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An Experimental Study of Free-Surface Aeration on Embankment Stepped Chutes

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An Experimental Study of Free-Surface Aeration on Embankment Stepped Chutes An Experimental Study of Free-surface Aeration on Embankment Stepped Chutes Carlos A. Gonzalez, B.Eng.Civil, M.Eng. Hydraulics UNAM Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Physical Sciences and Architecture The University of Queensland Brisbane, Australia Presented as a thesis to the University of Queensland for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2005 Statement of Originality Statement of originality I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge, original, except as acknowledged in the text. This material has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, for a degree at any university. Carlos Gonzalez Abstract Abstract Stepped chutes have been used as hydraulic structures for more than 3.5 millennia for different purposes: For example, to dissipate energy, to enhance aeration rate in the flow and to comply with aesthetical functions. They can be found acting as spillways in dams and weirs, as energy dissipators in artificial channels, gutters and rivers, and as aeration enhancers in water treatment plants and fountains. Spillways are used to prevent dam overtopping caused by floodwaters. Their design has changed through the centuries. In ancient times, some civilizations used steps to dissipate energy in open channels and dam over-falls in a similar fashion as natural cascades. However, in the first half of the twentieth century, the use of concrete became popular and the hydraulic jump was introduced as an efficient energy dissipator. In turn, the use of a stepped geometry became obsolete and was replaced with smooth chutes followed by hydraulic jump stilling basins. In recent years, new construction techniques and materials (Roller Compacted Concrete RCC, rip-rap gabions, wire-meshed gabions, etc.) together with the development of new applications (e.g. re-aeration cascades, fish ladders and embankment overtopping protection or secondary spillways) have allowed cheaper construction of stepped chutes, increasing the interest in stepped chute design. During the last three decades, research in the hydraulics of stepped spillways has been very active. However, studies prior to 1993 neglected the effect of free-surface aeration. A number of studies since this time have focused on air-water flows in steep chutes (θ ≈ 50o). But experimental data is still scarce, and the hydraulic performance of stepped cascades with moderate slope is not yet understood. This study details an experimental investigation of physical air-water flow characteristics down a stepped spillway conducted in two laboratory models with moderate slopes: the first model was a 3.15 m long stepped chute with a 15.9o slope comprising two interchangeable-height steps (h = 0.1 m and h = 0.05 m); the second model was a 2.5 m long, stepped channel with a 21.8o slope comprising 10 steps (h = 0.1 m). Different arrangements of turbulence manipulators (vanes) were also placed throughout the chute in the second model. A broad range of discharges within transition and skimming flow regimes was investigated to obtain a reliable representation of the air-water flow properties. Measurements were conducted using single and double tip conductivity probes at multiple span wise locations and at streamwise distances along the cavity between step edges to obtain a complete Abstract three-dimensional representation of the flow. Although the present study was conducted for two moderate slope chutes (θ = 15.9º & 21.8o), it is believed that the outcomes are valid for a wider range of chute geometry and flow conditions. The purpose of this study is to improve the understanding of turbulent air-water flows cascading down moderate slope stepped chutes, and gain new understandings of the interactions between aeration rate, flow turbulence and energy dissipation; scale effects are also investigated. The study provides new, original insights into air-water turbulent flows cascading down moderate slope stepped spillways not foreseen in prior studies, thus contributing to improve criterion designs. It also presents an extensive experimental database (available in a CD-ROM attached at the end of this thesis) and a new design criterion that can be used by designers and researchers to improve the operation of stepped chutes with moderate slopes. The present thesis work included a twofold approach. Firstly, the study provided a detailed investigation of the energy dissipative properties of a stepped channel, based upon detailed air- water flow characteristics measurements conducted with sub-millimetric conductivity probes. Secondly, the study focused on the microscopic scale properties of the air- water flow, using the experimental data to quantify the microscopic scale physical processes (e.g. momentum transfer, shear layer development, vertical mixing, air- bubbles/water-droplets break-up and coalescence etc.) that are believed to increase the flow resistance in stepped canals. The study