The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events Evidence from the northern high latitudes Vickers, Madeleine; Price, Gregory; Jerrett, Rhodri; Sutton, Paul; Watkinson, Matthew; FitzPatrick, Meriel

Published in: Geological Society of America Bulletin

DOI: 10.1130/B35074.1

Publication date: 2019

Document version Version created as part of publication process; publisher's layout; not normally made publicly available

Citation for published version (APA): Vickers, M., Price, G., Jerrett, R., Sutton, P., Watkinson, M., & FitzPatrick, M. (2019). The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events: Evidence from the northern high latitudes. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 131(11-12), 1979-1994. https://doi.org/10.1130/B35074.1

Download date: 27. Sep. 2021 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 1 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events: Evidence from the northern high latitudes

Madeleine L. Vickers1,†, Gregory D. Price2,†, Rhodri M. Jerrett3, Paul Sutton2, Matthew P. Watkinson2, and Meriel FitzPatrick2 1Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Københavns Universitet, Øster Voldgade 10, 1350 Copenhagen, Denmark 2Centre for Research in Earth Sciences, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK 3School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK

ABSTRACT extend to the early Albian, in both hemi- 2004). A consequence of increased organic

spheres, corroborating other proxy evidence carbon burial is removal of CO2 from the The Early Cretaceous (145–100 Ma) was for late Aptian cooling. The glendonites from atmosphere and the onset of cooling, typically characterized by long-term greenhouse cli- Svalbard suggest that Cretaceous cold epi- coinciding with peak δ13C values, and followed mates, with a reduced equatorial to polar sodes were characterized with high latitude by an interval waning of δ13C values (e.g., Lini temperature gradient, although an increas- (>60°N) shallow water temperatures that are et al., 1992). The magnitude of warming and ingly large body of evidence suggests that consistent with the existence of a small north- cooling is still debated, as the various climate this period was punctuated by episodic ern polar ice cap at this time. proxies do not necessarily agree with model global “cold snaps.” Understanding climate predictions, or each other, particularly with dynamics during this high-atmospheric CO2 INTRODUCTION respect to polar climates (Bice et al., 2003; period of Earth’s history may have signifi- Jenkyns et al., 2004; Littler et al., 2011; Price cant impact on how we understand climatic The Early Cretaceous was characterized by and Passey, 2013). Furthermore, there is on- feedbacks and predict future global climate high atmospheric CO2 levels, and a long-term going debate as to whether temperatures were changes under an anthropogenically-driven greenhouse climate (e.g., Wang et al., 2014 and ever low enough for small polar ice-caps to high-pCO2 atmosphere. This study utilizes references therein). Significantly lower than develop, with possible glacial or ice-rafted facies analysis to constrain the paleobathym- modern pole-to-equator temperature gradients sediments being reported from the high, and etry of Lower Cretaceous glendonites— are suggested by various paleothermometers even mid latitudes (e.g., Frakes et al., 1995; a pseudomorph after ikaite, a mineral that (e.g., Littler et al., 2011; Price and Passey, 2013), Rodríguez-López et al., 2016). Understanding forms naturally at 7 °C or lower—from two but these are not always reproduced in climate the climate dynamics of this high-pCO2 paleo-high-latitude (60–70°N) sites in Sval- models (e.g., Fluteau et al., 2007; Hunter et Earth, and getting agreement between proxy bard, Arctic Norway, to infer global climatic al., 2013). However, many studies suggest evidence and general circulation model (GCM) changes during the Early Cretaceous. The that short episodes of cooling punctuated this simulations, is important for predicting future original ikaite formed in the offshore transi- greenhouse trend (e.g., by marked changes climate change using GCM simulations. tion zone of a shallow marine shelf at water in floral and faunal assemblages; changes in Additional evidence for cooling includes depths of <100 m, suggesting mean annual stable oxygen record of marine calcifiers; widespread glendonite (pseudomorphs after water temperatures of ≤7 °C at these depths sharp falls in sea level, Pucéat et al., 2003; Erba marine sedimentary ikaite) occurrence in paleo- at 60–70°N. We correlate glendonite-bearing and Tremolada, 2004; Harland et al., 2007; high latitude sediments (Fig. 1; Nagy, 1970; horizons from Lower Cretaceous successions McArthur et al., 2007; Mutterlose et al., 2009; Kemper, 1987; De Lurio and Frakes, 1999; around the globe using carbon isotope stra- Maurer et al., 2013; McAnena et al., 2013; Maher et al., 2004; Price and Nunn, 2010; tigraphy, in conjunction with the pre-existing Price and Passey, 2013; Bodin et al., 2015), Herrle et al., 2015; Vickers et al., 2016; Grasby biostratigraphic framework, in order to in- often reflected in perturbations in the stable et al., 2017; Rogov et al., 2017). Glendonites fer northern hemispheric to global climatic carbon isotopic record (e.g., Menegatti et al., are regarded as cold-water indicators as their cooling. A distinct interval of glendonites 1998; Weissert and Erba, 2004; McArthur et precursor mineral, ikaite, generally requires in the Northern Hemisphere, from sites al., 2007; Bodin et al., 2015; Price et al., 2016). temperatures below 7 °C to grow in natural, >60°N, spans the late Berriasian to earliest Cretaceous positive carbon-isotope excursions marine sedimentary settings (e.g., Suess et al., Barremian (at least 8.6 m.y.), significantly have been linked directly with episodes of 1982; Bischoff et al., 1993; Buchardt et al., prolonging the duration of the previously increased organic carbon burial whereby 2001; Swainson and Hammond, 2001; Greinert hypothesized Valanginian cold snap (associ- the leaching of nutrients on coastal lowlands and Derkachev, 2004; Zhou et al., 2015). ated with the “Weissert Event”). Widespread during a rise in sea-level, possibly triggered While laboratory experiments have produced glendonites occur again in late Aptian and by globally warmer temperatures, resulted in ikaite at higher temperatures (e.g., Purgstaller increased ocean fertilization and productivity et al., 2017; Stockmann et al., 2018), these †[email protected], [email protected]. (e.g., Erba et al., 2004; Weissert and Erba, experiments do not represent the chemical

GSA Bulletin; Month/Month 2019; v. 131; no. X/X; p. 1–16; https://doi.org/10.1130/B35074.1; 7 figures; 2 tables; Data Repository item 2019166. ; published online XX Month 2016.

GeologicalFor Society permission of to America copy, contact Bulletin [email protected], v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 1 © 2019 Geological Society of America Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 2 of 16 Vickers et al.

A B 16°E 32°E 4 1 2 60°N 3 80°N 5 Nordaustlandet

30°N tic n Te la Spitsbergenn t t A hys C Tropical Hiorthhamn 0° 78°N Isf. Long. Adventpoynten Festningen DH-1 borehole Moskus 30°S -laguna

60 km 60°S 7 Platåberget Longyearbyen 6 N Isdamme Sukkertoppen 2 km n

Figure 1. (A) Early Cretaceous paleogeography for the Northern Hemisphere, reproduced from Boucot et al. (2013). Locations of Lower Cretaceous glendonite-bearing sites marked: (1) Queen Elizabeth Islands (Kemper and Schmitz, 1975; Kemper and Schmitz, 1981; Kem- per, 1987; Lippert, 2004; Herrle et al., 2015; Grasby et al., 2017); (2) Svalbard archipelago, Norway (this study); (3) Northern Russia (Rogov et al., 2017); (4) Canning River, Alaska, USA (van der Kolk et al., 2011); (5) Kilen, North Greenland (Hovikoski et al., 2018); (6) Eromanga Basin, Australia (Frakes et al., 1995; De Lurio and Frakes, 1999); (7) South Shetland Islands (Rogov et al., 2017). (B) Map of Svalbard, from Vickers et al. (2018). (C) Map of area around Longyearbyen, reproduced from toposvalbard.npolar.no. Airport Road sec- tion indicated as red line. Long.—Longyearbyen; Isf.—Isfjorden.

conditions found in natural sedimentary marine the opening of the Atlantic in the Cenozoic disconformity between the marine and deltaic ikaite-bearing settings (e.g., fig. 8, p. 140 of (Harland et al., 1984). Thus, Svalbard, along sediments across the whole of Svalbard is Purgstaller et al., 2017). A traditionally poor with the Canadian Arctic and parts of Russia, debated (e.g., Grøsfjeld, 1992). During the estimation of the paleobathymetries at which were among the highest northerly landmasses late Barremian to early Aptian, these delta documented glendonites formed, and a lack of (Fig. 1). From the Berriasian to Hauterivian, plain environments dominated sedimentation high-resolution age constraints for glendonite- sedimentation on Svalbard was characterized on Spitsbergen, which supported vegetated bearing horizons which inhibits their supra- by deposition of mud and subordinate sand in swamps and ornithopod dinosaurs (Lapparent, regional correlation, diminish the paleoclimatic an offshore marine shelf setting (Rurikfjellet 1962; Hurum et al., 2006; Hurum et al., 2016). significance of these cold-water proxies. Formation; Harland and Kelly, 1997; Johnsen Regional relative sea-level rise in the Aptian Therefore, this study sets out to constrain the et al., 2001; Dypvik et al., 2002; Polteau et to Albian resulted in transgression of the paleobathymetry and relative age of Lower al., 2016), with an emergent land mass some delta plain, and re-establishment of marine Cretaceous “cold water” glendonites from 300 km to the south-west (Harland and Kelly, conditions with deposition of shelf mudstones two paleo-high-latitude (~60–70°N) sites in 1997; Johnsen et al., 2001; Dypvik et al., and sandstones of the Carolinefjellet Formation Svalbard, Arctic Norway. The former is achieved 2002). Regional uplift and doming, associated (Nagy, 1970; Gjelberg and Steel, 1995; Dypvik using conventional facies analysis, and the latter with emplacement of the High Arctic Large et al., 2002; Midtkandal and Nystuen, 2009). via high-resolution carbon isotope stratigraphy Igneous Province (HALIP; Maher, 2001; The succession was intruded by a suite of underpinned by biomarker and palynofacies Nejbert et al., 2011; Senger et al., 2014) began doleritic sills and dykes during deposition, analysis. This provides the opportunity to in the northwest during the latest Hauterivian– also associated with HALIP magmatism (the better assess the paleoclimatic significance of earliest Barremian, and progressed south- Diabasodden Suite; Nejbert et al., 2011). glendonites, by correlating their occurrences eastward through Svalbard through the middle Crustal shortening between Greenland and with other glendonite horizons across the globe, Barremian, resulting in an episode of hiatus Svalbard from the Late Cretaceous onward and with hypothesized global climatic cooling and erosion (e.g., Gjelberg and Steel, 1995). resulted in complete subaerial exposure, and events throughout the Early Cretaceous. Renewed subsidence from the late Barremian deformation of the Early Cretaceous and older onwards resulted in the deposition of fluvio- strata into a major S-plunging eastwardly Geological Setting deltaic sandstones, subordinate conglomerate, vergent inclined syncline (the Central Basin mudstone, and coal of the Helvetiafjellet syncline). Upper Cretaceous strata are wholly The Svalbard archipelago of Norway is Formation, which lies unconformably over the absent in Svalbard, and Cenozoic sediments part of the greater Barents Sea region, located Rurikfjellet Formation (Gjelberg and Steel, rest unconformably over the Mesozoic between 74°N and 81°N on the northwestern 1995; Harland and Kelly, 1997; Worsley, succession (Harland and Kelly, 1997). corner of the Barents Shelf, and the principal 2008; Midtkandal et al., 2008). This subaerial island is Spitsbergen. During the Early unconformity is most clearly developed in METHODS Cretaceous, the Barents Sea was part of north-westerly locations on Spitsbergen the larger Boreal Sea (which included the (Fig. 2; Gjelberg and Steel, 1995; Midtkandal Two localities on the island of Spitsbergen Canadian Queen Elizabeth Islands, northern et al., 2008), but whether the uplift and preserving Lower Cretaceous sediments were Alaska, USA, and NE Greenland), prior to erosion was sufficient to generate significant chosen for this study (Fig. 1). The first is

2 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 3 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events

