The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: Determining
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THE TULSA RACE RIOT OF 1921: DETERMINING ITS CAUSES AND FRAMING By CHRIS MESSER Bachelor of Science, Sociology Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 2003 Master of Science, Sociology Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 2005 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY July, 2008 THE TULSA RACE RIOT OF 1921: DETERMINING ITS CAUSES AND FRAMING Dissertation Approved: Dr. Patricia Bell Dissertation Adviser Dr. Gary Webb Dr. Beth Caniglia Dr. Jason Kirksey Dr. A. Gordon Emslie Dean of the Graduate College ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratification to Dr. Patricia Bell for the countless number of hours she dedicated to assisting me, not only with my dissertation work, but a number of other endeavors as well. Your kindness, friendship, and humor will sincerely be missed. I would also like to thank my departmental committee members, Dr. Beth Caniglia and Dr. Gary Webb. Both of you are great teachers, researchers, and colleagues. Your participation in my dissertation meant so much to me. Thanks also to Dr. Jason Kirksey for stepping in on the project, despite the late request. So many students have had nothing but genuinely great things to say about you and your contribution to students and the university. I am also thankful for the several contributions Dr. Amilcar Shabazz made prior to his departure. There are others deserving of my gratitude as well. First and foremost, my wife, Mandy. For the past couple of years, this dissertation has often dominated me and my time and efforts. It has taken away from you at times. Your love, understanding and patience are worth so many words, far more than what could fit into a dissertation. Thank you, Mandy. My family has also offered an incredible amount of support. I wish so much that we weren’t so far away (and moving further away). Thank you always for understanding what this degree means to me. Finally, I must thank my teacher, research partner, and good friend, Dr. Tom Shriver. Mandy and I have grown so close to your iii family. Thank you, Tom, for what you have done for me personally. There are simply too many things to list, but you know what they are. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 Preview of Remaining Chapters ........................................................................... 3 II. THE TULSA RIOT .............................................................................................. 6 Precipitating Event .............................................................................................. 6 During the Riot .................................................................................................... 7 Underlying Causes............................................................................................... 8 Immediate Responses .......................................................................................... 9 Reparations Movement ...................................................................................... 10 III. RACE RIOT CAUSES ...................................................................................... 13 Contributing Factors .......................................................................................... 14 Jim Crow Laws ............................................................................................ 14 Racist Ideologies.......................................................................................... 15 Lynching ..................................................................................................... 16 Migration and Social Change ....................................................................... 18 War.............................................................................................................. 19 Police Brutality ............................................................................................ 20 Theoretical Perspectives .................................................................................... 21 Breakdown Theories .................................................................................... 22 Emergent Norms .......................................................................................... 23 Absolute and Relative Deprivation ............................................................... 24 Competition ................................................................................................. 25 Structural Conduciveness and Political (In)Opportunities ............................. 26 Summary of Theoretical Contributions .............................................................. 29 An Integrative Model of Race Riots ................................................................... 30 Structural Factors ......................................................................................... 33 Cultural Factors ........................................................................................... 34 Contextual Factors and Triggering Events .................................................... 34 v Chapter Page IV. RESPONSES AND FRAMING ........................................................................ 37 Riot as Disaster.................................................................................................. 37 Community Formation....................................................................................... 38 Framing ............................................................................................................. 40 Alignment .................................................................................................... 42 Tasks ........................................................................................................... 44 Resonance ................................................................................................... 45 V. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................ 48 Stage 1: Designing the Case Study ..................................................................... 49 Stage 2: Conducting the Case Study .................................................................. 50 Sources for Locating the Causes .................................................................. 52 Sources for Responses and Framing ............................................................. 54 Stage 3: Analytic Strategy ................................................................................. 55 Reliability and Validity ...................................................................................... 58 VI. CAUSES OF THE TULSA RACE RIOT OF 1921 ............................................ 60 A Diffusion of Riots .......................................................................................... 61 Local Contextual Factors ................................................................................... 62 Migration ..................................................................................................... 63 Segregation .................................................................................................. 64 Lynching ..................................................................................................... 66 The Black Community and Economic Advancement.................................... 69 Structural Factors .............................................................................................. 77 Population Changes ..................................................................................... 77 Population Characteristics ............................................................................ 79 Inadequate Municipal Functioning ............................................................... 81 Cultural Factors ................................................................................................. 87 Local Media’s Portrayal of Race .................................................................. 87 Intelligence ............................................................................................ 89 Crime ..................................................................................................... 91 The Manifestation of Culture ....................................................................... 96 Triggering Events of the Tulsa Race Riot .......................................................... 99 Conclusion: An Integration of the Factors Contributing to the Riot .................. 103 VII. RESULTANT FRAMES AND RESPONSES ................................................ 109 vi Chapter Page Diagnostic Frames ........................................................................................... 109 Black Militancy ......................................................................................... 109 Inept Law Enforcement .............................................................................. 113 Victim Frames ................................................................................................. 114 Immediate Responses and Prognostic Solutions ............................................... 117 Detention Camps ....................................................................................... 117 Competing Prognoses ...............................................................................