25 species in whole Montenegro). Detected are folowing species: Rhinolophus hipposideros, R. ferrumequinum, R. euryale, Myotis myotis, M. blythii oxygnathus, Myotis nattereri, M. emarginatus, M. capaccini, and Miniopterus schreibersii. Some species were found in hibernating or in nursery colonies of 300 to 800 individuals, exceptionally up to 5000 strong, while by other species only individuals or small numbers were observed.

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7. CONSERVATION FUNCTION

7.1 Contribution to the conservation of species diversity

Lake Shkoder’s biodiversity has developed in a unique physical environment where geology, geomorphology, hydrology and climate provide a wide variety of habitats. Total biodiversity is high (species-area relationship = 0.875) and the region is considered to be a biogenetic reserve of European importance (Kaukelaar et al., 2006). Skadar Lake has high importance as diversity center for several groups such are algae, fishes, birds, amphibians and lizards. Regardless the high biodiversity index of this area the importance of Sakadar Lake is in fact that this is the place where different component of flora and fauna meets: mediterranean, oro-mediterranean, mediterranean-middle european, middle european, boreal and pontic (Crnobrna-Isailović, J., Džukić G., 1997). All this gives a clear picture of Skadar Lake biodiversity importance and conservation needs.

Conservation and protection of rare and endangered species should be priority no matter if those species have some international or national conservation status. Plant and animal species that are protected in Montenegro are given in Anex 1. Almost 80 % of those species inhabits Skadar Lake area or Lake drainage area.

Research of some invertebrates groups from subterrestrial waters in Skadar Lake drainage area (Amphipoda, Copepoda) point on concerning drop in their abundance or even complete absence. Those species used to be numerous and often in Lake area. Species Hadzia gorgevici crispate as well as numerous species from genus Niphargus were abundance in samples during 60’s of last century but lately is almost impossible to find them. Similar situation is with species Copepoda Acanthocyclops gordani Petkovski (Karaman, 1997).

Although Skadar Lake basin is one of the most investigated areas in Montenegro we still have no detailed and systematized data on this area biodiversity especially on some invertebrates groups. Regarding this fact Sakadar lake most probably have much higher contribution to the conservation of species biodiversity than this with present state of knowledge.

Table 13. An overview of taxons which are protected by national legislation and which inhabits Skadar Lake area and surrounding

taksonomic group number of taxon

Vascular plants 50

Invertebrata

Fishes 3

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Amphibians 12

Reptiles 23

Birds 234

Mammals 10

Spesies of European Conservation concern (target species)

Target species are defined as species of European importance, which fulfill at least one of the following criteria:

• Legal protection: Listing of species in international conventions (species for which European legislation imposes to its contracting parties specific measures):

o The Bonn Convention on Migratory Species aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory fauna throughout their range (Natura 2000).

o The Bern Convention, aiming to ensure the conservation of wild plants and animals and their habitats, is an initiative of the Council of Europe (Emerald Network).

o The Birds Directive for the conservation of wild birds (Natura 2000).

o The Habitats Directive as instrument in the field of nature conservation that establishes a common framework for the conservation of wild animal and plant species and natural habitats (Natura 2000).

• Threat: Listing on IUCN Red lists (species whose survival in the near future is threatened on a global level, based on a combination of two criteria: rarity and trend);

• Geographical distribution (endemism): European endemics (species for which the global distribution is restricted to Europe or that are highly characteristic for Europe).

Within comprehensive study «Evolving GIS Technology in Assessment and Protection of Natural Potential of Skadar Lake Region» (Radović, D., 2008) a comparative analysis between species list in Target species – Species of European concern (Ozinga, Schaminee, 2005) and Checklist of species in Biodiversity-database of the Shkodra/Skadar Lake was accomplished.

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The analysis included the following groups of organisms: vascular plants, vertebrates (freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) (Pulević et al. 2001), as well as checklist of amphibians & reptiles (Crnobrnja, Džukić,1997;Džukić, Kalezić, 2004), and butterflies (Jakšić, 2007). Overview of taxa according to Radović et al., 2006. (Tabela 2, Annex IV)

Table 14.Overview of the species richness and the number of target species in Europe and Skadar Lake Region per taxonomic group

Taxonomic Number of Number of Number of Number of % group /Region species Target species species Target species (Skadar Lake Pan Europa / (Pan Europa) (Pan Europa) (Skadar Lake Skadar Lake Region) Region) Region

Vascular 12.698 2.968 726 24 0,8 plants (National Park (National Park (National Skadar Lake) Skadar Lake) Park Skadar Lake)

Butterflies 576 74 107 13 17,6

Freshwater 305 117 56 17 14,5 fishes

Amphibians 88 44 18 7 15,9

Reptiles 217 53 40 9 16,9

Birds 514 219 271 126 57,5

Mammals 295 147 59 28 19

Skadar lake region is marked with high number of target species within all seven taxons, especially the birds. There are 126 out of 219 (57,5%) birds species of European conservation concern (European birds target species).

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7.2. Contribution to the conservation of ecosystem diversity

Diversity of ecosystems is represented with diversity of habitats and biocenoses as well as with ecological processes that enable functionality of this ecosystem. According to Lakušić in Sakdar Lake area there are flowing ecosystems (Lakušić, 1983):

The ecosystems of Skadar Lake and his surrounding area start with ecosystem of marine (salt) water in River Bojana delta which are part of Zosteretum marinae association. In this ecosystem macrophytae are not divers in species and dominant are Zostera nana, Zostera marina, Posidonia oceanica and Cymodocea nodosa (plnts) while of algae they are present: Cystoseira barbata, C. abrotanifolia, C. amentacea,Padina pavonia, Acetabullaria sp., Fucus virsoides, Ulva lactuca and Enteromorpha intestinalis. In this ecosystem they are numerous plankton algae as a part of producing ecosystem part.

The brackish part of River Bojana is second ecosystem in this vertical profile and this ecosystem is placed betwine marine and lake freshwater ecosystems. The primary producers are Najas marina, N. minor, Ulva lactuca, Enteromorpha sp., Potamogeton lucens, P. fluitans as well as numerous microphyt algae from all three types of water (in terms of dissolved siols).

Third ecosystem is placed in Skadar Lake and it refers to all Lakes in Mediterranean and sub- Mediterranean region, to their dipper part without floating and emerged vegetation. This ecosystem is consisting of following primary producer: 1) Chara sp., Nitella sp., Najas marina, N. minor in deepes parts; 2) in 3m-6m depth they are present Potamogeton perfoliatus, P. crispus, P. lucens, P. pusilus, P. pectinatus, Vallisneria spiralis, Ceratophyllum submerzum, Myriophyllum spicatum, Ranunculus aquatilis; 3) phytoplankton is present with species from Diatomophyta, Cyanophyta, Euglenophyta, Pyrophyta groups.

Fourth ecosystem of Sakdar Lake and surrounding is determined with floating vegetation of Nympheion association. Producers of this type ere: Nymphea alba, Nuphar luteum, Trapa natans, Potamogeton natans, Polygonum amphibium, Marsilea quadrifolia.

Fifth ecosystem is determined with emerged vegetation of Phragmition W. Koch 26 association that goes from Bojana River and in all places along the coast of Lake. Main producers of this ecosystem are: Phragmites communis, Typha latifolia, T. angustifolia, Schoenoplectus lacustris, S. cernuus, S. setaceus, Pycreus serotinus, P. longus, P. flavescens, Cladium mariscus, Holoschoenus vulgaris, Butomus umbellatus, Euphorbia palustris and Iris pseudacorus.

In flooded area of Skadar Lake they are developed forest and scrub ecosystems mainly built of following primary producers and their associations: Viticetum agni-casti, Salicetum albae, Salicetum albae-fragilis, Periploco-Quercetum scutariensis, Salicetum purpureae

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In wider area of Scadar Lake and his drainage are there are more than one hundred different ecosystem types.

International recognition of the importance of Skadar Lake ecosystems come in 1995, when the Region was designated as Ramsar site. This region is also on the list of Important Bird Areas of Europe (IBA) from 1989., Imoprtant Plants Area (IPA) of Europe from 2008 and it is proposed for EMERALD site. NATURA 2000 network of protected areas in Montenegro still is not established, but according to relevant data and analysis it is more than clear that Skadar Lake will be part of this network.

According to Ramsar convention Skadar Lake is part of the most important areas in world due to water ecosystems and moorland. Those moorland ecosystems are of great importance for whole biodiversity but mostly for swamp birds. According to this convention most important part of the Lake is his whole northern but swamp area. Along northern coast they are toggling different aquatic plants, submerged, floating and emerged vegetation that gradually change in to flooded meows and forests. In this swamp area birds have ideal condition for nesting and hire they formed mixed colonies that sometimes count up to several thousands of pairs.

Skadar Lake is IPA area according two criteria which are used for IPA site selection: A – presence of species that have national and international conservation importance and C – presence of representative habitats that are of European or global importance. Nine taxon from Skadar Lake area satisfied these A-criteria but among them the most important are two species Marsilea quadrifolia and Minuartia velenovsk that lives only hire and nowhere else in MNE. Of course that wider area of Scadar Lake has more such species. Speaking about habitats 9 of them has en global conservation importance. Of all habitats that are recognized in Skadar Lake area (according to Habitat Directive) coastal flooding forests are most important (44.4325 Montenegrine ashoak- alder forests) and their constituent is endemic Skadar oak - Quercus robur ssp. scutariensis (Petrović, 2009).

For proclaiming Lake to an IBA area there have been used following criteria: A1, A3, A4i, A4iii, B1i, B2 (Saveljić, Rubinić, 2008).

Of all EMERALD sites in MNE, Skadar Lake have highest number of habitats from the Resolution 4 of Habitat Directive (Table 15).