Facies Analysis Age NW Spitsbergen SE Spitsbergen M The Festningen and Airport Road sections Albian were logged at 1 m = 2 cm scale, recording E Palaeocene unconformityLangstakken grainsize, sedimentary and diagenetic structures Member L (including glendonites and their abundance), Innkjegla Member Carolinefjellet paleoflow directions, body and trace fossils. Formation Facies and facies associations were recorded in Dalkjegla Member order to assign environments of deposition and Aptian estimate paleobathymetries of the glendonite- bearing horizons. Glitrefjellet Member E Helvetiafjellet Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy Formation Barremian Festningen Member Carbon isotope stratigraphy can be used as a useful correlation tool for successions that Kikutodden Early Cretaceous Hauterivian Member are biostratigraphically limited (e.g., Kaljo and Rurikfjellet Martma, 2006), and a number of previous studies Formation Wimanfjellet Member have used the organic carbon record to study Valanginian global carbon isotope excursions (CIEs) in the Early Cretaceous (e.g., Menegatti et al., 1998; Myklegardfjellet Bed Gröcke et al., 1999; Jahren et al., 2001; Ando et Ryazanian Agardhfjellet Formation al., 2002; Heimhofer et al., 2003; Herrle et al., 2015). These studies, which use either discrete Deep shelf Shallow marine Marine flooding surface Hiatus plant fragments or disseminated organic matter Inner shelf Fluvial braid plain Fluvial distributaries Concretions from well-dated successions, record a distinct Gravity flow deposits Coastal Plain Erosional unconformity succession of >3 ‰ carbon isotope excursions which are also found in the equivalent inorganic Figure 2. Stratigraphic cross-section and the regional development of the Lower Cretaceous carbonate record (e.g., Weissert and Erba, 2004; part of the Adventdalen Group across Spitsbergen, Norway after Grundvåg et al. (2017). Föllmi et al., 2006; Herrle et al., 2015; Price et E—early; M—middle; L—late. al., 2016). It is important to use organic matter from the same source as mixing of organic matter (OM) sources can lead to significance 13 located along the foreshore at Festningen, on (78°13′32.88′′N, 15°36′39.96′′E), on the bias in the δ Corg record (e.g., Hunt 1996; Suan the southwestern side of Isfjorden (78°09.98′N, horizontal eastern limb of the Central Basin et al., 2015). A number of techniques may be 13°94.32′E), on the vertical western limb of syncline (hereafter referred to as the Airport used to determine the proportions of marine the Central Basin syncline (hereafter referred Road section).This area was chosen for and terrestrial organic matter, and the thermal to as the Festningen section). The Festningen study as the sub-horizontal bedding (~2–3° maturity. Here, we use palynofacies analysis section has been studied extensively by dipping to the southwest) means that the and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry geologists since the early 1900s (early work lateral continuity of beds, facies associations, (GC-MS) to determine the OM source was summarized by Hoel and Ørvin, 1937), and facies successions can be more readily and maturity. and it is a standard reference for Svalbard’s assessed, complementing the vertically- geology (e.g., Mørk and Worsley, 2006). The bedded, laterally-limited Festningen section. Sampling site is also the stratotype for the distinctive These sites were chosen because they have been fluvio-deltaic sandstones of the Festningen previously well-studied, and therefore already The approach of this study is to identify these Member (Mørk et al., 1999). The Festningen have a robust biostratigraphic framework distinct excursions from the organic record section is particularly useful for this study in place (e.g., Frebold, 1928, Parker, 1967; preserved in the Lower Cretaceous succession as the entire Lower Cretaceous succession Vickers et al., 2016; Midtkandal et al., 2016). of Svalbard, and tune the record to the time- outcrops here; subvertically bedded along While the origin of the glendonites (Vickers et calibrated composite global carbon isotope 5–10 m high cliffs, with exposure close to al., 2018), and the terrestrial record of the early record of the Lower Cretaceous (constructed 100% (Fig. 1). All formal lithostratigraphic Aptian ocean anoxic event (OAE1a) have been using data from Weissert and Erba, 2004; units of the Lower Cretaceous of Spitsbergen studied by the authors of this study and others, Föllmi et al., 2006; Ogg and Hinnov, 2012; occur here (Hoel and Ørvin, 1937; Steel et al., at these sites (Vickers et al., 2016; Midtkandal Herrle et al., 2015; and Price et al., 2016). To 1978; Mørk et al., 1999; Hurum et al., 2006; et al., 2016), a combined study using the bulk this end, bulk rock samples were collected Midtkandal et al., 2016), so it is therefore also organic δ13C record to precisely correlate every 0.5 m, where possible, at the Festningen important for the purposes of comparing to glendonite-bearing successions from across the section (n = 849) and the Airport Road section previous studies. The second is a series of road- globe has not been undertaken. Thus, it has not (n = 279). Samples were taken by excavating and stream-cut exposures of the Carolinefjellet been possible to interpret the significance of the surface rock by up to 30 cm in order to Formation along the road between the town the Lower Cretaceous glendonites of Svalbard mitigate the effects of surface weathering on of Longyearbyen and Longyearbyen Airport in a global climatic context. subsequent analysis.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 3 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 4 of 16 Vickers et al.

13 13 δ Corg Analyses <450 °C has been shown to alter the mean δ C silica extracts. Fractions were diluted to 1 A total of 617 samples of bulk rock were signal to (on average) ~1 ‰ more negative mg mL–1 (or 100 µL where no weight was analyzed for carbon-isotopic composition (Jones and Chaloner, 1991; Turney et al., recorded) with the appropriate solvent for GC of the organic carbon within them. Of these, 2006). Therefore, it is important to also assess and GC-MS analysis. 463 were taken from the Festningen locality the thermal maturity of the organic material GC-MS analysis was undertaken by and 154 from the section by the Airport Road, in order to assess the influence of baking on splitless sample injection (1 µL; 250 °C; split/ Longyearbyen. Samples were ground to a the secular δ13C record. Thermal maturity can splitless inlet) onto an Agilent DB-5ms (30 m fine powder using an agate mortar and pestle. also be assessed through GC-MS analysis of × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm) column with helium Powdered samples were decarbonated by organic extracts. carrier gas (1 mL min–1; constant flow mode). placing the sample in a 50 ml polypropylene For the palynofacies analysis, a total of The column was interfaced with an Agilent centrifuge tube and treating with 10% HCl 20 bulk rock samples from the upper part of 5975C Inert XL electron impact and chemical for 1 h until all the carbonate had reacted. the Rurikfjellet Formation in the Festningen ionization mass selective detector and the The samples were then rinsed with deionized section were selected for palynological Agilent 7890A GC oven was programmed water, centrifuged, and rinsed again until analysis. Samples were prepared at Paleolab from 40 to 300 °C at 10 °C min–1 with a 10 neutrality was reached (following the method Ltd., Merseyside, UK. All samples were min isothermal hold period. Mass spectra were of Gröcke et al., 1999). Carbon isotope processed following standard palynological scanned from m/z 50–550. analysis was performed at the University of preparation procedures (Wood et al., 1996)

Plymouth, UK using an Isoprime isotope ratio including treatment for 25 min with HNO3 RESULTS mass-spectrometer connected to an Isoprime to clean them, and sieving at 10 and 5 µm to MicroCube elemental analyzer. Between 1.0 avoid loss of small palynomorphs. Material Facies Analysis and 3.0 mg of sample were measured into was identified as falling into 13 categories (see tin capsules for analysis. Carbon isotope Supplementary Material Table DR21). A series Facies and facies associations identified ratios are expressed in the internationally of non-overlapping traverses across each slide are provided in Table 1, and the distribution of accepted per mil (‰) standard notation was made, and the particle passing closest to facies associations shown on Figure 3. The facies relative to the Vienna Pee Dee belemnite the center of each field of view was counted, associations are: FA1—fluvial/delta channel, standard. Instrument calibration was achieved until 300 counts were reached. FA2—delta plain, FA3—mouth bar, FA4— using two international standards, U.S. Geo- For the GC-MS analysis, 11 samples of shoreface, FA5—offshore transition zone, and logical Survey (USGS) 40 (l-glutamic acid, dried crushed rock, from throughout the FA6—open marine shelf (offshore). δ13C = –26.389 ‰) and USGS 24 (graphite, succession, were accurately weighed into a Sharp-based marine coarsening-up packages δ13C = –16.049 ‰). The mean δ13C value and vial and extracted using a modified Bligh and representative of progradation under normal the standard deviation on replicate analyses of Dyer extraction. Sediment was extracted with regression are ubiquitous through much of USGS 40 standard was 26.49 ± 0.08 ‰. methanol/dichloromethane/phosphate buffer the succession (Fig. 3), but their interpretation in the ratio 2:1:0.8 (v/v/v) using sonication as regional, flooding-surface-bound para- Palynofacies and Analysis of Organic (10 min). The extraction was repeated three sequences or as autocyclic bedsets is not Matter using Gas Chromatography–Mass times. The mixture was then centrifuged and possible due to the limited opportunity for Spectrometry (GC-MS) the liquid phase decanted, combining extracts regional correlation in this study. The majority The Lower Cretaceous succession of Svalbard and changing the phase ratio to 1:1:0.8. After of the Rurikfjellet Formation consists of a is represented by both marine and terrestrial mixing (vortex, 10 s) and centrifugation monotonous aggradational succession of open sedimentary rocks, which may yield organic (2500 rpm/5 min) the aqueous phase was marine shelf (FA6) siltstone, in which smaller- carbon from different sources. Because marine decanted to waste. The organic layer was scale coarsening-up succession cannot be phytoplankton and terrestrial flora fractionate washed twice with water before drying by the determined. At Festningen, the upper 30 m of the carbon isotopes differently (Tyson, 1995 addition of sodium sulfate, and transferred, formation passes upwards into a succession of and references therein; Hunt, 1996), and the with washings, to a pre-weighed vial through current rippled and hummocky cross-stratified difference between marine and terrestrial a pre-extracted cotton wool plug in a Pasteur sandstones and heterolithics representing the organic δ13C (given the same atmospheric δ13C) pipette. Solvent was removed under a gentle offshore transition zone (FA5). This transition may be as great as 12 ‰ (Tyson, 1995), it is stream of nitrogen to obtain the total organic from FA6 to FA5 represents the first clear 13 necessary to look at δ Cbulk org from broadly the extract (TOE). The TOE was separated using evidence for progradation and shallowing in same source, or to assess the degree of mixing adsorption chromatography on fully activated the succession, and is also coincident with the between marine and terrestrial carbon through silica by transfer of the TOE in a small aliquot first occurrence of glendonite horizons (Fig. 3). any succession. To do this, palynofacies analysis of n-hexane and dichloromethane onto a pre- The Festningen Member of the Helvetiafjellet of the organic matter, and GC-MS analyses of conditioned silica column and sequentially Formation consists of a succession of fluvial/ organic extracts (e.g., Tissot and Welte, 1984; eluted with n-hexane (F1, “aliphatic”) and delta distributary channel-fills (FA1) dominated Tyson, 1995; Hunt, 1996; Peters et al., 2005) toluene (F2, “aromatic”). Solvent was removed by cross-bedded sandstone. The base of the was undertaken. under a gentle stream of nitrogen from the Festningen Member therefore represents a Additionally, because the succession was sequence boundary marked by a basinward subject to intrusion by the Diabasodden Suite, 1GSA Data Repository item 2019166, GCMS facies shift, since mouthbars or a shoreface differential thermal alteration of the organic chromatograms and tables of δ13C data; palynofacies succession are missing between the Rurikfjellet 13 groups used in this palynofacies analysis; and matter might also have modified the δ Corg and Helvetiafjellet formations. At Festningen, record of the organic material. Progressive palynofacies count data, is available at http://www​ the Glitrefjellet Member is aggradational .geosociety.org/datarepository/2019 or by request to heating of land-derived organic matter to [email protected]. to retrogradational, with a succession of

4 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 5 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events

TABLE 1. FACIES ANALYSIS FOR THE FESTNINGEN AND AIRPORT ROAD SECTIONS, SVALBARD, ARCTIC NORWAY COMBINED Facies association Description Interpretation

FA1: Fluvial or deltaic Sharp, erosively-based successions 5–10 m thick, characterized The erosional base to this facies association is indicative of scour-and-fill, distributary channel by: (a) 0.2–0.5 m beds of medium-coarse trough-cross bedded and FA1 is interpreted as the product of deposition within channels (e.g., sandstone, with no distinct grainsize profile, or (b) a fining-up Bridge and Diemer, 1983; Miall, 1985). The presence of IHS perpendicular succession of a discontinuous basal gravel lag, overlain by to paleoflow is indicative of the lateral accretion the inner bank of structureless or plane-bedded coarse sandstone; trough-cross meandering channels (e.g., Thomas et al., 1987). The height of the IHS bedded coarse sandstone; ripple cross laminated fine to medium (5–10 m) suggests the channels had bankfull depths (given decompaction) sandstone; lenticular to flaser bedded heterolithics; and coaly shale. of at least 5–10 m (Bridge and Diemer, 1983). Coal-bearing shales capping (a) occurs in ~80% of cases. Beds in FA1 are organized into large- upper parts of IHS in some FA1 deposits suggests plant colonization of the scale accretion cross sets that extend through the whole height of inner bank sometimes occurred, likely due to discharge fluctuations within the succession (i.e., 5–10 m) and downlap the basal erosion surface the channels. The occurrence lenticular to flaser bedded heterolithics in (i.e., epsilon cross-bedding of Allen, 1963; or inclined heterolithic some successions may suggest a tidal influence (e.g., Dalrymple, 2010). stratification (IHS) of Thomas et al., 1987). The inclination of these Documented fining-up within the facies association is indicative of lower cross strata are approximately normal to paleoflow indicated by current velocities on the channel margins (e.g., Thomas et al., 1987). Given trough-cross bedding. FA1 interstratifies with FA2. the context of this facies association, interstratifying with FA2, in which there is clear evidence for subaerial exposure, but also marine influence, FA1 is interpreted as the deposits of 5–10 m deep fluvial to deltaic distributary channels.

FA2: Delta plain Interstratified coarsening- and fining-up successions. Coarsening- The coarsening-up successions represent the progradation into up successions are typically ~2 m thick, and often display a short subaqueous, marine or brackish water of small-scale (at least 2-m-thick, (<0.2 m) fining-up succession at the top. They consist of bioturbated given decompaction) bars at the mouth of small-scale (at least 1–3 m (including dinosaur footprints) heterolithics, in which the proportion thick, given decompaction) channels, the latter of which are represented of sandstone increases upwards, followed by (in varying order and by the fining-up successions. The absence of IHS in the fining-up channel not all always present) beds of asymmetrically rippled sandstone; deposits (by contrast to FA1), suggests that the channels were short lived, plane-parallel stratified sandstone; structureless sandstone; and, and characterized by rapid incision, and back-filling, rather than lateral rarely, gravel conglomerate. Bed thickness increases upwards. accretion. This is characteristic of rapidly avulsing channels at the terminal The coarsening-up packages are typically capped by interbeds of end of distributary systems (Reading, 1996). The shallow bathymetry of organic-rich shale or coal, and ripple cross laminated sandstone. the water, combined with the abundance of plant material and coal clasts Rarely, root horizons extend down by ~0.3 m from the top of the in these successions, supports the notion that these were mouth bars succession. Fining-up successions comprise 1–3 m of sharp, deposited on the delta plain. The presence of root horizons, trace fossils erosively based trough-cross-stratified sandstone which pass left by large terrestrial vertebrates, and organic-rich shales and coals on upward into asymmetrically rippled sandstone, capped by beds of the tops of the coarsening-up successions with a fining-up cap suggests heterolithic flaser to lenticular siltstone and sandstone, and organic- that these successions represent an episode of a standing body of water rich shales. Multiple coarsening-up and fining-up successions stack filling up to the top, with developments of marshes and mires when shallow to form successions up to ≤50 m thick of FA2. enough depths were attained.The presence of marine bioturbation and occurrence of flaser, wavy, or lenticular bedding in the lower part of the mouth bars suggest the receiving standing bodies of water were attached to marine circulation and affected by tidal currents (i.e., interdistributary embayments; Dalrymple, 2010). Altogether FA2 records various gradational depositional environments found on delta plains (interdistributary bays, mires and marshes, minor mouth bars and minor mouth bar channels).