highlighted the tridimensionality of skimming flows and hinted new means of enhancing flow resistance by manipulating turbulence in the stepped chute. Basic dimensional analysis results emphasized that physical modelling of stepped chutes is more sensitive to scale effects than classical smooth-invert chute studies and thus suggested that the extrapolation of results obtained from heavily scaled experimental models should be avoided. The present study also demonstrated that alterations of flow recirculation and fluid exchanges between free-stream and cavity flow affects drastically form losses and in turn the rate of energy dissipation. The introduction of vanes demonstrated simple turbulence manipulation and form drag modification that could lead to more efficient designs in terms of energy rate dissipation without significant structural load on the stepped chute. Acknowledgements Acknowledgements No part of this thesis I have been so eager to write but the acknowledgements and no other has been so difficult to finish mainly due to the enormous amount of people whom I am greatly indebted. In first place I would like to acknowledge all the help provided by my supervisor, Dr. Hubert Chanson without whose knowledge, support, and exceptional encouragement and guidance this project would never have been conceived. His boundless enthusiasm and his contagious love for the physics of nature are a great example to follow. I never ceased to be amazed by his readiness to discover new things and by his eagerly desire to excel in every thing he does. I also wish to thank him for his continuous and unconditional support throughout the project and for his invaluable advices at the different stages of my stay in Australia. I am greatly indebted with him and I would like to acknowledge him with the next quote: ‘If I have seen farther than others, it is because I was standing on the shoulders of giants’. Isaac Newton (1642- 1727). Hubert, Je vous remercie infiniment pour votre soutien, votre aide, vos conseils ainsi que votre presence et comprehension apportes durant toute la realisation de cette these. Je vous prie d'agreer mes meilleures salutations et vous souhaite une bonne continuation. Merci encore enormement pour tout. I would like to express my gratitude to Graham Illidge, Clive Booth, Rob Stephan and the rest of the Civil Engineering laboratory Staff for their assistance and expertise always at the service of my project. I thankfully acknowledge the help of my friends and colleagues Nick Cartwright, Dave Callaghan, Ian Teakle, Farshid Homayouni and the rest of the Postgraduate students at the Department who willingly welcomed me to Australia, shared the good times and helped me through difficulties. Cheers guys, I had lots of fun and I hope to welcome you at my home soon. Special thanks to: Luke Toombes for sharing his programming knowledge, Mark Threvethan for his help printing this thesis and Daniel Franks for an excellent and constructive proofreading of my thesis. I also would like to thank: Prof. Iwao Ohtsu, Dr. Youichi Yasuda and Masayuki Takahashi from Nihon University, for providing me with expert advice and helpful discussions and for the invitation to collaborate with you at Nihon University in December 2002. I hope it won’t be the last time. Prof. J. Kongeter, Dr. Paul Kamrath Acknowledgements and Jens Torwarth for the invitation to visit RWTH, the expert advices and all the attentions towards me while in Germany. I hope to be your host soon. Prof. Josep Dolz, Dr. Marti Sánchez-Juny and Antonio Amador for helpful discussions and for the opportunity to visit their laboratory at UPC and Dr. J. Matos for helpful discussions and expert technical advices. I wish to express my gratitude to the academic and administrative staff of the department who helped me in one way or another. Especially to Prof. Colin Apelt, Dr. Peter Nielsen and Dr. Tom Baldock for their questions and interest in my project. During the duration of my project I enjoyed the friendship of many people who made my stay in Australia a pleasant, wonderful and rewarding experience. I found new friends that will stay forever near my heart. Special thanks to: Erick, Vera, Marion, Daniel, Rocío, Jerome, José, Nick, Nina, James and Phoebe. I thankfully acknowledge the financial support of the Mexican council for science and technology (CONACYT), without their support this project would have never been possible. I wish to go back to Mexico soon and have the honour to serve the people of my country. I wish I could write a chapter to thank my parents Tito and Irma, I deeply thank them for their love and support that has always accompanied me. I hope one day I can offer them at least a small fraction of what they have offered me throughout my whole life. I thank their continuous encouragement and all their sacrifices. I extend my gratitude to my brothers Hugo and Memo and my sister Karla for all their concern and love. Lastly, I would like to thank the girl of the emerald eyes whose serene and conquering sight rode my wild horses, comforted my fears, guided me through storms and filled my life with love and happiness.
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