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Table 15. Habitat types present on the EMERALD site Skadar Lake and site assessment for them (as from Resolution No 4)

Code code description representativity relative conservation global surface status assessment

22.31 Euro-Siberian B good2 ≤ 2 % B good B good perennial amphibious communities

22.3232 Small galingale B good ≤ 2 % B good B good swards

22.3414 Mediterranean small B good ≤ 2 % B good B good galingale swards

22.3415 Mediterranean B good ≤ 2 % B good B good (Fimbristylis) swards

22.3419 Mediterranean dwarf B good ≤ 2 % B good B good (Scirpus) swards

22.341A Mediterranean B good ≤ 2 % B good B good (Eleocharis) swards

22.412 Frogbit rafts B good ≤ 2 % B good A excellent

22.414 Bladderwort colonies B good ≤ 2 % B good B good

22.415 (Salvinia) covers B good ≤ 2 % B good A excellent

22.4321 Water crowfoot B good ≤ 2 % B good B good communities

22.441 (Chara) carpets B good ≤ 15 % B good B good

22.442 (Nitella) carpets B good ≤ 15 % B good B good

44.1412 Eumediterranean A excellent ≤ 15 % B good B good white and crack

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willow galleries

44.4325 Montenegrine ash- A excellent ≤ 2 % A excellent A excellent oak-alder forests

44.513 Western B good ≤ 2 % B good B good Mediterranean alder and ash-alder galleries

44.812 Chaste tree thickets B good ≤ 2 % B good B good

44.813 Mediterraneo- B good ≤ 2 % B good B good Macaronesian tamarisk thickets

The Union of European herphetologists (SHE) has included this area as the Adriatic triangle to be one of the research priorities for further investigation. During Joint International Workshop on «MAB Biosphere Reserves and Transboundary Cooperation in SEE Region» (held in Podgorica and Skadar in October, 2005, under the auspices of the UNESCO/ROSTE – IUCN) Skadar Lake NP was nominated for the MAB Reserve and transboundary Park between Montenegro and Albania. From November 2005 Albania also has pronounced its part of the Lake for a National Park.

The fact that Skadar Lake, by plan of "Ecological Bricks for Our House in Europe", was characterized as one of the 24 areas that are most important for conservation of European wildlife clearly point oninternational importance and interests for conservation of this area. But essential precondition for such function is regional conservation and sustainable development (Crnobrnja-Isailović, Džukić, 1997).

7.3.Contribution to the conservation of genetic biodiversity

Genetic diversity of some area is based on overall diversity of present gens that are part of DNA of all organisms that inhabits such area (DNA molecules of all species that inhabits such area: plants, animals, algae, fungi and microorganisms). From it is clear that genetic diversity is based on species diversity and on ecosystem diversity (three levels of diversity, divers ecosystems means diverse species and divers species means divers genes in their cells). For all areas the highest genetic values have endemic species regarding their narrow distribution and their unique combination of their (unique) genes.

Endemic taxon of vascular plants in Lake is floating subspecies Trapa longicarpa scutariensis that is by Janković represented by several varieties (Janković, 1983). Endemic subspecies of oak Quercus robur ssp.

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scutariensis (locus classicus selo Gostilje i Mataguži) in previous times was important constituent of flooding forests in this zone but nowadays those forest are degraded and we can find this species as individual trees in Lake surrounding area. Lake surrounding is also locus classicus for two of endemic species with iliric distribution: Cymbalaria microcalyx ssp. ebelii i Minuartia velenovski.

Picture 16. Cymbalaria microcalyx

Among Invertebrate species Skadar Lake region is home for significant number of endemic species of worms, crustaceans, insects and other arthropods. Many of those groups are represented by some endemic species no meter if they live in surface or underground waters ((Karaman, 1997). Hire we have endemic Tubificidarum hrabei Karaman 1973; then species Trichodrilus montenegrinus Karaman and Peloscolex scodraensis Hrabe from Oligochaeta group; Crustaceae – Sphaeromides virei montenegrina Sket.; Amphipoda – Laurogammarus scutarensis Schaf, Hadzia gjorgevici crispata G.Kar., Metohia carinata, Bogidiella montenegrina, Nimphargus vranjinae, N. zorae, N. asper, N. inclinatus, N. maximus vulgaris; Gastropoda – Virpazaria adrianae, Spelaeodiscus obodensis, Gyraulus meierbrooki, Bithynia zeta, Bithynia skadarskii (endemic species of Skadar Lake), Bithynia radomani (endemic species of Montengro) and Valvata montenegrina (endemic species of Skadar Lake).

For Skadar Lake drainage area it was described many of endemic and sub-endemic taxa in group of amphibian and lizard animals:four stenoendemic taxa: Triturus alpestris montenegrinus, Triturus alpestris piperianus, Rana shqiperica, Podarcis muralis albanica; one south-dinaridian endemic taxon: Salamandra atra (?) prenjensis; three dinaridian endemic taxa: Lacerta mosorensis, Lacertaoxycephala

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and Podarcis melisellensis fiumana; one taxon endemic for western Balkan peninsula: Viperaammodytes illyrica; and eight taxa endemic for Balkan peninsula: Triturus vulgaris graecus, Bombina variegatescabra, Rana graeca, Algyroides nigropunclatus, Lacertaagilis bosnica, Coluber laurenti, Vipera berus bosniensis and Vipera ursinii macrops (Crnobrnja-Isailović, Džukić, 1995)

Out of 50 species of fishes, 31 of them are endemic species with Adriatic – Ionian distribution, endemic for Adriatic – Ionian sub-province of Mediterranean zoo-geographical province. This shows that 62 % of species in Skadar lake system are endemic and if we exclude the introduced species (thirteen of them) and analyze the original fish fauna of this area, 84 % of species are endemic for Adriatic – Ionian region. Of this 31 endemic species, 8 of them are endemic for Sakdar Lake system (they inhabit only this water system) what makes 16 % of ichthyic-fauna endemic only for this area (if we exclude the introduced species, the original percentage of endemic ichthyic-fauna endemic only for this system is 22 %) (Mrdak, 2009)

Of thirty one endemic species, eight are exclusively endemic only for thisarea. Two of those eight species have unclear systematic status and theirpresence (after finding and description) has never been confirmed again (Salmomontenegrinus and Chondrostoma scodrensis). Two of three newly- describedspecies (Pomatoschistus montenegrensis and Knipowitschia montenegrina) aresmall fish species that inhabits lake shore and shallow part of lake tributaries (flooded areas). The following species are potential candidates for mostimportant fish species from biodiversity point of view: Salmothymus obtusirostriszetensis, Leuciscus souffia montenegrinus, Phoxinellus stimphalicus montenegrinus, Scardinius knezevici (Skadar lake system endemism), Acipenser naccarii, Acipensersturio, Allosa fallax nilotica, Salmo dentex, Salmo marmoratus, Alburnoides bipunctatus ohridanus , Alburnus alburnus alborella, Barbus peloponnesius, Chondrostoma nasus ohridanus, Pachychilon pictum, Rutilus basak ohridanus, Scardinius erythrophthalmus scardafa, Barbatula barbatula sturanyi and Padogobius panizzai (Adriatic-Ionian endemisam) (Mrdak, 2009).

8. DEVELOPMENT FUNCTION

Rural development is used toward the actions in social and economic development of the areas. It is usually top down approach but recent models such as UNESCO, EU, international development agencies, etc., are trying to stimulate bottom up approaches so that improvement of the rural lives is done with participation of the rural people themselves so as to meet the required needs of the rural area peoples.

A brief outline of the international, European and national legislative and policy context for the rural development is set out belowe:

Ø Montenegro is a signatory to a large number of international agreements which form the foundation to long term sustainable development. Three significant agreements to this effect

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are as follows: The Stability Pact for South East Europe (1999); United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000); The World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg (2002). Commitments arising from the Johannesburg Summit, Mediterranean Sustainable Development Strategy (MSDS) (2002)

Ø Other important international agreements endorsed by Montenegro relate to environmental protection are: Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992); The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the European Biodiversity Strategy (1998); Convention on Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972); Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of international importance (1971)

Ø Accession to the EU is a long-term goal within Montenegro’s overall development strategy. Harmonisation with EU Legislation, particular those relating to environmental protection, is therefore of importance for economy development directions. Several key Directives relevant to the sustainable development are: Conservation of Natural Habitats and Wild Fauna and Flora; Directive on Conservation of Wild Birds (1979); Waste Framework Directive (1975, amended 1991); Air Quality Framework Directive; Water Framework Directive; Directive to Promote Electricity from Renewable Energy, etc.

Ø The main policies and strategies for sustainable development are laid down in the following national documents (in harmony with European Union legislation):

- Spatial plan of Montenegro until 2020 (translation in English provided in a *.pdf file, version March 2008), available at the web page of the Ministry of Spatial Planning and Environment (http://www.mse.gov.me/en/ministry?alphabet=lat)

- Development Directions of Montenegro as an Ecological State (short version of the document is translated in English) Version of the document in national language is large. Its final version was adopted by the Government of MNE in March 2001. Not available on internet.

- National strategy of Sustainable Development of Montenegro (translated to English) In English at: https://www.kor.gov.me/eng

- Food Production and Rural Development Strategy, 2006. Not available on internet

- National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for period 2010 – 2015 (translated into English). Version in English Language available at: http://www.mse.gov.me/pretraga/99681/National-Biodiversity-Strategy-with-the-Action-Plan-for-the- period-2010-2015.html

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- Strategy for Development of Tourism in Montenegro until 2020. Versions of the document in English and Montenegro national language are available at www.mt.gov.me.

- Republic-Level Waste Strategic Master Plan (version in English is since November 2004, provided as a *.doc file) Not available on internet

- Strategy for Development of Human Resources in Sector Tourism in Montenegro. A version of the document in Montenegro is available at www.mt.gov.me. There is no English version of the document.

Sewerage and Wastewater Strategic Master plan (Central and Northern Region) Montenegro – Draft (translation in English provided in a *.doc file, version November 2004 / January 2005 Available in MNE language Version of the document in Montenegro national language available at http://www.mse.gov.me/en/ministry?alphabet=lat

- National Forest and Forest Land Administration Policy Version of the document in Montenegro national language available at http://www.nsp-cg.com/

- Programme for Energy database development in Montenegro Version of the document in Montenegro national language is available at http://www.energetska-efikasnost.me/dokumenti.php?id=0. There is no English version of the document

- Strategy for development of Energy sector in Montenegro Version of the document in Montenegro national language is available at http://www.minekon.gov.me/files/1202471746. There is no English version of the document

- Energy efficiency Strategy In national language is available at http://www.energetska- efikasnost.me/dokumenti.php?id=0. There is no English version of the document

- Energy Policy of Montenegro Version of the document in Montenegro national language is available at http://www.energetska-efikasnost.me/dokumenti.php?id=0. There is no English version of the document.

Ø Also strategies and concepts like: SME Strategy and Busines cluster strategy which is in preparation;Architectural Atlas of Montenegro (2006); ECO Lodge concept for Montenegro (2007); Architectural Heritage of the Skadar Lake Basin (2007)

Lake Skadar region has been an important historical, economic and cultural destination over time. Among existing and planned protected areas, there are those that have cross-border character. For now, only Lake Skadar, which Montenegro shares with Albania, was recognized as cross-border protected area and its wider neighborhood as cross-border development zone (SP MNE from 2008).