FA3: Storm-influenced FA3 is composed of coarsening-up units ~15 m thick, consisting The high proportion of structureless sand, presence of trough cross- shoreface/wave- of heterolithics with marine bioturbation (including chondrites and bedding and plane-parallel laminations, high organic content (coal-bearing dominated delta front cosmorhaphe); massive, structureless medium-coarse sandstone; shales and coal beds), and coarsening-up profile displayed by individual mouth bar plane-parallel laminated and trough cross-bedded sandstone. packages within FA3 is characteristic of the deposits of mouth bars (e.g., Rarely, the upper 3 m of some units fine-up through structureless Bhattacharya, 2006, 2010). Mouth bars form when the bedload carried medium-coarse sandstone into weakly hummocky cross-stratified by a fluvial distributary channel is deposited due to deceleration of the sandstone, and rare beds of gravel conglomerate may also be flow when it meets a standing body of water (e.g., Elliott, 1986), and the present. Thin, organic-rich shale or coal beds may be present at the thick, massive sandstones are testimony to this rapid deceleration of flow. top of such successions. The coarsest load is deposited at the immediate river mouth, whereas the finer fraction may be transported further from the river mouth by the decelerating jet. The coarsening-up profile represents the progradation of the mouth bar. The ~15 m thickness of the mouth bar coarsening-up packages is characteristic of delta-front mouth bars which were prograding into water at least this deep. The context of FA3, overlying clearly marine deposits of FA4, the presence of marine bioturbation, indicates that the mouth bars were prograding into open marine waters. The presence of some weakly hummocky cross stratified beds suggests the mouth bar deposits were reworked by wave and storm currents, although the predominance of evidence for unidirectional flow indicates a proximity to the fluvial outflow, and high depositional rates, which prevented much reworking by waves.

FA4: Distal storm- FA5 is composed of coarsening-up successions of sand-dominated These successions are interpreted as shoreface deposits. Hummocky influenced shoreface heterolithics; current cross-laminated silty fine sandstone; cross-stratified sandstones interbedded with siltstones are indicative of amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified sandstone beds; cross- intermittent storm re-working and suspension settling, characteristic of the bedded coarse sandstone (rarely glauconitic); plane-parallel lower shoreface. The passage upward through amalgamated hummocky laminated sandstone; rare intensely bioturbated structureless cross-stratified beds is indicative of intense storm-wave reworking, and sandstone; organic-rich shales; and coal, not all of which are the upper cross-laminated and trough cross bedded sandstones were present in each succession. FA4 successions may be between the product of ripples and dunes formed by combined flows with a strong 2 and 15 m thick, shorter successions consisting only of bioturbated unidirectional component, and characteristic of the upper shoreface (e.g., heterolithics, wavy, silty fine sandstone and hummocky cross Plint, 2010). Shorter successions lacking large-scale cross-bedding and stratified (HCS) sandstone. plane-parallel laminated sandstones are interpreted as lower shoreface successions, close to the lower shoreface-offshore transition boundary. The presence of glauconite in the cross-bedded sands suggests that at times sediment accumulation rates were very low. (continued)

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 5 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 6 of 16 Vickers et al.

TABLE 1. FACIES ANALYSIS FOR THE FESTNINGEN AND AIRPORT ROAD SECTIONS, SVALBARD, ARCTIC NORWAY COMBINED (continued) Facies association Description Interpretation

FA5: Offshore transition FA5 is composed of 2–12-m-thick coarsening-upward successions, The coarsening-up successions were deposited in an environment with zone laterally extensive over tens to hundreds of meters. FA5 consists of alternating episodes of vertical suspension settling of silt, and the input “spaced-laminated” siltstone at the base, passing upward through of fine sand via unidirectional (gravity) currents. This was periodically bioturbated heterolithic sandstone and siltstone. The coarsening- interrupted by storm-generated oscillatory currents of varying strength; upwards successions are characterized by the introduction of sometimes scouring the sediment surface, then depositing sand in the symmetrically and asymmetrically rippled, and HCS, sandstone upper flow regime under powerful combined flows (C6). As currents waned, beds, which interstratify with “spaced-laminated” siltstone with sediment settling under oscillatory flow produced HCS and symmetrically increasing abundance upwards, and become thicker. Beds of rippled sands with ever-decreasing current flow velocities (e.g., Plint, 2010). plane-parallel-laminated sandstones, which grade into hummocky- cross stratified sandstone or asymmetrically rippled sandstone, are In combination with the presence of belemnites, the evidence is indicative also found towards the top of these coarsening-up successions. of deposition in the marine offshore transition zone setting, between the Discontinuous fossiliferous lags also occur, containing marine biota fairweather and storm wave bases. Settling from suspension and weak such as belemnites, and glendonite horizons. In the coarsest, most gravity currents below fairweather wave base were periodically interrupted sand-dominated examples of this facies association, ≤3 m long x by storm reworking of sands. ≤1.5 m deep scours occur within these coarsening-up packages, which are filled with HCS or plane-parallel-laminated sandstone. Paleocurrent measurements in FA5 are unimodal or bimodal. Unimodal paleocurrents record mean flow direction to the southeast.

FA6: Open marine shelf FA6 consists of successions exceeding 400 m thick, gradually The great thickness of FA6 successions, apparent great lateral continuity, (offshore) coarsening-up successions of paper and “spaced” laminated fine grain size, limited bioturbation, and rare open marine fossils (including claystones and siltstones, heterolithic silts and fine sands a single ammonite), absence of oscillatory current bed-forms but presence showing current cross-lamination. Up succession, discontinuous, of current-ripples, together suggest that FA6 represents deposition via 0.1–0.2-m-thick carbonate beds give way to horizons of carbonate hemipelagic suspension settling and rare low concentration density lenses and cannon-ball concretions and, less commonly, glendonite currents in an open marine shelf environment, below the storm wave base. horizons. Marine fossils such as belemnites and ammonites are rarely present.

delta plain (FA2) heterolithics, overlain by with numerous other studies of the Early values >1 at 400–506.5 m indicating algal/ an 8-m-thick erosional-based distributary Cretaceous carbon isotope record (e.g., Gröcke bacterial input. C27 (all sources), C28 (marine channel fill (FA1) sandbody and 7 m of wave- et al., 1999; Ando et al., 2002; Heimhofer et or limnic algal origin), and C30 (marine algal influenced delta-front mouth bar heterolithics al., 2003; Herrle et al., 2015), showing the origin) steranes were not detected in any of and sandstone. The retrogradational motif is same major (>3 ‰) excursions associated with the sediment extract chromatograms (m/z 217 continued in the Carolinefjellet Formation the OAE1a CIE and similar increasing and plus m/z 372, 386, and 414, respectively), at Festningen and the Airport Road sections. decreasing trends (discussed in detail in the while weak signals for the C29 sterane (m/z Current rippled and hummocky-cross stratified following section). 217, 400) terrestrial plant marker was detected offshore transition zone (FA5) heterolithics and The full suite of results from the palynofacies in sediments extracts above 506.5 m (data not shoreface (FA4) sandstones with hummocky analysis is provided in Supplementary material shown). There was little variance in the Carbon cross-stratification, plane-parallel lamination, Table DR3. A total of 98.2% of the analyzed Preference Index (CPI) value throughout the and trough-cross bedding, in the lower 90 m particles were terrestrial in origin, with sediment profile (1.0–1.1; Table 2) indicating of the formation pass upward into open marine 85% being terrestrial phytoclasts and 15% full thermal maturity throughout the sequence shelf (FA6) laminated siltstone, and rippled palynomorphs (spores, pollen, prasinophycean (Tissot and Welte, 1984). The MPI-1 ratio heterolithics to thin hummocky cross-stratified algae, and dinoflagellate cysts). There is a varied between 0.6–0.9 and calculated vitrinite beds of the offshore transition zone (FA5). negligible (<0.5%) amount of amorphous reflectance values (Rc; Table 2; Radke and The return to more distal, marine (shoreface- organic matter (AOM) in the analyzed samples. Welte, 1983) indicate mature sediments offshore transition zone) sediments also The organic material in the samples generally within the oil window or at the more mature marks a return to glendonite-bearing horizons fall into palynofacies field III on a ternary AOM- end of wet gas generation. The presence of

(Fig. 3). More details of the host lithology for phytoclast-palynomorph kerogen plot (Fig. 4A) n-alkanes ranging from around C15–C35 in the glendonites, and the form of the glendonites (proximal/heterolithic oxic shelf; Tyson, 1995), the “aliphatic” (F1) extracts of all samples (e.g., rosette, or inside concretions), and their with some samples falling into field I (highly (Supplementary Material Fig. DR1) indicates hypothesized growth and preservation can be proximal shelf or basin). These results indicate that the samples have undergone slight to found in Vickers et al. (2018). an overwhelming (but not complete) terrestrial moderate biodegradation. This was supported source for these palynofacies-analyzed samples by the lack of a pronounced “unresolved Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy between 300 and 450 m. complex mixture” in these chromatograms

A cross-plot of pristane/nC17 and phytane/ (Supplementary Material Fig. DR1) and the 13 The full suite of δ Cbulk org analyses is nC18 ratios (Fig. 4B) indicated that organic presence of phenanthrene compounds in provided in Supplementary Table DR1, and matter in all sediments analyzed had a chromatograms of the “aromatic” (F2) extracts the stratigraphic distribution of each result terrestrial (possibly lacustrine) source subject (Supplementary Material DR1). is shown in Figure 3. The mean value for all to oxidative conditions. The n-alkane ΣnC21–/ Hence, the origin of the organic matter, and the bulk rock samples is –24.56 ‰, and the ΣnC21+ ratio was generally <1 (Table 2), with thermally induced chemical alteration of the standard deviation is 1.18 ‰, with an overall longer chain n-alkanes (which are more usual organic material for those samples analyzed variation of 7.11 ‰. Our data compare closely from terrestrial sources) dominating, with does not appear to have significantly impacted

6 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 7 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events

FESTNINGEN AIRPORT ROAD OVERLAY FEST. & APT RD Festningen Airport Road t 13

h 13 13 Lithology δ Corg (‰ VPDB) Lithology δ Corg (‰ VPDB) δ Corg (‰) (m) (m) -29 -28 -27 -26 -25 -24 -23 -22 -21 -28 -27 -26 -25 -24 -23 -22 -21 -29 -28 -27 -26 -25 -24 -23 -22 ammonites and dinocyst s ammonites and dinocyst s Biostrat. age Samples Member Heig Member Height

FIRKANTEN 800 ?Lang. 780 wood bulk 760 160

740 140 a 720 120

100

700 nkjegla In Innkjegl 680 80

660 60

640 40 . CAROLINEFJELLE T 620 20 M) O) AC a . solocispinum a 600 080 O, CAROLINEFJELLET (L ymmetrica; C. traberculosa ta Aptian 580 100

a M. as

t longicornis (L

a

l V.

u Dalkjegl Dalkjegl e

b + 120 i

560 a

t

. M. tetracan S. perlucida, Ps. cf Crioceras gracile sp., Oppelia nisoides Hoplites sp

C mayi +

+ V. Ps. tova 540 - 140 F.S. -

t X X ET Simiodinium grosii (LO) 520 X 160 JEL L 500 180 mian TI AF E arremian Glitrefjelle

480 ginkgo and LV 200 horsetail st . HE Fe Bar re M. australis HELVETIAFJELLE T Fest. 460 Regional unconformity 220 (2016)

en 440 240 M. extensiva P. createum Wood, Festningen odden odd

t Bulk, Festningen 420 ut 260 u k k Bulk, Airport Road Ki Ki 280 data from Midtkandal et al.

400 s Bulk, DH2 borehole, Up Haut .B

RURIKFJELLE T cl si f m c vc Midtkandal et al. (2016) 380 F onicera

360

340

320 Simberskites, Speet KEY 300 FA1 fluvial or deltaic samples for GC-MS distributary channel 280 samples for palynofacies FA2 Delta plain t 260 FA3 Delta front glendonite horizon es mouth bar omit langinian - Hauterivian 240 FA4 Shoreface

Va FA5 Offshore transition 220 zone Wimanfjelle 200 FA6 Open marine shelf

RURIKFJELLE T F

F lyptychites, Dichot

180 F Po carbonate bed dinosaur footprint 160 bioturbation plant material outsized clast 140 wood 120 roots asymmetrical ripples belemnite 100 bivalve 80

Y ammonite IL

60 ONISED s

te gravel HE AV F 40 TECT

20 yellow clay Dorsoplani Vol. AG. in Bach IV 0 cl si f m c vc gr -29 -28 -27 -26 -25 -24 -23 -22 -21 13 δ Corg (‰ VPDB)

13 Figure 3. Correlation of sedimentary logs and δ Cbulk org for the Festningen section with the Airport Road section and DH-1 borehole, Spitsbergen, Norway. Festningen log between 395 and 705 m adapted from Vickers et al. (2016 and 2018). Facies associations denoted by different colors on 13 13 the logs (see key). The δ Cbulk org data (this study) is shown in gray circles; δ13Cwood data (Vickers et al., 2016) in brown circles; δ Cbulk data (Midtkandal et al., 2016) from the DH-1 borehole in red circles. Existing biostratigraphic age model for each site is also shown. Occurrences of ammonites at Festningen (Frebold, 1928; Parker 1967) and dinoflagellate cysts from the Longyearbyen borehole (Midtkandal et al., 2016) are also shown next to the logs. LO—last occurrence, ACM—acme (mass abundance). Yellow stars indicate height at which samples were taken for gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses; red stars indicate horizons where samples were taken for palynofacies analysis. AG.—Agardhfjellet Formation; Fest.—Festningen Member; Slotts.—Slottsmøya Member; Lang.—Langstakken Member, Up. Haut.—Upper Hauterivian; Vol.—Volgian; Biostrat.—Biostratigraphic; F.S.—flooding surface; F—fault; VPDB—Vienna Pee Dee belemnite. cl—clay; si—silt; f—fine; m—medium; c—coarse; vc—very coarse.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 7 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 8 of 16 Vickers et al.

