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The Role of Oxygen in Health and Disease - a Series of Reviews

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The Role of Oxygen in Health and Disease - a Series of Reviews 0031-3998/09/6503-0261 Vol. 65, No. 3, 2009 PEDIATRIC RESEARCH Printed in U.S.A. Copyright © 2009 International Pediatric Research Foundation, Inc. The Role of Oxygen in Health and Disease - A Series of Reviews This is the first article in a series of reviews focusing on the role that oxygen plays in health and disease. In this review, Drs. Maltepe and Saugstad examine mechanisms responsible for maintaining oxygen homeostasis and the consequences of dysfunction leading to oxidative stress, a disturbance in the pro-oxidant–antioxidant balance and subsequent tissue damage. Premature exposure to high oxygen levels influences many developmental events with potentially life-long effects. Petra S. H¨uppi, M.D. European Chief Editor Oxygen in Health and Disease: Regulation of Oxygen Homeostasis–Clinical Implications EMIN MALTEPE AND OLA DIDRIK SAUGSTAD Department of Pediatrics ͓E.M.͔, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143; Department of Pediatric Research ͓O.D.S.͔, Rikshospitalet Medical Center, 0027 Oslo, Norway ABSTRACT: Oxygen is critical for multicellular existence. Its initiated (1,2). Mitochondria, thus, have the capacity to main- reduction to water by the mitochondrial electron transport chain helps tain maximal ATP levels over a large range of physiologic supply the metabolic demands of human life. The incompletely oxygen concentrations. In mouse embryonic fibroblasts, pro- reduced, reactive oxygen byproducts of this reaction, however, can longed culture under “hypoxic” (3% O2) conditions even be quite toxic. In this review, we explore the mechanisms responsible prevents cell senescence (3). This “physiologic hypoxia” (1– for maintaining oxygen homeostasis and the consequences of their 10% O ), as opposed to “pathologic hypoxia” (Ͻ1% O ) dysfunction. With an eye toward defining clinical care guidelines for 2 2 during which metabolism becomes compromised, represents the management of critically ill neonates, we present evidence describing the role of physiologic hypoxia during development the natural environment for most mammalian tissues. and the adverse consequences of hyperoxia in-term as well as All eukaryotic organisms must maintain oxygen homeosta- preterm infants. (Pediatr Res 65: 261–268, 2009) sis. A number of defense and regulatory mechanisms have been developed to protect the cell from low as well as high oxygen levels. In this review, we will describe some of the xygen is the second most abundant element in Earth’s regulatory principles responsible for maintaining oxygen ho- O atmosphere. Although critical for aerobic respiration, it meostasis. Interestingly, both increases and decreases in cellular also poses significant dangers to life. The reduction of molec- O2 levels result in the generation of ROS. Further, some of the ular oxygen to water by the mitochondrial electron transport adverse effects of hyperoxia and hypoxia will be described and chain enables the conversion of ADP into ATP. A conse- finally we will attempt to translate this information into a set of quence of this reaction, however, is the formation of toxic clinical practice guidelines for the handling of newborn infants. reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can damage various classes of biologic molecules. In the absence of oxygen, the electron Evolutionary Aspects transport chain is inhibited and glucose metabolism is shunted down glycolytic pathways. The resultant depression of cellular Four billion years ago, the Earth’s atmosphere contained metabolism is incompatible with life in higher organisms. approximately one part per million (ppm) of oxygen. The first Metazoan cells are exposed to a wide range of oxygen cells, thus, evolved in an oxygen-free environment generating tensions. It is only under near anoxic conditions, however, that energy via oxygen-independent pathways. As a result of the the electron transport chain becomes inhibited. At a partial appearance of cyanobacteria that used photosynthesis as a pressure of ϳ0.4 kPa (3 mm Hg) or ϳ0.5% (as compared with means of energy production some 2.7 billion years ago, atmospheric oxygen, i.e. 21%), mitochondrial electron trans- port of cultured cells is inhibited and apoptotic death is Abbreviations: ARNT, arylhydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator; GSH, reduced glutathione; GSSG, oxidized glutathione; HIF, hypoxia-inducible factor; PHD, prolyl-4-hydroxylase; PO , oxygen partial pressure; ROP, ret- Received May 29, 2008; accepted September 3, 2008. 