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National and local strategies and plans in both Montenegro and Albania identified the Lake Skadar area as a priority for environmental protection, sustainable natural resource management, and nature/culture-based tourism development. Both sides of the lake are designated as wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention. Both countries recognized the need for transboundary coordination to achieve these objectives, as reflected in the 2003 Memorandum of Understanding, and the 2008 Bilateral Agreement.

Montenegro is a signatory to the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea and its protocols and have developed programs within the framework of the Mediterranean Action Plan (Lake Skadar-Shkoder drains directly into the Adriatic Sea through the Bojana River). Also, it is signatory to the Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context and the Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes. A 2003 MOU and a 2008 Bilateral Agreement provide a specific framework for cooperation for protection and sustainable development of Lake Skadar-Shkoder (PAD, 2008).

Bearing in mind the commitment of Montenegro to be an ecological state and its orientation toward EU, rural development in future should be complied with a number of EU regulations that relate to the protection of the environment and sustainable use of natural resources.

Approximately 500,000 people live in the greater Lake Skadar watershed, with two-thirds in Montenegro and one-third in Albania. Sixty percent of the population is urban, living in a few cities: Shkodra in Albania and Podgorica, Niksic, Danilovgrad and Cetinje in Montenegro. The rural population is sparse in small villages and communes. The total population of 40 settlements inside or at the edge of the park in Montenegro is about 12,500. Of these, only about 550 (4 percent) live in the relatively urbanized settlements of Virpazar and Rijeka Crnojevica, while the remainder (96 percent) live in rural areas. In this region the unemployment rate is about 40 percent higher than it was in 1991, and since 2003 unemployment has increased 25 percent in Krjina and 40 percent in Crmnica (PAD, 2008). The two countries suffered severe economic decline during the 1990s and many industries within the watershed collapsed. This was bad for people’s livelihoods but good for the lake because it reduced sources of industrial pollution (PAD 2008).

Although the Lake Skadar represents an ecosystem with a great value, it is also put under pressure of several, mainly anthropogenic threats. The migration of the population in the area of the Lake Skadar can be stated as a main threat for this region. This can be registered through two activities observed in this area. There are ones who are leaving the area and deserting the villages and others who are moving into the Zeta Valley which causes increasing of the population. The second problem, caused by the rise in the floodings, is accompanied with the increased number of tourist, illegal building construction, large quantities of solid waste and wastewater, expansion of the arable land, an increased usage of pesticides, illegal or legal fishing (CEED, 2006).

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The region of Lake Skadar has several maigor points that shape up its position and development:

Migration is changing the demographic profile of settlements in the area on both sides of the border— populations are aging and declining in rural villages as young people migrate to urban areas. Pensioners comprise about 15 percent of rural settlements in Montenegro, and over 30 percent in some villages. While the population is declining over most of the project area, it has increased 2.5 times in the agricultural Zeta plain (one of the most intensively cultivated areas of Montenegro) since 1990, (PAD 2088). During the last ten years, due to deteriorating socio-economic conditions of life movements of population were recorded from rural to urban areas. This was the case with settlements in the region of Lake Skadar. Most settlements in the Lake Skadar is in the process of dying and fighting, the inhabitants are indigenous people who still live on the lake because of the their primal connection with the space in which they live. That is the main motive for the return of retired people in the village of Lake Skadar. Another reason is the low income of these people and therefore restores the agriculture and viticulture. On the other hand, the main motive for immigration of younger people in this area are poor living conditions, better business opportunities in the cities and a better salary.

Interest in living in rural areas every year is declining. Prospects for employment in most communities of the Lake Skadar region are weak and mainly associated with agriculture, tourism and fishing. However, many problems in these industries discourage young population for permanent settlement in these areas.

Improperly stored waste at the Kombinat Aluminijuma Podgorica (KAP) aluminum plant (along the Moraca River) has been identified as the highest priority industrial threat to the lake, specifically as a source of heavy metals, PCBs, and other toxic pollutants, which have been detected in the lake water, adjacent springs, wells, and some fish. A prime source of these pollutants is from a large, unlined, uncovered dump site containing a mixture of non-hazardous and hazardous wastes that have been accumulating since start of production in 1971.

An adequate sewerage system for the Lake Skadar area is a particular priority considering the sensitivity of the lake to pollution, considering the treats that it is exposed from the municipalities around.

Regional water supply is in process, as a remedy to deficiencies in water supply, feeding water from Lake Skadar to the coast.

The Energy Development Strategy outlines plans for developing hydro-electrical facilities on the Moraca River basin. This type of project may have environmental implications for the Lake Skadar National Park as this could alter the Lake’s sensitive inflow–outflow regime. The potential cumulative impacts of hydro-development and increased water abstraction should therefore be fully considered in relation to the tourism potential of the region. Planned development of hydro-energy infrastructure on the Moraca

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River will be likely to represent a significant conflict with the tourism development objectives in the Lake Skadar basin.

The regulation of water into the Lake will reduce the intermittent expansion and contraction of the lake’s area, which would be likely to change the character of the lake significantly, and reduce its nature value. Other infrastructure projects (e.g. water supply) may also lead to similar impacts. If more than one type of activity occurs then cumulative impacts will also be likely.

Highway, the most significant fact in the context of traffic connection of the Park is the announced construction investment in Montenegro – highway Bar-Boljare, connecting port of bar with Serbia on the eastern side of Montenegro, which one part must go through water aquatory of the park.

And other, not less important issues:

Situation in the reagon of Lake Skadar ir quite sensitive from the aspects of cultural and national assets that need conservation against uncontrole development and usage of them, diferent protection and development authorities again and other stakeholders interaction and possibly a need for the regional management body.

Development of hotels, infrastructure and the expansion of settlements also represent a threat to the biodiversity of Lake Skadar due to changes from natural habitats to semi-natural and urban habitats. The development of tourism resorts and infrastructure may lead to irreversible impacts on the landscape, and ‘unspoiled’ character of large areas of the Lake Skadar region.

Despite mitigation and avoidance measures alluded to in the Masterplan, residual impacts are likely in relation to the disturbance of wildlife and habitats, particularly spawning and nesting grounds, as a result of tourist activities on the Lake. In addition, any increase in hunting or fishing as a result of greater visitor numbers to the National Park may also result in uncontrolled and excessive exploitation of biological resources.

Spatial Plan, till 2020 emphases illegal and unplanned construction as a risk factor for natural resources and economic development: Basically, illegal construction means not only illegal usurpation of the right to use land but also, typically, avoiding paying charges for utilization of public infrastructure, and thus these costs are borne by those who build and work in accordance with the law. A special problem is illegal construction in the most attractive areas, for instance, in the protected natural areas, especially when it is massive and when builders gain large profits, mainly at the expense of public interest and endangering public properties. It happens frequently that major part of technical, traffic, environmental and other requirements are not respected. Public interest is often neglected or ignored. Also, unplanned construction makes additional pressure on the natural resources and the environment, particularly regarding water pollution.

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Management of the area of national and international importance, Zoning and Spatial plans of NP are in progress, but delaued. Creating a new Physical Plan for the Lake Skadar region and the new five year management plan for the NP Skadar Lake already made will complete the legal framework to govern the area, but must establish a continuous monitoring of water and biodiversity of the lake (in a transboundary context), and carry out new scientific research, primarily in research populations of fish species and quality of sustainable development of fisheries. Of course, all these activities are accompanied by a revision of the existing Law on National Parks.

There is a need for plans to be full discussed between the International Agencies, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, National Tourism Organisation, independent tourism developers and operators and the mayors and administrations of the relevant municipalities in developing the practical plans for implementing the strategy. The proposed guidelines for management of the National Park (e.g. zoning) also need discussing and decisions must be taken so that additions can be made to the touristic concept for the national park in keeping with the principles. On the other hand, the decentralization process gives significant powers to local governments, which although no formal legal powers within the national park boundaries, decide on the use of land in the protected zone of the park, so the level of cooperation with local authorities must also be developed and improuves.

When proclaimed as national park discussions have been bringing up the issues of humman pressure that this protected area has to manage, that rested as an issue nowdays.

The present tourist infrastructure and services are almost completely lacking around Lake Skadar. The basic infrastructure will require significant upgrading and modernisation to cater for the planned growth in demand.

It is recognized the lack of scientific and technical data as a basis for making planning and policy documents. The most recent systematic investigation of the Lake Skadar are made in the late 70s of last century, and has since made sporadic research and monitoring of certain segments of the environment of the lake (water monitoring, monitoring of birds).

Effective supervision, in the National Park as a result of insufficient availability of funds and capacity is not in place. Monitoring system is needed, inter alia, for assessing:

· Impacts from extraction of rock, gravel, sand, water diversion and extraction, and peat extraction,

· Social impacts: loss of protected species by poaching with implications for tourism and recreation, and illegal development.

· Pollution: eutrophication, domestic sewage pollution, industrial waste pollution, unspecified agricultural runoff, lead poisoning, and impacts associated with tourism development.

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As in other protected areas in Montenegro, there are conflicts between the purpose of the Lake Skadar as a National Park / Ramsar site and the demands for the use of its biological resources. The two are currently the main direction and opposing development on the Lake Skadar. One aims at exploiting natural resources on the intensive way undermining sustainability and increasing pressure on heritage. Another direction could be sustainable tourism as a strategic development direction of Montenegro. Today, the population density in the zone around the park is much larger, and therefore the pressures on the resources of the lake are biger. The commitment of the population for an activity depends on the natural wealth of the individual settlements. The main activity is agriculture and its branches, including fisheries, with little industry and few services, business and non-economic activities.