100 Figure 4. (A) Ternary amorphous organic A Phytoclasts B A Fresh water lacustrine environment matter (AOM)-phytoclast-palynomorph 95 B Mixture of depositional environments I 10 15 samples C Hypersaline or marine depositional environment kerogen plot displaying the palynofacies average II 10 Oxidation data collected from Festningen, Spits-

65 17 bergen, Norway. Palynofacies fields as

III C Reduction IVa identified in Tyson (1995). The palyno- Pr /n 1 VI 1 74 IVb 55 58 1 700.5 facies data fall into field III (heterolithic 1 400 68 420 644 38 506.5 3 0 40 V 540 oxic shelf a.k.a. “proximal shelf”; Tyson, IX VII 1995) and field I (highly proximal shelf VIII AB C Palyno- or basin). (B) Cross plot of phytane/ AOM morphs 0.1 60 35 0.01 0.11 10 nC18 and pristane/nC17 ratios indicating Ph/nC 18 source of sedimentary organic matter.

TABLE 2. GRAVIMETRIC RECOVERY OF TOTAL ORGANIC EXTRACT (TOE) FROM SEDIMENTS FROM FESTNINGEN AND TOE “ALIPHATIC” (F1) AND “A ROMATIC” (F2) FRACTIONS OBTAINED FROM ADSORPTION CHROMATOGRAPHY ON SILICA TOE “aliphatic” “aromatic” Uncharacterized (ALI) (ARO) (F1) (F2) –1 –1 Sample mg μg g–1 μg g μg g ALI/ARO μg g–1 % Pr/nC17 Ph/nC18 Pr/Ph MPI-1RcRc nC21–/ CPI nC21+ 741 0.6 10150173 34 33 1. 40.4 3.10.6 0.81.9 0.81.1 700.5 0.4 66 <8 <8 156851.2 0.32.5 0.80.9 1. 80.7 1. 1 681 0.4 80 20 <8 455691.2 0.32.2 0.60.8 1. 90.9 1. 0 644 0.5 77 <8 <8 167870.8 0.31.9 0.70.8 1. 90.6 1. 1 581 0.9 17339771 58 33 1. 30.3 3.30.8 0.91.8 0.61.1 540 0.6 11394572–38 –33 0.60.2 1. 90.7 0.81.9 0.61.1 506.5 0.9 17839202 118670.7 0.14.3 0.60.7 2.01.0 1. 1 420 0.2 29 <8 <8 119661.0 0.42.1 0.90.9 1. 81.3 1. 0 400 0.5 85 34 51 1001.1 0.22.6 0.70.8 1. 91.0 1. 0 380 3.1 547 <8 <8 1 537 98 0.60.3 1. 70.7 0.81.9 0.81.0 340 0.4 67 17 <8 345670.8 0.31.3 0.70.8 1. 90.6 1. 0 Notes: Pr—pristane; Ph—phytane; MPI—Methylphenanthrene index; Rc—vitrinite reflectance; CPI—carbon preference index.

13 the δ Cbulk org composition of the preserved DISCUSSION to be an upper limit of 12–15 °C as shown by organic material. Likewise, Koevoets et al. laboratory experiments (e.g., Brooks et al., (2016) and Midtkandal et al. (2016) comparing Paleobathymetry of Lower Cretaceous 1950; Purgstaller et al., 2017; Stockmann et 13 δ Corg isotopes and Rock Eval parameters from Glendonites of Svalbard al., 2018). The conditions under which ikaite the Upper Jurassic Agardhfjellet Formation precipitated under these warmer temperatures and Barremian to Aptian Helvetiafjellet to Natural conditions that promote ikaite do not appear to be representative of the Carolinefjellet Formations, respectively, suggest formation at the expense of the anhydrous conditions found in the ikaite formation zone only a limited influence of organic matter polymorphs of CaCO3 (i.e., calcite and in the modern marine sedimentary realm (Zhou source, diagenesis, thermal maturation, and aragonite) require the presence of inhibitors of et al., 2015), and in no known natural marine 13 weathering on the δ Corg values. The Rock Eval calcite and aragonite growth and promotion of sedimentary settings has ikaite been reported data from Midtkandal et al. (2016) spans the ikaite growth. As ikaite increases stability with forming at above 7 °C (e.g., Suess et al., 1982; critical interval containing the OAE1a CIE in the decreasing temperature (while the anyhydrous Schubert et al., 1997; Greinert and Derkachev, DH2 borehole (directly underlying the Airport polymorphs decrease stability with temperature 2004; Zhou et al., 2015; fig. 8 in Purgstaller Road section) and, as they show no significant decrease; Spielhagen and Tripati, 2009; et al., 2017). Two biogeochemical processes correlation with δ13C, thus compliment our Rock Purgstaller et al., 2017; Stockmann et al., 2018), are thought to create the chemical conditions Eval and palynofacies data from the Rurikfjellet low temperatures are expected, and found, at necessary for ikaite growth; organotrophic and Formation and corroborate the validity of using natural ikaite precipitation sites (e.g., Jansen methanotrophic sulfate reduction (e.g., Teichert 13 our composite δ Corg curve for correlation et al., 1987; Bischoff et al., 1993; Buchardt et and Luppold, 2013), and the responsible process 13 13 with other localities. The δ Cbulk org data are al., 2001; Selleck et al., 2007; Dieckmann et is thought to be distinguishable by the δ C shown to be closely aligned, particularly clearly al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2015; fig. 8 in Purgstaller values of the glendonite (e.g., Greinert and across the negative and positive CIEs in the et al., 2017). With increasing concentrations Derkachev, 2004; Teichert and Luppold, 2013; Glitrefjellet and Dalkjegla members, with δ13C of strong chemical inhibitors of calcite Morales et al., 2017; Vickers et al., 2018). The 13 measurements of fossil wood from Vickers et and aragonite growth, such as magnesium, δ Ccarbonate data for the glendonites in this study al. (2016) from the Festningen section (Fig. 3), sulfate, or phosphate ions, hyperalkalinity, are within the range expected for an organic 13 and δ Cbulk org data from the DH-1 borehole and supersaturation with respect to ikaite, matter source (–13.3 ‰ to –30.9 ‰, Vickers et through stratigraphy that is continuous with temperatures at which ikaite can grow may be al., 2018; Morales et al., 2017), and there is no the Airport section (Fig. 3), of Midtkandal et higher (e.g., Nielsen et al.,. 2016; Field et al., other evidence (chemical or sedimentological, al. (2016). 2017; Stockmann et al., 2018), but there appears e.g., methane seep carbonates) that methane

8 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 9 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events seepage was occurring in the sediments in or tsunami; Table 1). In the modern day, this budget (e.g., Bice and Norris, 2002; Fluteau et which the Lower Cretaceous glendonites of depth may be as much as 110 m along shelf edge al., 2007; Stewart, 2008; Boyer et al., 2013), Svalbard are found. coastlines facing the open ocean (e.g., passive these temperatures are consistent with polar Based on the facies analysis carried out in margins; Plint, 2010; Peters and Loss, 2012), but temperatures capable of supporting a north this study, it is demonstrated that the glendonites less than 70 m on broad epicontinental shelves polar ice cap. formed in sediments that were remarkably (Plint, 2010). However, in the Cretaceous, similar to the marine sedimentary settings increased storm intensity (Ito et al., 2001) may Global Correlation of Glendonite in which ikaite may be found growing today have resulted in a deeper storm wave base Occurrence in the Lower Cretaceous (Zhou et al., 2015). Temperature conditions for (SWB). By comparison, marine sedimentary 13 all modern marine sedimentary ikaite is below glendonites in this study are generally found The high fidelityδ Corg curve generated in 7 °C (often closer to 0 °C), and thus the presence in the offshore transition zone, above the SWB this study is shown on Figure 5, together with the 13 of glendonites in these oxic, offshore transition (in one instance even found in sediments as global composite δ Ccarbonate curve for the Lower zone to open marine shelf sediments of this shallow as shoreface; Fig. 3). This may be Cretaceous. The a priori correlation between study argue for temperatures below 7 °C in the a reflection of the paleo-ocean temperatures the two curves is the in-place biostratigraphic ikaite formation zone (Zhou et al., 2015). remaining consistently below the threshold for framework (Fig. 3; fig. 2, p. 4 from Vickers et In the modern day, ocean temperatures are ikaite precipitation (e.g., <7 °C) at these shallow al., 2016 and references therein). At Festningen, below 7 °C in near surface bathymetries at bathymetries (likely <100 m) at all times. occurrences of Valanginian ammonites latitudes typically >64°N and >45°S and can In the present day ocean the mechanisms (Polyptychtes, Dichomites, Temnoptychites) have occur at less than 750 m depth in equatorial for producing cold temperatures in coastal been reported from throughout the Wimanfjellet regions. Ikaite has been shown to grow naturally waters are either from local heat exchange Member (Frebold, 1928; Parker, 1967; at equatorial latitudes; for example in the with the atmosphere (such as in present day Ershova, 1983), and Hauterivian ammonites Zaire submarine fan, off the African passive high latitudes), transport of colder water by from the Kikutodden Member (Simberskites, margin at depths of over 3000 m (Jansen et coastal currents, or from the upwelling of cold Speetoniceras; Parker, 1967; Ershova, 1983). al., 1987; Zabel and Schulz, 2001). Ocean water along continental margins, such as on the However, more recent palynological studies floor successions of this great bathymetry are coast of South America/Africa. Upwelling of from other localities in central Spitsbergen, rarely preserved at outcrop, except fragments cold water requires two conditions; persistent including from the Longyearbyen area, extend of obducted lithosphere, but submarine fan alongshore winds and a pool of cold water at the age of the Wimanfjellet Member into the and shelf margin slope successions, which in depth from which to draw (Stewart, 2008). The Hauterivian (by presence of dinocysts of the the modern day occur at depths >200 m (e.g., aspect and paleogeography of Svalbard during Rhynchodiniopsis aptiana zone, Århus, 1992), Patruno et al., 2015) are abundant at outcrop. the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 1) make upwelling and that Kikutodden Member into the Barremian Therefore, when arguing for the occurrence of conditions unlikely, as GCM simulations have (using the presence of Muderongia australis; glendonites as an indicator of a “cold” ocean (for suggested (e.g., Price et al., 1995; Brady et al., Gardodinium ordinale; ?Nyktericysta pannos; example, capable of supporting small polar ice- 1998; Haupt and Seidov, 2001); the bathymetry Pseudoceratium polymorphum; Grøsfjeld, caps), it is important to consider the paleo-water is relatively shallow across a wide area ruling 1992; Midtkandal et al., 2016). Biostratigraphy depth, as well as the paleo-latitude, at which the out a source of trapped cold water to draw from is lacking from the Helvetiafjellet Formation, ikaite originally formed. Mesozoic glendonites and is semi enclosed reducing the likelihood of across Spitsbergen, owing to the terrestrial are abundantly documented from paleo-high- appropriate wind conditions. and paralic nature of the facies preserved here latitude sites (e.g., De Lurio and Frakes, 1999; If we discount upwelling of cold waters as (e.g., Mørk et al., 1999). The overlying marine Price and Nunn, 2010; Grasby et al., 2017 and unlikely, this leaves the drivers of cold coastal Carolinefjellet Formation is constrained to references therein, Morales et al., 2017; Rogov temperatures as the local heat exchange and the Aptian, at Festningen, by the presence of et al., 2017 and references therein), and have coastal currents. Coastal currents are most Crioceras sp., Oppelia nisoides, Hoplites sp. been used to argue for so-called Cretaceous often buoyancy driven from riverine input (the (in the Dalkjegla Member; Frebold, 1928), and “cold-snaps” (e.g., Kemper, 1987). However temperature of which reflects local atmospheric upper Aptian Tropaeum arcticum (Dalkjegla- many of these studies do not record, or are conditions, e.g., Webb et al., 2003; Yang and Innkjegla members; Sokolov and Bodylevsky, ambiguous about the depositional environment Peterson, 2017) and, unlike upwelling which 1931; Frebold and Stoll 1937; Ershova, of documented glendonites (e.g., Grasby et al., can introduce pristine cold water into warm 1983). Furthermore, upper Aptian dinocysts 2017; Morales et al., 2017; Rogov et al., 2017), environments, coastal currents are subject to (Caligodinium aceras; Gonyaulacysta sp. and estimation of the water depth at which mixing from bottom friction, tides, and storms I; Murderongia asymmetrica; M. mcwhaei; they formed is difficult because insufficient reducing their temperature difference from the Oligosphaeridium albertense; O. totum; Tenua sedimentological and facies information is surrounding sea (Simpson and Sharples, 2012). brevispinosa) have been described from the provided by those studies. The glendonites were all found above the SWB, Inkkjegla Member near Adventdalen and the The glendonites of Lower Cretaceous indicating areas of significant mixing at least East coast (Hiorthfjellet and Agardhfjellet; Svalbard occur in sediments deposited in the during storm periods, and thus suggest the Thusu, 1978). There are no descriptions of open marine shelf and offshore transition zone glendonites are representative of a general cold Albian faunas at Festningen, and younger (Fig. 3), and in one instance even into the water and air temperatures around this latitude members of the Carolinefjellet Formation are shoreface environment. The offshore transition during certain periods, a conclusion supported absent here (Nagy, 1970). zone is interpreted as occurring between the by the occurrence of glendonite horizons in Within this existing framework, discrete storm and the fair weather wave bases (i.e., the Canadian Arctic and Siberia (see following isotopic excursions with distinctive directions above the depth of agitation of the sea floor by section). Given the requirement for meridional of change, magnitudes, and shapes can be the waves generated during the largest storms, temperature gradients to balance the global heat correlated to similar excursions seen in other

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 9 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 10 of 16 Vickers et al.

