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Berlin Blockade, 1948-1949 Lifted the Blockade, but the Air Supply 1948, March-June

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Berlin Blockade, 1948-1949 Lifted the Blockade, but the Air Supply 1948, March-June 1228 WESTERN EUROPE, 1945-1965 sentenced to life imprisonment. Baldur of Soviet fighter planes, 277,264 flights von Schirach and Albert Speer were sen• were made, lifting a total of 2,343,315 tenced to 20 years imprisonment, Kon- tons of food and coal. The record day's stantin von Neurath to 15 years, Admiral lift was on Easter Sunday, April 16, 1949, Karl Doenitz to 10. Hjalmar Schacht, when 1,398 flights brought 12,940 tons Franz von Papen, and Hans Fritsche were into Berlin. The operation cost the lives acquitted. Ten of the convicted war crimi• of 75 American and British airmen, in• nals were hanged (October 15, 1946); cluding a collision when a Soviet pilot, Goering committed suicide by swallowing bedeviling a passenger-loaded British poison 2 hours before scheduled to be plane, misjudged his distance and brought hanged. both aircraft down in the crash. 1947, January 14. Beginning of Talks for 1948, July 26. Western Powers Halt All German and Austrian Peace Treaties. In Trade with East Germany. This was re• London, deputies of the Big-Four foreign taliation for the blockade. ministers opened preliminary talks. 1949, May 12. Soviets End Blockade. So• viet authorities, conceding defeat, officially Berlin Blockade, 1948-1949 lifted the blockade, but the air supply 1948, March-June. Soviet Harassment of operation continued until September 30. Western Powers in Berlin. This began 1949, April 14. End of the Nuremberg War when the Soviet delegation walked out of Crimes Trials. the Allied Control Council (March 20). 1949, September 7. The Federal Republic of Soon thereafter, the Soviets began inter• Germany Established. Its capital was at ference and harassment of American and Bonn. Dr. Konrad Adenauer was elected British access to Berlin from West Ger• chancellor (September 15). The U.S., many (April 1). The Soviet representa• Britain, and France guaranteed the de• tive walked out (June 16) of the Kom- fense of West Germany (September 19) mandatura (4-power military commission and ended their military government (Sep• in Berlin), virtually cutting off the Soviet tember 21). military command in Berlin from the 3 1949-1965. Intermittent Berlin Incidents. western powers. The U.S.S.R. and the East German Com• 1948, June 22. Beginning of the Blockade. munist regime frequently tested Western Soviet occupation authorities halted all Allied will and determination, and at• railroad traffic between Berlin and the tempted to erode the occupation and ac• west. There was less than 1 month's food cess rights of the Western Allies to Berlin. supply for the 2 million inhabitants of the 1952, March 1. Britain Returns Heligoland western sectors of Berlin. U.S. General to West Germany. Lucius D. Clay, commanding U.S. occu• pation forces in Germany, urged that the 1953, March. Allied-Soviet Air Incidents. Western Allied garrisons stay put, and that An American plane was shot down over Berlin be supplied by air. His recommen• the U.S. zone (March 10), and a British dations were upheld. bomber was shot down over the British 1948-1949, June 26-September 30. Opera• zone (March 12). The U.S. ordered 25 of tion "Vittles." Immediate mobilization of its latest Sabrejets to Germany, to counter all Western Allied military aircraft avail• the threat, while secret conciliation talks able began, while Clay rallied Berlin civil• began between Britain and Russia (March ian help to expand the 2 available air• 31) which later were attended by France fields. (A third was soon built.) Air Lift and the U.S. Task Force (Provisional), commanded by 1954, October 23. Rearmament of Germany U.S. Major General William H. Tunner within NATO. The NATO Council ad• and composed mainly of U.S. planes and mitted Germany to NATO. Next day, pilots, with smaller increments of British France specifically recognized the sover• and French air forces, accomplished the eignty of West Germany. most extraordinary military peacetime ef• 1955, May 5. Federal Republic of Germany fort in history. Running on split-second Becomes a Sovereign State. schedule, through all sorts of weather, and 1961, July. Renewed Berlin Crisis. Prime harassed from time to time by "buzzing" Minister Nikita Khrushchev, renewing de- SPAIN 1229 mands for Allied withdrawal from Berlin, 1961, August 12-13. The Wall. The East announced suspension of planned troop re• German government closed the borders duction and an increase in the Soviet mil• between East and West Berlin to East itary budget (July 8). Britain, France, Germans. A wall, built overnight, split the and the U.S. rejected Khrushchev's terms city. The Soviet Union rejected western for the settlement of the Berlin and Ger• protests against the sealing of the border man questions (July 17). President Ken• (September 11). Soviet and U.S. tanks nedy directed a build-up of U.S. military confronted one another at "Checkpoint strength and mobilized 4 National Guard Charlie," but