A special and important resource of the lake is pure nature that surrounds it, with all its elements as a major renewable energy potential (solar, wind, etc.). This complex ecosystem gives great possibilities for usage, as an extremely high-quality area with the unity of nature and cultural landscape. This resource can be characterized as certain regional typicality, which can be the basis and inspiration for solving problems of balanced development. The whole area of National Park belongs to the type of natural areas that by the classification of UNEP, includes very little influence in changing the ecosystem. Most of the changes must be of natural origin. There are also areas where traditionaly use of land is the way agriculture is practices. Lifestyle of past generations is considered a tradition that should be preserved and revitalized, to raise awareness of the need for conservation and sustainable conditions for the development of sustainable economic activities. Tourism on the Lake since recently has become a new activity for the local people and has been inserted as a set of activities into an existing economy. Majority of the respondents (76%) in a study done by Perunicic, 2010, see the tourism as a future type of business that would enable the sustainable usage of the Lake Skadar resources. In the Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2006 it is also noted that diversification of economic activities, that should generate significant income to rural population, will be especially related to special forms of tourism (agro and rural). Tourism has a long-term perspective in Montenegro. Tourism Master Plan proposes that Lake Skadar is one of the three main development pilot projects. These projects illustrate the principles of integrated and sustainable tourism development. It is noted that it is necessary to implement a strategy for an innovative form of sustainable tourism. The aim of this strategy would be to create a unique "ecological experience with the characteristics of the local environment" for nature lovers, sportsmen and hikers. Key elements of such tourism products are natural, quiet and peace, while the key activities of observation and study of nature, walking and hiking, fishing, sailing and others.

Lake Skadar has a great potential for economic boost trought sustainable tourism based on the region’s natural and cultural heritage in line with its brand as a ‘Wild Beauty’ destination. The development of a tourism product at Lake Skadar will be based on high quality nature and recreational tourism, according to the Tourism masterplan till 2020. It will be promoted as excursion destinations from the coast. Therefore the Tourism Masterplan aims to attract affluent tourists seeking high quality specialised product associated with nature and recreation. The region has excellent prospects for tourism

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development. The Tourism Masterplan therefore envisages several opportunities to access the region; namely, as an excursion destination, a place for recreation, sports and nature tourism and for nautical, agricultural and transit tourism. Networking with the coast is a critical aspect of the strategy, as this will provide urgently needed relief to the main resorts at peak times and contribute to extending the season. Significant development of local scenic roads, attractions, and trails need to take place to realise this aim (SEA, 2005). The small castle of Žabljak, the market of Virpazar and the tiny villages, narrow patchworks of fields and ruins of deserted monasteries in the rocky cliffs in the hinterland of Lake Skadar.The Tourism Masterplan refers to the landscape, lake, and flora and fauna in the National Park, also cultural- historic heritage and charm of, and the picturesque villages, gastronomy and traditions of the region’s hinterland. The main tourism products envisaged within the Masterplan are based on an active nature experience, and local culture and history.

In order to build upon these themes, positioning linked with all the attractions in the surroundings through biking and hiking trails. In Lake Skadar National Park the Masterplan aims to build on the landscape, wildlife and culture (monasteries, farming and fishing villages, castles and bridges) through a combination of high-quality hotels, SMEs and excursions from the coast, based on ecologically compatible recreational activities. Rijeka, Virpazar and a site to be selected on the southern shore will become centres for nature tourism with the option of cross-border expansion.

Little consideration is given to the interests of local communities in the Tourism Masterplan and wider. However, conflicts are emerging between essential conservation measures around Lake Skadar and private initiatives seeking sources of income. In addition, the strategy should seek to ensure that the Masterplan’s objectives are fully supported at the local level from the outset by incorporating grass- routes development projects and public consultation (SEA, 2005).

The Tourism Masterplan points to significant opportunities for developers of 4-5-star hotel resorts, gastronomy and nature tourism around Lake Skadar. It is therefore recommended that developers at the coast are also encouraged to invest in sustainable tourism in the hinterland.

However, the Masterplan’s vision will only be realised if the necessary investment can be attracted to develop the high-quality large hotels and smaller guesthouses and create a new service base. Also, additional investment in infrastructure, the education of sustainable tourism, community involvement and strategically management of the Lake Skadar is necessary in order to make tourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy.

Tourism development is usually new activity which could be risky in the entire story about sustainable development.

Having in mind seasonal character of this kind of tourism on the Lake, it is very risky to observe it in isolation from other activities. As it is common that market supports unsustainable livelihoods, also

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tourism development can reduce vulnerability, but on the other hand, it will be trade off between natural protection and development. One of the most important tasks is to discover can tourism be a form of sustainable development in order to achieve sustainable economy for settlement and people inside borders of the National Park.

Usually, rural areas are the natural resources to some degree. Poor households in rural areas normally develop multiple occupations (Banerjee & Duflo, 2007) what is often the case in the Lake Skadar region. If these households want to shift from livelihoods based on a natural resources to less vulnerable livelihoods, then it is important to have a full understanding of all resources (natural and otherwise) that people need to access in the process of composing a livelihood (Bebbington, 1999). Tourism cannot replace other forms of livelihoods especially in marginal, poor, remote settlements inhabited by old people. According to the results in all these observed places people sustained by combination of livelihood strategies by market oriented and subsistence activities, rather than specific jobs. This is the most important conclusion: tourism should be complementing rather than replacing the existing livelihood sources leading to the diversification of livelihood strategies (Perunicic, 2010).

Agriculture and fisheries are one of the oldest and stil remaining activities in the lake, that could be improuved to satisfay tradition, economy and sustainability. Here are some remarks:

Agriculture and fisheries, with the final products, in addition to be the basic or additional source of income for residents of the region of the Lake Skadar, are also the subjects of an existing promotion of the region.

There are many opportunities for development, but at the national and local levels must make a plan for intervention and assistance, in order to develop this industry with as little environmental impact.

Based on the analysis of the situation, and potential production can be concluded that the area of the Lake Skadarhas good potentials for production of healthy food.

It is necessary to direct the activities of clustering, associations of farmers and fishermen, to be an organized in a way to access the development and promotion of food as one of the brand potential of the region.

Quality control and branding products with the purpose of placing on foreign markets are pointed out as development opportunities, while the local entrepreneurs are expected to give priority to local products.

As local communities are important part of the rural development process here are several segments where improuvement is needed to foster their intereses in the sustainable actions, considered from the diagnostic document of the Development of local communities pilot project office (not published):

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• The cooperation of the local population that uses the resources of the lake with the management of National and local authorities is not satisfactory. The problem is the lack of (i) the association of fishermen, entrepreneurs, tourism workers and agricultural cooperatives, (ii) insufficient transparency of the NP, (iii) low level of participation of local communities in decision making and planning in the NP.

• According to locals it is necessary to repair bacteriological and chemical pollution of water, construction of water supply systems in villages that have no network and sanitation networks in rural areas where infrastructure already exists.

• Troubleshooting utility infrastructure and proper disposal of solid waste is one of the fundamental and pressing issues in all local communities;

• Poor economic situation and the possibility of easy money through the sale of fishing catches, led to the expansion and increasing the number of fishermen in these regions, and thus the pressure on fish stocks of the lake.

• The subjective assessments of the population, management of national park by the NP Lake Skadar has so far not proved good.

• Activities to combat fishing during the ban is insufficient.

• There is a weak organization of control of tourist visits to the lake, illegal construction, which is only allowed certain owners of land and infrastructure on the lake.

• Positive evaluation of the administration's National Park for recent activity on the lake in the form of marking of vessels and excursion paths, cleaning the lake.

• Citizens expressed no confidence in the results of the Center for Eco-toxicological studies and data on pollution in the Zeta plain.

• Residents have stated the need to establish professional associations that would protect their interests and rights.

The pressure on nature is significant, but one should take into account that during the development of the industries the pressure does not increase greatly, and that the zoning of the lake, identify specific points where they will be developed with minimum impact.

Training of local actors, has been recognized as a priority, and would in future be carried out in order to strengthen the capacity for development, but also to take advantage of all opportunities offered by the Government and municipalities to run the enterprise, small and medium ones.

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There are several steps that need to be discussed along the lines of rural development toward sustainability as conclusions:

- Formal partnerships will need to be developed and clear planning guidelines developed for all major developments, because how the situation is at the moment, show that different development plans, not coordinated, can with their cumulative efects bring Lake Skadar region in the ireversabal danger, as it is the case with regional water suplay project, small hidropover plant one and the project “Regulation of water regime of Lake Skadar waters and river bed of Bojana River”.

- In the absence of adequate management policies, in the region Tourism masterplan advocates the following emergency measures to be implemented:

· General development ban at the lake,

· Strict conditions on new buildings, in-keeping with local vernacular,

· involvement and training of the population,

· Limiting road extension,

· Strict guidelines relating to boats and watersports on the lake, (SEA, 2005).

Implementation of these guidelines is the responsibility of the Government, local Municipality and National Park authority.

Also there should be considered following issues as noted in SEA for Tourism Master Plan:

- Holiday resorts should include energy efficiency measures; consider renewable energy generation (e.g. solar thermal), grey water recycling and efficient use of water resources.

- The development proposals in the Tourism Masterplan and other plans should have a considerable positive effect on the local social conditions within the Lake Skadar region, particularly in relation to employment and local services. However, conflicts are emerging between essential conservation measures around Lake Skadar and private initiatives seeking sources of income.

- The promotion of cultural assets around Lake Skadar is a key part of the Masterplan’s vision. However, the plan does not contain detailed plans as to how this is to be achieved. Therefore, a detailed planning framework should be produced to ensure that exploitation of cultural assets occurs in a sensitive manner and that local identity and traditions are not adversely affected or overly commoditised.

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- Economic issues are very closely linked with the social issues described above. The investment in the Lake Skadar region required to develop the proposals outlined in the TMP will lead to significant local economic benefits. Clearly considerable investment is needed from the Montenegrin Government in order to carry out the vital infrastructure, ecological protection and social restructuring requirements prior to development of the proposals and maintain them during their operation. This investment represents a significant economic risk for the Government, and could lead to financial losses should the vision of the Tourism Masterplan fail to materialise.

9. LOGISTIC SUPPORT FUNCTION

9.1. Research and monitoring activities

In the region of Skadar Lake for almost thirty years, until 90’s of past century, there was Biological station “Virpazar” as a part of “Institution for biological and medical research of republic Montengro”. Main mission of this station is to research biological features of Skadar Lake region and other water bodies (lakes and watercourses) in Montenegro. With more than 25 employees (2/3 of theme was researching staff with higher education degrees, diploma, magister and doctors while 1/3 was technical staff and economy department) this so called “Skadar Lake Institute” was central institution for biological research of Skadar Lake. Almost all data from 20’s century are related to this institute engagement. Researchers that worked in Skadar Lake Institute were pioneers in researching of this Lake in diverse biological branches. More than 300 scientific papers were published mainly on Lake biodiversity, ecology, physiology, chemistry and fishery by employees of Institute.