FESTNINGEN, SVALBARD GLOBAL - Global age-calibrated t Lithology 13 13 h δ Corg (‰ VPDB) δ Ccarbonate (VPDB ‰) Events

(m) -28 -27 -26 -25 -24 -23 -22 -21 1 2 3 4 Heig Biostrat. age Member Age Ma Sediment ation rate s 800 Paquier 780 (OAE1b) E Albian Kilian 760 113.0

740 Jacob (OAE1b) 720 115

nkjegla 700

In 680

660 JELLET 2.28 cm/k.y. F Lt 640

620 120 Fallot AROLINE a 600 Airport C ( ) 580

Dalkjegl 560 123

540

X E X OAE1a 520 X 125 A

N/ 500 126.3 Taxy emia n ETIAFJELLE T 480 ginkgo and horsetail Barr

HE LV FST 460 Lt n emia n 440 129.4 Barr 420 E 130 1.6 cm/k.y.

Kikutodde 130.8 400 Faraoni n Lt 380 F

360 E Hauterivia 340 133.9

320 135

Lt eisser t”

300 “W

280 E 260 ~8 cm/k.y alanginian V

langinian - Hauterivian 240 139.4 Wimanfjellet Va 220 140

200 F Lt LLET

E F

J 180 F F K

I 160 R

Berriasian E 140 RU

145.0 120 145

100 Tith o -nia n KEY 80 FA1 fluvial or deltaic FA4 Shoreface Y distributary channel IL FA5 Offshore transition

60 ONISED FA2 Delta plain zone

HE AV FA3 Delta front F FA6 Open marine shelf 40 TECT mouth bar glendonite horizon outsized clast 20 yellow clay in Bach IV gravel Vol. AGARDH carbonate bed -FJELLET 0 cl si f m c vc gr asymmetrical ripples

wood dinosaur footprint ammonite plant material roots belemnite bivalve

10 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 11 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events

Figure 5. Summary log of the Festningen section, Spitsbergen, Norway, with horizons from Northern Russia, Greenland, and Alaska containing glendonites highlight in blue. Biostratigraphic (Biostrat.) age for the succes- (Fig. 7), argue for a more prolonged cooling, sion (for references see Geological Setting and Fig. 3) is shown on the left. Calculated un- beginning in the late Berriasian, and ending 13 decompacted sedimentation rates shown to the left of the lithostratigraphy. δ Corg (both in the early Barremian (at least 8.5 m.y. using wood and bulk) from the Festningen section is correlated to the composite global δ13C the timescale of Ogg and Hinnov, 2012). 13 curve from carbonate records. Composite δ Ccarbonate curve constructed from Weissert and The initiation of this cooling pre-dates the Erba (2004), Föllmi et al. (2006), Herrle et al. (2015), and Price et al. (2016); tuned to “Weissert Event” by more than 4 m.y., and Ogg and Hinnov (2012). Dark- and light-gray areas indicate correlative intervals. Global continues for a further ~2.5 m.y. after the event cool episodes indicated by blue shaded area on timescale; warming episodes indicated (Ogg and Hinnov, 2012). This indicates that in red shaded area on timescale. Position of Aptian ocean anoxic event (OAE1a) relative the “Weissert Event” CIE and cooling are not to the carbon-isotope records also displayed. FST—Festningen Member. Timing of High mechanistically linked, as has previously been Arctic Large Igneous Province volcanism on Svalbard from Nejbert et al. (2011). VPDB— proposed (e.g., Erba et al., 2004; Martinez et Vienne Pee Dee belemnite; E—early; Lt—late; Vol.—Volgian. cl—clay; si—silt; f—fine; al., 2015). This has previously been suggested m—medium; c—coarse; vc—very coarse; gr—gravel. by other studies, e.g., Lunt et al. (2016), who show that changes in continental configuration can change global circulation and heat transfer patterns on a scale large enough to drive Arctic organic records (Herrle et al., 2015; Hauterivian to earliest Barremian glendonites global warming or cooling, independent of 13 Fig. 6) and the global δ Ccarb curve for the of Svalbard post-date major occurrences of atmospheric CO2 levels. Tithonian to Albian (Fig. 5). This allows for the glendonites from Russia and Arctic Canada that Glendonites are missing from the upper finer tuning of the correlation of the glendonite are mainly late Berriasian to earliest Hauterivian Barremian to lower Aptian of Svalbard, but much horizons. Clearly recognizable in both the in age, but are possibly synchronous with of this time was represented by uplift of the pan- regional correlation with the Canadian Arctic more poorly dated glendonites from Alaska Arctic region (e.g., Gjelberg and Steel, 1995; 13 δ Corg record (Herrle et al., 2015) and the (Fig. 7). A major cooling event has been Galloway et al., 2013; Rogov et al., 2017), hiatus global carbonate record are (1) the distinctive proposed for the late Valanginian to early or deposition of terrestrial successions, which do negative CIE of OAE1a and the double positive Hauterivian (Bodin et al., 2015), whereby not promote ikaite growth. Glendonites of this in the recovery of this event; (2) the inflection the positive carbon isotope excursion of the age are also unknown in marine successions of of the curves in the upper Hauterivian; and “Weissert” CIE has been linked to increased NE Russia and Australia (regions characterized (3) the distinctive negative trend through the organic carbon burial and consequent by abundant upper Aptian glendonites), so their lower upper Aptian. The correlation between increased burial of atmospheric CO2. The absence may support evidence for warmth 13 the Festningen section δ Corg data and the onset of cooling is proposed as coinciding during this period (e.g., Mutterlose et al., 2010; 13 13 global δ Ccarbonate curve become less certain with peak δ C values, and is followed by an Bodin et al., 2015). in the lowermost 400 m and in the uppermost interval waning of δ13C values (Erba et al., Finally, late Aptian glendonites of Svalbard ~150 m. In the uppermost Aptian there is an 2004; Weissert and Erba, 2004; Föllmi et al., are synchronous with a major interval of absence of large, significant, correlatable 2006). Evidence for cooling is based on the glendonites from Arctic Canada (Fig. 6; Herrle global δ13C excursions, and longer-term trends occurrences of tillite and dropstones (Frakes et al., 2015; Grasby et al., 2017), Greenland 13 in the global δ Ccarbonate curve are not apparent et al., 1995) in sediments of Valanginian and (Hovikoski et al., 2018), and possibly the 13 in the Festningen δ Corg curve. Hauterivian age at a number of places around Eromanga Basin (Fig. 7; Australia; De Lurio Using the chemostratigraphic framework the globe, paleontological evidence coming and Frakes, 1999) of the Southern Hemisphere developed in this study, glendonite-bearing from the distribution patterns of calcareous (Figs. 1A and 7). Cooling is proposed for intervals in the Lower Cretaceous of Svalbard nannofossils (Mutterlose and Kessels, 2000) the late Aptian, with evidence coming from can be correlated with those of the Canadian and the occurrence of cool water-indicating belemnite δ18O records (e.g., Bodin et al.,

Arctic (Fig. 6), and other Lower Cretaceous biomarkers (steryl ethers) in claystones of 2015, <4 °C cooling), TEX86 sea surface glendonite-bearing sites in both Southern and Valanginian age from the Shatsky Rise in the temperature reconstructions (McAnena et al., Northern hemispheres, using our correlation northwest Pacific (Brassell, 2009). Supposed 2013, ~5 °C cooling), changes in calcareous to the global carbonate curve (Figs. 5 and 7), evidence for polar ice at this time is a trend nannofossil assemblages (Vocontian Basin, as well as to major hypothesized episodes toward positive oxygen isotope values (~lower Tethys; e.g., Herrle and Mutterlose, 2003) of global cooling derived from alternative, temperatures) in the δ18O record of fish teeth and changes in floral assemblages in the polar independent proxies (Fig. 7; e.g., Pucéat et enamels (Pucéat et al., 2003), and belemnites regions (Francis and Poole, 2002; Harland et al., 2003; Erba et al., 2004; Harland et al., (Price and Mutterlose, 2004). Meissner et al. al., 2007). More equivocal evidence for late 2007; McArthur et al., 2007; Mutterlose et (2015) suggest the δ18O of belemnites in the Aptian cooling (enough to allow the growth of al., 2009; McAnena et al., 2013; Price and late Valanginian to early Hauterivian indicate a small polar ice-caps) comes from sea-level falls Passey, 2013; Bodin et al., 2015). In this study, cooling of ~4 °C in the southern Boreal Realm (e.g., Maurer et al., 2013; Millán et al., 2014) glendonites deposited in bathymetries <100 m and 2 °C in the Arctic Boreal Realm. Although and interpreted “glacial dropstones” (e.g., water occur in the Kikutodden Member of the a large number of glendonite occurrences are Dalland, 1977; Frakes et al., 1995; Rodríguez- Rurikfjellet Formation, which is Hauterivian to coincident with the “Weissert Event” CIE López et al., 2016). Our bathymetrically earliest Barremian in age, the middle Dalkjegla (in the Canadian Arctic and Russia; Rogov constrained glendonites lend strong support Member and throughout the Innkjegla Member et al., 2017 and references therein; Grasby et to the hypothesis of late Aptian cooling, with of the Carolinefjellet Formation which date al., 2017 and references therein), the ages of temperatures low enough for small ice-cap from the mid to latest Aptian (Figs. 5 and 7). glendonites from this study, as well as those development at the poles.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 11 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 12 of 16 Vickers et al. )

s y 13 13 Axel Heiberg δ Corg(‰) Corg (‰) s tage ts Herrle et al. (2015) THIS STUDY Lithology

en

(m) tage v Height -28 -27 -26 -25 -24 -23 -22 -21 -28 -27 -26 -25 -24 -23 -22 -21

S Subs Member E Litholog Height (m Member

OAE1b 600 111.74 +- 0.27 Ma

Kilian r 500 Lowe Albian t

in 800 Po

780 400 vincible

In 760 r

740 300 Jacob 720 Christophe 700

200 Innkjegla 680

660 100 ppe r 640

620 0 600 ( Airport

580 -100

560 Dalkjegl a er Island lk 540 Wa

X X

-200 E1 a rU X

OA 520 Lowe RM 500 -300 ginko and

Isachsen 480 horsetail leaves 460 FST

-400 island cl si f m c vc gr mian Uppe r terson Pa -500 Bar re

Sh SiVfFM 13 Figure 6. Correlation of δ Corg data from this study with that for the Barremian–Aptian deposits on Axel Heiberg, Canadian Arctic (Herrle et al., 2015). The log and age constrains for Axel Heiberg are as published in Herrle et al. (2015). FST—Festningen Member. Sh—shale; Si—silt; Vf—very fine; F—fine; M—medium; si—silt; f—fine; m—medium; c—coarse; vc—very coarse; gr—gravel.

12 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 13 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events

e Ammonite northern Russia e s ated

zones ‰) Alas ka ( . r, Basi n eenlan d g carb

Stage Island lba rd C a Gulf re 13 e-calibr n (Ma ) Composit δ ag ang enzie King ya Sva eal oman ga el Heiber th 1 2 3 4 Numerical ag Er Chucha Cape Ax McK Ellesme Ellef Ringnes and Amund Ringne Ammonoids Bor Ammonoids Te Khat Kilen, N. Gr Canning Rive Events

L. tarde. L. tarde. Paquier

Albian Leymeriella (OAE1b) E schrammeni 113.0 Kilian H. jacobi Jacob (OAE1b) H. 115 jacobi

A. nolani

P. P. melchioris

120 E. E. Fallot

Aptian Lt

123 T. D. furcata bowerbanki

E D. D. OAE1a 125 deshayesi deshayesi D. forbesi D. forbesi 126.3 D. oglanlensis P. fissicostatus Taxy P. bidentatum/ P. scalare I. giraudi S. stolleyi A.inexum/ G. S. pingue Lt sartousi P.

emian denckmanni A. vanden. 129.4 M. moton. P. elegans K. compress. N. pulch. H. fissicostatum E N. nicklesi 130 Barr P. 130.8 T. hugii rarocinctum Faraoni r P. ohmi 132.23 Lt S. variabilis B. balearis S. marginatus P. ligatus S. sayni M. speetonensis E Sp. inversum Haute -ivian L. nodos. E. regale 133.9 C. loryi E. noricum E. amblygonium A. radiatus E. paucinodum C.

n S. tuberculatum furcillata “Weissert” 135 N. Dichotomites Lt peregrinus S. verrucosum prodicho -tomites B. campylotoxus Polyptychites

E Paratollia/ alanginia T. Platylenticeras

V pertransiens P. 139.4 albidum S. 140 stenomphalus S. Surites icenii Lt boissieri H. kochi

S. occitanica R. E runctoni Berriasian B. jacobi S. lamplughi 145.0 145 S. preplicom Tithonian -phalus

Figure 7. Correlation of glendonite occurrence in Lower Cretaceous deposits from around the globe; adapted from Rogov et al. (2017). Sources: Russia: Rogov et al. (2017); Svalbard, Norway: this study; Canadian Arctic (Queen Elizabeth Islands): Kemper and Schmitz (1975, 1981), Kemper (1987), Lippert (2004), Herrle et al. (2015), Grasby et al. (2017); Greenland: Hovikoski et al. (2018); Alaska, USA: van 13 der Kolk et al. (2011); Eromanga Basin, Australia: Frakes et al. (1995), De Lurio and Frakes (1999). Composite δ Ccarbonate curve constructed from Weissert and Erba (2004), Follmi et al. (2006), Herrle et al. (2015), and Price et al. (2016); tuned to the timescale of Ogg and Hinnov (2012). Global cooling and warming episodes indicated by blue and red shaded area, respectively. Ranges indicate uncertainties in age, rather than the age range over which glendonites occur in a succession. E—early; Lt—late.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 13 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 14 of 16 Vickers et al.