2 Correspondence: Ola Didrik Saugstad, M.D., Department of Pediatric Research, Rikshos- inopathy of prematurity; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; ROS, reactive ox- pitalet, 0027 Oslo, Norway; e-mail: [email protected] ygen species; SaO2, arterial oxygen saturation 261 262 MALTEPE AND SAUGSTAD atmospheric oxygen levels rose to approximately 1%. Con- mitochondrial function, cytoskeletal structure, membrane currently, the first eukaryotes began to appear in the geolog- transport, and antioxidant defenses. ical record. These cells made sterols for their membranes—a During pathologic hypoxia, limited oxygen availability de- sure sign of anoxic environment given the oxygen-dependence creases oxidative phosphorylation resulting in a failure to of this reaction (4,5). In addition, many eukaryotes began to resynthesize energy-rich phosphates, including ATP and phos- acquire mitochondria as a result of an endosymbiotic relation- phocreatine. Membrane ATP-dependent Naϩ/Kϩ pump is al- ship with proteobacteria (6). Endowed with oxidative phos- tered favoring the influx of Naϩ,Caϩϩ, and water into the cell phorylation, these organisms were uniquely poised to take and thereby producing cytotoxic edema. Furthermore, adenine advantage of the newly emerging oxygen-rich atmosphere. nucleotide catabolism during ischemia results in the intracel- As summarized by Lane (7) there has been significant lular accumulation of hypoxanthine (8). We found elevated variation in the Earth’s oxygen environment over time. Ap- hypoxanthine in umbilical cord blood after birth asphyxia and proximately 2.2 billion years ago, the oxygen concentration of therefore understood hypoxanthine can be used as a sensitive the atmosphere rose sharply to 5–18%, with significant vari- marker of intrauterine hypoxia (8). In the presence of xanthine ations thereafter, until present day levels were finally reached. oxidase, hypoxanthine can generate toxic ROS with the rein- Five hundred million years later, during the so-called Cam- troduction of molecular oxygen during newborn resuscitation brian explosion, the oxygen level again rose to present levels. (9,10). Increased cytosolic calcium triggers numerous meta- Two hundred million years later, in the late Carboniferous and bolic pathways, including activation of phospholipases, re- early Permian period, oxygen may have reached levels as high lease of prostaglandins, lipases, proteases, and endonucleases, as 35%. Several smaller peaks, approximately 100 million all of which injure various structural components of cells (11). years ago, also occurred until the present level was once more Additionally, a proinflammatory state is induced via the expres- reached. The accumulation of free oxygen in the atmosphere sion of certain proinflammatory gene products in the endothe- allowed the regeneration of water from free hydrogen, thus, lium, such as leukocyte adhesion molecules and cytokines, and preventing the loss of hydrogen to space and preserving bioactive agents, such as endothelin and thromboxane A2 (12). Earth’s oceans. The injection of oxygen into the atmosphere On the other hand gene products such as prostacyclin and nitric by photosynthesis may therefore have prevented the Earth oxide that may be protective are repressed (13). from becoming as sterile as Mars or Venus (7). Hyperoxia is generally thought to arise when elevated oxygen levels result in the production of toxic ROS. However, Historical Aspects deviations from physiologic hypoxia that do not result in direct ROS-dependent injury can also have adverse conse- Oxygen was discovered as an element in the 1770’s by the quences by inactivating physiologic hypoxia driven develop- Swedish apothecary Carl Scheele and the English clergyman mental processes. It is also important to note that the levels of and chemist Joseph Priestly. Priestly, who in 1774 produced oxygen that indicate hypoxia or hyperoxia may be context oxygen by focusing sunlight onto an oxide of mercury, pub- dependent. Brain and muscle require different levels of oxy- lished his findings before Scheele. However, neither under- gen and physiologic as well as pathologic processes may stood the full significance of their discovery. It was the French influence whether a given amount of oxygen constitutes nor- chemist, Antoine Lavoisier, who proved that oxygen was the moxia, hypoxia, or even hyperoxia (14). reactive constituent of air. Interestingly, alchemists had al- ready appreciated the significance of oxygen well before that. The Polish alchemist Michael Sendivogius suggested in 1604 Oxygen Toxicity and Free Radicals that a so-called “aerial food of life” circulated between the air It was already realized by Priestly that oxygen might be and earth by way of nitre. When heated above 336°C nitre toxic; however, it took 100 years until oxygen toxicity was decomposes to release oxygen, which Sendivogius considered systematically described by Paul Bert. Some years later, the the Elixir of life, “without which no mortal can live” (7). In Scottish pathologist, James Smith, showed that exposure to 1798, Thomas Beddoes
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