During his existence, Institute produced numerous studies related to Lake biodiversity, chemistry and fishery which were of essential importance to former communist government in processes of decision making. Institute (the very same building where are now offices of NP “Skadar Lake”) was well equipped with, for those days, contemporary equipment in laboratories as well as with equipment for field research (including boats). They have specialists/researcher and technicians for in chemistry, phyto and zoo plankton, zoobentos, macrophytae, invertebrates, birds and fishes (including fishery). The reports on different biological issues on Skadar Lake were also kind of monitoring.

We can say that their maximum was a bilateral cooperation project with Smithsonian Institution, Center for great lakes studies, University of Wisconsin. After researching and data processing they published (as a final report of project) a book “The biota and limnology of Lake Skadar”. This book is still now the most comprehensive overview of Sakdar Lake and also most cited in all materials related to Lake.

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Their researching and monitoring activities were of crucial importance during proclamation of Skadar Lake area in National Park. Till this time management of this Lake area was organized trough sectorial responsibilities (Ministries and Directorates) while fishery was delegate to Public Company “Ribarstvo”. As effect of transition under the Public Company “National Parks of Montenegro” management (as a fourth National Park) all responsibilities for this area were centralized in one legal body.

Within 90’s and in first few years of 21st century researching on Skadar Lake area were almost on zero level. Only few individual field campaigns were accomplished but research were mostly used for individual thesis (magister or doctoral thesis) without any connecting or comparative concept.

After almost 25 years first organized research of this area was cross-border cooperation among University of Montenegro and University of Schodra driven by University of Heidelberg. The project has an integrative approach for development of procedures related to monitoring of Skadar Lake (project name: Integrative Monitoring of Skadar/Schodra Lake). Project last for three years and during this time cooperation among two crossborder Universities was reestablished. Laboratory and field researching equipment was renewed and some completely new explorations were accomplished and published.

During this critical period monitoring on Skadar Lake was completely absent. With beginning of new century some monitoring activities were lunched again. With the assistance of Natural Museum and Agency for Nature Conservation NP “Skadar Lake” established winter monitoring of birds on Skadar Lake. During this time, with assistance of Biology department (Faculty of sciences and mathematics, the former Skadar Lake Institute grows in biology department of this faculty), NP “Skadar Lake” also conveys monitoring of fish population conditions and spawn. Almost whole first decade of this century Agency for Nature Conservation was responsible for Montenegro biodiversity monitoring yearly program where NP Skadar Lake was one of the priority areas. For this period and in present time, the quality of water and soil is monitored by Public Company “Eco-toxicology center of Montenegro” with main purpose to measure concentration of harmful compounds and elements.

Lately, numerous are project that have one focus researches on Skdar Lake biodiversity, physiology, chemistry, ecology, fishery and those with conservation aims.

9.2. Education and other related activities

As we mentioned before, management of NP Skadar Lake pay their attention on education and informative role. Two show rooms and several educational tracks trough wilderness are dedicated to NP guests and their rising of knowledge about this area. National Parks have intensive collaboration with local communities in their attempts to explain their role as well as to motivate local communities for their idea realization.

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Skadar Lake is also area for introduction of children with natural potentials and richness. There is almost no excursion with children from elementary school that didn’t stop for a sightseeing or visiting of visitor center in Vranjina or in Virpazar.

There are numerous local and regional NGO who are active in this region especially in projects that promote sustainability and preservation of Nature resources. Skadar Lake is place where sustainable development is in focus of almost all local communities and stakeholders active in this area.

In Virpazar there is Educo-eco center with equipped laboratories and accommodation facilities. In this center every year are organized summer schools with biological thematic. Some of them are dedicated to Montenegrin high school pupils while others are of international character. Both, national and international oriented “school” in their focus has researching of some biological component of Skadar Lake area and education of the students in conservation and sustainability usage of bio-resources that are present in this area.

As a conclusion we can say that Skadar Lake area is not only area with conservation purpose but also area where significant educational processes occur in. Furthermore, area of Skadar Lake is unavoidable place for specialists in biological issues where they make their first steps in research. There is almost no biologist in Montenegro who didn’t published something or at least who didn’t mentioned Skadar Lake area in their paper-works, books or other printed but scientific materials. Students of biology got their first field research experience just in this Lake area and no matter to their interests, in Skadar Lake area there are challenges for everyone.

Further education of local community’s representatives, local and nationally active NGOs, Lake visitors, students from elementary and high schools and international “summer schools” that are mostly oriented to student population (different faculties) should be one of the purpose in usage of this Area.

9.3. Collaboration

The Scadar Lake was and still is Lake that connects people from both side of administrative border. During centuries this Lake was place where people from Montenegro and Albania meat each other in order of some cooperation or at least for trade.

After civil war on Balkans during 90’s and structural changes that affected Albania in the same period Skadar Lake have curtail importance for reestablishing of new collaboration among this two countries (Montenegro and Albania).

There is no foreign researcher who visited Montenegro and who, if not for research purpose, didn’t go on Skadar Lake. Other word speaking this Lake is not only the place for crossborder cooperation it is a place where international researcher and decision makers meet each others.

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Unfortunately, by our knowledge, NP Sakdar Lake doesn’t have any memorandum of cooperation with some similar region in Balkan and in EU. This is especially related to those that are already under MAB or under some other UNESCO programs. The NP Scadar Lake employees were several times in some student visits of other National Parks in Europe (as well as their colleagues from those NPs comes for a student visit of Skadar Lake NP) but no official collaboration haven’t been established so far.

10. ZONATION

With purpose to ensure all proposed function of future zones in MAB Skadar Lake area we were strictly driven by UNESCO recommendations that were related to this process. All those MAB area have to satisfied following standards. Each reserve is intended to fulfill three functions: a conservation function, to preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems and landscapes; a development function, to foster sustainable development, and a logistic support function, to support demonstration projects, environmental education and training and research and monitoring related to local, national and global issues of conservation and sustainable development” (UNESCO 1996).

The potential territorial flexibility of the original BR model, in which the extension of the three zones was expected to be eventually modified, got lost in the rigid planning procedures through which the various BRs have been designed. In fact, only in a very few cases have buffer and transition zones been modified after the first nomination.i The subsequent urban interpretation of the biosphere reserves recently received emphasis during the EuroMAB 2002 session dedicated to ‘Urban ecosystems and biosphere reserves’, highlighting the potential of the original BR concept in dealing with more complex territorial dynamics, far from the remote and undisturbed lands stereotypically evoked by the term ‘reserve’, and far different from traditional discourses on protected areas.

Despite standard understanding of Nature protection as process that limit activities of local people and as process that put stronger regulative on usage of their lands and resources they traditionally used, in this case we intend to minimize such negative attitude. We tried to take in consideration all aspect of Skadar Lake spatial organization as well as to respect local community’s developmental needs. On the other side we respect proclaimed goals related to this region economy development as well as traditional economy and activities which enable subsistence of people in this region for centuries and even in present time. Already developed infrastructure and activities gives us a framework for our zonation. And on the end, but not less important, we respect spatial organization of NP “Skadar Lake”, especially strictly protected areas (so-called core zones) as areas where we have long lasting protection of highest level. Furthermore we paid attention of NP “Skadar Lake” human, equipment and financial resources (regarding the fact that for next year Government of Montengro cut budget for NP’s on half that was this year) in order to suggested zonation have sustainable future.

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10.1. Suggested Core Zones on Skadar Lake

On Skadar Lake they were already established four strictly protected zones as ornithology reserves. Those four zones were under strict protection where no other than researching and monitoring activities were allowed. We use those strictly protected zones as a spine for suggested model for MAB program. Present zones were primary established with purpose of bird protecting so we expand theme in order to include areas that are important for other species groups as well as to cover surrounding ecosystems that are of essential importance in biodiversity conservation. With purpose to protect some geomorphological phenomenon of Skadar Lake (crypto-depressions and sub-lacustrine wells) as important habitats for all aquatic organisms we suggested two additional core zones, one in Karuč- Dodoši region and second in Raduš-Krnjice region. Those zones are of vital importance for Skadar Lake fish populations regarding the fact that represent their wintering habitats.

According to UNESCO MAB recommendation that are in high concordance with present regulation in NP “Skadar Lake”, in suggested core zones biodiversity monitoring is central activity that is not only allowed but also recommended in order to monitor species, their population and ecosystem status.

Potential problems or socalled gaps of this proposal could be two new suggested core zones of Karuč- Dodoši and Raduš-Krnjice. Those zones are well known by bleak and other fish harvesting during their wintering in those places. Those places were fishing-harvesting happens every winter for ages in present time are places for industrial fishing. The management of NP “Skadar Lake” every year gives concession for those two areas for bleak harvesting. Considering the fact that winter harvesting mainly take out bleak which in this time of the year forms huge shoals and that other species are not affected by this fishing tools (grib and kalimera nets) those activities doesn’t affect to other species that are of conservation interest. For those two areas besides monitoring of biodiversity, monitoring on fishery should be established too. In fact this fishery monitoring exists but it is badly organized in terms of time line and data acquisition.

10.2. Suggested Buffer Zone on Skadar Lake

In our approach we decided that almost whole area of NP “Skadar Lake” that surrounds selected core areas should be a buffer zone that will provide all suggested functions. This area is most important for future economic development of Skadar Lake considering that whole tourism offer and attraction are placed in it. In this area fishery take place as well as water traffic due to sightseeing excursions. This area is also main area for researching and in it there are education facilities (two show rooms and Educo-eco center). As a buffer zone it has to fulfill two main objectives, to contribute in protection of core zones and to enable sustainable development of area. This area also completely overlaps the NP “Skadar Lake” Protection zone II that could be estimated as a kind of buffer zone of existing core zones.

10.3. Suggested Transition Zone on Skadar Lake

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Third and widest zone on future transborder MAB site of Skadar Lake should provide all additional services that are in coherence with purpose of this area nomination. Beside the facilities that are oriented to tourism in this zone they are also vineyards and small private wineries. Agriculture and animal farming are most intensive in this zone of Skadar Lake area. All hiking and biking paths are also placed in it. Roads of different categories are also in so this zone provides connectivity of Skadar Lake area. Border of this zone goes wider than border of NP Skadar Lake and correspondent with villages, settlement and urban zone in their northern and north-western borders.