CONCLUSIONS ter: Geology, v. 30, p. 227–230, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​ et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 63, p. 1039–1048, https://​doi​ /0091​-7613​(2002)030​<0227:​NPOACI>2​.0​.CO;2​. .org​/10​.1016​/S0016​-7037​(99)00019​-8​. Århus, N., 1992, Some dinoflagellate cysts from the Lower Dieckmann, G.S., Nehrke, G., Papadimitriou, S., Göttli- The glendonites from the Lower Cretaceous Cretaceous of Spitsbergen: Grana, v. 31, p. 305–314, cher, J., Steininger, R., Kennedy, H., Wolf‐Gladrow, succession of Svalbard formed in the offshore https://​doi​.org​/10​.1080​/00173139209429453​. D., Thomas, D.N., 2008, Calcium carbonate as ikaite Bhattacharya, J.P., 2006, Deltas, in Posamentier, H.W., and crystals in Antarctic sea ice: Geophysical Research transition zone to the shoreface of a shallow Walker, R.G., eds., Facies Models Revisited: (SEPM) Letters, v. 35, no. 8, p. 1–3, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​ marine shelf, above SWB, suggesting water at Society for Sedimentary Geology Special Publication, /2008GL033540​. CD e-book no. 84, p. 237–292. Dypvik, H., Håkansson, E., and Heinberg, C., 2002, Juras- 7 °C or lower at less than 100 m water depth, Bhattacharya, J.P., 2010, Deltas, in Dalrymple, R.W., and sic and Cretaceous palaeogeography and stratigraphic at a paleolatitude of ~60–70°N. High-resolution James, N.P., eds., Facies Models 4: Newfoundland, comparisons in the North Greenland‐Svalbard region: carbon isotope stratigraphy in conjunction with Canada, Geological Association of Canada, Geotext, Polar Research, v. 21, p. 91–108, https://​doi​.org​/10​ v. 6, p. 233–264. .1111​/j​.1751​-8369​.2002​.tb00069​.x​. biostratigraphy enables the correlation of Early Bice, K.L., and Norris, R.D., 2002, Possible atmospheric Elliott, T., 1986, Deltas, in Reading, H.G., ed., Sedimentary Cretaceous glendonites of Svalbard to other CO2 extremes of the Middle Cretaceous (late Albian– Environments and Facies: Oxford, UK, Blackwell Sci- Turonian): Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, entific Publications, p. 113–154. Early Cretaceous glendonite-bearing sites in v. 17, p. 22-1–22-17. Erba, E., and Tremolada, F., 2004, Nannofossil carbonate both northern and southern high latitudes. A Bice, K.L., Huber, B.T., and Norris, R.D., 2003, Extreme fluxes during the Early Cretaceous: Phytoplankton re- polar warmth during the Cretaceous greenhouse? sponse to nutrification episodes, atmospheric CO , and distinct interval of glendonites spans the late 2 Paradox of the late Turonian δ18O record at Deep Sea anoxia: Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, v. 19, Berriasian to earliest Barremian—a duration of Drilling Project Site 511: Paleoceanography and Pa- https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/2003PA000884​. at least 8.6 m.y.—which pre- and post-dates the leoclimatology, v. 18, no. 2, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​ Erba, E., Bartolini, A., and Larson, R.L., 2004, Valanginian /2002PA000848​. Weissert oceanic anoxic event: Geology, v. 32, p. 149– Valanginian “Weissert Event” CIE, suggesting Bischoff, J.L., Fitzpatrick, J.A., and Rosenbauer, R.J., 1993, 152, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/G20008​.1​. that cooling and isotopic excursion were not The solubility and stabilization of ikaite (CaCO3·6H2O) Ershova, E.S., 1983. Explanatory notes for the biostrati- mechanistically linked. The stratigraphic extent from 0° to 25° C: Environmental and paleoclimatic im- graphical scheme of the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous plications for Thinolite Tufa: The Journal of Geology, deposits of Spitzbergen archipelago: Sevmorgeologia, of glendonite-bearing horizons from Svalbard v. 101, p. 21–33, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1086​/648194​. Leningrad, v. 88 (in Russian). into the lower Barremian suggests that mid-Early Bodin, S., Meissner, P., Janssen, N.M., Steuber, T., and Mut- Field, L., Milodowski, A.E., Shaw, R.P., Stevens, L.A., Hall, terlose, J., 2015, Large igneous provinces and organic M.R., Kilpatrick, A., Gunn, J., Kemp, S.J., and Ellis, Cretaceous cooling may have been significantly carbon burial: Controls on global temperature and M.A., 2017, Unusual morphologies and the occurrence more prolonged (up to 8.6 m.y. duration) than continental weathering during the Early Cretaceous: of pseudomorphs after ikaite (CaCO3·6H2O) in fast has been previously suggested. Glendonites are Global and Planetary Change, v. 133, p. 238–253, growing, hyperalkaline speleothems: Mineralogical https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.gloplacha​.2015​.09​.001​. Magazine, v. 81, p. 565–590, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1180​ absent from the late Barremian to early Aptian Boucot, A.J., Xu, C., and Scotese, R., 2013, Phanerozoic /minmag​.2016​.080​.111​. in Northern and Southern Hemisphere locations, Paleoclimate: An Atlas of Lithologic Indicators of Fluteau, F., Ramstein, G., Besse, J., Guiraud, R., and Masse, Climates: SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), J., 2007, Impacts of palaeogeography and sea level supporting long-term warmth during this time Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology, no. 11, changes on Mid-Cretaceous climate: Palaeogeography, (although regional uplift during this interval Map Folio, 487 p. Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 247, p. 357–381, meant that it was less likely that glendonites Boyer, T.P., Antonov, J.I., Baranova, O.K., Coleman, C., https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.palaeo​.2006​.11​.016​. Garcia, H.E., Grodsky, A., Johnson, D.R., Locarnini, Föllmi, K.B., Godet, A., Bodin, S., and Linder, P., 2006, In- were preserved). Glendonites reappear in the R.A., Mishonov, A.V., O’Brien, T.D., Paver, C.R., teractions between environmental change and shallow late Aptian and extend into the early Albian, Reagan, J.R., Seidov, D., Smolyar, I.V., and Zweng, water carbonate buildup along the northern Tethyan corroborating other proxy evidence for late M.M., 2013, World Ocean Database 2013, NOAA At- margin and their impact on the Early Cretaceous car- las NESDIS 72: Silver Spring, Maryland, USA, U.S. bon isotope record: Paleoceanography and Paleoclima- Aptian cooling. Overall, glendonites from Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and At- tology, v. 21, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/2006PA001313​. Svalbard suggest that Cretaceous cold episodes mospheric Administration, 209 p. Frakes, L.A., Alley, N.F., and Deynoux, M., 1995, Early Brady, E.C., DeConto, R.M., and Thompson, S.L., 1998, Cretaceous ice rafting and climate zonation in Austra- were characterized with high latitude (>60°N) Deep water formation and poleward ocean heat trans- lia: International Geology Review, v. 37, p. 567–583, shallow water temperatures, and, if upwelling port in the warm climate extreme of the Cretaceous https://​doi​.org​/10​.1080​/00206819509465419​. was not bringing cool waters from the North (80 Ma): Geophysical Research Letters, v. 25, p. 4205– Francis, J.E., and Poole, I., 2002, Cretaceous and early 4208, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/1998GL900072​. Tertiary climates of Antarctica: Evidence from fos- Pole these low temperatures support the Brassell, S.C., 2009, Steryl ethers in a Valanginian claystone: sil wood: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Pal- existence of a northern polar ice-cap during the Molecular evidence for cooler waters in the central Pa- aeoecology, v. 182, p. 47–64, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​ cific during the Early Cretaceous?: Palaeogeography, /S0031​-0182​(01)00452​-7​. formation of the original ikaite. Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 282, p. 45–57, Frebold, H., 1928, Das Festnungsprofil auf Spitsbergen. Jura https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.palaeo​.2009​.08​.009​. und Kreide. II, Die Stratigraphie: Skrifter om Svalbard ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Bridge, J.S., and Diemer, J.A., 1983, Quantitative interpreta- og Ishavet, v. 19, p. 1–39. tion of an evolving ancient river system: Sedimentol- Frebold, H., and Stoll, E., 1937, Das Festungsprofil auf Spitz- Funding for this study was provided by a Ph.D. ogy, v. 30, p. 599–623, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1111​/j​.1365​ bergen. III, Stratigraphie und Fauna des Jura und der Un- scholarship from the University of Plymouth, UK, with -3091​.1983​.tb00698​.x​. terkreide: Skrifter om Svalbard og Ishavet, v. 68, p. 1–85. additional funding to MV from the Geological Society, Brooks, R., Clark, L., and Thurston, E., 1950, Calcium car- Galloway, J.M., Sweet, A.R., Swindles, G.T., Dewing, K., London, UK; The British Sedimentological Research bonate and its hydrates: Philosophical Transactions of Hadlari, T, Embry, A.F., and Sanei, H., 2013, Middle the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engi- Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous paleoclimate of Sverdrup Group Gill Harwood Memorial Fund, and an American neering Sciences, v. 243, p. 145–167, https://​doi​.org​/10​ Basin, Canadian Arctic Archipelago inferred from the Association of Petroleum Geologists grant-in-aid (Wil- .1098​/rsta​.1950​.0016​. palynostratigraphy: Marine and Petroleum Geology, liam E. Gipson Named Grant) also to MV. We thank Buchardt, B., Israelson, C., Seaman, P., and Stockmann, v. 44, p. 240–255, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.marpetgeo​ Dr. Marc Davis for his technical help, and Dr. Michael G., 2001, Ikaite tufa towers in Ikka Fjord, southwest .2013​.01​.001​. Bedington for his input interpreting the data. We would Greenland: Their formation by mixing of seawater Gjelberg, J., and Steel, R.J., 1995, Helvetiafjellet Formation like to thank our editors, Ganqing Jiang and Rob Stra- and alkaline spring water: Journal of Sedimentary (Barremian-Aptian), Spitsbergen: Characteristics of a chan, and reviewers, Dr. Mikhail Rogov and two anon- Research, v. 71, p. 176–189, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1306​ transgressive succession, in Steel, R.J., Felt, V.L., Jo- /042800710176​. hannessen, E.P., and Mathieu, C., eds., Sequence Stra- ymous, for their constructive criticism and advice. Dalland, A., 1977, Erratic clasts in the Lower Tertiary de- tigraphy of the Northwest European Margin: Norwegian posits of Svalbard: Evidence of transport by winter ice: Petroleum Society Special Publications, v. 5, p. 571– REFERENCES CITED Arbok Norsk Polarinstitutt, v. 1976, p. 151–166. 593, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/S0928​-8937​(06)80087​-1​. Dalrymple, R.W., 2010, Tidal Depositional Systems, in Dal- Grasby, S.E., McCune, G.E., Beauchamp, B., and Galloway, Allen, J.R.L., 1963, The classification of cross-stratified units. rymple, R.W., and James, N.P., eds., Facies Models J.M., 2017, Lower Cretaceous cold snaps led to widespread With notes on their origin: Sedimentology, v. 2, p. 93–114, 4: Newfoundland, Canada, Geological Association of glendonite occurrences in the Sverdrup Basin, Canadian https://doi​ .org​ /10​ .1111​ /j​ .1365​ -3091​ .1963​ .tb01204​ .x​ ​. Canada, Memorial University of Newfoundland. High Arctic: Geological Society of America Bulletin, Ando, A., Kakegawa, T., Takashima, R., and Saito, T., 2002, De Lurio, J.L., and Frakes, L.A., 1999, Glendonites as a v. 129, p. 771–787, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/B31600​.1​. New perspective on Aptian carbon isotope stratigra- paleoenvironmental tool: Implications for early Creta- Greinert, J., and Derkachev, A., 2004, Glendonites and meth- phy: Data from δ13C records of terrestrial organic mat- ceous high latitude climates in Australia: Geochimica ane-derived Mg-calcites in the Sea of Okhotsk, Eastern

14 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 15 of 16 The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events