tension died. The division divisions (see p. 1272). continued at the end of the period. SCANDINAVIAN STATES All Scandinavian states were preoccupied during the period with the question of national security against Communist infiltration or outright aggression. While Denmark, Norway, and Iceland became members of NATO, Sweden maintained a strict—though western-oriented—neutrality. Finland—which clearly demonstrated an equally pro-western orientation—also maintained a neutral status, but was forced by geography and power realities to maintain closer relations with the U.S.S.R. AUSTRIA After 10 years of Allied occupation marked by inability of the Big Four to agree on a peace treaty, the nation regained its independence by a treaty signed at Vienna by the U.S., U.K., France, and U.S.S.R. (May 15, 1955), restoring Austria's fron• tiers existing January 1, 1938. Under the treaty a small army and air force (about 60,000 strong) were permitted. The treaty requirement for neutrality was confirmed by Austria's official proclamation of permanent neutrality (act of October 26, 1955). mained in Trieste, however, to prevent ITALY Yugoslav seizure. 1946, May 9. Abdication of King Victor 1953, October 8-December 5. De Facto Set• Emmanuel III. He abdicated in favor of tlement at Trieste. Britain and the U.S. his son, Humbert II. announced that they would withdraw their occupation forces (4,000 U.S. and 1946, June 2. Italian People Vote to End 3,000 British) and return Zone A of Tri• the Monarchy. The Italian government este to Italy. After an increase of tension declared Italy a republic (June 2). After between Italy and Yugoslavia, the 2 na• some outbreaks of violence between roy• tions agreed to withdraw their troops from alists and republicans, King Humbert left the border (December 5). An agreement the country (June 13). was later signed between them (October 1946, July 29. Peace Conference Opens in 5, 1954). Paris. Treaties were negotiated between 1963, January. Nuclear Weapons Agreement the World War II victors and Italy, Hun• with U.S. (See p. 1236.) gary, Bulgaria, Rumania, and Finland. These allied peace treaties were eventually SPAIN signed in Paris (February 10, 1947). 1947, September 16. Crisis at Trieste. A 1949, August 4. Spain's Application for Mar• Yugoslav military force, menacing Trieste, shall Plan Aid Rejected. The U.S. Sen• was deterred by the deployment of an ate refused to include such aid in the American battalion for combat. Tension Marshall Plan appropriations. remained high; incidents, including occa• 1953, September 26. Ten-Year Defense sional small-arms fire, were frequent. Agreement with U.S. This gave the U.S. 1947, December 14. End of Allied Occupa• rights to Spanish naval and air bases in tion of Italy. British and U.S. units re• return for economic and military aid. 1230 EASTERN EUROPE, 1945-1965 EASTERN EUROPE inform. At a meeting in Moscow of the Communist parties of 9 European nations, a new Communist International, the Corn- inform, was established. SOVIET BLOC AND WARSAW 1955, May 14. The Warsaw Pact. The So• PACT NATIONS viet Union and its satellites—Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bul• 1947, July. Communist Nations Reject the garia, East Germany, and Albania—signed Marshall Plan. Although Poland and a treaty of mutual friendship and defense Czechoslovakia initially indicated an inter• at Warsaw. Yugoslavia refused to join. est in joining in the Marshall Plan, they This nominally mutual-defense treaty was later rejected the offer, obviously under the Communist bloc's answer to NATO Soviet pressure, as did the other East Eu• and the remilitarization of West Germany. ropean nations: Hungary, Rumania, Al• This actually caused no changes in the re• bania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Finland. lationship between Soviet and satellite 1947, October 5. Establishment of the Corn- forces. SOVIET UNION Despite near-catastrophic losses of man power, materials, and production facili• ties, at the close of World War II the U.S.S.R. was without question the second great power in a bipolar world. Soviet armies occupied all of Eastern Europe, much of Central Europe, northern Iran, Manchuria, and northern Korea. While the West• ern Allies demobilized their armies as quickly as possible after the war, Soviet military forces were maintained close to their wartime strength. At the same time, the Soviets were increasingly truculent in and out of the U.N., refused to carry out postwar agreements for the liberation of Eastern Europe, and were obviously determined to extend Soviet power and influence in any direction at any opportunity. This threatening and aggressive attitude was combined with the Soviet-directed efforts of international Communism to take advantage of postwar chaos and dislocation to gain control of the governments of many nations in Europe and Asia. It soon became evident that the combination of Soviet threats of external ag• gression and of internal subversion by indigenous Communists was creating pressures that few of the war-weakened nations in the world could withstand by their own individual efforts.
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