Picture 17. Skadar Lake zonation

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13. ANNEXES

Annex I

Organisational structure of Publice Enterprise for NP of Montenegro, 2008

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ANNEX II

Tourism CEED 2010:

Despite the fact that tourism on Lake Skadar needs to be further improved, the population in this region succeed to provide certain funds, i.e. to achieve certain income. The existing tourism products of Skadar Lake such as recreational fishing, lake cruising, birdwatching, “wine roads”, hiking, biking, etc. offer the opportunity to achieve tourism-related earnings. When we asked respondents whether they achieve incomes from tourism, only 1.3% (2 respondents) said that they achieved income by renting rooms and fish sale on the Lake Scadar, Graph 3. The respondents do not own required permits for these activities. Out of the total number of respondents, only one stated that he sells fish to tourist and owns navigation vehicle registered for €50. When we asked the respondents whether they earn income from Scadar Lake resources, the results showed that slightly more than three quarters of respondents did not earn income in this way. The rest of the respondents stated that they earned income from mentioned resources – stressing that this income ranged up to 25%.

Graph 1. Tourism-related income achieved by Graph 2. Total income percentage achieved respondents from lake resources

Up to 25% 20,4% 1,3% Yes From 26% to 50% 2,5%

From 51% to 75% 1,3% 98,7% No Do not generate 75,8% income from the Lake …

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100

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Tourist organizations in municipalites Podgorica and Bar pointed out that ceetain measures have been undertaked regarding the Lake Skadar promotion in terms of Lake Values Promotion, by informative and promotional activities. On June 5 - the World Environmental Protection Day, the educative-promotional cruising for the media was organized. Tourist organizations also participate in presentations and working groups for the Skadar Lake region (for example in pilot project of local community development of Skadar Lake).

ANNEX III

Three significant agreements to this effect are as follows:

· The Stability Pact for South East Europe (1999)

· United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000)

· The World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg (2002). Commitments arising from the Johannesburg Summit.

· Mediterranean Sustainable Development Strategy (MSDS) (2002)

1.Other important international agreements endorsed by Montenegro relate to environmental protection:

· Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)

· The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the European Biodiversity Strategy (1998)

· Convention on Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972)

· Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of international importance (1971)

2.Several key Directives relevant to the implementation of the Sustainable development and tourism actiones:

· Conservation of Natural Habitats and Wild Fauna and Flora (Directive 92/43/EC) (The Habitats Directive)

· Directive on Conservation of Wild Birds (1979)

· Waste Framework Directive (1975, amended 1991)

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· Air Quality Framework Directive (96/62/EC)

· Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)

· Directive to Promote Electricity from Renewable Energy (2001/77/EC)

ANNEX IV

Vascular plants

Globally threatened Legal protection Endemic

Number of countries Scientific name Bern HD HD for 1 country IUCN IUCN

2 4 Europe in EU 1997 2000

Marsilea quadrifolia x x 18

Cardamine maritima x x 1

Lythrum flexuosum x x x x V 1

Trapa natans x x 21

Myosotis scorpioides x 27

Micromeria parviflora x R 2

Crepis bertiscea x? x R 1

Carex acuta x 37

Leucojum aestivum x? I 24

Najas flexilis x x 12

Cupressus sempervirens LR/nt 17

Gladiolus palustris x x x I 13

Ramonda serbica x x x R 4

Dianthus knappii x x R 1

Teucrium arduini x R 2

Scilla litardierei x x x x V 1

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Asperula scutellaris x V 3

Asperula baldaccii x x R 1

Chaerophyllum coloratum x R 2

Centaurea glaberrima x x R 1

Berteroa gintlii x x E 1

Viburnum maculatum x DD 2

Hyacinthella dalmatica x R 1

Rhamnus intermedius x R 2

Butterflies

Habitats Directive Directive Habitats 92/43/EEC

Scientific name i narodno No ime za vrsu

European Ecological Network Ecological European - Convent. On the conserv. Of europ.Wildlife and natural II) (Annex 1979 Bern, habitats, Annex II Annex IV Pan Animals Thret. of List Red IUCN 1996 2005) (Alterra, Species Target European1991 List, Red Data 1999 Butterflies, of European Book Data Red LEPIDOPTERA

PAPILIONIDAE

1 Zerynthia polyxena (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) Uskršnji leptir x x x V *

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2 Parnassius mnemosyne (Linnaeus, 1758) x x x * Mnemozine

3 Papilio alexanor Esper, 1800

Aleksanor x x Ex *

PIERIDAE

4 Gonepteryx rhamni (Linnaeus, 1758) V Limunovac

LYCAENIDAE

5 Lycaena ottomanus (Lefebvre, 1830) E * V Otomanski dukat

6 Pseudophilotes vicrama (Moore, 1865) + * V Dušicin plavac

7 Pseudophilotes bavius (Eversmann, 1832) E + * E Zagasiti plavac

8 Scolitantides orion (Pallas, 1771) x R + * V Žednjakov plavac

9 Glaucopsyche alexis (Poda, 1761) R + * V Zelenotrbi plavac

NYMPHALIDAE

10 Nymphalis xanthomelas (Esper, 1781) E + * V Žutonogi mnogobojac

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11 Euphydryas aurinia (Rottemburg, 1775) x x x V + * V Močvarni šarenac

12 Apatura metis (Freyer, 1829)

Paninski prelivac x V E

13 Chazara briseis (Linnaeus, 1764) x V * Samotnjak

Freshwater fishes

Scientific name Legal protection Globally Remarks Common name threatened distribution Hab. Bern Bonn Dir. (IUCN category)

Acipenser naccarii *II, II II VU Adriatic sea, pr,sp Adriatic sturgeon IV

Acipenser stellatus V III II EN Adriatic, Black, Starry sturgeon Caspian sea

Acipenser sturio *II, III II CR All coast Europe Common sturgeon IV

Alosa fallax (fallax) II, V III DD Atlantic to Baltic Twaite shad

Barbus meridionalis II, V III N pr, to E alps, Mediterrenean barbel Danuibe catchment area

Barbus peloponnesius V III DD S Europe -

Chondrostoma CR Scutari, Albania - scodrensis (Montenegro). Possibly extinct

Cobitis taenia II III Broadly Spined loach

Lampetra fluviatilis II, V III EN NE to SW-Europe Lampern

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Lampetra planeri II III NE to SW (France) Brook Europe lamprey

Leuciscus souffia II III Rhone basin Soufie

Pachychilon pictum III LR -

Padogobius panizzai II III

Petromyzon marinus II III EN broadly Sea lamprey

Rhodeus sericeus ? III Amur bitterling

Salmothymus EN Croatia and Adriatic trout obtusirostris Montenegro to eastern Albania (mostly in Adriatic Sea drainages).

Thymallus thymallus V III C NE Europe Grayling

Amphibians

Globally Legal Endemic in Scientific name threatened Distribution protection Europe (IUCN category)

Bombina variegata 1 1 Central Europe

Proteus anguinus 1 1 VU East coast Adriatic Sea

Rana dalmatina 1 1 Central NS Europe

Rana graeca 1 1 Greece, Balkan

Rana shqiperica 1 EN Montenegro, Albania

Salamandra atra 1 1 Alpine area

Triturus carnifex 1 1 Austria, Yugoslavia, Italy

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Reptiles

Globally Legal Endemic in Scientific name threatened Distribution in Europe protection Europe (IUCN category)

Algyroides nigropunctatus x x Balkan area

Caretta caretta x EN Warm oceans, Mediterranean

Chelonia mydas x EN only Turkey, Cyprus

Dermochelys coriacea x EN circumglobal

Zamenis situlus x DD South-eastern Europe

Lacerta vivipara pannonica VU Northern-central Europe*

Macrovipera schweizeri x x CR Western Cyclades islands

Testudo hermanni x x LR; nt Mediterranean area

Vipera ursinii x EN South and East Europe

Birds

Legal protection SPEC Globally Endemic in Scientific name status Birds Dir. threatened Common name Europe 2004 Bern Bonn Notes (IUCN )

Accipiter brevipes 2 II II I . . 1 Levant Sparrowhawk

Acrocephalus 1 II I I . VU 1 Aquatic Warbler paludicola

Actitis hypoleucos 3 . . . Common Sandpiper

1 II I . NT 1 Cinereous Vulture Aegypius

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monachus

Alauda arvensis 3 . II . Eurasian Skylark

Alcedo atthis 3 II I . . Common Kingfisher

* A. g. saxatilis + Alectoris graeca A. g. 2 I* II** . 1 Rock Partridge whitakeri

only; ** all others

Anas acuta 3 II . II . Northern Pintail

Anas clypeata 3 II . II . Northern Shoveler

Anas querquedula 3 II . II . Garganey

Anas strepera 3 II . II . Gadwall

* Lesser White-fronted Anser erythropus 1 II I I . Reintroduc VU 1 Goose ed

Anthus campestris 3 II I . . Tawny Pipit

Aquila chrysaetos 3 II I . . Golden Eagle

Aquila clanga 1 II I I . VU Greater Spotted Eagle

Aquila heliaca 1 II I I . VU Imperial Eagle

Aquila pomarina 2 II I . . 1 Lesser Spotted Eagle

Ardea purpurea 3 II II I . . Purple Heron

Ardeola ralloides 3 II I . . Squacco Heron

Asio flammeus 3 II I . . Short-eared Owl

Athene noctua 3 II . . . Little Owl

Aythya ferina 2 . II . 1 Common Pochard

Aythya fuligula 3 . II . Tufted Duck

Aythya marila 3W . II . Greater Scaup

Aythya nyroca 1 I I . NT Ferruginous Duck

Botaurus stellaris 3 II II I . . Great Bittern

Bubo bubo 3 II I . . Eurasian Eagle-owl

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Burhinus 3 II II I . . Eurasian Thick-knee oedicnemus

Buteo rufinus 3 II I . . Long-legged Buzzard

Calandrella 3 II I . . Greater Short-toed Lark brachydactyla

* C. a. Calidris alpina 3 II I* . schinzii . Dunlin only

Caprimulgus 2 II I . . 1 Eurasian Nightjar europaeus

Carduelis 2 II . . . 1 Eurasian Linnet cannabina

Charadrius 3 II II I . . Kentish Plover alexandrinus

Chlidonias 3 II I . . Whiskered Tern hybrida

Chlidonias niger 3 II II I . . Black Tern

Ciconia ciconia 2 II II I . . 1 White Stork

Ciconia nigra 2 II II I . . 1 Black Stork

Circaetus gallicus 3 II I . . Short-toed Snake-eagle

Circus cyaneus 3 II I . . Northern Harrier

Circus macrourus 1 II I NT Pallid Harrier

Coracias garrulus 2 II II I . . 1 European Roller

Bonn: Coturnix coturnix 3 II . II coturnix . Common Quail only

Crex crex 1 II II I . NT Corncrake

Delichon urbica 3 II . . . Northern House Martin

Elanus caeruleus 3 II I . . Black-winged Kite

Emberiza cia 3 II . . . Rock Bunting

Emberiza 2 I . . 1 Ortolan Bunting hortulana

Emberiza 2 II . . . 1 Black-headed Bunting melanocephala

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Falco biarmicus 3 II II I . . Lanner Falcon

