Representing Idols, Idolizing Representations: Interpreting Hindu Ima from the Nineteenth Century to the Early Twentieth Century Tanisha Ramachandran A Thesis In the Department of Religion Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada August 2008 © Tanisha Ramachandran, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-45676-7 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-45676-7 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. 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While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. •*• Canada iii ABSTRACT Representing Idols, Idolizing Representations: Interpreting Hindu Images from the Nineteenth Century to the Early Twentieth Century Tanisha Ramachandran Ph.D. Concordia University, 2008 At various points in history and in different geographical locations, the Hindu image has been signified and re-signified by Hindus and others. Hindu images serve a multitude of purposes - functioning politically, socially and religiously. To formulate an accurate social history or cultural biography of the Hindu image, it is necessary to examine the means, by which it travels, as well as the reception, placement and context of the object at various points on the route. It is my contention that while the trajectories that the images have traveled provide a significant cultural biography, it is discourse that not only paves the path it follows, but also gives the image significance. Using Foucauldian and postcolonial theories of representation that highlight avenues of knowledge production, this dissertation provides a social history of the Hindu image from the early nineteenth century until the early twentieth century in an Indian and Euro-American context. By examining texts produced by Orientalists, missionaries, art critics, Hindu reformers and Hindu nationalists, this dissertation will demonstrate how the Hindu image is signified through a series of discursive battles. Through these interactions we can trace the differing forms of the Hindu image as God, idol, art, and symbol. The overall aim of this dissertation is to demonstrate that the Hindu image does not have an essentialized meaning; rather it is the various textual strategies that construct the image's meaning and usage. While the materiality of the image is fundamental, it is the narrative that defines iv and sustains its existence - in effect, it is discourse that works to determine its form and function. V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Throughout the many (and I do mean many) years of my doctoral studies, I have been fortunate to have had the support of many professors, colleagues, friends and family. I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincerest appreciation and thanks to everyone who has endured this long (and I do mean long) process with me. To Professor Leslie Orr, my dissertation supervisor, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and admiration. For the past eleven years (master's included - it didn't take me that long to complete my PhD), you have truly been the greatest teacher and mentor any student could have ever wished for. I am deeply indebted to you for unselfishly sharing your inexhaustible wealth of knowledge. Thank you for your guidance, support, patience (especially with the commas and hyphens), and friendship. I can only hope to one day be as remarkable a professor as you. To Professor Norma Joseph, thank you for the kindness, support and patience you have shown me in the course of my graduate studies. Your comments and advice throughout the dissertation process and have been helpful and thought provoking. Your collegiality, generous nature and great shoes inspire me as scholar. To Professor Michel Despland, thank you for all your recommendations, critical insights and comments on my dissertation. I am continuously in awe of the breadth of your knowledge and analysis. To Tina Montandon and Munit Merid, my sincerest thanks go to you both not only for making sure that I met all the deadlines, but for the personal touch you have brought to my life as a graduate student. I really appreciate all the help that you have given me over the years and truly appreciate your sensitivity and caring. To Professor Yasmin Jiwani thank you for all the years of encouragement, advice, support and friendship. To Professor Chantal Maille thank you for all the years of encouragement, and support. To my colleague John Bilodeau my gratitude for all the commiseration sessions- good luck. My special thanks to Laura Gallo, for her friendship, and help in editing my dissertation - you really are the best TA To my family of friends Teenah Edan, Cedric Georges and Samar Musallam thank you for all the love, support and patience (God knows you needed a lot of it) - you were always there when I needed you, and I truly appreciate it. To Kiran Sunar thank you for formatting my dissertation and keeping me sane over the last few months -1 am so lucky to have you in my life. VI To my friends Lara Braitstein, Marc Lucke, and m-c Macphee, thanks for all the support. A special mention to Devesh Soneji who was always willing to provide references and advice, especially on the Agamas. To the Dissertation Cheer Squad: Trish Salah (Trixxx), Deb Lunny (Debbi) and Candis Steenbergen (Candi) thank you for getting me through the last year of dissertation writing. A special shout out to Debbi: thank you for reading the entire body of my dissertation and outlining the introduction and conclusion. To my God daughter, Berlynne Chime Steenbergen (B'lyn-ee) you are the best (not to mention cutest and smartest) distraction from the anxiety of dissertation writing. To my extended family, especially the Cumaraswamy Sisters: Anusha Krishnadasan & D'lo, thanks for all the love and support, and for keeping me sane through your insanity. Special thanks to D'lo for accompanying me to India on numerous trips and carrying all the bags. To my parents, Rama and Shanti, and my sister Natasha who have made this all possible with their love, support and encouragement -I am forever indebted -THANK YOU! SAIRAM VH For Appa and Amma viii List Of Fifiures Figure 1.1 Sadasiva- Mahadeva 177 Figure 1.2 Linga 178 Figure 1.3 Anantasesa 179 Figure 1.4 Salagrama 180 Figure 1.5 Lingodbhava 181 Figure 5.1 Chinnamasta 182 Figure 5.2 Kali-Cigarette Ad 183 Figure 6.1 Kali and Ganesh Toilet Seats ....184 Figure 6.2 Minelli Rama Shoes 185 Figure 6.3 Ritual Shoe Disposal 186 Table of Contents List of Figures viii Introduction: Forming Function: Creating The Hindu Image 1 Chapter One: The Struggle For Form: The Image of God 8 1.1 Brief History of the Introduction of the Image in Hindu Liturgical Practice... 9 1.2 Are You There God? 20 1.2.1 The Agamas , 20 1.2.2 Saiva Siddhanta 21 1.2.3 Image and the Nature of God in Saiva Siddhanta 23 1.2.4 Srivaisnavas 28 1.2.5 Image and the Nature of God in Srivaisnavism 32 1.3 Sound, Sight and the Immaterial: Concluding Remarks 37 Chapter Two: Monsters, Dead Wood And False Gods: Western Perceptions of The Hindu Image 40 2.1 Orientalism and Orientalists- Constructing a Regime of Truth 43 2.1.1 Sir William Jones 47 2.2 The Missions 52 2.2.1 William Ward (1769-1823) 57 2.2.2 Jagannath 61 2.2.3 Lascivious Sexuality 64 2.3 Privileging the Visual through the Textual: Concluding Remarks 66 Chapter Three: "Four Footed Beasts And Creepy Things": Idols, Idolatry and Iconoclasts 67 3.1 "Idolatry" 68 3.2 Rammohun Roy (1772-1833) 76 3.2.1 Rammohun and the Christians 80 3.2.2 Debate with the Hindu Community 87 3.3 Partial Presences: Concluding Remarks 92 Chapter Four: The Idol Goes West 94 4.1 From Curio Cabinets to the World Fairs 96 4.1.1 The Crystal Palace 98 4.2 The World Parliament of Religions 100 4.2.1 The "Curio From India": Swami Vivekananda 102 4.2.2 Vivekananda's Vedanta and the Nature of the Image 105 4.2.3 Idolatry, the Christians and Vivekananda 107 4.2.4 Commodifying Vivekananda's Hinduism- Making it Spiritual 111 4.3 Into the Museum: From Idol to Art 112 4.3.1 Eventually The Victoria and Albert Museum 114 4.4 E.B.