Siberia: Implications of a venting-related ikaite/glen- don, Special Publications, v. 434, p. 189–206, https://​ between the Paraná–Etendeka large igneous province donite formation: Marine Geology, v. 204, p. 129–144, doi​.org​/10​.1144​/SP434​.10​. and the Weissert and the Faraoni events: Global and https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/S0025​-3227​(03)00354​-2​. Ito, M., Ishigaki, A., Nishikawa, T., and Saito, T., 2001, Planetary Change, v. 131, p. 158–173, https://​doi​.org​ Gröcke, D.R., Hesselbo, S.P., and Jenkyns, H.C., 1999, Temporal variation in the wavelength of hummocky /10​.1016​/j​.gloplacha​.2015​.06​.001​. Carbon-isotope composition of Lower Cretaceous cross-stratification: Implications for storm intensity Maurer, F., van Buchem, F.S.P., Eberli, G.P., Pierson, B.J., fossil wood: Ocean-atmosphere chemistry and rela- through Mesozoic and Cenozoic: Geology, v. 29, Raven, M.J., Larsen, P-H., Al‐Husseini, M.I., and Vin- tion to sea-level change: Geology, v. 27, p. 155–158, p. 87–89, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/0091​-7613​(2001)029​ cent, B., 2013, Late Aptian long‐lived glacio‐eustatic https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/0091​-7613​(1999)027​<0155:​ <0087:​TVITWO>2​.0​.CO;2​. lowstand recorded on the Arabian Plate: Terra Nova, CICOLC>2​.3​.CO;2​. Jahren, A.H., Arens, N.C., Sarmiento, G., Guerrero, J., and v. 25, p. 87–94, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1111​/ter​.12009​. Grøsfjeld, K., 1992, Palynological age constraints on the Amundson, R., 2001, Terrestrial record of methane McAnena, A., Hofmann, S.F.P., Herrie, J.O., Griesand, A., base of the Helvetiafjellet Formation (Barremian) on hydrate dissociation in the Early Cretaceous: Geology, Pross, J., Talbot, H.M., Rethemeyer, J., Wallmann, K., Spitsbergen: Polar Research, v. 11, p. 11–19, https://​ v. 29, p. 159–162, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/0091​-7613​ and Wagner, T., 2013, Atlantic cooling associated with doi​.org​/10​.1111​/j​.1751​-8369​.1992​.tb00408​.x​. (2001)029​<0159:​TROMHD>2​.0​.CO;2​. a marine biotic crisis during the mid-Cretaceous pe- Grundvåg, S.-A., Marin, D., Kairanov, B., Sliwinska, K.K., Jansen, J., Woensdregt, C., Kooistra, M., and Van Der Gaast, riod: Nature Geoscience, v. 6, p. 558–561, https://​doi​ Nøh-Hansen, H., Jelby, M.E., Escalona, A., and Olaussen, S., 1987, Ikaite pseudomorphs in the Zaire deep-sea .org​/10​.1038​/ngeo1850​. S., 2017, The Lower Cretaceous succession of the north- fan: An intermediate between calcite and porous cal- McArthur, J., Janssen, N.M.M., Reboulet, S., Leng, M.J., Thirl- western Barents Shelf: Onshore and offshore correlations: cite: Geology, v. 15, p. 245–248, https://​doi​.org​/10​ wall, M.F., and van de Schootbrugge, B., 2007, Palaeo- Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 86, p. 834–857, https://​ .1130​/0091​-7613​(1987)15​<245:​IPITZD>2​.0​.CO;2​. temperatures, polar ice-volume, and isotope stratigraphy doi.org​ /10​ .1016​ /j​ .marpetgeo​ .2017​ .06​ .036​ ​. Jenkyns, H.C., Forster, A., Schouten, S., and Damsté, J.S.S., (Mg/Ca, δ18O, δ13C, 87Sr/86Sr): The Early Cretaceous Harland, M., Francis, J., Brentnall, S., and Beerling, D., 2004, High temperatures in the late Cretaceous Arctic (Berriasian, Valanginian, Hauterivian): Palaeogeography, 2007, Cretaceous (Albian–Aptian) conifer wood from Ocean: Nature, v. 432, p. 888–892, https://​doi​.org​/10​ Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 248, p. 391–430, Northern Hemisphere high latitudes: Forest composi- .1038​/nature03143​. https://doi​ .org​ /10​ .1016​ /j​ .palaeo​ .2006​ .12​ .015​ ​. tion and palaeoclimate: Review of Palaeobotany and Johnsen, S.O., Mork, A., Dypvik, H., and Nagy, J., 2001, Meissner, P., Mutterlose, J., and Bodin, S., 2015, Latitudinal Palynology, v. 143, p. 167–196, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​ Outline of the Geology of Svalbard: Short geological temperature trends in the northern hemisphere during /j​.revpalbo​.2006​.07​.005​. review and guidebook: Syracuse, New York, USA, the Early Cretaceous (Valanginian–Hauterivian): Pal- Harland, W.B., and Kelly, S.R.A., 1997, Jurassic–Cretaceous State University of New York, College of Environmen- aeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 424, History, in Harland, W.B., ed., The Geology of Svalbard: tal Science and Forestry, 7th ESF IMPACT Workshop. p. 17–39, https://doi​ .org​ /10​ .1016​ /j​ .palaeo​ .2015​ .02​ .003​ ​. Geological Society, London, Memoir 17, p. 363–387. Jones, T.P., and Chaloner, W.G., 1991, Fossil charcoal, Menegatti, A.P., Weissert, H., Brown, R.S., Tyson, R.V., Far- Harland, W.B., Gaskell, B.A., Heaffard, A.P., Lind, E.K., its recognition and palaeoatmospheric significance: rimond, P., Strasser, A., and Caron, M., 1998, High‐ and Perkins, P.J., 1984. Outline of Arctic post-Silurian Global and Planetary Change, v. 5, p. 39–50, https://​ resolution δ13C stratigraphy through the Early Aptian continental displacements, in Spencer, A.M., ed., Pe- doi​.org​/10​.1016​/0921​-8181​(91)90125​-G​. “Livello selli” of the Alpine tethys: Paleoceanography troleum geology of the North European Margin: Lon- Kaljo, D., and Martma, T.O.N., 2006, Application of car- and Paleoclimatology, v. 13, p. 530–545, https://​doi​ don, UK, Graham and Trotman, p. 137–148, https://​doi​ bon isotope stratigraphy to dating the Baltic Silurian .org​/10​.1029​/98PA01793​. .org​/10​.1007​/978​-94​-009​-5626​-1_10​. rocks: GFF, v. 128, p. 123–129, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1080​ Miall, A.D., 1985, Architectural-element analysis: A new Haupt, B.J., and Seidov, D., 2001, Warm deep-water /11035890601282123​. method of facies analysis applied to fluvial deposits: ocean conveyor during Cretaceous time: Geology, Kemper, E., 1987, Das Klima der Kreide-Zeit: Geologisches Earth-Science Reviews, v. 22, p. 261–308, https://​doi​ v. 29, p. 295–298, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/0091​-7613​ Jahrbuch: Reihe A, v. 96, p. 5–185. .org​/10​.1016​/0012​-8252​(85)90001​-7​. (2001)029​<0295:​WDWOCD>2​.0​.CO;2​. Kemper, E., and Schmitz, H., 1975, Stellate nodules from Midtkandal, I., and Nystuen, J., 2009, Depositional archi- Heimhofer, U., Hochuli, P.A., Burla, S., Andersen, N., and the upper Deer Bay Formation (Valanginian) of Arctic tecture of a low‐gradient ramp shelf in an epiconti- Weissert, H., 2003, Terrestrial carbon‐isotope records Canada: Geological Survey of Canada, v. 75, p. 109– nental sea: The lower Cretaceous of Svalbard: Basin from coastal deposits (Algarve, Portugal): A tool for 119, https://​doi​.org​/10​.4095​/103040​. Research, v. 21, p. 655–675, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1111​/j​ chemostratigraphic correlation on an intrabasinal and Kemper, E., and Schmitz, H.H., 1981, Glendonite: Indika- .1365​-2117​.2009​.00399​.x​. global scale: Terra Nova, v. 15, p. 8–13, https://​doi​.org​ toren des polarmarinen Ablagerungsmilieus: Geolo- Midtkandal, I., Nystuen, J.P., Nagy, J., and Mørk, A., 2008, /10​.1046​/j​.1365​-3121​.2003​.00447​.x​. gische Rundschau, v. 70, p. 759–773, https://​doi​.org​ Lower Cretaceous lithostratigraphy across a regional Herrle, J.O., and Mutterlose, J., 2003, Calcareous nanno- /10​.1007​/BF01822149​. subaerial unconformity in Spitsbergen: The Rurikfjel- fossils from the Aptian–Lower Albian of southeast Koevoets, M., Abay, T., Hammer, Ø., and Olaussen, S., 2016, let and Helvetiafjellet formations: Norsk Geologisk France: Palaeoecological and biostratigraphic implica- High-resolution organic carbon-isotope stratigraphy of tions: Cretaceous Research, v. 24, p. 1–22, https://​doi​ the Middle Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous Agardhfjellet Tidsskrift, v. 88, p. 287–304. .org​/10​.1016​/S0195​-6671​(03)00023​-5​. Formation of central Spitsbergen, Svalbard: Palaeogeog- Midtkandal, I., Svensen, H., Planke, S., Corfu, F., Polteau, Herrle, J.O., Schröder-Adams, C.J., Davis, W., Pugh, A.T., raphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 449, p. 266– S., Torsvik, T., Faleide, J.I., Grundvåg, S.-A., Selnes, Galloway, J.M., and Fath, J., 2015, Mid-Cretaceous 274, https://doi​ .org​ /10​ .1016​ /j​ .palaeo​ .2016​ .02​ .029​ ​. H., and Olaussen, S., 2016, The Aptian oceanic an- High Arctic stratigraphy, climate, and oceanic anoxic Lapparent, A.D., 1962, Footprints of Dinosaur in the Lower oxic event (OAE1a) in Svalbard and the age of the events: Geology, v. 43, p. 403–406, https://​doi​.org​/10​ Cretaceous of Vestspitsbergen-Svalbard: Arbok Norsk Barremian-Aptian boundary: European Geosciences .1130​/G36439​.1​. Polarinstitutt, v. 1960, p. 14–21. Union General Assembly 2016, Vienna, Austria, Hovikoski, J., Pedersen, G.K., Alsen, P., Lauridsen, B.W., Lini, A., Weissert, H., and Erba, E., 1992, The Valanginian April 17–22, Geophysical Research Abstracts, v. 18, Svennevig, K., Nøhr-Hansen, H., Sheldon, E., Dyb- carbon isotope event: A first episode of greenhouse no. EGU2016-14744. kjær, K., Bojesen-Koefoed, J., Piasecki, S., Bjerager, climate conditions during the Cretaceous: Terra Nova, Millán, M., Weissert, H., and López-Horgue, M., 2014, Ex- M., and Ineson, J., 2018, The Jurassic–Cretaceous v. 4, p. 374–384, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1111​/j​.1365​-3121​ pression of the late Aptian cold snaps and the OAE1b lithostratigraphy of Kilen, Kronprins Christian Land, .1992​.tb00826​.x​. in a highly subsiding carbonate platform (Aralar, eastern North Greenland: Bulletin of the Geological Lippert, P., 2004, A cold start to the Cretaceous: Defining northern Spain): Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Society of Denmark, v. 66, p. 61–112, www.2dgf.dk/ climate history near the North Pole: Journal of Under- Palaeoecology, v. 411, p. 167–179, https://​doi​.org​/10​ publikationer/bulletin. graduate Research, v. 2, p. 42–48. .1016​/j​.palaeo​.2014​.06​.024​. Hunt, J.M., 1996, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology: Littler, K., Robinson, S.A., Bown, P.R., Nederbragt, A.J., and Morales, C., Rogov, M., Wierzbowski, H., Ershova, V., Suan, New York, New York, USA, W.H. Freeman and Com- Pancost, R.D., 2011, High sea-surface temperatures dur- G., Adatte, T., Föllmi, K.B., Tegelaar, E., Reichart, G.- pany, 743 p. ing the Early Cretaceous Epoch: Nature Geoscience, J., de Lange, G.J., Middelburg, J.J., and van de Schoot- Hunter, S., Haywood, A., Valdes, P., Francis, J., and Pound, v. 4, p. 169–172, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1038​/ngeo1081​. brugge, B., 2017, Glendonites track methane seepage M., 2013, Modelling equable climates of the Late Lunt, D.J., Foster, G.L., O’Brien, C.L., Pancost, R.D., and in Mesozoic polar seas: Geology, v. 45, p. 503–506, Cretaceous: Can new boundary conditions resolve Robinson, S.A., 2016, Palaeogeographic controls on cli- https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/G38967​.1​. data-model discrepancies?: Palaeogeography, Palaeo- mate and proxy interpretation: Climate of the Past, v. 12, Mørk, A., and Worsley, D., 2006, The Festningen section: climatology, Palaeoecology, v. 392, p. 41–51, https://​ p. 1181–1198, https://doi​ .org​ /10​ .5194​ /cp​ -12​ -1181​ -2016​ ​. Norsk Geologisk Forening (NGF) abstracts and pro- doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.palaeo​.2013​.08​.009​. Maher, H.D., 2001, Manifestations of the Cretaceous High ceedings, v. 3, p. 31–35. Hurum, J.H., Milàn, J., Hammer, O., Midtkandal, I., Amund- Arctic Large Igneous Province in Svalbard: The Jour- Mørk, A., Dallmann, W.K., and Dypvik, H., 1999. Mesozoic sen, H.E.F., and Saether, B., 2006, Tracking polar nal of Geology, v. 109, p. 91–104, https://​doi​.org​/10​ lithostratigraphy, in Dallmann W.K., ed., Lithostrati- dinosaurs: New finds from the Lower Cretaceous of .1086​/317960​. graphic Lexicon of Svalbard, Review and Recom- Svalbard: Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift, v. 86, p. 397–402.­ Maher, H.D., Hays, T., Shuster, R., and Mutrux, J., 2004, mendations for Nomenclature Use: Upper Paleozoic Hurum, J.H., Druckenmiller, P.S., Hammer, Ø., Nakrem, Petrography of Lower Cretaceous sandstones on Spits- to Quaternary Bedrock: Tromsø, Norway, Norwegian H.A., and Olaussen, S., 2016, The theropod that bergen: Polar Research, v. 23, p. 147–165, https://​doi​ Polar Institute, p. 127–214. wasn’t: An ornithopod tracksite from the Helvetiafjel- .org​/10​.1111​/j​.1751​-8369​.2004​.tb00005​.x​. Mutterlose, J., and Kessels, K., 2000, Early Cretaceous calcar- let Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of Boltodden, Sval- Martinez, M., Deconinck, J.-F., Pellenard, P., Riquier, L., eous nannofossils from high latitudes: Implications for bard, in Kear, B.P., Lindgren, J., Hurum, J.H., Milàn, Company, M., Reboulet, S., and Moiroud, M., 2015, palaeobiogeography and palaeoclimate: Palaeogeogra- J., and Vadja, V., eds., Mesozoic Biotas of Scandinavia Astrochronology of the Valanginian–Hauterivian phy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 160, p. 347– and its Arctic Territories: Geological Society of Lon- stages (Early Cretaceous): Chronological relationships 372, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/S0031​-0182​(00)00082​-1​.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX 15 Vickers-35074.1 1st pages / 16 of 16 Vickers et al.