Falco cherrug 1 II II I . EN 1 Saker Falcon

Falco eleonorae 2 II II I . . 1 Eleonora’s Falcon

Falco tinnunculus 3 II II . . . Common Kestrel

Falco vespertinus 3 II II I . . Red-footed Falcon

Galerida cristata 3 . . . Crested Lark

Gallinago 3 . II . Common Snipe gallinago

Gallinago media 1 II I . NT Great Snipe

Gavia arctica 3 II II, II I . . Arctic Loon

Gavia stellata 3 II II I . . Red-throated Loon

Glareola 3 II II I . . Collared Pratincole pratincola

Grus grus 2 II II I . . 1 Common Crane

Gypaetus barbatus 3 II I . . Lammergeier

Haliaeetus 1 II I I . NT White-tailed Eagle albicilla

Hieraaetus 3 II I . . Bonelli’s Eagle fasciatus

Hieraaetus 3 II I . . Booted Eagle pennatus

Hippolais pallida 3 II . . . Olivaceous Warbler

Hirundo rustica 3 II . . . Barn Swallow

Ixobrychus 3 II II I . . Little Bittern minutus

Jynx torquilla 3 II . . . Eurasian Wryneck

Lanius collurio 3 II I . . Red-backed Shrike

Lanius excubitor 3 II . . . Great Grey Shrike

Lanius minor 2 II I . . 1 Lesser Grey Shrike

Lanius senator 2 II . . . 1 Woodchat Shrike

Larus minutus 3 II I . . Little Gull

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Limosa limosa 2 . II . 1 Black-tailed Godwit

Lullula arborea 2 I . . 1 Wood Lark

Lymnocryptes 3 . II . Jack Snipe minimus

Melanitta fusca 3 . II . White-winged Scoter

Melanocorypha 3 II I . . Calandra Lark calandra

Merops apiaster 3 II II . . . European Bee-eater

Miliaria calandra 2 . . . 1 Corn Bunting

Milvus migrans 3 II I . . Black Kite

Milvus milvus 2 II I . . 1 Red Kite

Monticola Rufous-tailed Rock- 3 II . . . saxatilis thrush

Monticola 3 II . . . Blue Rock-thrush solitarius

Muscicapa striata 3 II II . . . Spotted Flycatcher

Neophron 3 II I . . Egyptian Vulture percnopterus

Numenius arquata 2 . II . 1 Eurasian Curlew

Numenius 1 II I I . CR Slender-billed Curlew tenuirostris

Nycticorax Black-crowned Night- 3 II I . . nycticorax heron

Oenanthe 2 II . . . 1 Black-eared Wheatear hispanica

Oenanthe 3 II . . . Northern Wheatear oenanthe

* M. Eur. Otis tarda 1 II I*, II I . VU 1 Great Bustard Pop

Otus scops 2 II . . . 1 Common Scops-owl

Oxyura 1 II I I . EN 1 White-headed Duck leucocephala

Pandion haliaetus 3 II II I . . Osprey

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Parus cristatus 2 II . . . 1 Crested Tit

Parus palustris 3 II . . . Marsh Tit

Passer domesticus 3 . . . House Sparrow

Passer montanus 3 . . . Eurasian Tree Sparrow

Pelecanus crispus 1 II I, II I . VU 1 Dalmatian Pelican

Pelecanus 3 II I, II I . . Great White Pelican onocrotalus

* P .p. italica + P. p. Perdix perdix 3 I* II** . Grey Partridge hispaniensis only; ** all others

Phalacrocorax 1 II II I . NT 1 Pygmy Cormorant pygmeus

Philomachus 2 I II . 1 Ruff pugnax

Phoenicurus 2 II . . . 1 Common Redstart phoenicurus ylloscopus bonelli 2 . . . 1 Bonelli’s Warbler

Phylloscopus 2 . . . 1 Wood Warbler sibilatrix

Picoides 3 II I . . Three-toed Woodpecker tridactylus

Picus canus 3 II I . . Grey-faced Woodpecker

Eurasian Green Picus viridis 2 II . . . 1 Woodpecker

Platalea 2 II II I . . 1 Eurasian Spoonbill leucorodia

Plegadis 3 II II I . . Glossy Ibis falcinellus

Podiceps auritus 3 II II I . . Horned Grebe

Porzana pusilla 3 II II I . . Baillon’s Crake

Riparia riparia 3 II . . . Sand Martin

Scolopax rusticola 3 II . II . Eurasian Woodcock

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Sterna albifrons 3 II II I . . Little Tern

Sterna caspia 3 II I . . Caspian Tern

Sterna 2 II II I . . 1 Sandwich Tern sandvicensis

Streptopelia turtur 3 II . II . European Turtle-dove

Sturnus vulgaris 3 . II . Common Starling

Sylvia hortensis 3 II . . . Orphean Warbler

Tetrax tetrax 1 II I . NT 1 Little Bustard

Tringa erythropus 3 . II . Spotted Redshank

Tringa glareola 3 II I . . Wood Sandpiper

Tringa totanus 2 . II . 1 Common Redshank

Tyto alba 3 II . . . Barn Owl

Upupa epops 3 II . . . Eurasian Hoopoe

Vanellus vanellus 2 . II . 1 Northern Lapwing

Mammals

Scientific name Legal protection Endemic Globally Remarks Common English name in threatened distrib Hab. Bern Bonn CITES Europe (IUCN Dir. category)

Canis lupus II*/IV II - II . LR/VU* Scattered Wolf

Crocidura - II - - . - Scattered Lesser white-toothed suaveolens shrew

Dryomys nitedula IV - - - . LR/nt Balkan Forest dormouse

Eliomys quercinus - - - - x VU Broadly Garden dormouse

Eptesicus serotinus IV II - - . - Broadly Serotine

Felis silvestris IV II - II,A . - Scattered Wildcat

Lutra lutra II/IV II - I . - Scattered Otter

Microtus felteni - - - - x LR/nt Balkans Balkan pine vole

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Microtus thomasi - - - - x LR/nt SW Balkans Thomas’s vole

Miniopterus II/IV II - - . - S Europe Schreibers’ bat schreibersii

Muscardinus IV - - - . LR/nt Broadly Common dormouse avellanarius

Myotis blythii III/IV II - - . - S Europe Lesser mouse-eared bat

Myotis capaccinii II/IV II - - . VU Mediterranean Long-fingered bat

Myotis II/IV II - - . VU S central Geoffroy's bat emarginatus Europe

Myotis myotis II/IV II - - . LR/nt Broadly Greater mouse-eared bat

Myotis mystacinus IV II - - . - Broadly Whiskered bat

Nyctalus leisleri IV II - - . LR/nt Broadly Leisler's bat

Nyctalus noctula IV II - - . - N central Noctule Europe

Pipistrellus kuhlii IV II - - . - S+ W Europe Kuhl's pipistrelle

Pipistrellus IV II - - . - Broadly Nathusius' pipistrelle nathusii

Pipistrellus IV - - - . - Broadly Common pipistrelle pipistrellus

Pipistrellus savii IV II - - . - S Europe Savi's pipistrelle

Plecotus auritus IV II - - . - Broadly Brown long-eared bat

Rhinolophus blasii II/IV II - - . LR/nt SW Romania, Blasius' horseshoe bat Balkans

Rhinolophus II/IV II - - . VU Mediterranean Mediterranean euryale horseshoe bat

Rhinolophus II/IV II - - . LR/cd S central Greater horseshoe bat ferrumequinum Europe

Rhinolophus III/IV II - - . VU W central S Lesser horseshoe bat hipposideros Europe

Vespertilio IV II - - . - central E Parti-coloured bat murinus Europe

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ANNEX V

List of protected species in Montenegro

Vaskular plants

1. Anacamptis pyramidalis(L.) L. C. M. Richard 2. Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch 3. Cephalanthera rubra (L.) L. C. M. Rich. 4. Chaerophyllum coloratum L. 5. Cyclamen hederifolium Aiton 6. Cyclamen repandum Sm. 7. Cymbalaria ebelii (Cufod.) Speta 8. Epipactis atrorubens (Hoffm.) Besser 9. Epipactis helleborine (L.) Cr. 10. Galanthus nivalis L. 11. Gladiolus palustris Gaudin. 12. Hermodactylus tuberosus (L.) Miller 13. Himantoglossum caprinum(M. Bieb.) Sprengel 14. Limodorum abortivum (L.) Swartz 15. Marsilea quadrifolia L. 16. Minuartia velenovski (Rohlena) Hayek 17. Neotia nidus-avis (L.) L. C. M. Rich 18. Ophrys apiferaHudson 19. Ophrys bertolonii Moretti 20. Ophrys scolopax Cav. subsp. cornuta (Steven) E. G. Camus 21. Ophrys sphegodes Miller subsp.sphegodes 22. Orchis coriophora L. 23. Orchis laxiflora Lam. 24. Orchis morio L. subsp. morio 25. Orchis papilionacea L. subsp. papilionacea 26. Orchis pauciflora Ten. 27. Orchis provincialis Balb. 28. Orchis quadripunctata Cyr. ex Ten. 29. Orchis simia Lam. 30. Orchis tridentata Scop. 31. Orchis ustulata L. 32. Petasites doerfleri Hayek

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33. Pinguicula balcanica Casper 34. Pinguicula hirtiflora Ten 35. Pinus heldreichii H.Christ var. leucodermis (Ant.) Markgraf ex Fitschen 36. Pinus peuce Griseb 37. Phagnalon rupestre (L.) DC. 38. Plantago reniformis G. Beck 39. Platanthera bifolia (L.) L. M. C. Rich. 40. Platanthera chlorantha (Custer) Rchb 41. Quercus robur L. subsp. scutariensis Černj. 42. Ramonda serbica Pancic 43. Serapias cordigera L. 44. Serapias lingua L. 45. Serapias vomeracea (Burm. fil.) Briq. subsp. vomeracea - Kukavica 46. Serapias vomeracea (Burm. fil.) Briq. subsp. laxiflora (Soó) Gölz & Reinhard 47. Spirantes spiralis (L.) Chevall 48. Utricularia minor L 49. Utricularia vulgaris L. 50. Vincetoxicum huteri Vis. & Ascherson

Fish

1. Acipenser nacarii Bonaparte 2. Acipenser sturio Linnaeus 3. Salmothymus obtusirostris zetensis Hadzisce Amphibians

1. Salamandra salamandra 2. Triturus vulgaris 3. Trirurus alpestris 4. Triturus carnifex 5. Bufo bufo 6. Bufo viridis 7. Hyla arborea 8. Rana dalmatina 9. Rana graeca 10. Rana temporaria 11. Rana ridibunda 12. Rana shqiperica Reptiles

1. Testudo hermanni 2. Emys orbicularis

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3. Mauremys caspica 4. Cyrtodactilus kotschyi 5. Hemidactylus turcicus 6. Algyroides nigropunctatus 7. Podarcis muralis 8. Podarcis melisellensis 9. Lacerta oxycephala 10. Lacerta mosorensis 11. Lacerta agilis 12. Lacerta vivipara 13. Lacerta viridis 14. Lacerta trilineata 15. Anguis fragilis 16. Malpolon monspessulanus 17. Coronella austriaca 18. Natrix natrix 19. Natrix tessellata 20. Coluber najadum 21. Elaphe situla 22. Elaphe longissima 23. Elaphe quatuorelineta

Birds

1. Gavia stellata Pontoppidan 2. Gavia arctica L. 3. Gavia immer Brunnich 4. Tachybaptus ruficollis Pallas 5. Podiceps cristatus L. 6. Podiceps grisegena Boddaert 7. Podiceps auritus L. 8. Podiceps nigricollis C.L.Brehm 9. Phalacrocorax carbo L. 10. Phalacrocorax aristotelis L. 11. Phalacrocorax pygmeus Pallas 12. Pelecanus onocrotalus L. 13. Pelecanus crispus Bruch 14. Botaurus stellaris L. 15. Ixobrychus minutus L. 16. Nycticorax nycticorax L. 17. Ardeola ralloides Scopoli 18. Bubulcus ibis L.

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19. Egretta garzetta L. 20. Egretta alba L. 21. Egretta gularis Bosc. 22. Ardea cinerea L. 23. Ardea purpurea L. 24. Ciconia nigra L. 25. Ciconia ciconia L. 26. Plegadis falcinellus L. 27. Platalea leucorodia L. 28. Phoenicopterus ruber L. 29. Cygnus cygnus L. 30. Tadorna tadorna L. 31. Netta rufina Pallas 32. Aythya nyroca Guldenstadt 33. Aythya marila L. 34. Clangula hyemalis L. 35. Melanitta nigra L. 36. Melanitta fusca L. 37. Mergus albellus L. 38. Mergus serrator L. 39. Mergus merganser L. 40. Pernis apivorus L. 41. Milvus milvus L. 42. Haliaeetus albicilla L. 43. Neophron percnopterus L. 44. Gyps fulvus Hablizl 45. Circaetus gallicus Gmelin 46. Circus aeruginosus L. 47. Circus cyaneus L. 48. Circus macrourus Gmelin 49. Circus pygargus L. 50. Accipiter gentilis L. 51. Accipiter nisus L. 52. Accipiter brevipes Severtzov 53. Buteo buteo L. 54. Buteo rufinus Cretzschmar 55. Aquila pomarina C.L. 56. Aquila clanga Pallas 57. Aquila heliaca Savigny 58. Aquila chrysaetos L. 59. Hieraaetus pennatus Gmelin 60. Hieraaetus fasciatus Vieillot 61. Pandion haliaetus L. 62. Falco naumanni Fleischer 132 | Page

63. Falco tinnunculus L. 64. Falco vespertinus L. 65. Falco columbarius L. 66. Falco subbuteo L. 67. Falco eleonorae Gene 68. Falco biarmicus Temminck 69. Falco cherrug Grey 70. Falco peregrinus Tunstall 71. Rallus aquaticus L. 72. Porzana porzana L. 73. Porzana parva Scopoli 74. Porzana pusilla Pallas 75. Crex crex L. 76. Gallinula chloropus L. 77. Fulica atra L. 78. Grus grus L. 79. Otis tarda L. 80. Haematopus ostralegus L. 81. Himantopus himantopus L. 82. Recurvirostra avosetta L. 83. Burhinus oedicnemus L. 84. Glareola pratincola L. 85. Charadrius dubius Scopoli 86. Pluvialis apricaria L. 87. Pluvialis squatarola L. 88. Vanellus vanellus L. 89. Calidris minuta Leisler 90. Calidris ferruginea Pontoppidan 91. Calidris alpina L. 92. Limicola falcinellus Pontoppidan 93. Philomachus pugnax L. 94. Limosa limosa L. 95. Numenius phaeopus L. 96. Numenius tenuirostris Vieillot 97. Numenius arquata L. 98. Tringa erythropus Pallas 99. Tringa totanus L. 100. Tringa stagnatilis Bechstein 101. Tringa nebularia Gunnerus 102. Tringa ochropus L. 103. Tringa glareola L. 104. Actitis hypoleucos L. 105. Stercorarius parasiticus L. 106. Larus melanocephalus Temminck 133 | Page

107. Larus minutus Pallas 108. Larus ridibundus L. 109. Larus canus L. 110. Larus fuscus L. 111. Larus cachinnans S P 112. Sterna hirundo L. 113. Sterna albifrons Pallas 114. Sterna caspia 115. Chlidonias hybridus Pallas 116. Chlidonias niger L. 117. Chlidonias leucopterus Temminc 118. Clamator glandarius L. 119. Cuculus canorus L. 120. Otus scops L. 121. Bubo bubo L. 122. Athene noctua Scopoli 123. Strix aluco L. 124. Asio otus L. 125. Asio flammeus Pontoppidan 126. Caprimulgus europaeus L. 127. Apus apus L. 128. Apus melba L. 129. Alcedo atthis L. 130. Merops apiaster L. 131. Coracias garrulus L. 132. Upupa epops L. 133. Jynx torquilla L. 134. Picus viridis L. 135. Dendrocopos major L. 136. Dendrocopos syriacus Hemprich and Ehrenberg 137. Dendrocopos medius L. 138. Dendrocopos minor L. 139. Melanocorypha calandra L. 140. Calandrella brachydactyla Gmelin 141. Galerida cristata L. 142. Lullula arborea L. 143. Alauda arvensis L. 144. Riparia riparia L. 145. Hirundo rustica L. 146. Hirundo daurica L. 147. Delichon urbica L. 148. Anthus campestris L. 149. Anthus trivialis L. 150. Anthus pratensis L. 134 | Page

151. Anthus cervinus Pallas 152. Anthus spinoletta L. 153. Motacilla flava L. 154. Motacilla cinerea Tunstall 1 155. Motacilla alba L. 156. Bombycilla garrulus L. 157. Cinclus cinclus L. 158. Troglodytes troglodytes L. 159. Prunella modularis L. 160. Erithacus rubecula L. 161. Luscinia megarhynchos C.L. Brehm 162. Phoenicurus ochruros Gmelin 163. Phoenicurus phoenicurus L. 164. Saxicola rubetra L. 165. Saxicola torquata L. 166. Oenanthe oenanthe L. 167. Oenanthe hispanica L. 168. Monticola saxatilis L. 169. Monticola solitarius L. 170. Turdus torquatus L. 171. Turdus merula L. 172. Turdus pilaris L. 173. Turdus philomelos C.L. Brehm 174. Turdus iliacus L. 175. Turdus viscivorus L. 176. Cettia cetti Temnick 177. Acrocephalus schoenobaenus L. 178. Acrocephalus palustris Bechstein 179. Acrocephalus melanopogon Temminck 180. Acrocephalus scirpaceus Hermann 181. Acrocephalus arundinaceus L. 182. Hippolais pallida Hemprich and Ehrenberg 183. Hippolais olivetorum Strickland 184. Hippolais icterina Viellot 185. Sylvia cantillans 186. Sylvia melanocephala 187. Sylvia hortensis Gmelin 188. Sylvia curruca L. 189. Sylvia communis Latham 190. Sylvia borin Booddaert 191. Sylvia atricapilla L. 192. Phylloscopus sibilatrix Bechstein 193. Phylloscopus collybita Viellot 194. Phylloscopus trochilus L. 135 | Page

195. Regulus regulus L. 196. Regulus ignicapillus Temminck 197. Muscicapa striata Pallas 198. Ficedula albicollis Temminck 199. Ficedula hypoleuca Pallas 200. Aegithalos caudatus L. 201. Parus palustris L. 202. Parus lugubris Temminck 203. Parus caeruleus L. 204. Parus major L. 205. Sitta europaea L. 206. Sitta neumayer Michahellis 207. Tichodroma muraria L. 208. Certhia brachydactyla C.L. Brehm 209. Remiz pendulinus L. 210. Oriolus oriolus L. 211. Lanius collurio L. 212. Lanius minor Gmelin 213. Lanius excubitor L. 214. Lanius senator L. 215. Corvus frugilegus L. 216. Corvus corax L. 217. Sturnus vulgaris L. 218. Passer domesticus L. 219. Passer hispaniolensis Temminck 220. Passer montanus L. 221. Petronia petronia L. 222. Fringilla coelebs L. 223. Fringilla montifringilla L. 224. Serinus serinus L. 225. Carduelis chloris L. 226. Carduelis carduelis L. 227. Carduelis spinus L. 228. Coccothraustes coccothraustes L. 229. Emberiza citrinella L. 230. Emberiza cirlus L. 231. Emberiza cia L. 232. Emberiza schoeniclus L. 233. Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli 234. Miliaria calandra L.

Mammals

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1. Lutra lutra 2. Rhinolophus hipposideros 3. Rhinolophus ferrumequinum 4. Rhinolophus euryale 5. Myotis myotis 6. Myotis blythii oxygnathus 7. Myotis nattereri 8. Myotis emarginatus 9. Myotis capaccini 10. Miniopterus schreibersii

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ANNEX VI MAP OF SKADAR LAKE BORDERS

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ANNEX VIIMAP OF NP SKADAR LAKE BORDERS

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ANNEX VIITRANSPORT AND ROAD MAP OF SKADAR LAKE

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ANNEX VIIIMOUNTAINBIKE AND HIKING PATHS

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ANNEX IXMAP OF CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL MONUMENTS

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ANNEX X MAP OF WATERWAYS

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ANNEX XI MAP OF VEGETATION

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ANNEX XIITOURISM ECONOMY AND INFRASTRUCTURE MAP

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ANNEX XII SKADAR LAKE ZONATION MAP

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