Mutterlose, J., Bornemann, A., and Herrle, J., 2009, The Ap- Purgstaller, B., Dietzel, M., Baldermann, A., and Mavroma- Teichert, B., and Luppold, F., 2013, Glendonites from an tian–Albian cold snap: Evidence for “mid” Cretaceous tis, V., 2017, Control of temperature and aqueous Mg2+/ Early Jurassic methane seep: Climate or methane in- icehouse interludes: Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Ca2+ ratio on the (trans-) formation of ikaite: Geochim- dicators?: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Pal- Palaontologie. Abhandlungen, v. 252, p. 217–225, ica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 217, p. 128–143, https://​ aeoecology, v. 390, p. 81–93, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​ https://​doi​.org​/10​.1127​/0077​-7749​/2009​/0252​-0217​. doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.gca​.2017​.08​.016​. .palaeo​.2013​.03​.001​. Mutterlose, J., Malkoc, M., Schouten, S., Sinninghe Damsté, Radke, M., and Welte, D.H., 1983, The Methylphenanthrene Thomas, R.G., Smith, D.G., Wood, J.M., Visser, J., Calverley- J.S., and Forster, A., 2010, TEX86 and stable δ18O pa- Index (MPI): A maturity parameter based on aromatic Range, E.A., and Koster, E.H., 1987, Inclined heterolithic leothermometry of early Cretaceous sediments: Implica- hydrocarbons, in Bjorøy, M., Albrecht, C., Cornford, C., stratification: Terminology, description, interpretation and tions for belemnite ecology and paleotemperature proxy et al., eds., Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1981: significance: Sedimentary Geology, v. 53, p. 123–179, application: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 298, New York, USA, John Wiley & Sons, p. 504–512. https://doi​ .org​ /10​ .1016​ /S0037​ -0738​ (87)80006​ -4​ ​. p. 286–298, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.epsl​.2010​.07​.043​. Reading, H.G., 1996, Sedimentary Environments: Pro- Thusu, B., 1978, Aptian to Toarcian dinoflagellate cysts Nagy, J., 1970, Ammonite faunas and stratigraphy of Lower cesses, Facies and Stratigraphy: Oxford, UK, Black- from Arctic Norway: Continental shelf Institute Pub- Cretaceous (Albian) rocks in southern Spitsbergen: well Science Ltd. lications, v. 100, p. 61–95. Norsk Polarinstitutt Skrifter 152, 58 p. Rodríguez-López, J.P., Liesa, C.L., Pardo, G., Meléndez, N., Tissot, B.P., and Welte, D.H., 1984, Petroleum Formation Nejbert, K., Krajewski, K.P., Dubinska, E., and Pécskay, Z., Soria, A.R., and Skilling, I., 2016, Glacial dropstones and Occurrence: Berlin, Germany, Springer-Verlag, 2011, Dolerites of Svalbard, north-west Barents Sea in the western Tethys during the late Aptian–early Al- 699 p., https://​doi​.org​/10​.1007​/978​-3​-642​-87813​-8​. Shelf: Age, tectonic setting and significance for geo- bian cold snap: Palaeoclimate and palaeogeographic Turney, C., Wheeler, D., and Chivas, A.R., 2006, Carbon tectonic interpretation of the High-Arctic Large Igne- implications for the mid-Cretaceous: Palaeogeography, isotope fractionation in wood during carbonization: ous Province: Polar Research, v. 30, no. 7306, https://​ Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 452, p. 11–27, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 70, p. 960–964, doi​.org​/10​.3402​/polar​.v30i0​.7306​. https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.palaeo​.2016​.04​.004​. https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.gca​.2005​.10​.031​. Ogg, J.G., and Hinnov, L.A., 2012, Cretaceous, in Gradstein, Rogov, M.A., Ershova, V.B., Shchepetova, E.V., Zakharov, Tyson, R.V., 1995, Sedimentary Organic Matter: London, F.M., Ogg, G., and Schmitz, M., eds., The Geologi- V.A., Pokrovsky, B.G., and Khudoley, A.K., 2017, UK, Chapman and Hall, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1007​/978​ cal Timescale: Boston, Massachusetts, USA, Else- Earliest Cretaceous (late Berriasian) glendonites from -94​-011​-0739​-6​. vier, p. 793–853, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/B978​-0​-444​ Northeast Siberia revise the timing of initiation of tran- van der Kolk, D.A., Whalen, M.T., Wartes, M.A., Newberry, -59425​-9​.00027​-5​. sient Early Cretaceous cooling in the high latitudes: R.J., and McCarthy, P., 2011, Geology and Source Rock Parker, J.R., 1967, The Jurassic and Cretaceous sequence in Cretaceous Research, v. 71, p. 102–112, https://​doi​.org​ Potential of the Lower Cretaceous Pebble Shale Unit, Spitsbergen: Geological Magazine, v. 104, p. 487–505, /10​.1016​/j​.cretres​.2016​.11​.011​. Northeastern Alaska: American Association of Petroleum https://​doi​.org​/10​.1017​/S0016756800049220​. Schubert, C., Nürnberg, D., Scheele, N., Pauer, F., and Geologists Pacific Section Meeting, May 8–11, Anchor- Patruno, S., Hampson, G.J., and Jackson, C.A., 2015, Quan- Kriews, M., 1997, 13C isotope depletion in ikaite age, Alaska, USA, Search and Discovery Article 90125. titative characterisation of deltaic and subaqueous crystals: Evidence for methane release from the Sibe- Vickers, M.L., Price, G.D., Jerrett, R.M., and Watkinson, clinoforms: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 142, p. 79–119, rian shelves?: Geo-Marine Letters, v. 17, p. 169–174, M., 2016, Stratigraphic and geochemical expression https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.earscirev​.2015​.01​.004​. https://​doi​.org​/10​.1007​/s003670050023​. of Barremian–Aptian global climate change in Arctic Peters, K.E., Walters, C.C., and Moldowan, J.M., 2005, The Selleck, B.W., Carr, P.F., and Jones, B.G., 2007, A review Svalbard: Geosphere, v. 12, p. 1594–1605, https://​doi​ Biomarker Guide, part 2, Biomarkers in Petroleum and synthesis of glendonites (pseudomorphs after .org​/10​.1130​/GES01344​.1​. ikaite) with new data: Assessing applicability as re- Exploration and Earth History: Cambridge, UK, Cam- Vickers, M., Watkinson, M., Price, G.D., and Jerrett, R., corders of ancient coldwater conditions: Journal of bridge University Press, v. 2, p. 475–983. 2018, An improved model for the ikaite-glendonite Sedimentary Research, v. 77, p. 980–991, https://​doi​ Peters, S.E., and Loss, D.P., 2012, Storm and fair-weather transformation: Evidence from the Lower Cretaceous .org​/10​.2110​/jsr​.2007​.087​. wave base: A relevant distinction?: Geology, v. 40, of Spitsbergen, Svalbard: Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift, Senger, K., Tveranger, J., Ogata, K., Braathen, A., and p. 511–514, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/G32791​.1​. v. 98, p. 1–15, https://​doi​.org​/10​.17850​/njg98​-1​-01​. Planke, S., 2014, Late Mesozoic magmatism in Sval- Plint, A.G., 2010, Wave- and storm-dominated shoreline Wang, Y., Huang, C., Sun, B., Quan, C., Wu, J., and Lin, Z., 2014, bard: A review: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 139, p. 123– and shallow-marine systems, in James, N.P., and Dal- Paleo-CO2 variation trends and the Cretaceous greenhouse 144, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.earscirev​.2014​.09​.002​. rymple, R.W., eds., Facies Models 4: Newfoundland, climate: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 129, p. 136–147, Simpson, J.H., and Sharples, J., 2012, Introduction to the Canada, Geological Association of Canada, Memorial https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.earscirev​.2013​.11​.001​. Physical and Biological Oceanography of Shelf Seas: University of Newfoundland. Webb, B., Clack, P., and Walling, D., 2003, Water-air tem- Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, https://​ Polteau, S., Hendriks, B.W.H., Planke, S., Ganerød, M., Cor- doi​.org​/10​.1017​/CBO9781139034098​. perature relationships in a Devon river system and the fuc, F., Faleide, J.I., Midtkandal, I., Svensen, H.S., and Sokolov, D., and Bodylevsky, W., 1931, Juraund Kreidefor- role of flow: Hydrological Processes, v. 17, p. 3069– Myklebust, R.,, 2016, The Early Cretaceous Barents 3084, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1002​/hyp​.1280​. 40 39 mationen von Spitzbergen: Skrifter om Svalbard og Sea Sill Complex: Distribution, Ar/ Ar geochronol- Ishavet, v. 35, p. 1–151. Weissert, H., and Erba, E., 2004, Volcanism, CO2 and pal- ogy, and implications for carbon gas formation: Palaeo- Spielhagen, R.F., and Tripati, A., 2009, Evidence from Svalbard aeoclimate: A Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous carbon geography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 441, for near-freezing temperatures and climate oscillations in and oxygen isotope record: Journal of the Geological p. 83–95, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.palaeo​.2015​.07​.007​. the Arctic during the Paleocene and Eocene: Palaeogeog- Society, v. 161, p. 695–702, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1144​ Price, G., and Mutterlose, J., 2004, Isotopic signals from raphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 278, p. 48– /0016​-764903​-087​. late Jurassic–early Cretaceous (Volgian–Valanginian) 56, https://doi​ .org​ /10​ .1016​ /j​ .palaeo​ .2009​ .04​ .012​ ​. Wood, G., Gabriel, A. and Lawson, J., 1996, Palynological sub-Arctic belemnites, Yatria River, Western Siberia: Steel, R., Gjelberg, J., and Haarr, G., 1978, Helvetiafjellet techniques: Processing and microscopy: Palynology: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 161, p. 959–968, Formation (Barremian) at Festningen, Spitsbergen; Principles and Applications, v. 1, p. 29–50. https://​doi​.org​/10​.1144​/0016​-764903​-169​. a field guide: Norsk Polarinstitutt Årbok, v. 1977, Worsley, D., 2008, The post‐Caledonian development of Price, G.D., and Nunn, E.V., 2010, Valanginian isotope p. 111–128. Svalbard and the western Barents Sea: Polar Research, variation in glendonites and belemnites from Arctic Stewart, R.H., 2008, Introduction to Physical Oceanogra- v. 27, p. 298–317, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1111​/j​.1751​-8369​ Svalbard: Transient glacial temperatures during the phy: Department of Oceanography, College Station, .2008​.00085​.x​. Cretaceous greenhouse: Geology, v. 38, p. 251–254, Texas, USA, Texas A&M University, http://​hdl​.handle​ Yang, D., and Peterson, A., 2017, River water temperature in https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/G30593​.1​. .net​/1969​.1​/160216​. relation to local air temperature in the Mackenzie and Price, G.D., and Passey, B.H., 2013, Dynamic polar climates Stockmann, G., Tollefsen, E., Skelton, A., Brüchert, V., Balic- Yukon Basins: Arctic, v. 70, p. 47–58, https://​doi​.org​ in a greenhouse world: Evidence from clumped isotope Zunic, T., Langhof, J., Skogby, H., and Karlsson, A., /10​.14430​/arctic4627​. thermometry of Early Cretaceous belemnites: Geology, 2018, Control of a calcite inhibitor (phosphate) and Zabel, M., and Schulz, H.D., 2001, Importance of subma- v. 41, p. 923–926, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/G34484​.1​. temperature on ikaite precipitation in Ikka Fjord, south- rine landslides for non-steady state conditions in pore Price, G.D., Sellwood, B., and Valdes, P., 1995, Sedimentolog- west Greenland: Applied Geochemistry, v. 89, p. 11–22, water systems: Lower Zaire (Congo) deep-sea fan: Ma- ical evaluation of general circulation model simulations https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.apgeochem​.2017​.11​.005​. rine Geology, v. 176, p. 87–99, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​ for the “greenhouse” Earth: Cretaceous and Jurassic Suan, G., Van De Schootbrugge, B., Adatte, T., Fiebig, J., /S0025​-3227​(01)00164​-5​. case studies: Sedimentary Geology, v. 100, p. 159–180, and Oschmann, W., 2015, Calibrating the magnitude of Zhou, X., Lu, Z., Rickaby, R.E.M., Domack, E.W., Well- https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/0037​-0738​(95)00106​-9​. the Toarcian carbon cycle perturbation: Paleoceanog- ner, J.S., and Kennedy, H.A., 2015, Ikaite abundance Price, G.D., Fozy, I., and Pálfy, J., 2016, Carbon cycle his- raphy and Paleoclimatology, v. 30, p. 495–509, https://​ controlled by porewater phosphorus level: Potential tory through the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary: A new doi​.org​/10​.1002​/2014PA002758​. links to dust and productivity: The Journal of Geology, global δ13C stack: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatol- Suess, E., Balzer, W., Hesse, K.-F., Müller, P.J., Ungerer, C.A., v. 123, p. 269–281, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1086​/681918​. ogy, Palaeoecology, v. 451, p. 46–61, https://​doi​.org​/10​ and Wefer, G., 1982, Calcium carbonate hexahydrate .1016​/j​.palaeo​.2016​.03​.016​. from organic-rich sediments of the Antarctic shelf: Pre- Science Editor: Rob Strachan Pucéat, E., Lécuyer, C., Sheppard, S.M.F., Dromart, G., Re- cursors of glendonites: Science, v. 216, p. 1128–1131, Associate Editor: Ganqing Jiang boulet, S., and Grandjean, P., 2003, Thermal evolution https://​doi​.org​/10​.1126​/science​.216​.4550​.1128​. Manuscript Received 3 July 2018 of Cretaceous Tethyan marine waters inferred from Swainson, I.P., and Hammond, R.P., 2001, Ikaite, Revised Manuscript Received 16 January 2019 oxygen isotope composition of fish tooth enamels: CaCO3·6H2O: Cold comfort for glendonites as paleo- Manuscript Accepted 27 February 2019 Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, v. 18, no. 2, thermometers: American Mineralogist, v. 86, p. 1530– https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/2002PA000823​. 1533, https://​doi​.org​/10​.2138​/am​-2001​-11​-1223​. Printed in the USA

16 Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 1XX, no. XX/XX